Drone Pilots-Instructor Notes (Study Guides) India [PDF]

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The Bombay Flying Club Stakeholders & Their Laws[Basic] Drone Rules 2021

Stakeholders & their laws [Basic] Drone Rules 2021 1

International Rules, Regulation, Standards & Practices ▪ To achieve uniformity and agreement between nations in technical, economics, legal, operational matters with respect to civil aviation, a treaty for establishment of an International Organization, was signed on December 7th, 1944 at the Chicago Convention. ▪ International Civil Aviation Organization or ICAO, headquartered at Montreal, Canada, has a council consisting of 36 Contracting States. ▪ Three focus areas of ICAO w.r.t RPAS are: a. International Instrument Flying Ops, b. Global Interoperability with regards to Certificate of Airworthiness, Operator Certificate and Remote Pilot License c. National Authority Focus: framework for Domestic operations

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International Rules, Regulation, Standards & Practices ▪ RPASP or Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems Panel was formed by Aircraft Navigation Commission in 2015 as a single-focal point for all UAS-related matters in ICAO. ▪ RPASP consist of working group members from ▪ Airworthiness ▪ Air traffic management ▪ Detect and avoid systems ▪ Human performance ▪ Pilot licensing ▪ RPAS ops ▪ Safety Management, Communication & C2 Link 3

Civil Aviation Requirements, AIPs & NOTAM ▪ Aircraft Act 1934 is the first law passed in India to regulate the civil aviation industry and make better provision for the control of the manufacturing, possession, use, operation, sale, import and export of aircraft. ▪ Aircraft Rules 1937, under the Aircraft Act 1934, apply to, and to persons on, aircraft registered in India, aircraft operators in India as well as aircrafts for time being in or over Indian airspace. ▪ The full form of CAR is Civil Aviation Requirements. ▪ CAR is issued by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation or DGCA ▪ CAR for RPAS was issued under the provisions of Rule 15A and Rule 133A of the Aircraft Rules, 1937.

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AIP Aeronautical information publication is a prime document containing permanent information of a long term validity essential for flight operations. It is published by each ICAO state for its territory.

NOTAM Announcement, transmitted by means of telecommunication, containing information concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedures, or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations. It is an information of temporary validity (usually up to 1 month).

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Type Certification by QCI approved Certification entities

Drone Pilot Training by DGCA Approved Drone Training Schools

Drone Registration

Drone Pilot License

Insurance

Drone Rules 2021 - An Overview

No permission for flying in green zone

Permission for flying in yellow and red zone

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Classification & Categorization of Drones ▪ UAS stands for Unmanned Aircraft System ▪ UAS is categorized as ▪ Rotorcraft ▪ Aeroplane ▪ Hybrid ▪ Classification of UAS: ▪ Nano ▪ Micro ▪ Small ▪ Medium ▪ Large 7

Categorization of UAS - India

HYBRID

AEROPLANE

ROTORCRAFT

SUB - CATEGORIZATION OF UAS

Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS)

Model RPAS

Autonomous UAS 8

Classification of UAS - India

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UAV Classification By Range & Altitude - FAA

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UAV Classification by Range & Altitude - FAA Category

Range (km)

Altitude (m)

Endurance (hrs)

MTOW (kgs)

Example

Micro & Mini UAV < 10 km (MUAV)

300 m

< 2 hrs

< 30 kg

MD4 - 200

Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE)

> 500 km

3000 m

24 - 48 hrs

1500 - 7000 kg

Talarion, Predator

High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE)

> 2000 km

20,000 m

24 - 48 hrs

4500 - 15000 kg

Global Hawk

VTOL UAV

5 - 200 km

6000 m

20 min - 8 hrs

20 gm - 1400 kg

MQ-9, Nano Hummingbird 11

UAS Classification by Size - FAA

Type

Size

Very Small

< 50 cm (size of an insect, very small rotary of flapping wings)

Mini

50 cm – 2 m (mostly fixed wing, with a few rotary wings)

Medium

5 m – 10 m (Payload capacity of up to 200 kgs)

Large

> 10 m (size of a small aircraft, Military combat/Surveillance use)

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Type Certification of Drones 1) No person shall operate an unmanned aircraft system in India unless such unmanned aircraft system conforms to a type certificate or is exempted from the requirement of a type certificate under these rules.

