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THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID
AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
Just published, in large 12mo, price
5s. Qd. net
SYNTAX OF THE MOODS AND TENSES IN
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK BY PROFESSOR
E.
D.
BURTON, CHICAGO
'Professor Burton's treatise is one of great merit one of the very best books indeed on its subject. ... It is a most valuable addition to our grammatical literature.' Tlie Critical
Review.
SOURCES OF
FEW TESTAMENT GREEK
PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB,
FOR T.
LONDON
:
&
T.
CLARK, EDINBURGH.
S1MPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT,
NEW YORK CHARLES :
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:
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SCRIBNER*S SONS
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SOURCES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK OK
THE INFLUENCE OF THE SEPTUAGINT ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
BY THE
REV.
H.
A.
A.
KENNEDY,
M.A.,
D.Sc.
EDINBUKGH T.
&
T.
CLARK,
38 1895
GEOKGE STREET
PREFACE
IN the preface to
his Essays in Biblical Greek, the late
Dr. Hatch speaks of these as being designed
"
to point
out to students of sacred literature some of the rich fields
which have not yet been adequately explored, and This book
to offer suggestions for their exploration."
an attempt to deal with some formed the subject
of
Dr.
of
is
the matters which
Hatch's investigation, and,
indeed, owes its origin to the results at which that
most
independent and keen -minded scholar arrived as regards the special character of Biblical Greek. But while the writer began with a complete, though provisional, accept-
ance of Hatch's conclusions, the farther the inquiry was pushed, the more decidedly was he compelled to doubt those conclusions, and finally to seek to establish
the
LXX. and
that
connection between the language of the of the
New
Testament on a totally different
The discussion research
is
purely
may modify many
presented.
But
it
investigation laid
a
tentative
of the results
basis.
one.
which are here
seems to the writer that the
down
Further
lines for
in this dissertation are at least
M348740
PREFACE
VI
trustworthy, and lead to the
true
standpoint for the
study of Biblical Greek as a whole.
A is
list of
given.
tions to
the chief authorities referred to and consulted
But the writer must express special obligaMullach's Grammatik der griechischen two books
Vulgarsprache, and Thayer's edition of of
the
New
Appendix
to
Testament.
The
Grimm's Lexicon
admirable
lists
in
the
the latter work have formed, to a large
extent, the basis of this investigation.
CALLA.NDEE,
February 1895.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
.
.
.
1
II
NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT
.......
Limitations of such an inquiry investigation
Its
possibilities
CHAPTER
Method of 5-10
III
CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN
THE THIRD CENTURY The Attic spirit
B.C.
Xenophon and its formative elements The new The Macedonian dialect Transition-stage of language
of
conquests
....
Character of the Attic diffused by Alexander's
in Aristotle
The
literary dialect
11-20
CHAPTER IV THE SEPTUAGINT: (1) ITS ENVIRONMENT; (2) ITS VOCABULARY, AND THE SPECIAL INFLUENCES WHICH MOULD IT General character of Egyptian Greek The language of Alexandria Origin of the Septuagint Special considerations affecting the investigation of the vocabulary of the Septuagint Tables (1) old illustrating the various elements in the vocabulary poetical words (2) Ionic words (3) affinities with Xeno:
;
phon and the diminutives in formations
;
;
writers of the xotvv
common with
(6) foreign
words
words
..... ;
(4) colloquial
the Comic writers
;
(6)
(5)
;
new 21-45
CONTENTS
yiii
CHAPTER V PAGE
BRIEF SURVEY OF THE MAIN FACTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE VOCABULARY OF GREEK LITERATURE FROM ABOUT (200-160 OF THE SEPTUAGINT DOWN TO B.C.) THE COMPLETION C.
100 A.D.
The "Common" and "Hellenistic" dialects as The The Common dialect Polybius Apocrypha
Philo
Josephus
Plutarch
growths
parallel
writers
of
the
Summary of results 46-59
CHAPTER VI THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Problems affecting the investigation of the vocabulary Numerical General tone of the language Tables illustrating statistics The classical element the elements in the vocabulary The colloquial Affinities with the writers of the xoivj lists Points of contact with Comic writers element Parallels between the Greek of affinities with Aristophanes :
the
;
;
Comic Fragments and the
element, continued
:
late language "Weakening of strong terms
CHAPTER
Colloquial .
.
60-83
VII
COMPARISON OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE LXX. WITH THAT OF
THE NEW TESTAMENT The LXX. dicta laries
familiar to the
New
Testament writers
Dr. Hatch's
Classification of possible relations between two vocabuList of words peculiar to LXX. and Testament
New
LXX. and New Testament along common to LXX. and New Testa84-93 meaning Summary of results
List of words peculiar to with Philo List of words " ment with " Biblical
.
CHAPTER
VIII
THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE THEOLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS TERMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT VOCABULARY Formation of a theological
Discussion of words terminology exemplifying the influence of the LXX. on the theological and religious terms of the New Testament Cautions to be
observed in estimating this influence
.
.
.
94-109
CONTENTS
IX
CHAPTER IX PAGE
CLASSES OF WORDS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, WHICH EITHER IN THEMSELVES OR BY THEIR PARTICULAR USES SUGGEST A CONNECTION WITH THE LXX.
