Sources of New Testament Greek or the Influence of the Septuagint on the Vocabulary of the New Testament [PDF]

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THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID

AND

MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

Just published, in large 12mo, price

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SYNTAX OF THE MOODS AND TENSES IN

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK BY PROFESSOR

E.

D.

BURTON, CHICAGO

'Professor Burton's treatise is one of great merit one of the very best books indeed on its subject. ... It is a most valuable addition to our grammatical literature.' Tlie Critical

Review.

SOURCES OF

FEW TESTAMENT GREEK

PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB,

FOR T.

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:

&

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SOURCES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK OK

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SEPTUAGINT ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

BY THE

REV.

H.

A.

A.

KENNEDY,

M.A.,

D.Sc.

EDINBUKGH T.

&

T.

CLARK,

38 1895

GEOKGE STREET

PREFACE

IN the preface to

his Essays in Biblical Greek, the late

Dr. Hatch speaks of these as being designed

"

to point

out to students of sacred literature some of the rich fields

which have not yet been adequately explored, and This book

to offer suggestions for their exploration."

an attempt to deal with some formed the subject

of

Dr.

of

is

the matters which

Hatch's investigation, and,

indeed, owes its origin to the results at which that

most

independent and keen -minded scholar arrived as regards the special character of Biblical Greek. But while the writer began with a complete, though provisional, accept-

ance of Hatch's conclusions, the farther the inquiry was pushed, the more decidedly was he compelled to doubt those conclusions, and finally to seek to establish

the

LXX. and

that

connection between the language of the of the

New

Testament on a totally different

The discussion research

is

purely

may modify many

presented.

But

it

investigation laid

a

tentative

of the results

basis.

one.

which are here

seems to the writer that the

down

Further

lines for

in this dissertation are at least

M348740

PREFACE

VI

trustworthy, and lead to the

true

standpoint for the

study of Biblical Greek as a whole.

A is

list of

given.

tions to

the chief authorities referred to and consulted

But the writer must express special obligaMullach's Grammatik der griechischen two books

Vulgarsprache, and Thayer's edition of of

the

New

Appendix

to

Testament.

The

Grimm's Lexicon

admirable

lists

in

the

the latter work have formed, to a large

extent, the basis of this investigation.

CALLA.NDEE,

February 1895.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I

PAGE

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER

.

.

.

1

II

NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

.......

Limitations of such an inquiry investigation

Its

possibilities

CHAPTER

Method of 5-10

III

CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN

THE THIRD CENTURY The Attic spirit

B.C.

Xenophon and its formative elements The new The Macedonian dialect Transition-stage of language

of

conquests

....

Character of the Attic diffused by Alexander's

in Aristotle

The

literary dialect

11-20

CHAPTER IV THE SEPTUAGINT: (1) ITS ENVIRONMENT; (2) ITS VOCABULARY, AND THE SPECIAL INFLUENCES WHICH MOULD IT General character of Egyptian Greek The language of Alexandria Origin of the Septuagint Special considerations affecting the investigation of the vocabulary of the Septuagint Tables (1) old illustrating the various elements in the vocabulary poetical words (2) Ionic words (3) affinities with Xeno:

;

phon and the diminutives in formations

;

;

writers of the xotvv

common with

(6) foreign

words

words

..... ;

(4) colloquial

the Comic writers

;

(6)

(5)

;

new 21-45

CONTENTS

yiii

CHAPTER V PAGE

BRIEF SURVEY OF THE MAIN FACTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE VOCABULARY OF GREEK LITERATURE FROM ABOUT (200-160 OF THE SEPTUAGINT DOWN TO B.C.) THE COMPLETION C.

100 A.D.

The "Common" and "Hellenistic" dialects as The The Common dialect Polybius Apocrypha

Philo

Josephus

Plutarch

growths

parallel

writers

of

the

Summary of results 46-59

CHAPTER VI THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Problems affecting the investigation of the vocabulary Numerical General tone of the language Tables illustrating statistics The classical element the elements in the vocabulary The colloquial Affinities with the writers of the xoivj lists Points of contact with Comic writers element Parallels between the Greek of affinities with Aristophanes :

the

;

;

Comic Fragments and the

element, continued

:

late language "Weakening of strong terms

CHAPTER

Colloquial .

.

60-83

VII

COMPARISON OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE LXX. WITH THAT OF

THE NEW TESTAMENT The LXX. dicta laries

familiar to the

New

Testament writers

Dr. Hatch's

Classification of possible relations between two vocabuList of words peculiar to LXX. and Testament

New

LXX. and New Testament along common to LXX. and New Testa84-93 meaning Summary of results

List of words peculiar to with Philo List of words " ment with " Biblical

.

CHAPTER

VIII

THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE THEOLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS TERMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT VOCABULARY Formation of a theological

Discussion of words terminology exemplifying the influence of the LXX. on the theological and religious terms of the New Testament Cautions to be

observed in estimating this influence

.

.

.

94-109

CONTENTS

IX

CHAPTER IX PAGE

CLASSES OF WORDS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, WHICH EITHER IN THEMSELVES OR BY THEIR PARTICULAR USES SUGGEST A CONNECTION WITH THE LXX.

