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Preface This module is designed to help students with the principles, goals, materials, content, assessment, management and methods of teaching science as preparation for a demonstration teaching in teaching profession. It focused on the following learning outcomes: a. Acquire strong background on the nature of science and scientific concepts and their relationship to science teaching and learning b. Develop and implement lessons that use student-centered forms of instruction such as cooperative group work, inquiry, the use of writing in science, and methods of teaching for conceptual change. c. Apply the acquired knowledge on inquiry and exploration method to science demonstration teaching. d. Construct instructional plans based on the structure, content and teaching strategies and instructional materials of the K to 12 science curriculum. e. Realize that teaching is intellectual work, that it requires a dedication to and a love of our subject matter, a respect and caring for our students, a concern for equity and a moral imperative for excellence in our teaching. The author of this text and workbook are not claiming sole ownership of the information contained in this book. Many of these were adapted from the work of different authors. The content of this learning module is designed for a flexible modality of instruction enable to adapt both teacher and learners in the new normal classes. This self-learning module also provides you different activities to activate your prior knowledge and synthesize and assess your learning. For additional information, links for video presentations were included for you to understand further the discussion of the concepts.

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Table of Contents Preface Table of Contents Unit I

Page I Ii The Nature of Science Activating Your Prior Knowledge What is Science Nature of Science

K to 12 Curriculum Guide for Science in High School Learning Area Standard

Scope of Science Spiral progression Approach Synthesizing Knowledge Unit II

The Teaching of Science (theories, approaches, Guiding principles, Kethods of Teaching Science and Assessment , Strategies of Science

15

Activating Your Prior Knowledge

16 17 18

Teaching Approach, Methods and Techniques Educational Theories on which Science Teaching is Grounded

Inquiry based Approach Discovery Approach Experimental Approach Science process Skills Assessment Strategies of Science Learning

Performance based learning and Assessment Science Journal Writing Synthesizing Your Knowledge Unit III

UNITIV

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 11

Selecting Instructional Materials for Teaching Science

28 29 30 33 35 37 39 46 49

Activating Your Prior Knowledge What is media? Instructional Materials Instructional Aid theory Principles and selection of Instructional Materials Instructional Resources and Materials for Science Teaching Personal resource File Educational Software Synthesizing Your Knowledge

50 51 53 55 55

Instructional Planning Activating Your Prior Knowledge Instructional Planning and Types of Instructional Planning Lesson planning The Cycle of 7E’s Lesson Planning Effective Demonstration Teaching Synthesizing Your Knowledge

67

57 60 60 64

69 70 76 77 79

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Unit I: THE NATURE OF SCIENCE Self -ng Module in

Source:https://platofootnote.wordpress.com/2016/02/17/conversations-

with-dan-social-vs-natural-science/

Overview Overview Why is Science education important in our school? Every day we are surrounded by Overview technology and the products of science. The huge complex natural world that surrounds us illustrates infinite scientific concepts. When the children grow up, they need to be scientifically literate to succeed because the world becomes more advance with increasing technology. Thus, the role of Science teachers equipped with scientific skills and attitude is vital in promoting scientific literacy in students. This part module will provide you a deep understanding of the nature of science, the goals of science teaching as, well as the K-12 Science curriculum. This module will also guide you to the expectations or outcomes that the K to 12 Science curriculum needed to integrate into teaching Science.

Objectives AtOverview the end of the unit, I am able to: Overview 1. Describe the nature of science. 2. Explain the goal of science teaching. 3. Examine the alignment of standards – Grade level, key stage, and learning area – to the goals of teaching science based on the K to 12 Curriculum Guide in High School. 4. Give examples of how values inherent in science can be integrated into the teaching of Science. 5. Illustrate the spiral progression approach in teaching science

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Activating Your Prior Knowledge Name:_________________________________ Section:____________Date:_________

Describing the Nature of Science You have taken so far several science subjects in your elementary days and high school. Based on your experience, how will you describe the nature of Science? Fill up the box for your answer. ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

__________________ __________________ __________________ _________________

________________ ________________ ________________ ________________

Source:https://www.htxt.co.za/2015/01/16/saasta-callingon-sas-budding-young-scientists-to-enter-natural-science-

olympiad/ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

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Expanding Your Knowledge 1. What is Science? It is nature in humans to be curious, and this curiosity has driven them since time ancient to explore the world around them. At first, the pace of exploration and investigation was slow. But with the accessibility and availability of better tools of exploration in the last few century years and because of the industrial revolution in the western countries, the speed of exploration has improved manifold. http://www.brainkart.com/article/What-is-science-_450/

Humans’ experimental activities have resulted in the building-up of a huge source of knowledge called natural science. The nature of the entire universe is the main focus of natural science. The knowledge is now organized in several disciplines for the convenience of study. This knowledge is based on inquiry, observations and logical extensions, and is testable by experiment or has logically convincing explanation. It is this organized knowledge with an inquiry, logical reasoning, and experimentation as its central themes that we call science. We can rightly be told that Science is an area of inquiry.

Science is defined in several ways. Examine the few definitions given below; The following information were retrieved from the Insight website updated last January 15, 2016. A. Fitzpatrick: Science is a cumulative endless series of empirical observations that result in the formation of concepts & theories, with both concepts & theories being subject to modification in the light of further empirical observations. Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of acquiring it. B. .Conant: An interconnected series of concepts & conceptual schemes that have developed as a result of experimentation & observation & are fruitful of further experimentation & observation. C. .The Columbia Encyclopedia: Science is an accumulated & systematized learning in general usage restricted to natural phenomena. The progress of science is marked not only by an accumulation of fact but by the emergence of scientific method & of the scientific attitude. D. Gilbert Archey: According to Gilbert Archey, Science is the knowledge that is acquired in a particular way. It becomes a human activity, an attitude & an exercise of the mind that put us it wherein a state of familiarity with nature. E. B.F.Skinner: Science is, first of all, a set of attitudes. It is a disposition to deal with facts rather than with what someone has said about them. Tennyson: Science changes slowly, steadily, creeping on from one point to another, but the progress has been rapid.