OF VARIOUS
DISCUSSION
Words expressing Jewish customs and Actual Hebrew words ideas Words with exceptional meanings in the LXX. and New Testament "Alexandrian" words New compound
.......
words
110-133
CHAPTER X DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL QUESTION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT,
BASED ON THE RESULTS REACHED the New Testament vocabulary Numerical Exaggeration of the influence of the LXX. on the Marked differences vocabulary of the New Testament
Subdivision
of
statistics
between the two vocabularies Application of the criteria laid down on p. 87 sq., to the case of the LXX. and New Testament 134-145
CHAPTER XI COLLOQUIAL GREEK, THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND OF THE
NEW TESTAMENT The
striking resemblances between the language of the two groups of writings due to its "colloquial" character in both The spoken language, and its diffusion and Statistics developments Distinction between the colloquialism of the 146-151 New Testament and that of the LXX. .
CHAPTER
XII
OF THE COLLOQUIAL CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND NEW TESTAMENT BY THE PHENOMENA OF MODERN GREEK
CORROBORATION
Introductory note on
down
to
examples
...... the
continuity of the spoken language Brief discussions of illustrative
modern times
152-156
CONTENTS
X
CHAPTER
XIII PAGE
EXAMINATION OF PECULIAR FORMS WHICH GO TO PEOVE THE COLLOQUIAL CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND NEW TESTAMENT Prefatory Remarks
Verb-forms
SUMMARY OF RESULTS LIST OF AUTHORITIES
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS
"
"
Popular
spellings
.
157-164
...... .... .
.
.
.
.
164-166 167 171
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
SOURCES OF
CHAPTEE
I
INTRODUCTION
THE study
Language, like all other provinces of investigation, has been influenced to a high degree by the
modern
of
scientific
Not
spirit.
has come from without and forced
that
this
influence
itself
upon philological The process has been evolved from within, and under conditions marked for it by the principles inquiry.
inherent in Language the
sphere
of
itself.
investigation
One main ever
is
result is that
being
widened.
thrown on important problems from directions Light Fine Art, Antiquities strictly so the most various. is
called,
Epigraphy, Folk-lore, each contributes
its
quota
to linguistic research.
But perhaps nothing has tended give this particular
so
department a place
sciences as the rapid advance
powerfully to among the exact
which the
latter half of
the present century has seen in the field of Comparative Philology.
Now,
investigations
in
this
province have
not only reached results quite invaluable in themselves,
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
SOURCES OF
2
and
for their
certain
own
sake, but
have brought into prominence in
regard to language general which will inevitably impress themselves on future study. conceptions
leading
Not the
in all
important is that which regards a particular language as a living whole, an organic unity, which, while from time to time it presents varying least
an indestructible common principle which of life, preserving it throughout its a thread really In this way, entire history from utter disintegration. aspects, retains
is
every stage of a language is of paramount importance for the history of the whole. Of course, some periods will
always have, and justly have, a special attraction.
The reasons are becomes epoch.
of
It
One
various.
moment
special
the
displays
principles which are
to
the language's
All
because birth,
of
stage is
it
so
to
a
language
the formative speak,
of
the
be the determining elements Another stage throughout the history of the speech. absorbs interest as the culminating point, the zenith in
expression
become
life.
have
been It
plastic.
rudimentary
an
is
strivings
after
The language has
mastered. artistic
instrument.
Its
It has a freeness and largeproducts are works of art. it has a grasp of technical details. There
ness of sweep, is
balance, symmetry, proportion.
-
No
doubt
this will
"correspond to a life
of
the
unique era in the nation's history. people is untramelled and broad.
The The
national spirit has reached a summit, and this wealth of
splendid energy calls for expression. sion.
national
So
the
life.
language It
is
becomes
therefore
It creates expres-
the
mirror
necessary
of
that
the this
INTRODUCTION
3
definite period should, above all others, call for consideration.
rich,
And
any language, but especially in one so and subtle, and strong as that of Hellas, a grasp, of in
culminating epoch and its great masters is' that which alone affords a standpoint from which to survey the its
When
language as a whole.
that
epoch
closes,
the
Greek tongue enters on a new and, in many aspects, disastrous career.
But, though
its
grace and charm are seriously impaired,
though corruption spreads with extraordinary rapidity, the history of the language never loses in interest. Indeed, the interest deepens as
we
find it striving to
become the world-speech, passing through a new mould of foreign influences and alien tongues, and coming forth with the stamp of cosmopolitanism upon instrument of a world-wide empire.
The
later
stages, therefore, of
of their
own.
importance comment on the earlier they show the
life
it,
the fitting
Greek have a
special
On
the one hand, they are a of the language, inasmuch as
forces inherent in that
their powers
life,
of self-preservation, the points where they are liable to attack, the conditions determining their development or
decay. future,
On
the other hand, they look forward to the revealing the particular adaptabilities of the
Hellenic tongue, suggesting its lines of further dissemination, affording in a special case a remarkable forecast of
modern
developments.
linguistic
The corruption has
in
it
seeds of
But not life.