2) The Director General or any entity authorized by the Director General in this behalf, may, on the recommendation of the Quality Council of India or an authorized testing entity, issue a type certificate for any particular type of unmanned aircraft system.

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Application & Procedure for Type Certificate Any person, who intends to obtain a type certificate, shall make an application in from D-1 on the digital sky platform along with fees specified in rule 46 and the following 1. particulars of the applicant 2. details and required documents in respect of the prototype UAS as specified therein 3. the prototype UAS shall be physically handed over to the authorized testing entity specified therein The Quality Council of India or the authorized testing entity shall examine the proposal and submit the test report along with its recommendations to the Director General within sixty days from the date of receipt of the application. On the basis of test report along with the recommendations the Director General shall issue to the applicant a type certificate for the specific type of unmanned aircraft system within fifteen days of receiving such test report. 14

Acceptance of approvals given by foreign regulators On the basis of the approval granted to any type of unmanned aircraft system by such of the Contracting States, as may be specified by the Central Government by notification in the Official Gazette, the Director General may issue type certification to that type of unmanned aircraft system

Imports Import of unmanned aircraft systems shall be regulated by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade or any other entity authorized by the Central Government

Exemption from obtaining type certificate in certain cases No type certificate shall be required for operating the following, namely ▪

a model remotely piloted aircraft system

▪

a nano unmanned aircraft system. 15

Mandatory safety feature ▪ The Central Government may, in future, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify safety feature installed on an unmanned aircraft system by persons owning it, which may include among other following safety features, namely:

'No Permission-No Takeoff' hardware and firmware Real-time tracking beacon that communicates the unmanned aircraft system's location, altitude, speed and unique identification number; and Geo-fencing capability. 16

Registration, Sale & Deregistration of Drones

1. No person shall operate UAS without obtaining a Unique Identification Number (UIN) unless exempted. 2. A registration record shall be maintained by the Director General. 3. It shall be the responsibility of the person operating an unmanned aircraft system to ensure that sure UAS conforms to a valid type certificate.

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UIN of A Drone - Requirements & Eligibility • In simple terms, a Unique Identification Number (UIN) is the license plate of an Unmanned Aircraft. • Nano Drones (weighing less than 250 gms and can’t fly above 50 ft) and UAS owned by Armed Forces are exempt from getting a UIN. • UIN must be affixed on the UAS in an identifiable and visible manner. • The UIN can be granted only to: A Citizen of India; or Central or State Government Entities Indian Companies and 2/3rd Indian Directors Foreign Entities leasing the Unmanned Aircraft to the above

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Application & Procedure for Registration 1) make an application in Form D-2 on the digital sky platform along with the fee as specified in rule 46 and provide requisite detail 2) The digital sky platform shall verify the details and issue a unique identification number to the applicant. 3) The UIN of UAS shall be linked to the unique Manufacturer Serial Number 4) No person shall replace the flight control module or remote pilot station of an unmanned aircraft system whose serial number is linked to such UAS's UIN. 19

Transfer of unmanned aircraft systems ▪ A person may transfer an unmanned aircraft system to another person by way of sale, lease, gift or any other mode, after providing requisite details of the transferor, transferee and unique identification number of the unmanned aircraft system in Form D-3 on the digital sky platform, along with the fee as specified in rule 46 ▪ registration record maintained by the Director General and a transaction number shall be generated by the digital sky platform after electronic verification of the transferor, transferee and the unique identification number

Deregistration of unmanned aircraft systems ▪

Where an unmanned aircraft system registered in a person’s name is either permanently lost or permanently damaged, he shall, on arriving at a reasonable conclusion that it is so lost or damaged, apply for deregistration of such unmanned aircraft system by submitting an application in Form D-3 on the digital sky platform along with the fee as specified in rule 46.

▪

record maintained by the Director General and a transaction number shall be generated by the digital sky platform 20

Operations of Drones ▪ Airspace map for unmanned aircraft system operations segregating the entire airspace of India into red zone, yellow zone and green zone, with a horizontal resolution equal or finer than 10 meters

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Mandatory pre-flight verification of zonal restrictions Before commencing an unmanned aircraft system operation, a remote pilot shall mandatorily verify the digital sky platform for any notification or restriction applicable to unmanned aircraft system operations in the intended area of operation

Requirement of prior permission 1.