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2.The Nature of Science The following are certain characteristics of Science which distinguish it from other spheres of human endeavor. With these characteristics, the nature of science can be defined. A. Science- “body of knowledge. “ Science has been characterized as a body of knowledge obtained by scientists. Various types of scientific knowledge exist in the form of facts, concepts, principles, laws, hypotheses & theories. B. Science- a “process “ In science, it involves several processes, such as gathering information, thinking, measuring, and problem-solving. Basic processes of science are observation, comparison, classification, communication, measurement, estimation & prediction. The quality of knowledge acquired in science depends on the quality of process skills applied. The different processes of science can be classified into five categories: a. Collection of data b. Analysis of data c. Synthesis of dat d. Evaluation of data e. Application of generalizations C. Science as a product The product of science came from whatever information or ideas we obtain through various processes of science. The basic components of the product of science are facts, concepts, principles, theories & laws. D. Science as both a process and a product Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of acquiring it. Science is both a verb & a noun. These two aspects are interdependent & inseparable. E. Science – “a method of inquiry. “ According to Karl Pearson, the scientific method involves the following six steps: a. Identification of the problem b. Observations relevant to the problem c. Statement of a hypothesis based on observations d. Testable predictions of other related observable phenomena developed from the hypothesis e. Testing of the hypothesis f. From the result of empirical observations, the hypothesis is supported, rejected, or modified. Science teachers should give emphasis to their students that scientists do approach the solution of any specific problem in an organized and planned manner. F. Science- “an attitude towards life.” Scientific attitude will have the following characteristics: a. Open-mindedness b. Objectivity c. Freedom from superstitious belief d. Accuracy & truthfulness in reporting observations e. solving a problem in a methodological way f. Up-to-datedness g. Respecting other people's opinion, although he may not agree with them The Teaching of Science

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College of Education h. Ability to distinguish between scientific evidence & scientific proof i. Ability to discern between fact & fiction j. By her example, a science teacher helps develop these characteristics in her students.

the nature of science can be summarized as:

3. K to 12 Curriculum Guide for Science The K-12Curriculum Guide for Science were retrieved from the website www.academia.edu, K_to_12_Curriculum_Guide_SCIENCE_Kindergarten_to_Grade_10

An excerpt from DepEd K-12 Curriculum guide for Science

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College of Education CORE LEARNING AREA STANDARD: (SCIENCE FOR THE ENTIRE K TO 12) Based on the K to 12 Curriculum Guide for Science, the Learning Area standard for Science teaching is holistic, focusing not only on cognitive but also on attitude and skills.

An excerpt from DepEd K-12 Curriculum guide for Science

Holistic Approach

Heads

Hands Heart

KEY STAGES STANDARDS: STANDARDS FOR SCIENCE LEARNING AREA FROM K-3, 46,7-19 AND 11-12

=

An excerpt from DepEd K-12 Curriculum guide for Science

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College of Education Scientific attitudes and values that Science teaching wants to integrate A. Critical Problem Solving B. The innovation of beneficial products. C. Environmental Care D. Conservation of resources E. Enhancement of integrity and wellness F. Informed decision-making G. Discussion of environment.

relevant

issues that

science,

technology

and

Science curriculum also expected the students to develop the following personal characteristics;

4. Goals of Science Teaching The main goal of Science teaching in K to 12 Curriculum is scientific literacy in order to develop students who are: A. equipped with a repertoire of competencies important in the world of work and in a knowledge-based society; B. scientifically, technologically and environmentally literate and productive members of society; 3. critical problem solver; 4. a responsible steward of nature; 5. innovative and creative citizen; 6. informed decision-maker; and 7. effective communicator.

5. Scope of Science Based on the curriculum guide, science subjects will start in the Grade 3 level. The subject matter for Science in the K to 12 Curriculum also follows Spiral Progression Approach. Rather than simply memorizing equations to pass a test, this approach believes to solidify understanding of the lessons over periodic intervals for students to learn.

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An excerpt from DepEd K-12 Curriculum guide for Science

G3

G4

G5

G6

G7

G8

G9

G10

1stQuat er

Chemist ry

Chemist ry

Chemist ry

Chemist ry

Chemist ry

Physics

Biology

Earth Science

2ndQuat er

Biology

Biology

Biology

Biology

Biology

Earth Science

Chemist ry

Physics

3rdQuat er

Physics

Physics

Physics

Physics

Physics

Chemist ry

Earth Science

Biology

4th Quarter

Earth Science

Earth Science

Earth Science

Earth Science

Earth Science

Biology

Physics

Chemist ry

Summary of the proposed sequence domain

6. Spiral Progression Approach (This article about Spiral progression was retrieved from www.ceap.org.ph retrieved on July 24, 2020 According to Merle C Tan, a science consultant and convenor of K 12 of the University of the Philippines, the approach to spiral progression was influenced by the spiral curriculum model Bruner used. This revolves around the understanding that human cognition evolved in a step-by-step learning process that relied on interaction with the environment and experience to shape intuition and knowledge.

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Source:https://www.cleanpng.com/png-spiralapproach-curriculum-education-school-course2229595/preview.html

College of Education This learning theory says that students learn best by building on their current knowledge. Spiral progression means developing the same concepts from a one-grade level to the next in increasing complexity and sophistication. In simpler terms, one learns best through the repeated experience of a concept. In Spiral progression approach, students continually return to basic ideas as new subjects and concepts are added over the course of a curriculum

A.Why Spiral Progression Approach? a. .Increase in drop- out rate (based on DepEd Report Card)

Figure shows the decreasing number of students graduated in High school/Source:

https://www.ceap.org.ph/upload/download/201210/16161413860_1.pdf)

b. Reduce overlapping and ‘jumping’ sequence of topics in different grade levels c.

High performing countries (Australia, Brunei, England, Finland, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, New Zealand, USA ) follow a spiral progression and integrated approach at least up to G9 in their Science curriculum framework. With spiral progression, there is no need to wait for Year 2, Year 3, and Year 4 to learn concepts and their applications in Biology, Chemistry & Physics, respectively. Moreover, many topics in High school 1-4 are for college-bound in which discipline-based does not enable students to explore boundaries and connections across disciplines. The curriculum of high performing countries gives emphasis on connections across topics and disciplines scientific literacy.

d. The items in international assessment studies (TIMSS 1995, 1999, 2003, 2007) have integrated questions and based on the spiral progression of concepts.

Source:https://www.ceap.org.ph/upload/download/20136/3144824758_1.pdf

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Source:https://www.ceap.org.ph/upload/download/20136/3144824758_1.pdf

e. Reduces decongestion f. Emphasis on formative assessment (A4L) The spiral progression approach promotes the use of varied assessment formats: selected-response (SR) and constructed-response (CR) types; rubrics provided for CR questions Assessment results are used to improve instruction g. It simplifies how science content and processes can be intertwined. In this way, non-majors teach science with confidence because topics are revisited to deepen their content mastery so as allows flexibility in sequencing of content in every quarter; encourages team teaching and other support mechanisms. This approach also addresses the lack of science equipment because alternative procedures are provided, student activities use micro-scale chemicals and equipment easily available. Finally, because of TG (Teacher’s guide) support, this will help teachers address misconceptions.

B.Guide to implementation: A carefully formulated scope and sequence a. The spiral progression approach is applicable to all subjects, not only for science and math subjects. b. The spiral progression approach is “vertical articulation,” and used from grade 1 to Grade 12. This means that the curriculum is not divided into elementary school and high school, the way it used to be or a seamless progression of competencies. The seamlessness may actually be up to the university curriculum.