In
this
alone.
this decaying
stage of Greek, striking light is shed on many phenomena which otherwise would appear abnormal in the history of the language.
Its latent resources are displayed with
4 a
SOURCES OF
new and
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
astonishing clearness.
So that, on the whole,
the materials gained by investigation of Greek when its palmy days were over, are both valuable in themselves,
and exceptionally valuable for the insight they give into the innate essence, and potencies, and influence of the speech of the Hellenic peoples, viewed in
its entirety.
CHAPTEK
II
NATUKE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT
ONE
of these later stages of the Greek language has been Or rather the taken as the subject of this Dissertation. attempt is made to trace some special elements in the of
history
But in enGreek through several stages. " The Influence of the Septuagint
deavouring to estimate
of the New Testament," it is necessary a preliminary inquiry as to the general nature
on the Vocabulary
make
to
and scope of an investigation like this, its limitations and its possibilities, the results which may be expected
and those which need not
An
investigation
like
be.
the present must be entirely
tentative, for the important reason that the language of
the Septuagint, as a whole, has never been accurately or rigidly
examined and
precise assertion
classified.
Indeed, anything like
must be made from the
New
Testament
Much
has been written in a vague as starting-point. way as to points of contact between the two groups of
but when one attempts to distinguish some solid facts which may be taken as results arrived at,
writings,
scarcely any such are to be found among a hazy mass of This holds as to the relations of
broad asseverations. the
language of
the Septuagint 5
to
that
of
the
New
SOURCES OF
6
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
Testament, viewed generally. But, no doubt, definiteness not so easily reached in such inquiries. Especially is such a statement true of our subject which deals with
is
the language of these two large collections of books, in one particular aspect, the relation of their vocabularies.
Yet
means a definitely-marked province, a
this
which, to
some extent
vestigation from
One
at least,
mere vague
fixed point there
is
may
fact
preserve our in-
generalities.
from which to
start,
and that
New
Testament, which is being investigated from year to year with increasing accuracy and scientific precision. Working back from this to the
is
the vocabulary of the
we
gain lines of procedure and standpoints for a general survey. The object of our inquiry is to as far as ascertain, possible, the various stages in the Septuagint,
"
development of the so-called
Hellenistic
"
dialect
of
the literary language of contemGreek, and the amount of its connection with the porary writers, For this purpose a colloquial language of the period. its relations to
distinct
field
of
chosen appears, in some points at
end aimed
The
necessary, and
is
investigation
least,
that
adequate to the
at.
limitations of the subject are not hard to discover.
it would be impossible within reasonable limits to take up the separate vocabularies of the various writers either of the New Testament
It need scarcely be said that
or Septuagint. as
the
In the case of the
various hands in
its
hypothetically distinguished.
latter, absolutely so,
compilation can
But
only be
this is not necessary.
In any case only approximate results could be looked for, and so, roughly speaking, our inquiry is in no way ,
NATUKE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT hampered by taking each group In the case
of
the
New
of writings
Testament,
7
as a whole.
of course, a period of
fifty years comprises all the writers. Perhaps a hundred and fifty would be nearer the mark as regards the Septuagint but the Pentateuch, which all scholars
about
;
admit to be the nucleus
of the
whole translation, and
its
most careful
part, may be regarded in all probability as finished within less than half that time.
But there
a further limitation inseparable from the-
is
The comparison
subject.
be a
always
relative
process.
For not only
two
of
vocabularies
must
In this inquiry it is each of these vocabularies
especially
so.
made up
of several types of language, so to speak,
is
writers of varying individuality, but
to
literature
we
the
of
possess
same
due
no
class
contemporary precisely which might be used as a standard or norm to guide our
determinations.
Accordingly
we must
often
be
content with provisional results, the only ones which can be arrived at with our present data. Still further, the estimation of the influence of one
vocabulary upon another has a certain incalculable element which must not be lost sight of. The biography of words is often almost incredible. Thus, a word
form and of uncouth appearance may be found in the Septuagint repeatedly as the translation of
peculiar in
a
more
or less
nowhere
else
common
idea.
save in the
New
This word
Testament.
may
occur
But con-
It may be a local has a submerged history. It may be a derivation from some special peculiarity.
stantly
it
dialect, all the
may
circumstances of which are unknown.
be one of the most
common forms
It
of the vernacular.
8
SOURCES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
stereotyped by means of the Septuagint, and thus have passed into the New Testament All these possibilities and through its direct influence. It
may have become
more
will present
come
to
possible
themselves, and often to
a decision.
it
will be
the two
in
Again,
im-
we are concerned, there is, of an unusual number of terms which express moral
vocabularies with which course,
and theological conceptions. quite possible that an unusual term which
and
religious
But is
it
is
found in
may be found in the other with something like No doubt this can be a complete change of content. the one
usually determined with a sufficient degree of accuracy. Still,
as regards the influence of the one vocabulary
the other, in such cases the question
is
under
which
each
of
a delicate one,
Once more, the
in which hasty assertions are unsafe.
conditions
on
the
vocabularies
is
found must not be overlooked as determining factors. It is not It is here we are most heavily handicapped. overstating the matter to say that our knowledge of the special circumstances
writers
characteristics
in
More
extreme. of the
New
the
of
their
vocabularies
so is this true of the
is
scanty in
the
Greek translators
Old Testament.