OF VARIOUS

DISCUSSION

Words expressing Jewish customs and Actual Hebrew words ideas Words with exceptional meanings in the LXX. and New Testament "Alexandrian" words New compound

.......

words

110-133

CHAPTER X DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL QUESTION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT,

BASED ON THE RESULTS REACHED the New Testament vocabulary Numerical Exaggeration of the influence of the LXX. on the Marked differences vocabulary of the New Testament

Subdivision

of

statistics

between the two vocabularies Application of the criteria laid down on p. 87 sq., to the case of the LXX. and New Testament 134-145

CHAPTER XI COLLOQUIAL GREEK, THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND OF THE

NEW TESTAMENT The

striking resemblances between the language of the two groups of writings due to its "colloquial" character in both The spoken language, and its diffusion and Statistics developments Distinction between the colloquialism of the 146-151 New Testament and that of the LXX. .

CHAPTER

XII

OF THE COLLOQUIAL CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND NEW TESTAMENT BY THE PHENOMENA OF MODERN GREEK

CORROBORATION

Introductory note on

down

to

examples

...... the

continuity of the spoken language Brief discussions of illustrative

modern times

152-156

CONTENTS

X

CHAPTER

XIII PAGE

EXAMINATION OF PECULIAR FORMS WHICH GO TO PEOVE THE COLLOQUIAL CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND NEW TESTAMENT Prefatory Remarks

Verb-forms

SUMMARY OF RESULTS LIST OF AUTHORITIES

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS

"

"

Popular

spellings

.

157-164

...... .... .

.

.

.

.

164-166 167 171

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

SOURCES OF

CHAPTEE

I

INTRODUCTION

THE study

Language, like all other provinces of investigation, has been influenced to a high degree by the

modern

of

scientific

Not

spirit.

has come from without and forced

that

this

influence

itself

upon philological The process has been evolved from within, and under conditions marked for it by the principles inquiry.

inherent in Language the

sphere

of

itself.

investigation

One main ever

is

result is that

being

widened.

thrown on important problems from directions Light Fine Art, Antiquities strictly so the most various. is

called,

Epigraphy, Folk-lore, each contributes

its

quota

to linguistic research.

But perhaps nothing has tended give this particular

so

department a place

sciences as the rapid advance

powerfully to among the exact

which the

latter half of

the present century has seen in the field of Comparative Philology.

Now,

investigations

in

this

province have

not only reached results quite invaluable in themselves,

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

SOURCES OF

2

and

for their

certain

own

sake, but

have brought into prominence in

regard to language general which will inevitably impress themselves on future study. conceptions

leading

Not the

in all

important is that which regards a particular language as a living whole, an organic unity, which, while from time to time it presents varying least

an indestructible common principle which of life, preserving it throughout its a thread really In this way, entire history from utter disintegration. aspects, retains

is

every stage of a language is of paramount importance for the history of the whole. Of course, some periods will

always have, and justly have, a special attraction.

The reasons are becomes epoch.

of

It

One

various.

moment

special

the

displays

principles which are

to

the language's

All

because birth,

of

stage is

it

so

to

a

language

the formative speak,

of

the

be the determining elements Another stage throughout the history of the speech. absorbs interest as the culminating point, the zenith in

expression

become

life.

have

been It

plastic.

rudimentary

an

is

strivings

after

The language has

mastered. artistic

instrument.

Its

It has a freeness and largeproducts are works of art. it has a grasp of technical details. There

ness of sweep, is

balance, symmetry, proportion.

-

No

doubt

this will

"correspond to a life

of

the

unique era in the nation's history. people is untramelled and broad.

The The

national spirit has reached a summit, and this wealth of

splendid energy calls for expression. sion.

national

So

the

life.

language It

is

becomes

therefore

It creates expres-

the

mirror

necessary

of

that

the this

INTRODUCTION

3

definite period should, above all others, call for consideration.

rich,

And

any language, but especially in one so and subtle, and strong as that of Hellas, a grasp, of in

culminating epoch and its great masters is' that which alone affords a standpoint from which to survey the its

When

language as a whole.

that

epoch

closes,

the

Greek tongue enters on a new and, in many aspects, disastrous career.

But, though

its

grace and charm are seriously impaired,

though corruption spreads with extraordinary rapidity, the history of the language never loses in interest. Indeed, the interest deepens as

we

find it striving to

become the world-speech, passing through a new mould of foreign influences and alien tongues, and coming forth with the stamp of cosmopolitanism upon instrument of a world-wide empire.

The

later

stages, therefore, of

of their

own.

importance comment on the earlier they show the

life

it,

the fitting

Greek have a

special

On

the one hand, they are a of the language, inasmuch as

forces inherent in that

their powers

life,

of self-preservation, the points where they are liable to attack, the conditions determining their development or

decay. future,

On

the other hand, they look forward to the revealing the particular adaptabilities of the

Hellenic tongue, suggesting its lines of further dissemination, affording in a special case a remarkable forecast of

modern

developments.

linguistic

The corruption has

in

it

seeds of

But not life.

