Definitions of Terms LCS [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

Definitions of terms a situation in which two distinct varieties of a language are spoken within the same speech community. Adjective: diglossic or diglossial. Bilingual diglossia is a type of diglossia in which one language is used for writing and another forspeech.

Etymology: From the Greek, "speaking two languages." The term was first used in English by linguist Charles Ferguson in 1959.

Examples and Observations: 

"In the classic diglossic situation, two varieties of a language, such as standard French and Haitian creole French, exist alongside each other in a single society. Each variety has its own fixed functions--one a 'high,' prestigious variety, and one a 'low,' or colloquial, one. Using the wrong variety in the wrong situation would be socially inappropriate, almost on the level of delivering the BBC's nightly news in broad Scots. "Children learn the low variety as a native language; in diglossic cultures, it is the language of home, the family, the streets and marketplaces, friendship, and solidarity. By contrast, the high variety is spoken by few or none as a first language. It must be taught in school. The high variety is used for public speaking, formal lectures and higher education, television broadcasts, sermons, liturgies, and writing. (Often the low variety has no written form.)" (Robert Lane Greene, You Are What You Speak. Delacorte, 2011) CONTINUE READING BELOW OUR VIDEO

6 Fascinating Facts About Personality 

High (H) and Low (L) Varieties "A very significant aspect of diglossia is the different patterns of language acquisition associated with the High [H] and Low [L] dialects. . . . Most reasonably well-educated people in diglossic communities can recite the rules of H grammar, but not the rules for L. On the other hand, they

unconsciously apply the grammatical rules of L in their normal speech with near perfection, whereas the corresponding ability in H is limited. In many diglossic communities, if speakers are asked, they will tell you L has no grammar, and that L speech is the result of the failure to follow the rules of H grammar." (Ralph W. Fasold, Introduction to Sociolinguistics: The Sociolinguistics of Society, Basil Blackwell, 1984)  "Diglossia reinforces social distinctions. It is used to assert social position and to keep people in their place, particularly those at the lower end of the social hierarchy. Any move to extend the L variety . . . is likely to be perceived to be a direct threat to those who want to maintain traditional relationships and the existing power structure." (Ronald Wardhaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 5th ed. Blackwell, 2006)  Diglossia in the U.S. "Ethnicity typically includes a heritage language, particularly among groups whose members include recent arrivals. A heritage language can play a significant role in a community despite the fact that not all members actually speak it. Relatively balanced, native bilinguals, though being designated native speakers of English, may have younger siblings or other family members who speak little or no English. Consequently, they may not use English all the time, particularly in situations of diglossia in which language varieties are compartmentalized according to situations of usage. "The home is also one likely place for a social dialect (or vernacular) to develop that can, consequently, spread throughout the community. Children will undoubtedly bring that language variety with them into the classroom. Consequently, educators need to consider the relationship ofSAE and nonstandard varieties of English such as Ebonics (African American Vernacular English--AAVE), Chicano English (ChE), and Vietnamese English (VE), all recognized social dialects. Children speaking these varieties may be counted as native speakers of English, despite the fact that they may also be considered LM [language minority] students entitled to certain rights as a result." (Fredric Field, Bilingualism in the USA: The Case of the Chicano-Latino Community. John Benjamins, 2011)

Code switching 

Code-switching performs several functions (Zentella, 1985). First, people may use code-switching to hide fluency or memory problems in the second language (but this accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches). Second, code-switching is used to mark switching from informal situations (using native languages) to formal situations (using second language). Third, code-switching is used to exert control, especially between parents and children. Fourth, codeswitching is used to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also 'functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships' (Johnson, 2000, p. 184)." (William B. Gudykunst, Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage, 2004)



"In a relatively small Puerto Rican neighborhood in New Jersey, some members freely used code-switching styles and extreme forms of borrowing both in everyday casual talk and in more formal gatherings. Other local residents were careful to speak only Spanish with a minimum of loans on formal occasions, reserving code-switching styles for informal talk. Others again spoke mainly English, using Spanish or code-switching styles only with small children or with neighbors." (John J. Gumperz and Jenny Cook-Gumperz, "Introduction: Language and the Communication of Social Identity.” Language and Social Identity. Cambridge University. Press, 1982)