But
in spite of all these limitations
formidable, there
may
which may have led the separate Testament to display particular
is
which look so
a wide area for research, and results
be obtained more valuable than would have been
anticipated.
these
are
negative. biblical
It
does
not affect
the inquiry
whether
predominantly positive or predominantly In either case, light will be thrown on
Greek as a whole.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT
9
But there are further important possibilities. The special phase of the Greek language which we have to consider has, at least, the advantage of being unartificial. So that we should expect side-lights on questions outside
the scope of our main inquiry. Also, the subject brings us face to face with a peculiar phenomenon in the its employment by an and alien deeply-prejudiced race to set forth their own This means a new demand on the highest conceptions.
history of the Hellenic tongue
resources of the Greek speech, a
and
scope.
But
besides,
;
new
we have
test of its plasticity
in the vocabularies of
the Septuagint and New Testament, apart from special Hebraistic traits, a character and colouring quite distinct
from the literary language
of
Such a
the time.
must suggest new points of view from which the development of Greek in its later stages. The most important feature has
still to
fact
to regard
be emphasised.
We
have the right to expect that a very direct relation will be found to exist between the language of the There Septuagint and that of the New Testament.
The
are various reasons for the expectation. is
chief one
that these two groups of writing are the only monu" " " " of the This dialect dialect they represent.
ments
attains definite form in the Septuagint.
stamp put upon when we meet
that its
earlier
life.
It has a fixed
It is therefore natural to believe
it.
it
More
again
it will
show the impress
of
especially will this be the case
with conceptions and modes of thought peculiar to the Jewish people. The very fact that Greek is not their native language will be found to
them
to deviate
make
from a standard once
it
laid
harder for
down, espe-
10
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
SOURCES OF
when
cially
teristics
made
are
to the
we
rites
and usages and charac-
Eeference
involved.
abundance
ticular religions
them,
own
their
of
has
been
already
terms which translate par-
and theological
ideas.
With regard
are justified in expecting that in
many
to
cases,
the Septuagint will be found to at least, the language be the basis on which the New Testament structure is of
reared.
Having examined the nature and scope
of the investi-
linger long over the method to be gation, Clearly the question is one of facts, and employed. where there is so much room for hypothesis, its use
we need not
must be
scanty.
tinctly as
Our
possible
first
task
the actual
is
to ascertain as dis-
data which
we
possess.
of the inquiry. is, indeed, the most important part But these data For here there is a solid foundation.
This
have to be viewed, above all, in their historical setting. If they can be connected by links of historical evidence, But all will have been gained that can be gained.
whether or no, the investigation is a record of It the inferences which these facts permit. to
attempt anything more.
facts, is
and
useless
CHAPTEE
III
CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE GREEK
LANGUAGE THE
first
CENTURY
IN THE THIRD
matter
examined
be
to
is
B.C.
necessarily
the
conditions and circumstances of the Greek language in
the third century The tone
B.C.,
the period in which our inquiry of the Greek which
and character
starts.
then prevailed should give the key to its subsequent But it would be wrong to limit ourselves development. to
this
cannot be understood apart
It
single epoch.
from currents and movements in the language which go back at least a century earlier, and which are anticipations
which were afterwards
of the processes
more
to be dominant.
Nothing striking change which meets one on passing from the Attic of Plato and Demosthenes to that of Xenophon. At first sight the is
difference
is
than
But when we begin
not so obvious.
examine rigorously the vocabulary it is
of
easy to trace in
what the range
disregard
of
its
him a of
to
of the earlier writer,
totally divergent conception
Attic Greek
precise
the
is,
limitations.
and a complete In making this
statement, however > regard must be had
to
the well-
known phenomenon, apparently
to
Attic,
which the
earlier
stage
of
the 11
peculiar dialect,
after
in
becoming
12
SOURCES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
the parent of a new and more perfect form of speech, continued to exist in healthy vigour, and to be used exclusively for one particular type of poetical composition.
This,
But
of
course,
earlier Attic
this
holds
Athens
of
good
had countless
affinities
alone.
with the
cognate Ionic speech prevailing in numerous regions of the Greek-speaking world. Indeed, that and the earliest Attic might be said to have the same basis. It
to conjecture
difficult
is
between the
earlier
vehicle of tragedy,
Athens in little
its
Attic,
even as to the relation
which always remained the
and the popular spoken language
of
best days, though probably there can be
doubt that the latter closely approximated in kind,
not always in quality, to the Greek of the orators and But, at anyrate, this earlier Attic was Aristophanes.
if
known and
recognised within certain limits, and it would be the delicate and subtle feeling for language which
would
chiefly secure the
mature Attic against
its
en-
croachments.
To return peculiar one. his
to
His
His experience was a Xenophon. was deliberately spent away from
life
native land, and a large portion
countries
outside
of
it
in
foreign
In
Greece
this proper altogether. His with men of dialects. pride many way he mingled in Athens and her glory of life and language vanished.