No person shall operate an unmanned aircraft system in a red zone or yellow zone without prior permission.

2.

No prior permission shall be required for operating an unmanned aircraft system in a green zone

Dynamic nature of zoning The Central Government may update the airspace map on digital sky platform for unmanned aircraft system operations from time to time in order to change the status of an area from one zone to another and such change shall come into effect no sooner than seven days after the date of such update. 22

Temporary Red Zone ▪ If there is an urgent need to temporarily prohibit unmanned aircraft system flights in any specified area, the concerned State Government or the Union Territory Administration or a law enforcement agency may declare a temporary red zone over such specified area, for a period not exceeding ninety six hours at a time, by notifying it through the digital sky platform and highlighting it on the airspace map. ▪ The temporary red zone shall be declared by an officer not below the rank of Superintendent of Police or his equivalent and such officer shall endeavor to keep the size of the temporary red zone reasonable and not excessive ▪ An endeavor shall be made to inform, through digital sky platform or other electronic means, to all holders of unique identification number who are within a distance of five kilometer from the perimeter of the temporary red zone, of the restriction so declared under sub-rule (1), but in case no such information is received, it shall not absolve a remote pilot of the responsibility to verify the zonal restrictions on the digital sky platform before commencing an unmanned aircraft system operation 23

Operations of UAS Carriage of dangerous goods: No person shall carry dangerous goods on unmanned aircraft unless such operation is in compliance with the Aircraft (Cimage of Dangerous Goods) Rules, 2003 Right of way: No person operating an unmanned aircraft system shall violate the right of way of a manned aircraft and shall remain clear of all manned aircrafts Mandatory reporting of an accident No later than forty-eight hours after an accident involving an unmanned aircraft system takes plate, the remote pilot of such unmanned aircraft system shall report the accident to the Director General through the digital sky platform.

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Remote Pilot Certificate ▪ No individual other than a holder of a valid remote pilot license enlisted on the digital sky platform shall operate an unmanned aircraft system ▪ A remote pilot license shall specifically mention the category, sub-category and classification of the unmanned aircraft system or a combination of these, for which it is issued ▪ An individual shall be eligible to obtain a remote pilot license, if he ▪ Is not less than eighteen years of age and not more than sixty-five years of age ▪ has passed class tenth examination or its equivalent from a recognized Board ▪ has successfully completed such training as may be specified by the Director General, from any authorized remote pilot training organization

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Application & Procedure for RPC 1) Complete the training specified by the Director General for category, sub-category or class of UAS, and pass the tests conducted by the authorized remote pilot training organization. 2) Within seven days of successful completion of the training and passing of the tests, the authorized remote pilot training organization shall make an application for remote pilot license.

3) The individual in respect of whom an application has been made by the authorized remote pilot training organization shall be issued a Remote Pilot Certificate through digital sky platform.

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Validity of license A remote pilot license shall

1. be valid only if it is enlisted on the digital sky platform; 2. unless suspended or cancelled, remain valid for a period of ten years 3. be renewed by the Director General for such period as may be specified therein, subject to a maximum period of ten years, on payment of fee as specified in rule 46 Provided that the holder of the remote pilot license shall undergo such refresher course as may be specified by the Director General on the digital sky platform from time to time

Exemption from obtaining license No remote pilot license shall be required for ▪

operating a nano unmanned aircraft system

▪

operating a micro unmanned aircraft system for non-commercial purposes

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Drone Insurance ▪ The provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 (59 of 1988) and rules made there under shall apply, mutatis mutandis, to the third party insurance of unmanned aircraft system and compensation in case of damage to life or property caused by such an unmanned aircraft system ▪ A person operating a unmanned aircraft system may use an insurance product specially designed for such operations, as and when such insurance product is approved by the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India ▪ Provided that a nano unmanned aircraft system may operate without third party insurance

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Drone Insurance Why is Drone Insurance important? Drones are prone to crashes owing to bad weather, power failure, inexperience pilots etc. A drone crash means: ▪ Damage to the body of the drone (HULL) ▪ Damages to the payloads (if any) which the drone is carrying (HULL) ▪ Damages to any person or property on whom the crashing drone lands/ falls (LIABILITY) A valid drone insurance policy would cover either or all of the above damages. 31

Mandatory Third Party Liability DRONE INSURANCE Available Plans Choose from flexible plans based on your Flying Needs: 4 Hours or 1 Day or 1 Year Requirements for Third Party Liability Cover Drone Serial number Drone with a DAN & OAN or UIN & UAOP Drone Images (Front, back, Top, Side, Serial Number) Third Party Liability Covered 10 Lakhs-20 lakhs Depending on the plan 32

Fees Sl. No.