African American Vernacular English and Standard American English "It is common to find references to black speakers who code switch between AAVE [African American Vernacular English] and SAE [Standard American English] in the presence of whites or others speaking SAE. In employment interviews (Hopper & WIlliams, 1973; Akinnaso & Ajirotutu, 1982), formal education in a range of settings (Smitherman, 2000), legal discourse (Garner & Rubin, 1986), and various other contexts, it is advantageous for blacks to have code-switching competence. For a black person who can switch from AAVE to SAE in the presence of others who are speaking SAE, code switching is a skill that holds benefits in relation to the way success is often measured in institutional and professional settings. However, there are more dimensions to code switching than the black/white patterns in institutional settings." (George B. Ray, Language and Interracial Communication in the United States: Speaking in Black and White. Peter Lang, 2009)



"A Fuzzy-Edged Concept" "The tendency to reify code switching as a unitary and clearly identifiable phenomenon has been questioned by Gardner-Chloros (1995: 70), who prefers to view code switching as a 'fuzzy-edged concept.' For her, the conventional view of code switching implies that speakers make binary choices, operating in one code or the other at any given time, when in fact code switching overlaps with other kinds of bilingual mixture, and the boundaries between them are difficult to establish. Moreover, it is often impossible to categorize the two codes involved in code switching as discrete and isolatable." (Donald Winford, An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003)



Code Switching and Language Change "The role of CS, along with other symptoms of contact, in language change is still a matter of discussion . . .. On the one hand the relationship between contact and language change is now generally acknowledged: few espouse the traditional view that change follows universal, language-internal principles such as simplification, and takes place in the absence of contact with other varieties (James Milroy 1998). On the other hand, . . . some researchers still downplay the role of CS in change, and contrast it with borrowing, which is seen as a form of convergence." (Penelope Gardner-Chloros, "Contact and Code-Switching." The Handbook of Language Contact, ed. by Raymond Hickey. Blackwell, 2010)

Code-mixing The term code-mixing is variously defined in different subfields of linguistics. Many studies of morphology or syntax use the term as a synonym for code-switching, the alternating use by bilingual speakers of two or more different languages within a single utterance (e.g. Kachru 1978, Muysken 2000). Studies in psycholinguistics similarly definition code-mixing as "the transition from using linguistic units (words, phrases, clauses, etc.) of one language to using those of another within a single sentence" (Sridhar and Sridhar 1980). In contrast to Muysken's treatment of code-switching and code-mixing as synonymous, however, Sridhar and Sridhar differentiate the two, arguing that codeswitching haspragmatic or discourse-oriented functions that may be absent in code-mixing.

Some recent work in sociolinguistics builds on this functional differentiation. Alvarez (1998) argues that formal code-mixing or language alternation should be treated as distinct from code-switching, defined in pragmatic or discourse terms.

Code Mixing Wardhaugh (1986: 102) says that code is the particular dialect or language one chooses to use on any occasion, and a system for communication between two or more parties. Poedjosoedarmono (1978: 4) says that a code is a system of speech whose elements of language has special characteristic, and it is proper to the background of the speaker, the relation of the speaker to address and the situation. Another linguistic phenomenon in bilingual or multilingual society is code mixing. Code switching and code mixing are terms that are used to call the dependence upon aspect of language. The difference of those terms that can be found is the dependence indicating characteristics. In the phenomenon of code mixing the dependent characteristics are indicated by the relationship between the function and role of language. The role means that who uses the language and function means what will be acquired by the speaker (Suwito in Sutana 1999: 17). Mackey in Suwito (1985: 65) states that Code Mixing is one characteristic of language dependence. Then, He cities that the language dependence is marked by the presence of reciprocal relations between roles and language functions. According to him, the roles refer to who uses language, whereas the language functions refer to what will bed achieve by speaker in his utterances. So if a speaker mixes two different codes on language in his utterances, then it should be asked first who he is. In this manner, the specific characteristics of the speaker are, among others, his social background, level of education and solidarity of region. However, all of these specific characteristics will often color his code mixing. On the other hand, the language unction determines how far the languages used by speaker give an opportunity to mix codes. Finally, a speaker who masters many languages will have a greater opportunity to mix codes, because what a speaker of his utterance achieves is extremely determined by his language choice.