In

this

alone.

this decaying

stage of Greek, striking light is shed on many phenomena which otherwise would appear abnormal in the history of the language.

Its latent resources are displayed with

4 a

SOURCES OF

new and

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

astonishing clearness.

So that, on the whole,

the materials gained by investigation of Greek when its palmy days were over, are both valuable in themselves,

and exceptionally valuable for the insight they give into the innate essence, and potencies, and influence of the speech of the Hellenic peoples, viewed in

its entirety.

CHAPTEK

II

NATUKE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

ONE

of these later stages of the Greek language has been Or rather the taken as the subject of this Dissertation. attempt is made to trace some special elements in the of

history

But in enGreek through several stages. " The Influence of the Septuagint

deavouring to estimate

of the New Testament," it is necessary a preliminary inquiry as to the general nature

on the Vocabulary

make

to

and scope of an investigation like this, its limitations and its possibilities, the results which may be expected

and those which need not

An

investigation

like

be.

the present must be entirely

tentative, for the important reason that the language of

the Septuagint, as a whole, has never been accurately or rigidly

examined and

precise assertion

classified.

Indeed, anything like

must be made from the

New

Testament

Much

has been written in a vague as starting-point. way as to points of contact between the two groups of

but when one attempts to distinguish some solid facts which may be taken as results arrived at,

writings,

scarcely any such are to be found among a hazy mass of This holds as to the relations of

broad asseverations. the

language of

the Septuagint 5

to

that

of

the

New

SOURCES OF

6

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Testament, viewed generally. But, no doubt, definiteness not so easily reached in such inquiries. Especially is such a statement true of our subject which deals with

is

the language of these two large collections of books, in one particular aspect, the relation of their vocabularies.

Yet

means a definitely-marked province, a

this

which, to

some extent

vestigation from

One

at least,

mere vague

fixed point there

is

may

fact

preserve our in-

generalities.

from which to

start,

and that

New

Testament, which is being investigated from year to year with increasing accuracy and scientific precision. Working back from this to the

is

the vocabulary of the

we

gain lines of procedure and standpoints for a general survey. The object of our inquiry is to as far as ascertain, possible, the various stages in the Septuagint,

"

development of the so-called

Hellenistic

"

dialect

of

the literary language of contemGreek, and the amount of its connection with the porary writers, For this purpose a colloquial language of the period. its relations to

distinct

field

of

chosen appears, in some points at

end aimed

The

necessary, and

is

investigation

least,

that

adequate to the

at.

limitations of the subject are not hard to discover.

it would be impossible within reasonable limits to take up the separate vocabularies of the various writers either of the New Testament

It need scarcely be said that

or Septuagint. as

the

In the case of the

various hands in

its

hypothetically distinguished.

latter, absolutely so,

compilation can

But

only be

this is not necessary.

In any case only approximate results could be looked for, and so, roughly speaking, our inquiry is in no way ,

NATUKE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT hampered by taking each group In the case

of

the

New

of writings

Testament,

7

as a whole.

of course, a period of

fifty years comprises all the writers. Perhaps a hundred and fifty would be nearer the mark as regards the Septuagint but the Pentateuch, which all scholars

about

;

admit to be the nucleus

of the

whole translation, and

its

most careful

part, may be regarded in all probability as finished within less than half that time.

But there

a further limitation inseparable from the-

is

The comparison

subject.

be a

always

relative

process.

For not only

two

of

vocabularies

must

In this inquiry it is each of these vocabularies

especially

so.

made up

of several types of language, so to speak,

is

writers of varying individuality, but

to

literature

we

the

of

possess

same

due

no

class

contemporary precisely which might be used as a standard or norm to guide our

determinations.

Accordingly

we must

often

be

content with provisional results, the only ones which can be arrived at with our present data. Still further, the estimation of the influence of one

vocabulary upon another has a certain incalculable element which must not be lost sight of. The biography of words is often almost incredible. Thus, a word

form and of uncouth appearance may be found in the Septuagint repeatedly as the translation of

peculiar in

a

more

or less

nowhere

else

common

idea.

save in the

New

This word

Testament.

may

occur

But con-

It may be a local has a submerged history. It may be a derivation from some special peculiarity.

stantly

it

dialect, all the

may

circumstances of which are unknown.

be one of the most

common forms

It

of the vernacular.

8

SOURCES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

stereotyped by means of the Septuagint, and thus have passed into the New Testament All these possibilities and through its direct influence. It

may have become

more

will present

come

to

possible

themselves, and often to

a decision.

it

will be

the two

in

Again,

im-

we are concerned, there is, of an unusual number of terms which express moral

vocabularies with which course,

and theological conceptions. quite possible that an unusual term which

and

religious

But is

it

is

found in

may be found in the other with something like No doubt this can be a complete change of content. the one

usually determined with a sufficient degree of accuracy. Still,

as regards the influence of the one vocabulary

the other, in such cases the question

is

under

which

each

of

a delicate one,

Once more, the

in which hasty assertions are unsafe.

conditions

on

the

vocabularies

is

found must not be overlooked as determining factors. It is not It is here we are most heavily handicapped. overstating the matter to say that our knowledge of the special circumstances

writers

characteristics

in

More

extreme. of the

New

the

of

their

vocabularies

so is this true of the

is

scanty in

the

Greek translators

Old Testament.