C.How is spiral progression applied in Science in the K to 12? a. There is a revisiting of the concepts and skills using the students' prior knowledge to discuss what students already know and can do. b. It will involve the following components of the Science Curriculum such as  Scientific inquiry skills  Content and connections  Scientific attitudes and values

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Synthesizing Your Knowledge

Name:___________________________________ Section:____________Date:______________ Activity 1 Directions: Answer the following questions briefly. 1. Have a short interview with your community ( teachers, parents, and neighbors) or research about the BEC curriculum. How will you describe the content and scope of the Science under the BEC curriculum? Compare and differentiate BEC from the recent K-12 curriculum? Write your answer in the boxes below.

BEC Curriculum

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K-12 Curriculum

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2. So far, what are the significant changes in the Science curriculum did you observe? Why?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________

c. Describe the spiral progression approach in teaching Science. Is there any disadvantage of this teaching approach in the K to 12 curriculum? Explain.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________

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College of Education Name:_________________________________ Section:____________Date:_________

Activity 2: I am your Future Science Teacher

Being a future Science teacher, what are the important attitude or qualities that a Science teacher must possess? Identify also the scientific attitudes and values that Science teachers needed to integrate into students.

Source:https://www.vecteezy.com/vectorart/304173-science-teacher-teaching-at-school

Source https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-freevector/science-student-learning-anatomy-vector22803851

Qualities of a Science Teacher

Scientific attitude and values for students needed to integrate

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

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___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

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References: Corpus, Brenda B. and Salandanan, Gloria G. Principles Of Teaching (with TLE) Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Manila.2015 Bunga, Jaime, B. et.al. Principles of Teaching 2. Adriana Publishing Co., Inc. Quezon City, Manila . 2016 Philippine K to 12 Curriculum Guide for Science, Department of Education, December, 2013.

Online Resources: https://www.nap.edu/read/13165/chapter/2 https://www.ceap.org.ph/upload/download/20136/3144824758_1.pdf https://www.academia.edu/14840083/K_to_12_Curriculum_Guide_SCIENCE_Kindergarten _to_Grade_10 https://www.cleanpng.com/png-spiral-approach-curriculum-education-school-course2229595/preview.html http://yayoi.senri.ed.jp/ois/curriculum/science_aims_objs.htm#:~:text=The%20aims%20 of%20the%20teaching,in%20scientific%20and%20other%20contexts https://www.slideshare.net/jericlazo716/teaching-of-science-57974966 Nature and scope of Science, Retrieved January 15, 2016, from the Insight website https://pratheeshpallath.blogspot.com/2016/01/nature-scope-of-science.html)

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Unit 2:The Teaching of Science (THEORIES, APPROACHES, GUIDING PRINCIPLES, METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE AND ASSESSMENT , STRATEGIES OF SCIENCE LEARNING)

Source:https://www.usaid.gov/results-data/success-stories/rural-public-school-teachers-acceleratelearning-philippines

Overview Overview Overview The use of different methods and techniques in teaching is necessary in order to motivate the diversity of learners or individual differences in the classroom. It is the teacher’s big responsibility to ensure that the ideas are thoroughly explained, and each student with individual differences learned from the lessons. Making the teaching-learning process an interesting, engaging, and worthwhile experience is the most challenging task for every teacher. Thus, this part of the module will provide you a background of several teaching methods, strategies, and techniques that can be used in teaching science and hopefully will help you to overcome the mentioned challenges. This unit will also provide you educational theories and the guiding principles in teaching Science as well as in different types of assessments used in the K-12 curriculum. Objectives Objectives: Overview AtOverview the end of this unit I am able to; 1. Describe educational theories on which science teaching is grounded 2. Explain guiding principles in the teaching of Science 3. Cite the implications of these educational theories to the teaching of science 4. Identify teaching method and strategies that can be used in teaching Science 5. Determine the different type of assessment that can be applied in Science teaching

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Activating your Prior Knowledge

Pre assessment

Name:_________________________________ Section:____________Date:_________

Directions: Identify the following, whether it is an approach, method, strategy, or technique. Write your answer on the space provided before each number ______________

1.Learner Centered Learning

______________

2.Lecture

______________

3. Project

______________

4.Performance activities

______________

5.Teacher centered

______________

6. Debate

______________

7.Role play

______________

8. Inductive or Deductive

______________

9. Brainstorming

______________

10.Disciplinal

Based on your science class experience in elementary and high school, what are the teaching method and strategies do you find applicable and not applicable. Explain.

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Expanding Your Knowledge

1. Teaching Approaches, Methods, Strategies and Techniques A. Teaching Approach It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of the learning, which is translated into the classroom. The teaching approach identifies how instructional material is presented, how students interact with the instruction, and how learning is assessed. The approach is often based on pedagogical theory (how students learn).

Source;https://www.slideshare.net/justindoliente/princi ples-of-teaching-33070911

B.Teaching Method A system of teaching that addresses a pedagogical approach to learning emphasizes specific teaching strategies and provides an organizational management plan to implement it. It is a systematic way of doing something It implies an or elderly logical arrangements of step

Source:http://www.scholpplab.org/DifferentTeachingMethods/d ifferent-teaching-methods

C.Teaching Strategy It is a long term plan or action design to achieve a particular goal. The activities the teacher uses (often in a sequence) to implement the lesson. In a program, strategies are often prescribed in a set sequence. However, teachers often change the activity or sequence based on how students demonstrate their understanding of the material as the lesson progresses. Examples are: a. b. c. d.

Teacher questions, student answer Collaborative learning Wait time Rubrics

The Teaching of Science

Source:https://sites.google.com/site/portafoliotomg/teachingvs-learning-strategi

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College of Education D. Teaching Technique Teaching techniques is well a well define procedures used to accomplish a specific activity or task. It is commonly a series of steps or procedures a teacher uses to implement a strategy, approach, or method. Techniques are not always specific and are usually taught through professional development or coaching. In some cases, the technique for a strategy or method is taught in teacher prep courses such as how to conduct a running record in reading, but often many techniques are taught or modeled by the employer or a mentor teacher. The effectiveness of the technique depends on how it is taught by the coach and how it is practiced by the teacher.

Source:https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/4982113961235147 4/

2. Educational Theories on which Science Teaching is Grounded A. Constructivism (The following information was retrieved from Open educational Resources of UCT Teaching and learning at www.ucdoer.ie/index.ph website In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to change from the teacher to the students. A classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") transfers knowledge into passive and inactive students, who wait like empty containers to be filled. The students are urged to be actively involved and participate in their own process of learning in the constructivist model. In the constructivist classroom, both teachers and students think of knowledge as an active, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and discover that view - not as inert factoids to be memorized. Key assumptions of this perspective include: a. The student presently believes important whether correct or incorrect, b. Each individual will base their learning on the understanding and personal meaning to them, even having the same learning experiences. c. Understanding or constructing does not stop, meaning it is an active and continuous process. d. Learning is progressive and may involve some conceptual changes. e. When students construct new meaning, they may not believe it but may give it provisional acceptance or even rejection. The Teaching of Science

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In constructivism, learners are active, not passive.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students used inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers.