This must consciously or unconsciously affect his language also. His sense of proportion, his appreciation of the just
mean
to
be observed, and the
strict
standard of
And so, in the speech, must unconsciously be marred. midst of dialects cognate to his own, in which the subtle
shades
of
meaning
and
the
refinements
of
THE GREEK LANGUAGE TN THE THIRD CENTURY
13
B.C.
pure Attic were replaced by laxness of usage and clumsier notions of the requirements of language, he abandoned the purity of Athens and became a noteworthy precursor of the future history of the Greek tongue. It his
is
find
to
interesting
the
Mysian
Galen,
in
Commentary on Hippocrates (quoted by Eutherford,
New
Phryn. 161), comparing Xenophon with the celebrated physician in the use of ovo/juara fawo-o-y/LLaTiica And Helladius (fifth century A.D.) is KOI Tpowi/cd.
Qav/jLaarbv
eV
avrjp
Tiva
ei
w? Mafce&ovifcov
as
apparently assent to
come
first
camp," and
of
arrangement Macedonian sense of often in Polybius
all
old grammarians
mean
to
finally reach
"
"
camp,"
= (1)
by Phrynichus, 353,
the
Starting from
this.
would
signification, it
;
and
its
"
original
method
its
of
ordinary It occurs
encampment."
Locatio in castris.
Ipsa castra. (3) Special manoeuvres in a naval found in an inscription of Thessalonica
(2) Aciei instructio. It
battle.
118
(c.
is
-Dittenberger, Sylll 247. 20), ^ere-Tre/i^aro
B.C.
et9 Trjv 7rape/jL/3o\rjv.
Countless instances in the Septuait translates the
gint where, almost without exception, "
Hebrew term
for
times in the
New
Apoc. 11.
20.
" camp," encampment." It occurs ten Testament. (1) Camp, Heb. 13. 11
;
(3) Barracks, Acts
34.
= army,
(2) Encampment, almost
9.
21. 34,
22.
24,
Heb.
23. 10.
used in jest by Diphilus as = o-TpaTotreSov, and also found in the comic writers Theophilus (Mein. 3. 630), It is
and Crito (Mein.
Phryn.
pvfjLij.
'AdrjvatoL
eVt rov elvai.
4. 53).
7rl
T?}?
(TTevcoTTov.
382: o/3/z%
eTiQecrav,
Bo/cel Be
1
(3.
p.
166 (quoted by
ol
TOVTO Se
KOI TOVTO
/JLOL
Suidas explains ajviai by
Horn. H.
ical
pvfjLij'
pv^ir).
ol
vvv d fjLa/ceSovi/cbv
Eustathius on
Sturz), says pvprj is used
Sylloge Inscriptionum Grcecarum^
W.
Dittenberger.
16
SOURCES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
in this sense in the Koivr\.
"rush" "onset,"
29. 1
6.
:
eViTrXeo^re?
al pvjjLai
In the Septuagint:
=
and
:
70:
7.
in a camp. ev TCU? pv^al^
teal
New
In the
avrwv
Testament four
Used by the comic writers
street or lane.
and
signification of
/c.r.X.
= roads
Isa. 15. 3
street.
TTCLVTW oXoXufere
times,
earlier
found in places like Thucyd.
is
TTI fjuev TTptorrj pv/j,f}
Polyb.
The
=
street
(Mein. 3. 26, The stages in the history of the word are well 4. 471). out by Carr (on Matt. vi. 2) (1) rush, impetus pointed
Antiphanes
Philippides
:
;
(2) going
French
We
"
;
(3) lane or street
;
cf.
"
English
alley,"
from
aller."
have
dwelt
special reason.
longer
on these two terms for a
They open the way
to a large question,
the intermingling of foreign elements,
or, at
least,
usages
with the pure Greek tongue at an exceedingly early date.
The constant voice of tradition makes them Macedonian But when we find them in Attic writers like words. Antiphanes
(380
(330
Philippides (323
B.C.?),
B.C.),
Theophilus B.C.),
(330 B.C.), Crito and Diphilus (300
the suggestion naturally presents itself that there a far closer connection between the colloquial
B.C.),
was
language of everyday life and the alien dialects of Greek than has usually been believed, or that original elements of current Attic speech were preserved outside the strict limits of the dialect.
It
would be absurd
to
make
the slender basis of a few examples support any far-reaching hypothesis, but these give rise to the belief a greater mass of materials came to light, the problem would be far on its way towards solution. that
if
But
.besides the
appearance in the Macedonian dialect
THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIED CENTURY of peculiar terms, such as
=
Scopaj;
crTfKriv,
and
dSr)
the
=
like,
ovpavos, fiedv
peculiar
17
=
dtfp,
consonantal
changes are said to have prevailed, which appear to have a phonetic character e.g. ftaXa/cpos = fyakaicpos, Ke/BdXtj ;
=
=
alOpia K.T.\. tcetyaKij, dSpala Probably such lists have to be taken with caution, as so little is known of the sources used by the old lexicographers who are
In any case, the Macedonian type of Greek, whether or not it is admissible to call it a special dialect, was so far removed from ordinary Attic as to our authorities.
make
it
certain that the latter, on
soon and inevitably suffer
Even the Greek
Macedonian
lips,
must
thoroughgoing modification. Alexander the Great and
polish itself of
was only skin-deep. But apart from the process of change experienced by
his associates
the
Attic
dialect
a
in
semi - barbarian
country
like
Macedonia, the world of culture, as well, was opening the
way
for results of that kind.