But

in spite of all these limitations

formidable, there

may

which may have led the separate Testament to display particular

is

which look so

a wide area for research, and results

be obtained more valuable than would have been

anticipated.

these

are

negative. biblical

It

does

not affect

the inquiry

whether

predominantly positive or predominantly In either case, light will be thrown on

Greek as a whole.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

9

But there are further important possibilities. The special phase of the Greek language which we have to consider has, at least, the advantage of being unartificial. So that we should expect side-lights on questions outside

the scope of our main inquiry. Also, the subject brings us face to face with a peculiar phenomenon in the its employment by an and alien deeply-prejudiced race to set forth their own This means a new demand on the highest conceptions.

history of the Hellenic tongue

resources of the Greek speech, a

and

scope.

But

besides,

;

new

we have

test of its plasticity

in the vocabularies of

the Septuagint and New Testament, apart from special Hebraistic traits, a character and colouring quite distinct

from the literary language

of

Such a

the time.

must suggest new points of view from which the development of Greek in its later stages. The most important feature has

still to

fact

to regard

be emphasised.

We

have the right to expect that a very direct relation will be found to exist between the language of the There Septuagint and that of the New Testament.

The

are various reasons for the expectation. is

chief one

that these two groups of writing are the only monu" " " " of the This dialect dialect they represent.

ments

attains definite form in the Septuagint.

stamp put upon when we meet

that its

earlier

life.

It has a fixed

It is therefore natural to believe

it.

it

More

again

it will

show the impress

of

especially will this be the case

with conceptions and modes of thought peculiar to the Jewish people. The very fact that Greek is not their native language will be found to

them

to deviate

make

from a standard once

it

laid

harder for

down, espe-

10

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

SOURCES OF

when

cially

teristics

made

are

to the

we

rites

and usages and charac-

Eeference

involved.

abundance

ticular religions

them,

own

their

of

has

been

already

terms which translate par-

and theological

ideas.

With regard

are justified in expecting that in

many

to

cases,

the Septuagint will be found to at least, the language be the basis on which the New Testament structure is of

reared.

Having examined the nature and scope

of the investi-

linger long over the method to be gation, Clearly the question is one of facts, and employed. where there is so much room for hypothesis, its use

we need not

must be

scanty.

tinctly as

Our

possible

first

task

the actual

is

to ascertain as dis-

data which

we

possess.

of the inquiry. is, indeed, the most important part But these data For here there is a solid foundation.

This

have to be viewed, above all, in their historical setting. If they can be connected by links of historical evidence, But all will have been gained that can be gained.

whether or no, the investigation is a record of It the inferences which these facts permit. to

attempt anything more.

facts, is

and

useless

CHAPTEE

III

CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE GREEK

LANGUAGE THE

first

CENTURY

IN THE THIRD

matter

examined

be

to

is

B.C.

necessarily

the

conditions and circumstances of the Greek language in

the third century The tone

B.C.,

the period in which our inquiry of the Greek which

and character

starts.

then prevailed should give the key to its subsequent But it would be wrong to limit ourselves development. to

this

cannot be understood apart

It

single epoch.

from currents and movements in the language which go back at least a century earlier, and which are anticipations

which were afterwards

of the processes

more

to be dominant.

Nothing striking change which meets one on passing from the Attic of Plato and Demosthenes to that of Xenophon. At first sight the is

difference

is

than

But when we begin

not so obvious.

examine rigorously the vocabulary it is

of

easy to trace in

what the range

disregard

of

its

him a of

to

of the earlier writer,

totally divergent conception

Attic Greek

precise

the

is,

limitations.

and a complete In making this

statement, however > regard must be had

to

the well-

known phenomenon, apparently

to

Attic,

which the

earlier

stage

of

the 11

peculiar dialect,

after

in

becoming

12

SOURCES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

the parent of a new and more perfect form of speech, continued to exist in healthy vigour, and to be used exclusively for one particular type of poetical composition.

This,

But

of

course,

earlier Attic

this

holds

Athens

of

good

had countless

affinities

alone.

with the

cognate Ionic speech prevailing in numerous regions of the Greek-speaking world. Indeed, that and the earliest Attic might be said to have the same basis. It

to conjecture

difficult

is

between the

earlier

vehicle of tragedy,

Athens in little

its

Attic,

even as to the relation

which always remained the

and the popular spoken language

of

best days, though probably there can be

doubt that the latter closely approximated in kind,

not always in quality, to the Greek of the orators and But, at anyrate, this earlier Attic was Aristophanes.

if

known and

recognised within certain limits, and it would be the delicate and subtle feeling for language which

would

chiefly secure the

mature Attic against

its

en-

croachments.

To return peculiar one. his

to

His

His experience was a Xenophon. was deliberately spent away from

life

native land, and a large portion

countries

outside

of

it

in

foreign

In

Greece

this proper altogether. His with men of dialects. pride many way he mingled in Athens and her glory of life and language vanished.