B.Social Cognition (Social cognitive theory (SCT)) Albert Bandura This theory is used in psychology, education, and communication holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.

A social cognition model

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C.Learning Styles The term “learning styles” speaks to the understanding that every student learns differently. Technically, an individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs, processes, comprehends, and retains information. For example, when learning how to build a clock, some students understand the process by following verbal instructions, while others have to physically manipulate the clock themselves. This notion of individualized learning styles has gained widespread recognition in education theory and classroom management strategy. Individual learning styles depend on cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors, as well as one’s prior experience. In other words: everyone’s different. It is important for educators to understand the differences in their students’ learning styles so that they can implement best practice strategies into their daily activities, curriculum, and assessments.

VARK model of Student Learning Source:https://onourwaytoenglishpty.wordpress.com/2018/03/19/characteristics-oflearning-styles/

D. Brain-based Learning Theory

(The following information about Brain Based Learning is retrieved from Shukla (2019) in his article Brain-Based Learning: Theory, Strategies, and Concept ) Brain-based learning is a paradigm of learning which addresses student learning and learning outcomes from the point of view of the human brain. It involves specific strategies for learning, which are designed based on how human attention, memory, motivation, and conceptual knowledge acquisition work. Brain-based learning and teaching can optimize learning holistically

Source:https://medium.com/@johnharrydsouza/base d-learning-2-bbl-brain-based-learning-b7b1bf2e19d7

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College of Education In history, teaching and learning are mostly based on what the students, teachers, and policy-makers think. In the classroom, their thoughts, observations, logical claims, and quasi-experiments guide the process of teaching and learning. Brain-based thinking is viewed differently wherein the central aspects of teaching and learning came from the way students are motivated, the way attention works, the way memories are formed, and the way information is presented.

A brain-based approach doesn’t necessarily include intelligence testing, aptitude testing, and other standardized tests. While these can sometimes yield useful information, they are not required to utilize a brain-based approach. In some corner cases, it might be necessary – when there is significant cognitive impairment, physical disability, emotional distress due to confusion about careers, etc. This approach can be considered very welcoming because, for superficial reasons like not falling into a particular paradigm or pedagogy, it does not discard anything which is useful or evidence-based. Key assumptions of this perspective include: a. Brain-Based Learning is also the application of a meaningful group of principles that represent our understanding of how our brain works in the context of education. b. Brain-Based Learning is simply the engagement of strategies based on body/mind/brain research. c. Brain-Based Learning is not a panacea or magic bullet to solve all of education’s problems. Anyone who represents that to others is misleading them. There is not yet a “one size fits all” brain-based program, model, or package for schools to follow.

Brain-Based Learning Goals & Outcomes: According to Shukla (2019), the brain-based approach is based on what and how much we know about the human brain and it’s interaction with the environment, we can broadly define a few learning goals: a. Make the most of the learning potential of a person b. Reduce learning losses and wasted effort c. Takeover known mechanisms to improve skills, knowledge-base, memory, and mental flexibility d. Create certifiable improvements in learning and make people smarter e. Develop and improve the productivity and efficiency of students and teachers

What it isn’t: a. An approach to improve intelligence test scores. It does not mean that brain-based learning is not capable of making people smarter; it only assumes that as a result. Some aspects of intelligence, such as working memory, concentration, long-term memory, verbal fluency, are likely to improve with the use of advanced techniques. The central assumption is that intelligence is unique and unstable.

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College of Education E.Experiential Learning Experiential learning is one of the recognized models in education. Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984) defines experiential learning as "the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience.

Source:https://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/enviroprojects/what.html

Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory presents a cycle of four elements a.

Concrete Experience

b.

Reflective Observation

c.

Abstract Conceptualization

d.

Active Experimentation

The cycle begins with the student's experience, followed by an opportunity to reflect upon the experience. Therefore students will conceptualize and draw conclusions about what they have learned and witnessed, leading to potential behavior where students can experiment with various behaviors. This begins the cycle anew as students have new experiences based on their experimentation (Oxendine, Robinson and Willson, 2004).

Essential components of Experience-Based Learning (Andresen, Boud, and Choen (2000))

a. The purpose of experiential learning requires something that is personally important or relevant to the students. b. The students should be engaged in personally. c. Students should be given reflective thinking and opportunities to compose or analyze their experiences in the process/ d. The entire individual is involved, meaning not only the intellect but also the senses, the emotions, and their personalities e. Students should be recognized for the former learning they bring into the process. f. Teachers need to develop a sense of trust, appreciation, transparency, and consideration for the students' well-being

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College of Education F.Situated Learning (Lave and Wegner) (The following information about Situated Learning is retrieved from Chris Drew, from Helpfulprofessor.com website. Theorists Lave and Wegner developed situated learning theory (SLT) in 1991. The theory argues that knowledge should be learned in the same place as it used. Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within an authentic activity, context, and culture Situated learning theory claims that learning occurs best when it takes place in the context in Source https://learningspy.co.uk/psychology/20which it is applied. Students will work in an psychological-principles-for-teachers-13-situatedlearning/ apprenticeship capacity within practicing societies where opportunities for learning emerge situationally. As students gain experience and skills, they gradually transfer from the role of an apprenticeship to full participants in their community of practice. In contrast with most classrooms learning activities that involve abstract knowledge, which is and out of context, Lave argues that learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded within an activity, context, and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. Lave and Wenger call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation. Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning — learners become involved in a “community of practice,” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert.

Key Features of Situated Learning a. Situated Learning is based on Sociocultural Theory For example:  

If you want to learn how to be a doctor, learn from doctors! You’ll never learn on your own. If you want to learn how to fix cars, spend time with a mechanic!

b. Learning should take Place in Communities of Practice Because knowledge is socially co-constructed by a community, the only way to learn is to learn from others. Talking and listening to others can help you learn what information is important to society and how society views certain topics!