Aristotle himself
marks
the beginning of a new era. Looking at his language alone, one is struck by the number of new words and
new forms which he admits Attic sense for
into his prose.
The perfect
language seems to have become relaxed
The
transition to the KOLVTJ has already begun. the It is found tendency increases rapidly. Naturally, in an intensified degree in writers like Theophrastus, who may almost be reckoned with the writers of the
in him.
"
Common
out, it
is
Dialect."
And, as has often been pointed
noteworthy that contemporaneous with this
weakening of of the Asian
purity rhetoric,
nerve and force by
in
language
which seeks
florid
is
to
the
growth
make up
for
colouring and exaggeration.
18
SOURCES OF
Thus, set
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
Greece
within
the
itself,
had
degeneration
in.
Alexander's conquests formed the determining factor for the whole life of the Greek
for the language, as
Now,
peoples.
as has been said, the Attic dialect
undoubtedly recognised
spoken
Macedonian
the
at
as
the
basis
the
of
This
court.
was
language
meant that
official and imperial speech throughout the Eastern world must be Attic at root, whatever varying
henceforth the
it might present in particular cases. It did not a priori follow that the language of the conquerors should become that of the conquered. But Greek
aspects
had been making rapid advances. Even the had not been left wholly untouched. The
civilisation
interior
maritime regions were already thoroughly leavened by Greek influence. But the language which Alexander
and
his
armies
victorious
them found
with
brought
special points of contact in the several countries
the remnants of old districts
Greek
so
colonies,
where they did not themselves
Greek idioms became familiar. The introduced was Attic, but the Attic
that,
through even in
settle as
rulers,
which they a non- Athenian
dialect of
Accordingly, from the first, there would be a people. laxity as regards the words to be used, and the nature of
This was an element sure to lead to further
their usage.
And
corruption.
so
we
find that in each province the
Greek spoken there assumed a reflecting at
many
to that province.
fragmentary. dialectical
distinctly local colouring,
points the dialect originally peculiar Our data on this point are somewhat
But there are constant
variations.
We
shall
find
traces of
local
the most note-
THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY
19
worthy instances when we come to examine more careBut such phenomena as fully the Greek of Alexandria. Aorist form in
the late p.
TO
36, says: ol
1759,
ecfrvyov
KOI
rfj
rj\6ov
-oa-av,
which Eustathius,
on
^Acnavr) xpw/jievoi, irapevBecrei
-n}?
cfxavfj TTOIOVCTI
aa
(rv\\aj3f)TO7rpaia, TO reAc-
As
to
the Greek
erroneous to give
it
of
Alexandria
the
name
of
scholars have been accustomed to do.
seems-
it
proper,
a dialect, as
In
many
all probability
the language of the Egyptian capital had no more right to be called a dialect than the vernacular of any other great centre of population and commerce.
hand,
it
On
the other
does appear that, owing to the unique position of Alexandria, a certain type of Greek
and circumstances
arose there, or was stereotyped there, which was rapidly diffused.
It
was no
was a blending
of
literary language,
and could not
words and idioms on an Attic
be.
It
basis, con-
tributed to the common stock by the shifting masses which made up the population of the city. Thus East and West
stamp on the Alexandrian speech. need to say, as some scholars have
alike impressed their
There
is
asserted, that
no
no memorial of the Alexandrian type
Greek has come down
to us.
We
believe that the
of
more
the language of the LXX. is studied, the more clearly it will be seen that, in spite of strong Hebrew colouring and the moulding force of Jewish conceptions, the
LXX.
does afford a lucid and graphic view of the Greek of Alexandria. And more importance attaches itself to this
because Alexandrian Greek
be regarded as a typical then spoken throughout language the provinces which had yielded to Alexander's sway.
representative of the
may
24
SOURCES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
It is unnecessary for us here
to
do more than state
the views generally held by modern scholars regarding the date and origin of the Greek translation of the Old
There
Testament. whole, taking,
is
a consensus of opinion that the
case, the greater part of the under-
in
any was carried out at Alexandria. or,
This rests on an
unbroken line of tradition. The question cannot be decided as to whether any of the kings took a special interest in the work. mass of legend has grown round this report. The nucleus of the translation was
A
the Pentateuch, a fact to be expected, seeing that for the Jews the reading of the Law formed the chief part of synagogue worship.
In
all probability this
portion of
the Old Testament was translated about the middle of the third
century
and the prologue
B.C.,
to
"
Ecclesi-
asticus" says that by 130 B.C., not only the "Law" " but the " Prophets and the other books of the Old
Testament were extant in Greek.
The
translation, as
a whole, reveals several hands, at least five, differing to a considerable degree in acquaintance with Greek, power of grasping the
original,
and
skill in
translating.