This must consciously or unconsciously affect his language also. His sense of proportion, his appreciation of the just

mean

to

be observed, and the

strict

standard of

And so, in the speech, must unconsciously be marred. midst of dialects cognate to his own, in which the subtle

shades

of

meaning

and

the

refinements

of

THE GREEK LANGUAGE TN THE THIRD CENTURY

13

B.C.

pure Attic were replaced by laxness of usage and clumsier notions of the requirements of language, he abandoned the purity of Athens and became a noteworthy precursor of the future history of the Greek tongue. It his

is

find

to

interesting

the

Mysian

Galen,

in

Commentary on Hippocrates (quoted by Eutherford,

New

Phryn. 161), comparing Xenophon with the celebrated physician in the use of ovo/juara fawo-o-y/LLaTiica And Helladius (fifth century A.D.) is KOI Tpowi/cd.

Qav/jLaarbv

eV

avrjp

Tiva

ei

w? Mafce&ovifcov

as

apparently assent to

come

first

camp," and

of

arrangement Macedonian sense of often in Polybius

all

old grammarians

mean

to

finally reach

"

"

camp,"

= (1)

by Phrynichus, 353,

the

Starting from

this.

would

signification, it

;

and

its

"

original

method

its

of

ordinary It occurs

encampment."

Locatio in castris.

Ipsa castra. (3) Special manoeuvres in a naval found in an inscription of Thessalonica

(2) Aciei instructio. It

battle.

118

(c.

is

-Dittenberger, Sylll 247. 20), ^ere-Tre/i^aro

B.C.

et9 Trjv 7rape/jL/3o\rjv.

Countless instances in the Septuait translates the

gint where, almost without exception, "

Hebrew term

for

times in the

New

Apoc. 11.

20.

" camp," encampment." It occurs ten Testament. (1) Camp, Heb. 13. 11

;

(3) Barracks, Acts

34.

= army,

(2) Encampment, almost

9.

21. 34,

22.

24,

Heb.

23. 10.

used in jest by Diphilus as = o-TpaTotreSov, and also found in the comic writers Theophilus (Mein. 3. 630), It is

and Crito (Mein.

Phryn.

pvfjLij.

'AdrjvatoL

eVt rov elvai.

4. 53).

7rl

T?}?

(TTevcoTTov.

382: o/3/z%

eTiQecrav,

Bo/cel Be

1

(3.

p.

166 (quoted by

ol

TOVTO Se

KOI TOVTO

/JLOL

Suidas explains ajviai by

Horn. H.

ical

pvfjLij'

pv^ir).

ol

vvv d fjLa/ceSovi/cbv

Eustathius on

Sturz), says pvprj is used

Sylloge Inscriptionum Grcecarum^

W.

Dittenberger.

16

SOURCES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

in this sense in the Koivr\.

"rush" "onset,"

29. 1

6.

:

eViTrXeo^re?

al pvjjLai

In the Septuagint:

=

and

:

70:

7.

in a camp. ev TCU? pv^al^

teal

New

In the

avrwv

Testament four

Used by the comic writers

street or lane.

and

signification of

/c.r.X.

= roads

Isa. 15. 3

street.

TTCLVTW oXoXufere

times,

earlier

found in places like Thucyd.

is

TTI fjuev TTptorrj pv/j,f}

Polyb.

The

=

street

(Mein. 3. 26, The stages in the history of the word are well 4. 471). out by Carr (on Matt. vi. 2) (1) rush, impetus pointed

Antiphanes

Philippides

:

;

(2) going

French

We

"

;

(3) lane or street

;

cf.

"

English

alley,"

from

aller."

have

dwelt

special reason.

longer

on these two terms for a

They open the way

to a large question,

the intermingling of foreign elements,

or, at

least,

usages

with the pure Greek tongue at an exceedingly early date.

The constant voice of tradition makes them Macedonian But when we find them in Attic writers like words. Antiphanes

(380

(330

Philippides (323

B.C.?),

B.C.),

Theophilus B.C.),

(330 B.C.), Crito and Diphilus (300

the suggestion naturally presents itself that there a far closer connection between the colloquial

B.C.),

was

language of everyday life and the alien dialects of Greek than has usually been believed, or that original elements of current Attic speech were preserved outside the strict limits of the dialect.

It

would be absurd

to

make

the slender basis of a few examples support any far-reaching hypothesis, but these give rise to the belief a greater mass of materials came to light, the problem would be far on its way towards solution. that

if

But

.besides the

appearance in the Macedonian dialect

THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIED CENTURY of peculiar terms, such as

=

Scopaj;

crTfKriv,

and

dSr)

the

=

like,

ovpavos, fiedv

peculiar

17

=

dtfp,

consonantal

changes are said to have prevailed, which appear to have a phonetic character e.g. ftaXa/cpos = fyakaicpos, Ke/BdXtj ;

=

=

alOpia K.T.\. tcetyaKij, dSpala Probably such lists have to be taken with caution, as so little is known of the sources used by the old lexicographers who are

In any case, the Macedonian type of Greek, whether or not it is admissible to call it a special dialect, was so far removed from ordinary Attic as to our authorities.

make

it

certain that the latter, on

soon and inevitably suffer

Even the Greek

Macedonian

lips,

must

thoroughgoing modification. Alexander the Great and

polish itself of

was only skin-deep. But apart from the process of change experienced by

his associates

the

Attic

dialect

a

in

semi - barbarian

country

like

Macedonia, the world of culture, as well, was opening the

way

for results of that kind.