Service

Fee (Rupees)

1

Issuance of certificate of airworthiness

100

2

Issuance, transfer or deregistration of unique identification number

100

3

Listing or renewal of remote pilot license

100

4

Authorization or renewal of authorization of remote pilot training organization

1,000

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Cancellation or suspension

Cancellation or suspension: Where the Director General, after giving an opportunity of being heard, is satisfied that a person has contravened or failed to comply with the provisions of these rules, he may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, cancel or suspend any license, certificate, authorization or approval granted under these rules.

A C

C N

L L E

T A

N IO

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Penalties & Power to inspect Penalties: If a person has contravened or failed to comply with the provisions of these rules, he may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, levy a penalty not exceeding rupees one lakh in accordance with the provisions of section 10A of the Act.

Y T I L A N E P E C I T O N

Power to inspect: The Director General, or any person authorized by him, by general or special order in writing, may inspect any unmanned aircraft system, any related facility, interact with any personnel, and inspect any document or record for the purpose of securing compliance with these rules and the provisions of the Act.

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Drone Rules 2021 - Summary

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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF FLIGHT

SUB TOPIC 1. FUNDAMENTAL OF FLIGHT 2. AERODYNAMICS 3. TAKE OFF, FLIGHT AND LANDING 4. MANOEUVERS, TURNS AND CIRCUIT PATTERN

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FUNDAMENTAL OF FLIGHT • Aerofoil • Chordline • Relative wind • Centre of pressure(CP) • Angle of Attack (AoA) • Angle of Incidence(AoI) • Centre of lift • Centre of gravity • Bernoulli’s Principal

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• Aerofoil

An aerofoil is the cross sectional shape of a wing , blade of a propeller rotor or turbine.

• Chord line

The Chord line is the straight line intersecting the Leading & Trailing edges of aerofoil.

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• Relative wind The direction of the airflow with respect to an Aerofoil

• Angle of Attack

The angle measured between the relative wind or flight path and the chord of an aerofoil is known as angle of attack in aerodynamics

• Angle of Incidence

It is the angle between the chord of the aerofoil and longitudinal axis of the aircraft. • It can not be change by the pilot 5

FORCES OF FLIGHT

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PRINCIPLE OF FLIGHT • In physics , a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) when external force is applied. • Fluids includes liquids, gases and plasmas.

COANDA EFFECT

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FORCE

DIRECTION

SOURCE

1.LIFT

Perpendicular to direction of motion

difference in pressure

2. WEIGHT

Downwards

Gravity

3. DRAG

Opposite to direction of Friction and difference motion in pressure

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Bernoulli’s Principle

•

The air separated at the leading edge of the aerofoil rejoins at the trailing edge.

•

Air has to move faster on the upper surface to cover the longer distance.

•

Air flowing over the curve upper surface of the wing has more velocity than the air flowing below the wing.

•

This principle states that an increase in the speed of the air occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure.

•

Decrease in speed of air flow causes more pressure below the wing and produces the upward lift

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NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION • Newton's first law states that if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted upon by a force.

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• Newton's second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can produce on the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal in both magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it.

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• Newton's third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. • The third law is also known as the law of action and reaction.

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• Centre of lift :

The average of the lift force through which all lift is considered to ac , its same as center of pressure

• Centre of gravity: Point at which the aircraft would balance were it is possible to suspend it at that point

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AERODYNAMICS • Aerodynamics is the study of how gases interact with moving bodies. • Engineers apply the principles of aerodynamics to the designs of many different things ,including buildings, bridges etc… • The primary concern of aerodynamics are aircraft and automobiles. • Aerodynamics comes into play in the study of flight and the science of buildings and operating an aircraft which is called aeronautics.