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College of Education Lave and Wegner (1991) say that there are some “communities of practice” who all share the same knowledge. The typical community of practice is a group of professionals who share a craft. Some examples of communities of practice are:  Carpenters: A Carpenters should know which methods to use in which circumstances, which woods are better for particular purposes, techniques to cut wood to size precisely, etc. This is knowledge shared by their community of practice and would need to be learned from that Community of practice via an apprenticeship.  Educators: For an educator, the community of practice includes things we know about include pedagogy, identifying learning disabilities, how to get the best out of students, and how to develop a curriculum. c. Learners start out as Valid Peripheral Participants Students are incorporated into real-world experiences through their teaching methods. They follow practitioners around to observe and learn from their practice by 'guided practice' or what Barbara Rogoff calls 'cognitive apprenticeships.' The “legitimate peripheral participants” are the apprentices as meant by Lave and Wegner l. When you’re starting out, you might do low risk, easy, achievable tasks that are valuable to the community but not the most complex or difficult tasks. d. Learners Slowly Become Full Members of the Community of Practice Every community of practice has its own guidelines or framework for progressing from peripheral to full participation and involvement. In a traditional apprentice-mentor relationship, it is the mentor who has control over the gradual release of responsibility to the apprentice. The instructor monitors the level of engagement and the speed of development. Progress may be measured in more formal ways through quantitative assessment, time measurements such as the number of practicing hours, or age. Source: (Chris Drew, Helpfulprofessor.com, https://helpfulprofessor.com/situated-learning-theory/

no

date,

Retrieved

from

G.Reflective Learning (This is a development of the concept of experiential learning as propounded by John Dewey,) Reflective learning is a form of education in which the student reflects upon their learning experiences. A theory about reflective learning cites it as an intentional and complex process that recognizes the role of social context and experience. The goals of the process are the clarification and the creation of meaning in terms of self, which then leads to a changed conceptual perspective. Reflective learning involves students thinking about what they have read, done, or learned, relating the lesson at hand to their own lives, and making meaning out of the material. It's more than just memorizing some facts, formulas, or dates.

Advantages of Reflective Learning There are several advantages of reflective learning for the student, which include: a. b. c. d.

Accepting responsibility for your learning and, as a result, for your personal growth Becoming metacognitive, or aware of your internal thinking processes Becoming aware of your motives with your actions Seeing a link between the work you are putting into learning and what you are getting out of it

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College of Education Therefore, reflective learning really does have its perks. You might be thinking, 'That's great! Everyone should do that!' and you would probably be correct. However, reflective learning takes time and practice.

Source:https://www.livewebtutors.com/show-sample/reflective-report

8.Cooperative learning Cooperative learning is an educational approach that uses small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It aims to establish classroom activities not only in academics but also in social learning experiences. Students are expected to work in groups to complete assignments against academic objectives. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively can capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.). Also, teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning. Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995 ) define successful cooperative learning tasks as intellectually stimulating, imaginative, open-ended, and involving tasks of a higher order.

.

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Source:https://www.prodigygame.com/blog/cooperative-learning-principlesstrategies/

Five Variables that Influence the Effectiveness of Cooperation (Johnson and Johnson) The following variables of cooperation and cooperative learning technique were retrieved from BabyMonster Group website in the article “ what is cooperative learning theory posted on August 24, 2019) a.Positive interdependence Learners must completely participate and put effort into their group. Every group member has a responsibility and therefore must believe that they are responsible for their learning and that of their group. Students have the sense that they’re ‘in this together,’ feeling that each member’s individual effort will not only help him but the whole group. The grade of each student is dependent upon the effort of other group members.

b.Individual and group responsibility Every student in a group must demonstrate mastery of the content being studied. Each student is accountable for their learning and work and their own contribution to the group, therefore eliminating “social loafing.” Each goal is clearly identified, which specify what individuals are responsible for and what the group responsibilities are. c.Face-to-face interaction Members promote each other’s success. Students explain to one another what they have or are learning and assist one another with understanding and completion of assignments. Although some work may be divided up and done individually, other work must be done interactively with students giving each other feedback, challenging reasoning and conclusions, and teaching and encouraging one another. d.Group processing Group processing occurs when group members (a) reflect on which member actions were helpful and (b) make a decision about which actions to continue or change. The aim of group processing is to explain and enhance the effectiveness with which members carry out the required processes to attain the goals of the group.

e.Social skills For successful cooperative learning to occur, social skills must be taught in order. Social skills include effective communication, interpersonal and group skills. Others are:  Leadership The Teaching of Science

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Decision-making Trust-building Friendship- development Communication Conflict-management skills

According to the meta-analysis by Johnson and Johnson, students in cooperative learning settings compared to those in individualistic or competitive learning settings achieve more, better reason, gain greater self-esteem, such as classmates and learning tasks, and have more perceived social support. Cooperative Learning Techniques a. Think-pair-share Formerly developed by Frank T. Lyman (1981),]think-pair-share allows students to anticipate a posed question or problem silently. The student can write down thoughts or simply brainstorm in his mind. The student partners up with a classmate when asked and shares his / her idea(s) and listens to his / her partner's ideas instead. After a pairing dialog, the instructor solicits answers from the entire school. Each student will already have an idea in their heads, so the teachers don't have to worry about using this technique even some students are not volunteering themselves. .The teacher can call on anyone and increase discussion productivity. b.Jigsaw In this technique, students are members of two groups called the home group and expert group. For the heterogeneous home group, each student is assigned a different topic. When a topic has been identified, students with their assigned topic leave homegroup and interact with the other students. Students learn the content together within the new group before they return to their homegroup. When back in their home group, each student is responsible for teaching their assigned subject matter. c.Jigsaw II This is the variation of Jigsaw I by Robert Slavin's (1980) is in which members of the homegroup are assigned the same material. In this technique, each member must become an "expert" on his or her assigned portion and teach the other members of the homegroup d.Reverse jigsaw This variation was created by Timothy Hedeen (2003)It differs from the original Jigsaw during the teaching portion of the activity. In the Reverse Jigsaw technique, students in the expert groups teach the whole class rather than return to their home groups to teach the content. e.Inside-outside circle This is a cooperative learning technique in which students from two focused circles and turn to face new partners in order to address or discuss the questions of the teacher his method can be used to gather a diversity of information, generate new ideas and solve problems. f.Reciprocal teaching Brown & Paliscar (1982) developed reciprocal teaching, which — as currently practiced — pertains to the form of guided, cooperative learning that features a collaborative learning setting between learning leaders and listeners; expert framework by an adult teacher; and direct instruction, modeling, and practice in the use of simple strategies that facilitate a conversation structure. This approach enables students to use important metacognitive techniques such as clarifying, questioning, predicting, and summarizing. It embraces the idea that students can effectively learn from each other. There are empirical findings that show the importance of The Teaching of Science

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College of Education mutual instruction, particularly in subjects like mathematics. For example, it has been found that children taught using this technique have shown higher levels of accuracy in mathematical computations compared to those who were not. In the case of students studying in different circumstances such as those with learning difficulties, and those at risk of academic failure, the same success has been achieved. These studies also cover learners from elementary to tertiary levels. g.STAD (or Student-Teams-Achievement Divisions) Students are subdivided into small groups (or teams). A lesson is given to the class, and the students are then evaluated. The success of an individual will be based on the success of the team. Though the assessments are carried out individually, students are encouraged to work together to enhance the group's overall performance. h.Rally Table Rally Table is the written version of Robin Table and another process of cooperative learning. In this process, the class or the students are divided into groups. This is done to encourage and inspire group learning, team building, and cooperative learning. i.TGT (or Team Game Tournament) In this technique, the group will prepare for a trivia game. Students are engaged in small groups to study, and an incentive was given to the student as a form of motivation to learn and have some fun learning the material. This is a group exercise, and not one student is to blame. j.The Williams Students work together to answer a major question, which is the goal of learning. Each group has differentiated questions that increase in intellectual demands to allow students to progress and meet the learning objective.