Aristotle himself

marks

the beginning of a new era. Looking at his language alone, one is struck by the number of new words and

new forms which he admits Attic sense for

into his prose.

The perfect

language seems to have become relaxed

The

transition to the KOLVTJ has already begun. the It is found tendency increases rapidly. Naturally, in an intensified degree in writers like Theophrastus, who may almost be reckoned with the writers of the

in him.

"

Common

out, it

is

Dialect."

And, as has often been pointed

noteworthy that contemporaneous with this

weakening of of the Asian

purity rhetoric,

nerve and force by

in

language

which seeks

florid

is

to

the

growth

make up

for

colouring and exaggeration.

18

SOURCES OF

Thus, set

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Greece

within

the

itself,

had

degeneration

in.

Alexander's conquests formed the determining factor for the whole life of the Greek

for the language, as

Now,

peoples.

as has been said, the Attic dialect

undoubtedly recognised

spoken

Macedonian

the

at

as

the

basis

the

of

This

court.

was

language

meant that

official and imperial speech throughout the Eastern world must be Attic at root, whatever varying

henceforth the

it might present in particular cases. It did not a priori follow that the language of the conquerors should become that of the conquered. But Greek

aspects

had been making rapid advances. Even the had not been left wholly untouched. The

civilisation

interior

maritime regions were already thoroughly leavened by Greek influence. But the language which Alexander

and

his

armies

victorious

them found

with

brought

special points of contact in the several countries

the remnants of old districts

Greek

so

colonies,

where they did not themselves

Greek idioms became familiar. The introduced was Attic, but the Attic

that,

through even in

settle as

rulers,

which they a non- Athenian

dialect of

Accordingly, from the first, there would be a people. laxity as regards the words to be used, and the nature of

This was an element sure to lead to further

their usage.

And

corruption.

so

we

find that in each province the

Greek spoken there assumed a reflecting at

many

to that province.

fragmentary. dialectical

distinctly local colouring,

points the dialect originally peculiar Our data on this point are somewhat

But there are constant

variations.

We

shall

find

traces of

local

the most note-

THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY

19

worthy instances when we come to examine more careBut such phenomena as fully the Greek of Alexandria. Aorist form in

the late p.

TO

36, says: ol

1759,

ecfrvyov

KOI

rfj

rj\6ov

-oa-av,

which Eustathius,

on

^Acnavr) xpw/jievoi, irapevBecrei

-n}?

cfxavfj TTOIOVCTI

aa

(rv\\aj3f)TO7rpaia, TO reAc-

As

to

the Greek

erroneous to give

it

of

Alexandria

the

name

of

scholars have been accustomed to do.

seems-

it

proper,

a dialect, as

In

many

all probability

the language of the Egyptian capital had no more right to be called a dialect than the vernacular of any other great centre of population and commerce.

hand,

it

On

the other

does appear that, owing to the unique position of Alexandria, a certain type of Greek

and circumstances

arose there, or was stereotyped there, which was rapidly diffused.

It

was no

was a blending

of

literary language,

and could not

words and idioms on an Attic

be.

It

basis, con-

tributed to the common stock by the shifting masses which made up the population of the city. Thus East and West

stamp on the Alexandrian speech. need to say, as some scholars have

alike impressed their

There

is

asserted, that

no

no memorial of the Alexandrian type

Greek has come down

to us.

We

believe that the

of

more

the language of the LXX. is studied, the more clearly it will be seen that, in spite of strong Hebrew colouring and the moulding force of Jewish conceptions, the

LXX.

does afford a lucid and graphic view of the Greek of Alexandria. And more importance attaches itself to this

because Alexandrian Greek

be regarded as a typical then spoken throughout language the provinces which had yielded to Alexander's sway.

representative of the

may

24

SOURCES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

It is unnecessary for us here

to

do more than state

the views generally held by modern scholars regarding the date and origin of the Greek translation of the Old

There

Testament. whole, taking,

is

a consensus of opinion that the

case, the greater part of the under-

in

any was carried out at Alexandria. or,

This rests on an

unbroken line of tradition. The question cannot be decided as to whether any of the kings took a special interest in the work. mass of legend has grown round this report. The nucleus of the translation was

A

the Pentateuch, a fact to be expected, seeing that for the Jews the reading of the Law formed the chief part of synagogue worship.

In

all probability this

portion of

the Old Testament was translated about the middle of the third

century

and the prologue

B.C.,

to

"

Ecclesi-

asticus" says that by 130 B.C., not only the "Law" " but the " Prophets and the other books of the Old

Testament were extant in Greek.

The

translation, as

a whole, reveals several hands, at least five, differing to a considerable degree in acquaintance with Greek, power of grasping the

original,

and

skill in

translating.