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CONTROL SURFACE

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AXIS OF FLIGHT

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TAKE OFF, FLIGHT AND LANDING • Take off: It is the phase of flight in which an air craft goes through a transition from moving along the ground to flying in the air usually starting on a runway. For balloons, helicopters and some specialized fixed wing aircraft no runway is needed. • Flight: It is the forces by which an objects moves through an atmoshphere without contact with the surface. This can be achieved by generating aerodynamics lift associated with propulsive thrust. • Landing: It is the last part of the flight where an airborne aircraft returns to ground when the flying objects returns to ground the process may be also be called touch down.

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Maneuvers, turns and circuit pattern Maneuvers and turns: It denotes one’s tractial moves, or series of move, that improves or maintains one’s strategic situation in a competitive environment or avoids a worse situation. There are four fundamental basic flight maneuvers upon which all flying tasks are based: • • • •

Straight –and –level flight Turns Climbs Descents 19

CIRCUIT PATTERN At an airport, the pattern (or circuit) is a standard path for coordinating air traffic. It differs from "straight-in approaches" and "direct climb-outs" in that aircraft using a traffic pattern remain close to the airport. Patterns are usually employed at small general aviation (GA) airfields and military airbases.

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ATC procedures and radio telephon

Stakeholders & their laws [Basic] Drone Rules 2021 1

Understanding ATC Operations • Communication with ATC plays an important role as we enter the manned aircraft airspace and ecosystem. • ATC should be informed for any RPAS operations prior to commencing the operations. • It is important to follow the ATC procedure in order to avoid interruption to the manned aircraft traffic. • Each RPA operator must be in two-way communication with the ATC. • RPA pilot should be aware of the airspace and restrictions imparted in it while operating the RPA.

RADIO TELEPHONY BASICS • RT provides the means by which pilots and ground personnel communicate with each other. • The information and instructions transmitted are of vital importance in the safe and expeditious operation of aircraft, personnel involved in the operation and people on ground.

Radio Telephony (RT) Techniques Radio telephony or radio communication must be carried out in the following manner, i.e., through • RT phonetics (alphabets as well as numeric), • RT Phraseology (morse code and Lat/Long info) • To understand RT frequency spectrum.

RT FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

Standard radio terminology & RT phraseology • Reporting to ATC: UNMANNED - RPAS # Unmanned (UIN) - LAT/LONG & Radius - Altitude(Base to Ceiling) - Start time to End time (GMT). (TEET) • Remote pilots should prefix RPA calls-sign with the word UNMANNED whenever it is required to have voice communication with the ATC. • Operator needs to inform the ATC with the exact Lat/Long and radius along with the altitude (height from base to the ceiling). • RT phraseology is used in both ways, i.e., alphabet and numbers. • ATC frequencies are to be monitored on a listen-only mode and communication is to be maintained via landline. • Radiocommunication on air-band frequency is only allowed for the operator who is certified to operate wireless RT equipment with a valid RTR/FRTOL issued by the WPC/DGCA, respectively. • A standard phraseology is used throughout the globe with minor differences with respect to the different regions.

Flight Planning Procedures • Flight planning on the digital sky platform is necessary. • All the landing zones and emergency landing zones should be pre planned before takeoff. • FIC and ADC should be taken. • All flight routes should be predefined

Collision Avoidance Collision of an RPA can occur due to the following reasons: • fly away or visual loss of RPA • GPS failure • loss of orientation • motor failure • due to human error. Other reasons may include: • conflicting traffic • terrain and obstacles • Hazardous meteorological conditions • ground operations and other airborne hazards Such scenarios can be avoided either by the help of the sensors installed on the RPA or by the operator's intervention.

Air Space Structure And Restrictions The two categories of airspace are: regulatory and nonregulatory. Within these two categories, there are four types: o controlled o uncontrolled o special use o other airspace The categories and types of airspace are dictated by : o the complexity or density of aircraft movements, o nature of the operations conducted within the airspace, o the level of safety required, and o national and public interest.

Controlled Airspace Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control (ATC) service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification. The airspace is classified as: • Class A • Class B • Class C • Class D • Class E

CLASSES OF AIRSPACE CLASS

SEPARATION

SPEED LIMIT

RT CONTACT REQ.