The
Pentateuch has been done by the most competent trans-
The internal character
lators.
of the version
makes
it
almost certain that the translators were Egyirtian Jews. Thus, to give one or two instances 1
(I)
The Hebrew "shekel "
is
translated
"
didrachmum," not by the which it was equivalent. (2) 1
Most
Hebrew " ephah
"
is
translated
of the instances quoted are taken
Textibus Originalibus.
by the Alexandrian tetradrachnmm,
to
by OMI, Egyptian
from Hody, De Bibliorum
THE SEPTUAGINT This measure
pronunciation. the Copts. Hebrew "
25 still
exists
among
Thummim," translated by dX^cia, the Greek
(3)
name
of the
ornament worn by the chief Egyptian
judges. (4) KovSv, a special name for a particular kind of Egyptian cup, used in the LXX. (5) a^t,
used of anything growing in a marsh ark in which Moses was exposed.
Trarrvpos.
Oiftis
(6)
A numerous
class of
nouns beginning with the prefix cf.
court
Papyri and Inscrr. a/>x i ~ ap^t is said to denote simply a
in
official.
These, of course, are only hints but when corroborated by the general nature of the version and an unvarying ;
handed down
by the oldest Jewish - Greek writers themselves, who had every opportunity of knowing the facts, there is little room for doubt. No one has tradition
ever doubted that the translators were Jews.
The raison Besides
d'etre of
several very
the version
is
not hard to seek.
ancient colonies to be found in
Egypt, Jews flocked in multitudes to the new city, induced by the splendid opportunity for commercial pursuits, as well
as by the kindly disposition of the Egyptian kings and their own less favourable lot in Palestine. Soon we find that Jews occupied some of the highest posts in the whole country. In the natural course of things, half a century or less would
see
them thoroughly subject
ternal influences of their
new
at least to the
more ex-
abode, and none of these
could be so powerful as the language commonly spoken, the language, besides, which was the special medium
26 of
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
SOURCES OF
own
their
their
of
staple
cherished
Accordingly,
pursuits.
ordinary
the
speech would come to be This would be modified
of Alexandria.
the language
by their original dialect of Hebrew or Aramaic, but would gradually approximate to the common vernacular of
the city population.
Wellhausen,
1
indeed,
supposes the existence of a kind of Jewish-Greek jargon, "
developed,
already
was
which
really
Hebrew
or
Aramaic
in disguise," and employs his hypothesis to account for the extreme literalness and frequent harsh-
But this is a pure ness of the Septuagint version. hypothesis, and the literalness of the translation is best accounted for on other grounds. Thus situated, and with their
synagogue -worship, which was the very centre of their national life, in full exercise, it must soon come to be the case that many Jews of the generation native to Alexandria, could no the reading of the sacred books in their public worship, and the demand would speedily arise for a rendering of, at least, the Law into longer
intelligently
follow
And the the language which they could understand. great majority of modern scholars hold that these circumstances
explain
the
origin
of
the
Septuagint
would be going too far afield to make any of the peculiar theory of Professor mention particular It
version.
Gratz,
2
who
about 140
places the
B.C.,
first
in the reign of
nucleus of the translation
Ptolemy Philometor.
Again it must be noted that the prophetical and poetical books were translated at various times, later than 1
2
" Art. " Septuagint in EncycL Britann. Geschichte der Juden, Band iii.
27
THE SEPTUAGINT
the date of the Pentateuch, and that this was often due, in
all
probability, to
private
enterprise.
These
facts,
however, do not affect our investigation of the vocabulary of the LXX., as one hundred and thirty years at most comprise the whole translation, and there is no evidence show that any part of it was executed outside
to
Alexandria.
In investigating the vocabulary of the the
investigating translation,
vocabulary
moreover,
a
LXX. we
translation.
a peculiar nature.
of
is
of
are
This It
is
intended to bring out every jot and tittle of the original, because the original is held to be sacred, and not a syllable,
rendering
therefore, is
Still,
be
extraordinarily
tion of vocabulary. of writings
must
is
lost.
literal.
Accordingly, the This implies restric-
But when the range
so wide, the restriction
we cannot expect
deductions from what
is
to
of the collection is
be able to
scarcely
make
felt.
the same
a rigidly literal translation, as
might be looked for in a spontaneous literary product. Further, the translators are Jews. They write in a language whose conceptions are alien to their type of mind. The language is acquired. There must therefore be a certain
artificiality
of
expression, a certain clumsi-
ness both as to forms and structures.
Their vocabulary
and
Hebraic element,
style cannot fail to
their inheritance
show a
from the
past.
real
But, apart from
more or
this,
accuracy the exact type of speech which surrounds them, the particular form of Greek to which they have been first
they are sure to reflect with
less
introduced in their everyday dealings with neighbours
and
traders.