The

Pentateuch has been done by the most competent trans-

The internal character

lators.

of the version

makes

it

almost certain that the translators were Egyirtian Jews. Thus, to give one or two instances 1

(I)

The Hebrew "shekel "

is

translated

"

didrachmum," not by the which it was equivalent. (2) 1

Most

Hebrew " ephah

"

is

translated

of the instances quoted are taken

Textibus Originalibus.

by the Alexandrian tetradrachnmm,

to

by OMI, Egyptian

from Hody, De Bibliorum

THE SEPTUAGINT This measure

pronunciation. the Copts. Hebrew "

25 still

exists

among

Thummim," translated by dX^cia, the Greek

(3)

name

of the

ornament worn by the chief Egyptian

judges. (4) KovSv, a special name for a particular kind of Egyptian cup, used in the LXX. (5) a^t,

used of anything growing in a marsh ark in which Moses was exposed.

Trarrvpos.

Oiftis

(6)

A numerous

class of

nouns beginning with the prefix cf.

court

Papyri and Inscrr. a/>x i ~ ap^t is said to denote simply a

in

official.

These, of course, are only hints but when corroborated by the general nature of the version and an unvarying ;

handed down

by the oldest Jewish - Greek writers themselves, who had every opportunity of knowing the facts, there is little room for doubt. No one has tradition

ever doubted that the translators were Jews.

The raison Besides

d'etre of

several very

the version

is

not hard to seek.

ancient colonies to be found in

Egypt, Jews flocked in multitudes to the new city, induced by the splendid opportunity for commercial pursuits, as well

as by the kindly disposition of the Egyptian kings and their own less favourable lot in Palestine. Soon we find that Jews occupied some of the highest posts in the whole country. In the natural course of things, half a century or less would

see

them thoroughly subject

ternal influences of their

new

at least to the

more ex-

abode, and none of these

could be so powerful as the language commonly spoken, the language, besides, which was the special medium

26 of

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

SOURCES OF

own

their

their

of

staple

cherished

Accordingly,

pursuits.

ordinary

the

speech would come to be This would be modified

of Alexandria.

the language

by their original dialect of Hebrew or Aramaic, but would gradually approximate to the common vernacular of

the city population.

Wellhausen,

1

indeed,

supposes the existence of a kind of Jewish-Greek jargon, "

developed,

already

was

which

really

Hebrew

or

Aramaic

in disguise," and employs his hypothesis to account for the extreme literalness and frequent harsh-

But this is a pure ness of the Septuagint version. hypothesis, and the literalness of the translation is best accounted for on other grounds. Thus situated, and with their

synagogue -worship, which was the very centre of their national life, in full exercise, it must soon come to be the case that many Jews of the generation native to Alexandria, could no the reading of the sacred books in their public worship, and the demand would speedily arise for a rendering of, at least, the Law into longer

intelligently

follow

And the the language which they could understand. great majority of modern scholars hold that these circumstances

explain

the

origin

of

the

Septuagint

would be going too far afield to make any of the peculiar theory of Professor mention particular It

version.

Gratz,

2

who

about 140

places the

B.C.,

first

in the reign of

nucleus of the translation

Ptolemy Philometor.

Again it must be noted that the prophetical and poetical books were translated at various times, later than 1

2

" Art. " Septuagint in EncycL Britann. Geschichte der Juden, Band iii.

27

THE SEPTUAGINT

the date of the Pentateuch, and that this was often due, in

all

probability, to

private

enterprise.

These

facts,

however, do not affect our investigation of the vocabulary of the LXX., as one hundred and thirty years at most comprise the whole translation, and there is no evidence show that any part of it was executed outside

to

Alexandria.

In investigating the vocabulary of the the

investigating translation,

vocabulary

moreover,

a

LXX. we

translation.

a peculiar nature.

of

is

of

are

This It

is

intended to bring out every jot and tittle of the original, because the original is held to be sacred, and not a syllable,

rendering

therefore, is

Still,

be

extraordinarily

tion of vocabulary. of writings

must

is

lost.

literal.

Accordingly, the This implies restric-

But when the range

so wide, the restriction

we cannot expect

deductions from what

is

to

of the collection is

be able to

scarcely

make

felt.

the same

a rigidly literal translation, as

might be looked for in a spontaneous literary product. Further, the translators are Jews. They write in a language whose conceptions are alien to their type of mind. The language is acquired. There must therefore be a certain

artificiality

of

expression, a certain clumsi-

ness both as to forms and structures.

Their vocabulary

and

Hebraic element,

style cannot fail to

their inheritance

show a

from the

past.

real

But, apart from

more or

this,

accuracy the exact type of speech which surrounds them, the particular form of Greek to which they have been first

they are sure to reflect with

less

introduced in their everyday dealings with neighbours

and

traders.