3. Science Teaching Approaches A.The Inquiry-Based Approach Inquiry-based learning is an approach to learning that emphasizes the student's role in the learning process. Rather than the teacher telling students what they need to know, students are encouraged to explore the material, ask questions, and share ideas.

Essential features of Inquiry a. Learner engages in scientifically-oriented question. b. Learner gives priority to evidence in responding to question. c. Learners formulate explanations from evidence. e. Learner connects explanations to scientific evidence. f. Learner communicates and justifies an explanation.

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http://idtoolbox.eseryel.com/inquirylearning.html

College of Education B.The Discovery Approach Papas (2014) stated that Discovery Learning was introduced by Jerome Bruner, and it is a method of Inquiry-Based Instruction. This popular theory encourages learners to build on past experiences and knowledge, use their intuition, imagination, and creativity, and search for new information to discover facts, correlations, and new truths. Learning does not equal absorbing what was said or read but actively seeking for answers and solutions. https://sites.google.com/site/etc547aguidetolearnin gtheories/home/discovery-learning

The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach).In this approach, the role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this, a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.

Sequential stages called representations: a. enactive- direct experience, or concrete activities b. iconic-visual, spatial, graphic c. symbolic-reason, logic, abstract symbolism

Five Principles of Discovery Learning Model According to Papas (2014), The Discovery Learning Model integrates the following five principles : Principle 1: Problem Solving. Through integrating current and newly learned information and simplifying expertise, teachers will direct and inspire learners to search for solutions. This way, learners are the driving force behind learning, take an active role, and establish broader applications for skills through activities that encourage risks, problem-solving, and probing. Principle 2: Learner Management. Teachers should allow members to work either alone or with others, and learn at their own pace. This will relieves learners from unnecessary stress and makes them feel they own learning because flexibility makes learning the exact opposite of a static sequencing of lessons and activities Principle 3: Integrating and Connecting. Teachers should teach learners how to associate prior knowledge with new, and encourage them to connect to the real world. From familiar scenarios as the basis of new information, this will encourage learners to extend what they know and invent something new. Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation.

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Discovery learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and based on the premise that learning is not a pure collection of data. In addition, the learners learn to evaluate and interpret the knowledge learned, rather than memorize the correct response. Principle 5: Failure and Feedback. It is not only when we find the right responses that learning occurs. It also happens through failure. Discovery learning is not about achieving the right end result, but about the new things, we 're discovering in the process. And it is the duty of the teacher to provide feedback because learning is incomplete without it. Source (Papas, 2014 October Instructional Design Models and Theories: The Discovery Learning Model, Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/discovery-learning-model

Advantages of Discovery Learning a. helps students learn how to learn b. shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards c. heuristic of discovery-students find out things Independently d. knowledge easily remembered

C. The Experimental Approach To understand experimentalism, the "reconstruction or reorganization of experience" is really just a way of saying that one must learn from one's experience in a fashion that avoids repeating mistakes, and that contributes to one's ability to make more informed decisions in the future. The effect is that learning is a process of experiential growth, always in the state of becoming and, if properly managed, improving, but never achieving completeness or finality. Such a view of experience, however, does not emerge idiosyncratically. Some method of thinking or a process of intelligence has to be used to help regulate it. http://stonesnbones.blogspot.com/2013/06/i-wasindulging-in-some-creationist.html

Characteristics of Experimental Approach

1. 2. 3.

The term "experimentalism" seems to connote some strange association with specialized laboratory techniques. A philosophical belief that the way to truth is through experiments It involves "reconstruction or reorganization of experience, which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experiences."

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6. 7.

8. 9.

It is associated with a very broad but shallow curriculum that involves more subjects, but few are required. In Dewey's alternative, experimentalist form of education, student thinking replaces rote memorization and shallow understanding at center stage; from the start, students are situated in activities that require them to experiment with ideas as they pursue that matter to them. Education should be a study of social problems and how it is solved Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view that reality is what works right now and that goodness comes from group decisions. As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study social experiences and solve problems. Students shouldn’t be taught what to think, But HOW to think Experimentalism is friendly to educational research, and many new ideas come from it.

4. Guiding Principles in Teaching Science (The following Guiding principles were retrieved from Native Brain The future I s Learning from www.nativebrain.com website) A. Focus on the Individual Learner Consider that almost all educational experiences are designed not for the capabilities and needs of any individual learner but for the “average” capabilities and needs of a very large group B. Always Start with the Science A hundred years of learning and teaching research have produced several insights that could be used to significantly enhance learning experiences. Unfortunately, many of those findings in scientific papers remain buried. The majority of conventional textbooks, workbooks, curricula, applications, and other learning methods are often built on the basis of views, idiosyncratic experiences, and gut feelings instead of sound research and hard evidence. Like in any other relevant area – from healthcare to agriculture to economics to engineering – the best research and data available will form the basis of any learning design. C. Respect the differences of Learner Young children are neither blank nor ignorant. Developmental work worth over a century has recorded that even very young children possess an aggressive, imaginative, coherent intelligence. The same research indicates that children know much more than they can demonstrate, since their comprehension grows before they have the fine motor coordination required to convey it, either by speaking or by manipulating complex interfaces like a keyboard and mouse. D. Learning First To create the best possible conditions for learning is the primary goal of any learning intervention. .All too often, some other priority overshadows the actual learning, such as a preoccupation with making an experience fun (frequently at the expense of learning), or an emphasis on coverage–which is a focus on teaching, not learning. Commitment and a sense of joy can be a product of effective learning, rather than being regarded as an external lever to be pulled to trick kids into thinking that they are doing something other than learning.