28
SOURCES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
The vocabulary of the LXX. has Attic for its original basis, and so we meet, in ever-varying proportions, with much of the ordinary stock familiar to us in earlier and This part of the vocabulary, which is, in proportion to the other elements
purer writers.
less
however, far than the corresponding part of the New Testament vocabulary, we need not for the present dwell upon. It is the common store of most writers in a greater or less
degree
down
to a fairly late date in our era. far
more
characteristic elements in the vocabulary of the
LXX.,
But,
before
the
discussing
and
other
appears to us in place to give a rough analysis of a few chapters taken entirely at random from its pages,
it
which
will afford, in brief compass, a general
language, and serve as a principles
have
still
in
basis
the formation
of
the
view of
its
illustration for the
vocabulary
which
In the case of the LXX.,
to be investigated.
are
illustrations
representative
of
specially
admissible,
seeing that, as a matter of fact, the same elements are
found throughout
We
take
the
Deuteronomy, a of the
LXX.,
its
vocabulary.
ten
first
fair
of
chapters
specimen
of
the
Book
of
the ordinary character
neither distinguished for special excellence
nor special harshness and incorrectness, though perhaps,
on the whole,
work rather to the
would
among the better parts of the than otherwise. Words and forms belonging it
common
fall
stock of Greek writers are, of course,
The writers are given by whom the word or When a word in common use is given, it used.
unnoticed.
form is
is
because of some special sense in the LXX., and those
writers alone are quoted
who employ
it
in that sense.
29
THE SEPTUAGINT
LIST OF a.
ayoi/o?
= barren.
WORDS
Hippoc., Aristot., Theoph., Soph., Plut.
Horn., Soph., Eurip. (Isocr.). Polyb., Philo.
Form.
aTTocTTTJTO)cra.v.
Very
apo-vi/cos.
late.
Callim., Anthol.
= unmoved. Eurip., Diod., Plut. Adverb in Polyb., KT. = not liable to rot. Hippoc., Xen. a.o-r)TTTo\o-
K.T.\.
The
special glossary -for Philo is large
and suggestive
for the later language. He has a wonderful command of varied expression, and displays a strong tendency towards the use of synonyms. Thus pairs of words constantly
appear in his writings
:
e.g.
d/cpaTi&iv, 7roTieti>
^lavorjriKo^
He
is
;
evOrjvla,
;
ydvvaOai,, everrjpia
;
fond of antitheses, and this
So he probably accounts for much of his word-coining. the to the opposes aicr%po7ra0ijs ala%poupy6s, Birjfjiepeveiv to
$iavv/cTp6V6iv, tStcorat to
roVoxm.
Finally,
like
his
of the language,
mastery between
as
Koprj,
girl
;
e/ATretpOTToXeyLtot,
aveGis to
contemporaries who have
a
he delights in playing on words, tc6prj,
pupil
of
the
eyes,
and
1 Kara/cop^, satiated. 1
The
instances quoted are taken from the lists in Siegfried's
Philo, pp. 32-136.
56
SOUECES OF
NEW TESTAMENT GREEK
Josephus. Following the succession chronologically, the next important name we meet is that of Josephus, who, like Philo, deserves special notice in connection
with our investigation, as being, on the one hand, a Jew of Jerusalem, while, on the other, a man of thorough Greek cultivation. It will not be necessary, however, to say istics
much on
his vocabulary, as
of its character-
many
have come up already in connection with other His stock of words is very markedly that of the
authors. "
Common "
dialect.
sistent than
Perhaps, however, he
is
more per-
of the writers of the KOLVYJ in his use of
any words which go back a long way in the history
of
Greek
A considerable percentage of his vocabulary found in Herodotus, the Tragedians, and XenoBut a prominent element in his language is its
literature. is
to be
phon.
striking agreement with that of Thucydides,
evidently
made
a chief model.
This
is
whom
he
emphasised by
the fact that he follows Thucydides in the use of rare To give one or words and rare significations of words. two instances (all from a few chapters of the Jewish Antiquities) dvot/xwrrco,
KaXwStov,
uA(o.
(3.
(4. 9).
Cratin. (2. 100).
p,ov6eaXp.os.
Menand. (4. 314). KTrjpLcriJLos. Alcae. (2. 831), Antiph. (3. 81), etc. Perh. Cratin.
vrjOew. vw(9po5.
o.
Menander.
secret.
p,vcrT-rjpi,ov
v.
(2. 75), v.l. r)6etv.
Amips. (2. 707), Anaxip. Antiph. (3. 8).
(4.
460).
olvo^Xvyia.
Diph.
avdpiov. otnj.
Sannyr.
oTnjrioi/.
opao-ts.
417). 874), Xenarch.
(4.
(2.
Mcoch. Men. (4.
(2.
(3.
617).
844).
105).
Plat. (2. 654).
Fourteen instances in Meineke.
Men. ap. Pliryn. 393. Men. Sentent. 457. TratSapiov.
Thugen.
(4.
Eleven instances in Meineke.
7rav8ox(-8oK-)tov.
Philippid. (4. 474). (3. 630), Crito (4. 537).
Theoph.
593).
THE VOCABULAKY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Antiph. ap. Atlien.
/is.
544).
(3.
Theoph.
.
Alexid.
.
Men.
.
(3.
Alexid.
(3.
(2.
Anaxand.
807),
1.
'AypotK.
Stratt.
4;
(2.
774),
439).
Eub.
.
252).
(3.
Epicharm. ap. Atlien.
.
(3. 183).
437).
(4. 88).
Antiph.
Eupol. 7rpoor/ce