ATC SERVICES

CLASS A

IFR

X

2 WAYS

YES

CLASS B

IFR and VFR

X

2 WAYS

YES

IFR – IFR

X

2 WAYS

YES

IFR – VFR

X

2 WAYS

YES

VFR – IFR

< 250 kts/< 10,000 ft

2 WAYS

YES

VFR – VFR

< 250 kts/< 10,000 ft

2 WAYS

YES

CLASS D

IFR – IFR

< 250 kts/< 10,000 ft

2 WAYS

YES

CLASS E

IFR – IFR

< 250 kts/< 10,000 ft

2 WAYS (for IFR only)

YES

CLASS C

Special Use Airspace Special use airspace or special area of operation (SAO) is the designation for airspace in which certain activities must be confined, or where limitations may be imposed on aircraft operations that are not part of those activities. Special use airspace usually consists of: • Prohibited areas • Restricted areas • Warning areas • Military operation areas (MOAs) • Alert areas • Controlled firing areas (CFAs)

Other Airspace Areas “Other airspace areas” is a general term referring to most of the remaining airspace. It includes: • Local airport advisory (LAA) • Military training route (MTR) • Temporary flight restriction (TFR) • Parachute jump aircraft operations • • • •

Published VFR routes Terminal radar service area (TRSA) National security area (NSA) Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZ) land and water based and need for Defense VFR (DVFR) flight plan to operate VFR in this airspace

• Flight Restricted Zones (FRZ) in vicinity of Capitol and White House • Wildlife Areas/Wilderness Areas/National Parks and request to operate above 2,000 AGL • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Marine Areas off the coast with requirement to operate above 2,000 AGL • Tethered Balloons for observation and weather recordings that extend on cables up to 60,000

Altimetry

Altimeter settings • Height Above Ground (QFE): A local altimeter setting equivalent to the barometric pressure measured at an airport altimeter datum, usually signifying the approach end of the runway in use. At the airport altimeter datum, an altimeter set to QFE indicates zero altitude meaning on the airport, the altimeter will read “0” feet. • Altitude (QNH): A local altimeter setting equivalent to the barometric pressure measured at an airport altimeter datum and corrected to sea level pressure. At the airport altimeter datum, an altimeter set to QNH indicates airport elevation above mean sea level (MSL). • Standard Altimeter Setting (QNE): QNE is a pressure setting at 1013 hPa that will produce a standard atmosphere altitude and provides the basis for flight levels.

Interpretation A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere: 1. when set to a QNH altimeter setting, will indicate altitude above Mean Sea Level; 2. when set to a QFE altimeter setting, will indicate height above the QFE reference datum; and 3. when set to a pressure of 1013.2 hPa, may be used to indicate flight levels(FL).

Fixed wing operations and Aerodynamics

WHAT ARE FIXED WING DRONES? Fixed wing drones are the Airplanes which generate lift under the wing due to forward airspeed which is produced by either an internal combustion engine or electric motor mounted with propeller.

They will require either a handheld catapult or runway take-off and can fly continuously over long distances as opposed to hovering.

TYPES OF FIXED WING DRONES BASED ON WING TYPE Straight Wing: ▪ Rectangular Straight Wing ▪ Tapered Straight Wing ▪ Rounded or elliptical straight wing

TYPES OF FIXED WING DRONES BASED ON WING TYPE Swept Wing: ▪ Slightly swept wing ▪ Moderately swept wing ▪ Highly swept wing

TYPES OF FIXED WING DRONES BASED ON WING TYPE Delta Wing: ▪ Simple delta wing ▪ Complex delta wing ▪ Suitable for high-speed subsonic and subersonic flight

PARTS OF A FIXED WING UAV

FIXED WING RPA SYSTEMS 1. Propulsion system 2. Fuel system 3. Control system 4. Avionics 5. Take-off/Landing system 6. Payload system

PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Brush Less Direct Current Motor • High power to weight ratio • Available in wide range of starting from 5gm. • Best suited for nano, micro categories • Low noise helps in keeping low profile in stealthy opearation.