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Expect Understanding

Knowledge is increasing–new learning builds on old. Therefore, knowledge is only as strong as its weakest link like a chain. Creating solid information systems involves adjusting individual learning by output measures such as genuine individual understanding presentations at each step along the way, not by using common input measures such as the amount of material covered, the number of problems completed, or the hours spent in a class. F. Build to Mastery Learning takes several different forms – outcomes vary from basic idea understanding or appreciation to expertise in creatively applying complex models to solve new problems. One difficulty for educators is that simple tests of concept recognition do not distinguish simple awareness from deep understanding–which means they provide no nuanced insight about how to support individual learners on the next step to mastery and no supporting feedback for learners on important accomplishments they have made in an area. If basic proficiency is the stated goal and tests used to inform learning decisions only measure simple awareness or recognition, then a vicious circle is created that produces shallow, brittle, fragmented learning. The ultimate result is a framework that pushes towards mediocrity. G. Focus on Systems There is a growing demand to ensure children are exposed to an ever-expanding range of facts and skills of all ages. Sadly, so much pressure is always placed on us to "keep up" that children switch from one subject area to the next with only a cursory comprehension of each subject as they go. Discrete facts and skills are, of course, important components of learning in any subject area, but at the same time, it is clearly not possible to organize all learning in this way. Practical knowledge forms a system linking insights, knowledge structures, and physical actions. Instead of filtering and leaving a superficial overview of the widest variety of topics for children, it is important to concentrate on building functional information structures – which in many cases, means ensuring that children are learned in particular areas before moving on. Mastery of these vital concepts develops self-confidence and can also be the foundation for more rapid learning of future subjects that builds on these fundamentals. H. Feedback “You can’t improve what you don’t measure.” This converse is true. People, including learners, educators, and learning providers, will obviously work to improve on whatever metrics are used to assess them. I.

Intrinsic Motivation

As humans, learning is one of the most naturally satisfying activities we engage in. Though many people get the idea that “learning isn’t fun,” in reality, it is the experience of being subjected to an ineffective and inefficient teaching process is the root cause of such belief. To be clear, research recommends that it’s not the cause, but the feeling of engagement or “fun” is a consequence of effective learning. J.

Respect the “Flow”

Much like athletes do better when they can get into the "comfort zone," learners do best when they reach the optimum state of experience called "flow." Flow happens when an environment is ideally matched with the skill of a learner and keeps extending them for extended periods of time, just a little outside their comfort zone. While this state of deeply engaged experience is powerful, it is also fragile. If an activity is very challenging, the learner can become frustrated; if it is too easy, they will lose interest and become bored.

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College of Education Learning productivity tends to decline because of too much frustration. It can take several minutes each time to get back in. K. Celebrate Achievement Throughout the ongoing debate about improving self-esteem among adolescents, few would argue against reinforcing positive learning achievements. Learning is a lifelong journey, and often the hills may sound very steep. Once learners actually feel to the top of a hill – and really master something new – it's important to acknowledge and celebrate the accomplishment so that they can find real satisfaction in such an accomplishment and build a positive picture of learning as a worthwhile endeavor and themselves as successful learners.

5. Science Process Skills The science process skills are skills that lie under scientific thinking and decision-making. These are logical operations of thinking in

investigations that can either basic or integrated. It is important for a science curriculum to be rationalized in such a way that it brings in science process skills. The science process skills form the foundation for scientific methods. All six basic skills are important individually as well as when they are integrated together. https://www.vecteezy.com/vectorart/296183-children-and-different-scienceskills

The following information about basis process skills were retrieved from www.slideshare.net website A.OBSERVING

It is the most basic and fundamental of the process skills, above all. One cannot compare, classify, or perform the other process skills without being a good observer. Through the use of our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing, we can observe objects or events. Example: Describing a dog as a four-legged animal. The Process of observing can be: a. Qualitative – this is identifying and naming the properties of an object such as its shape, color, size, texture, smell, and sound. b. Quantitative – This kind of observation involves measurement. Change – it could be the result of crushing, pounding, burning, cutting, decaying, etc. c. B.COMPARING You are comparing when you are using observable properties in discovering similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. We are able to identify connections among objects and phenomena observed The Teaching of Science

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College of Education through comparison. C.CLASSIFYING Around us, there are huge amounts of things-non-living and living things. Order can be obtained by identifying similarities, disparities, and interrelationships and grouping them to match some purpose accordingly. Example: Classify the sample rocks according to its observable properties. D.INFERRING Observing is getting information by using one or more senses, while inferring is explaining or interpreting an observation. Example: Rain is approaching because of dark clouds. E.PREDICTING Predicting is forecasting where the process involved in using past observations or data along with other kinds of scientific knowledge to forecast events or relationships. The statement that is not based on observation is not a prediction. It is simply a guess. Predicting observation can be: a.Interpolation – is predicting new data based on and within a trend/ pattern of previously observed data. b. Extrapolation - is predicting new data outside or beyond the range of previously observed data. F.QUANTIFYING Making and operating quantitative observations is quantifying. This involves the following a. Using numbers b. measuring c. using time and space Example: Using a tape measure to measure the length of the table in inches. G.COMMUNICATING Expressing ideas in many forms, such as orally, in writing or with graphs, diagrams, tables of data, or photographs, is a way of communicating. a graph

Example: Describing the change in color of the leaf over time in writing or through

H.MANIPULATIVE SKILLS These skills include the correct and accurate use of equipment and materials, the planning of test setups and the careful handling of specimens Integrated Process Skills Embodied in experimenting which includes hypothesizing, controlling variables and classifying data

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6. Assessment Strategies of Science Learning Classroom assessment is an integral part of Science instruction. Assessment is the systematic process of gathering information about what the student knows, is able to do, and is learning to do (Manitoba Education and Training 1997). The primary function of classroom assessment is not to evaluate or classify student performance, but to inform teaching and improve learning and to monitor student progress in achieving the learning outcomes at the end of the grade or course of study https://www.theconfidentteacher.com/2017/05/reth inking-assessment/

A.Planning for Assessment

B.

C.Different Assessment Strategies for Science Learning (The following Assessment Strategies for Science were retrieved from Barber et al. Insights and Outcomes: Assessment for Great Exploration in Math and Sciencefrom www.crscience.org website.) a. Writing Story -Stories in the natural world allow people to make sense of their experiences. Telling or reading stories is a very entertaining way of presenting information; writing stories is a great way of assessing student knowledge. The Teaching of Science

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College of Education b. Writing a letter – Letters and persuasive writing are fundamental to the science and mathematics method, and to the science-society relationship. Letter writing provides opportunities for students to demonstrate their ability to apply and express concepts they have learned in units of the science. c. Advertisements – Ads marshal facts and ideas to communicate one point of view. Since students have direct advertising experience, they frequently get excited when asked to create their own "commercial" as part of a unit of science. d. Reflections – If teachers ask students to focus on what they know or think about a subject in an open-ended way, it broadens the understanding of what is important to the students. Oral assessments take part in interviewing, interviews, and student presentations for individuals and classes. You may document written thoughts as journal entries, persuasive writing, articles for school magazines, or surveys. e. Game Playing – As students engage in science games, abilities and information are vividly revealed. These activities are less intimidating and more engaging than formal tests or oral and written presentations for many students, games f. Pre-Post Testing - Students are assessed in a similar manner before and after the unit so that the teachers can measure not just what students know but also the student development of learning. g. Model Making – Model-making is an important part of scientific practice. Models are simplified illustrations of the world that enable us to think about it in new ways, make predictions, and test ideas. The model allows students to visualize the world in a deeper way than just looking at it. h.Explorations – Exploration helps teachers to observe students practicing essential skills such as: observing all their senses, recording findings, comparing, formulating theories and questions, and drawing inferences. i.Experiments – The teachers have the opportunities to observe students' skills in describing variables, designing comparisons and using controls, determining appropriate outcomes, critiquing an experiment, and drawing conclusions, when students conduct and analyze experiments. j.Investigations – Scientific investigations include the entire process of posing and answering questions, using a variety of tools and strategies to form and come up with the best possible answer. Students use their content and analysis skills to create their own directions, make observations, collect and analyze data, and draw conclusions. k. Conventions, Conferences, and Debates –Participants had a chance to meet and share ideas with the larger science group during the scientific convention. They hear about the study of each other and argue, analyze, and assess the work of each other. Staging an event like this helps teachers to observe students practicing their expertise and skills. l. Applications – If an activity involves knowledge and skill application, teachers can determine whether students can apply concepts in new and/or real-life situations. m.Teacher Observations – The open-ended assessments of student learning progress by teachers, based on specific parameters, can be a valuable assessment tool, particularly during group or independent learning time, and can also be effectively combined with selfevaluation by students.