28

SOURCES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

The vocabulary of the LXX. has Attic for its original basis, and so we meet, in ever-varying proportions, with much of the ordinary stock familiar to us in earlier and This part of the vocabulary, which is, in proportion to the other elements

purer writers.

less

however, far than the corresponding part of the New Testament vocabulary, we need not for the present dwell upon. It is the common store of most writers in a greater or less

degree

down

to a fairly late date in our era. far

more

characteristic elements in the vocabulary of the

LXX.,

But,

before

the

discussing

and

other

appears to us in place to give a rough analysis of a few chapters taken entirely at random from its pages,

it

which

will afford, in brief compass, a general

language, and serve as a principles

have

still

in

basis

the formation

of

the

view of

its

illustration for the

vocabulary

which

In the case of the LXX.,

to be investigated.

are

illustrations

representative

of

specially

admissible,

seeing that, as a matter of fact, the same elements are

found throughout

We

take

the

Deuteronomy, a of the

LXX.,

its

vocabulary.

ten

first

fair

of

chapters

specimen

of

the

Book

of

the ordinary character

neither distinguished for special excellence

nor special harshness and incorrectness, though perhaps,

on the whole,

work rather to the

would

among the better parts of the than otherwise. Words and forms belonging it

common

fall

stock of Greek writers are, of course,

The writers are given by whom the word or When a word in common use is given, it used.

unnoticed.

form is

is

because of some special sense in the LXX., and those

writers alone are quoted

who employ

it

in that sense.

29

THE SEPTUAGINT

LIST OF a.

ayoi/o?

= barren.

WORDS

Hippoc., Aristot., Theoph., Soph., Plut.

Horn., Soph., Eurip. (Isocr.). Polyb., Philo.

Form.

aTTocTTTJTO)cra.v.

Very

apo-vi/cos.

late.

Callim., Anthol.

= unmoved. Eurip., Diod., Plut. Adverb in Polyb., KT. = not liable to rot. Hippoc., Xen. a.o-r)TTTo\o-

K.T.\.

The

special glossary -for Philo is large

and suggestive

for the later language. He has a wonderful command of varied expression, and displays a strong tendency towards the use of synonyms. Thus pairs of words constantly

appear in his writings

:

e.g.

d/cpaTi&iv, 7roTieti>

^lavorjriKo^

He

is

;

evOrjvla,

;

ydvvaOai,, everrjpia

;

fond of antitheses, and this

So he probably accounts for much of his word-coining. the to the opposes aicr%po7ra0ijs ala%poupy6s, Birjfjiepeveiv to

$iavv/cTp6V6iv, tStcorat to

roVoxm.

Finally,

like

his

of the language,

mastery between

as

Koprj,

girl

;

e/ATretpOTToXeyLtot,

aveGis to

contemporaries who have

a

he delights in playing on words, tc6prj,

pupil

of

the

eyes,

and

1 Kara/cop^, satiated. 1

The

instances quoted are taken from the lists in Siegfried's

Philo, pp. 32-136.

56

SOUECES OF

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Josephus. Following the succession chronologically, the next important name we meet is that of Josephus, who, like Philo, deserves special notice in connection

with our investigation, as being, on the one hand, a Jew of Jerusalem, while, on the other, a man of thorough Greek cultivation. It will not be necessary, however, to say istics

much on

his vocabulary, as

of its character-

many

have come up already in connection with other His stock of words is very markedly that of the

authors. "

Common "

dialect.

sistent than

Perhaps, however, he

is

more per-

of the writers of the KOLVYJ in his use of

any words which go back a long way in the history

of

Greek

A considerable percentage of his vocabulary found in Herodotus, the Tragedians, and XenoBut a prominent element in his language is its

literature. is

to be

phon.

striking agreement with that of Thucydides,

evidently

made

a chief model.

This

is

whom

he

emphasised by

the fact that he follows Thucydides in the use of rare To give one or words and rare significations of words. two instances (all from a few chapters of the Jewish Antiquities) dvot/xwrrco,

KaXwStov,

uA(o.

(3.

(4. 9).

Cratin. (2. 100).

p,ov6eaXp.os.

Menand. (4. 314). KTrjpLcriJLos. Alcae. (2. 831), Antiph. (3. 81), etc. Perh. Cratin.

vrjOew. vw(9po5.

o.

Menander.

secret.

p,vcrT-rjpi,ov

v.

(2. 75), v.l. r)6etv.

Amips. (2. 707), Anaxip. Antiph. (3. 8).

(4.

460).

olvo^Xvyia.

Diph.

avdpiov. otnj.

Sannyr.

oTnjrioi/.

opao-ts.

417). 874), Xenarch.

(4.

(2.

Mcoch. Men. (4.

(2.

(3.

617).

844).

105).

Plat. (2. 654).

Fourteen instances in Meineke.

Men. ap. Pliryn. 393. Men. Sentent. 457. TratSapiov.

Thugen.

(4.

Eleven instances in Meineke.

7rav8ox(-8oK-)tov.

Philippid. (4. 474). (3. 630), Crito (4. 537).

Theoph.

593).

THE VOCABULAKY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Antiph. ap. Atlien.

/is.

544).

(3.

Theoph.

.

Alexid.

.

Men.

.

(3.

Alexid.

(3.

(2.

Anaxand.

807),

1.

'AypotK.

Stratt.

4;

(2.

774),

439).

Eub.

.

252).

(3.

Epicharm. ap. Atlien.

.

(3. 183).

437).

(4. 88).

Antiph.

Eupol. 7rpoor/ce