IC Engines

Propellers

A) Conventionally used system, A)Connected to BLDC/Engines. B) Provide higher endurance than B) Provided thrust by rotating in sizes BLDCs. Particular direction. C) Best suited for medium and large C)Made up of wood, Industrial and small categories. Grade plastic or carbon fiber. D) IC engines are noisier than BLDC motors.

FUEL SYSTEM Lithium based batteries

• Li-po and Li-io are the most widely used batteries. • Li-po batteries can be custom built for different shape and sizes. • Li-io batteries are capable of higher endurance flights. • Energy density is far less than IC engines.

Liquid fuels

Other alternatives

A) Stored in a tank mounted in the fuselage. B) Glow/Nitro fuel, Gasoline or

Hydrogen Power

Diesel is used. C) Better thrust to weight ratio than the lithium based batteries. Solar powered

BASIC CONTROLS • Roll : “Roll means to move your drone left or right in the air, literally ‘rolling’ your drone • Pitch : “Pitch means to tilts your forward or backward. • Throttle :- “Throttle means to move your drone on upward or downward. • Yaw :- “Yaw means rotate your drone clockwise or counterclockwise allowing you to make circle or pattern in the air..

CONTROL SYSTEM – RADIO CONTROLLER

CH1 :- ROLL

CH2 :- Pitch

CH3 :- Throttle

CH4 :- YAW

INTRO TO MISSION PLANNING

What is Mission Planner. Mission Planner is a ground control station for Plane, Copter and Rover. It is compatible with Windows only. Mission Planner can be used as a configuration utility or as a dynamic control supplement for your autonomous vehicle.

INTRO TO MISSION PLANNING

Drones now have many functions, ranging from monitoring climate change to carrying out search operations after natural disasters, photography, filming, and delivering goods. But their most well-known and controversial use is by the military for reconnaissance, surveillance and targeted attacks.

TAKE OFF AND LANDING,RECOVERY SYSTEM

Hand Launch

Parachute Recovery

Catapult

Runway Takeoff and Land

Net Recovery

APPLICATION

Surveillance

Mapping

Agriculture

Construction

Wild life Protection

Mining

COMPARISON OF FIXED WINGS WITH MULTIROTOR

Fixed Wing

• • • • • • •

Multirotor

Unable to maintain fixed position

• Easy to control and maneuver

Can only fly horizontally (forward)

• Have the ability to hover

Require hand or mechanical launch

• Takeoff and land vertically

Longer average flight times

• Limited flying time

Can carry a heavier payload

• Small payload capabilities

Greater stability in the wind

• Less stability in the wind

Generally higher flight speeds

• Lower flight speeds

ROTORCRAFT OPERATIONS & AERODYNAMICS

• Basic Drone Overview • Types of Multirotor Drones • Quadcopter Anatomy & Terminology • Inner Electronics of a Drone • Applications

What is a Drone? • A drone is an Aerial/Ground/Underwater vehicle without a human pilot on-board.

• It is known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or a Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV) • The entire system is known as Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) or Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS)

RPAS

RPA

GCS – Ground Control Station

How does a Drone work? • It may be Remotely controlled by a human operator.

• Fly autonomously with the help of on-board computers.

Multirotor Drones • Rotorcraft with more than two rotors • Further classified based on numbers of rotors

Tri-copter

Quad-copter

Hexa-copter

Octa-copter

• Quadcopters are most popular & widely used variant

Multirotor Drones • PROS: • Vertical Take-off and Landing • Hovering capability • Operation from confined spaces • CONS: • Limited endurance compared to fixed wings • Less chance of recovery in case of motor failure • Limited Speed • Cannot perform High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) operations

Single Rotor Drones - Helicopters • Lift is produced using single rotor. • Higher efficiency and maneuverability • Higher endurance by using gas powered engine • Ideal for large scale surveys & agricultural projects • The downsides are their complexity, operatibility, cost, vibration and also danger of their large spinning blades.

• A single rotor drone being utilized for crop spraying

Hybrid VTOL • Combination of fixed wing and multirotor. • Take off (like a rotorcraft) – Transition (from multirotor to fixed wing config.) – Operation (Fixed wing) – Landing (Multirotor) • Advantages: Long range, high endurance, hover capability, operation from confined spaces.