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7.Performance-Based Learning and Assessment A.Performance-Based learning Performance-based learning is when students engage and participate in performing tasks or activities that are meaningful and engaging. The purpose of this kind of learning is to help students acquire and apply knowledge, practice skills, and develop independent and collaborative work habits. The culminating activity or product for performance-based learning is one that lets a student demonstrate evidence of understanding through a transfer of skills. B.Performance-Based Assessment In the article Authentic Ways to Develop Performance-Based, Kelly (2019) stated that Performance-based assessment is open-ended and without a single, correct answer, and it should demonstrate authentic learning, such as the creation of a newspaper or class debate. One of the benefits of performance-based assessments is that students who are more actively involved in the learning process and absorb and understand the material at a much deeper level. Other characteristics of performance-based assessments are that they are complex and time-bound. In each discipline, there are learning standards that set academic expectations and define what is capable of meeting that standard. Performance-based activities can include two or more topics, and should also meet expectations of the 21st Century such as: a. Innovation and Creativity b. Problem Solving and Critical Thinking c. Collaboration and Communication Information Literacy standards and Media Literacy standards may also require performance-based learning.

The following six types of activities provide good starting points for assessments in performance-based learning is retrieved from Mellisa Kelly in her article “ Authentic

Ways to Develop Performance-Based” last updated on May 29, 2019 from https://www.thoughtco.com/ideas website. a.Presentations One simple way to complete a performance-based task by students is by making them do some kind of presentation or report. The basis for the presentation may be one of the following:    

It provides information Teaching a skill Reporting progress Persuading others

https://www.dreamstime.com/illustration/present ation-student.html

The students may choose to add visual aids or a PowerPoint presentation or Google Slides that will help them illustrate elements in their speech. There should be a clear set of expectations for students to work with from the beginning so that presentations work well across the curriculum. The Teaching of Science

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b.Portfolios Student portfolios can include items created and collected by the students over a period of time. The value of an activity like this is that it is something that grows over time and is therefore not just completed and forgotten. A portfolio can provide students with a long-term selection of artifacts that they can use later in their academic profession.

Source:https://www.prec. Performances

kpages.com/products/student-portfolio/

Dramatic performances are one kind of collaborative activities that can be used as a performance-based assessment. Students can create, perform, and/or provide a critical response. Sources of this include music, recital, or dramatic acting. There may be an interpretation of prose or poetry. This type of performance-based evaluation may take time, so a clear pacing guide is needed. During a performance, the resources must be readily available and meet all safety standards. Students must be provided enough time to address the demands of the activity Students should have opportunities to draft stage work and practice. Evaluating a dramatic performance is critical to developing the proper criteria and rubric, and sharing these with students before the activity is essential. d.Projects In performance-based activities, projects are commonly used by teachers. These include everything from research papers to artistic representations of information learned. Projects can require students to apply their skills and knowledge while performing the assigned task. We can associate themselves with higher levels of innovation, interpretation, and synthesis. Students will be required to complete papers, flowcharts, and maps. Teachers do have the choice of making students work individually or in groups.

e. Exhibit and Fairs

Sourcehttps://www.pinterest.ph/pin/55014291071199 7484/

By creating exhibits or fairs for students to show their work, teachers can expand the idea of performance-based activities. Examples may include things like history fairs to art exhibitions. Students are working on a product or object which will be publicly displayed. Exhibitions display in-depth learning and might provide input from audiences. In some cases, students might be expected to justify or defend their work to those attending the exhibition. Certain exhibitions, such as science fairs, may involve the prospect of awards and prizes.

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Source:https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/230565/view/science-exhibit

f.Debate A classroom debate is one form of performance-based learning that teaches students diverse viewpoints and opinions. Discussion-related skills include analysis, comprehension of media and claims, understanding of reading, assessment of facts, public speaking, and civic competencies.

8.Science Journal Writing (The following information about scientific journal writing is retrieved from Angel Borja in her article11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously posted onJuly 10 2019, from www.elsevier.com website)

A.Science Journal A scientific journal in academic publishing is a periodic publication that tends to advance science, usually by reporting new research. Scientific journal articles are written mostly by active scientists such as students, researchers, and professors.

Source:https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/287597126177551136/

B.Elements of the Scientific Paper a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Title Abstract / summary Introduction Methods Results Discussion Works Cited Appendices

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C.Steps to organizing your manuscript Step 1: Prepare the figures and tables Always remember that "a figure is worth a thousand words." Therefore, illustrations, including figures and tables, are the most efficient way to present your results. The driving force of the paper is your data, so your illustrations are very critical! When do you decide to present the data as tables or figures? Tables usually give actual experimental results, while figures are mostly used to equate experimental results with previous works or calculated/theoretical values. Step 2: Write the Methods

Source:https://www.coursehero.com/file/2792795 5/elseviercom-11-steps-to-structuring-a-sciencepaper-editors-will-take-seriouslypdf/

According to Borja (2019), this section responds to the question of how the problem was studied. If your paper is proposing a new method, you need to include detailed information so a knowledgeable reader can reproduce the experiment. However, do not repeat the details of established methods. Use references and supporting materials to indicate formerly published procedures. Comprehensive summaries or key references are adequate. Present proper control experiments and data used, again to make the experiment of study repeatable. List the methods in the same order they will appear in the Results section, in the logical order in which you did the research: a. Description of the site b. Description of the surveys or experiments done, giving information on dates, etc. c. Description of the laboratory methods, including separation or treatment of samples, analytical methods, following the order of waters, sediments, and biomonitors. If you have worked with different biodiversity components, start from the simplest (i.e., microbes) to the more complex (i.e., mammals) d. Description of the statistical methods used (including confidence levels, etc.)

Reminders in the Length of the manuscript Here are some general guidelines: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

Title: Short and informative Abstract: 1 paragraph (