Code mixing usually occurs in bilingual or multilingual community or society and the function (meaning) of the languages can not be clearly separated. This code mixing is used when the conversant use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance (Wardhaugh, 1986: 103) In code mixing the main code or basic code has its own function and meaning, other codes, however, are only the pieces, without function and meaning as a code (Chaer, 1995: 151). Thelander (In Chaer, 1995: 152) explains the definition of code mixing. He says that if in the single utterance the clauses and the phrases used are hybrid clause or hybrid phrases and each clause or phrase does not support the function of clause and phrase, it is called code mixing. The special character of code mixing is that, code mixing is used in informal situation. In the formal situation it may have no exact meaning in Indonesian language. In the written language code mixing is indicated by italic writing or underline form (Nababan, 1984: 32). Another aspect of dependent relation of language in multilingual people is the phenomenon of code mixing in context of function of switch, the relevance of situation is the form of dependence identified from both sides of relationships between speakers and the function of language. Code mixing has two features, namely dependency feature and the language or variant elements that insert in other language have no more function. Dependency feature marked by the relationship between the language rule and function. The role means who use the language and function means what will be reached by the speaker with his or her utterance. If the speaker mixes his or her code or language, then it must be asked the factors such as: who the speaker is: social background, the level of education, religion, etc. A speaker who masters many languages will have chance to mix code more than the other speakers who only master one language. But it does not mean that the speaker who masters many languages will always mix codes. The second feature that the language or variant elements inserted in other language have no more function. It can be classified into two kinds. The first is inner code mixing that is originated from the native language with its all variations, for instance Jawa Ngoko mixed with Jawa Krama- Inggil, wah baksone pun telas mas, pados liyane mawon. In this sentence, the speaker mixes jawa ngoko, liyane, with jawa krama inggil, pun, telas, mawon.

The second is outer code mixing that mix a foreign language with native language such as English language mixed with Indonesian language. Saya sedang tidak bisa berpikir, otakku blank. In this sentence, the speaker mixes English language, blank, with Indonesian language saya, sedang, tidak, bisa, berpikir, otakku.

Code Switching Sometimes, people consider that code switching and code mixing have the same meaning. But actually both of them are different. People in the bilingualism or multilingualism situation often change language or variety of languages. This situation depends on situation or the need for communication such as when a person uses a standard language when he meets his guest. When he knows that, actually, the guest is his old friend, the person switches his standard language into informal language. This phenomenon is called code switching. According to Crystal (1991: 59) code switching can be illustrated by the switch bilingual speaker may make (depending on who they are talking to or where they are) between standard and regional forms of English, between Welsh and English in parts of Wales, or between occupational and domestics varieties. Komarudin (1989: 59) says that code switching occurs in level of clauses and sentences. Code switching is general characteristics in bilingualism. Bilingual people often switch codes from one language to other language when they speak or write. Code switching is switching situation from one code to another (Suwito, 1985: 68). If a speaker firstly uses code A (for example Indonesian Language) and he changes his code to code B (Javanese Language), this situation is called code switching. Code switching not only occurs in the form of language change but also may happen in the change of the variant of language. Hymes (in Chaer 1995: 142) says that code switching has become a common term for alternate us of two or more languages, varieties of language or even speech style. For example, when people switch one code, in example, grammatical code to casual code when the situation changes into informal situation.

Code switching happens in bilingual society. Code switching occurs when people use a particular code and suddenly change to another code. Apple (in Chaer 1995: 141) states code switching is the change of one code to another. Wardhaugh (1986: 103) also gives definition of code switching occurs when the language used, changes according to the situation in which the conversant find them selves. The speakers here switch one code to another code or they speak in one language to another language. Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or dialect in conversation. Code-switching can occur between sentences (intersentential) or within a single sentence (intrasentential). Code-switching is now considered to be a normal and natural product of interaction between the bilingual (or multilingual) speaker’s two languages. Code-switching can be distinguished from other language contact phenomena such as loan translation (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transfer or interference.

Polyglossia Definition of diglosia and polyglossia Diglosia : In sociolinguistics, a situation in which two distinct varieties of a language are spoken within the same speech community. Example : "In the classic diglossic situation, two varieties of a language, such as standard French and Haitian creole French, exist alongside each other in a single society. Each variety has its own fixed functions--one a 'high,' prestigious variety, and one a 'low,' or colloquial, one. Using the wrong variety in the wrong situation would be socially inappropriate, almost on the level of delivering the BBC's nightly news in broad Scots. Polyglossia : Is a term that refers to a person's ability to communicate in two or more languages. Example : The Netherlands and Switzerland are especially well-known examples. In the Netherlands, children characteristically have instruction in Dutch as a first language, begin a second, third, and fourth (English, French, or German) within a few years of each other, and, if they plan to go to university, add several years of Latin and perhaps some Greek. Most high-school graduates can manage to communicate in two foreign languages; fluency in three or four is common among university graduates.