First Historical Use of UAV – Aug 22, 1849 • First UAV- August 22, 1849- Austrian balloons measuring 5.7m in dia. • Austrians attacked the Italian city of Venice with unmanned balloons loaded with explosives.

Evolution of Drones

FATHER OF DRONES - DR. ABRAHAM KAREM • Born in Baghdad, later moved to Israel in 1951. • Aeronautical engineering from Technion - Israel Institute of Technology. • Built his first drone during the Yom Kippur war for the Israeli Air Force. • In the 1970s, he immigrated to the United States. • Founded Leading Systems Inc. And started manufacturing his first enterprise drone, Albatross. • Invertor of modern day combat drone, Predator, which brought him the title of "Father of drones".

Future of Drones • Factors such as cutting edge design engineering and stealth technology advancement are going to be the key differentiator for the drones in the future.

Tesla Drone Concept • The Tesla drone concept introduces an upper & lower propeller layout, carrying the payload in the middle. • The upper/lower layout helps in take-off & landing, between which the drone shapeshifts into the regular side-by-side propeller orientation. • The shapeshifting ability of the drone also does wonders for image stabilization.

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY Propeller

Motors

• Converts rotational motion to • Used to rotate propellers. thrust. • Brushless DC Motors • Types: pusher & Puller props. (BLDC)- highly efficient and • Pusher- Clockwise, Puller- counter long lasting. clockwise • Key parameters to focus: • Motor's Speed • Propeller Dynamics can be modelled by Bernoulli's principle • Thrust Value and Newton's third law. • Compatible ESC • Compatible Battery

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY Electronic Speed Controller

Flight Controller/ Autopilot

• Used to vary the motor speed • Brain of the UAS. • Helps in flight stabilization, with precision. and failsafe • Can control the direction of Navigation rotation of motor redundancy. • Most common flight controllers (CW/CCW). developers are: • Acts as a dynamic brake. • Ardupilot • Battery Eliminating Circuit • DJI {N3,NAZA M for powering flight LITE,NAZA M V2, A3 etc.) controllers/ receivers. • Customized

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY Airframe

Battery Pack

• The UAV airframe consists of the housing enclosing the electronics, motor booms (arms),and platform. • Different configurations of Quadcopters: • H-Shape • X-Shape • + - Shape • H-Hybrid

• Powerplant of the UAV. • Rechargeable Li-po & Li-io are widely used. • High energy density compared to conventional batteries. • Vary by: Discharge Rate, Capacity and Voltage.

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY Camera Gimbal

Landing Struts

• Used to mount the payload. • Helps in stabilization. • Pan control. • Tilt control.

• These are legs that the drone rests on when it is landing or grounded. • Comes in different shapes and sizes as the design of UAV. • Can be foldable with the help of servo mechanism resulting in better field of view

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY

Radio Transmitter & Receiver

• Radio controller transmits the input given by the pilot to the receiver via 2.4Ghz band. • Communication link: preferred frequency in these devices is 2.4 Ghz because of max efficiency. • Video Transmission: preferred frequency is 5.8 GHz as it provides the noise free and best quality video signal.

Telemetry • Air end is connected to the UAV. • Ground end is connected to the GCS controller. • Provides crucial telemetry data (Altitude, distance, speed, wind speed. etc.). • Dynamic updation of flight plans and any changes in the mission.

QUADCOPTER ANATOMY Front Indicator

ADSB

• Necessary to maintain the orientation. • Some methods are as following: • LEDs • Strobe Lights • Different Colored arms • Reflective Material

• Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast • Aircraft determines its position via satellite navigation, and Periodically broadcasts it, enabling it to be t racked. • This is key to airspace safety. • Real-time ADS-B is used now for air traffic control, weather and flight information services.

INNER ELECTRONICS OF A DRONE Microcontroller • The Microcontroller is the brains of the flight controller. • Collects measurements from all its sensors • Tells the motors what to do based on both sensor and userinputs. • Often connected to a ground station through a radio and connected to a pilot through control link.

Altitude & Heading Reference System • It tells us Where the aircraft is moving

INNER ELECTRONICS OF A DRONE Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) Global Positioning System (GPS) • An inertial measurement unit (IMU) is an electronic device that measures and reports: • A body's specific force • Angular Rate • Magnetic field surrounding the body • Incorporates Accelerometer, Gyroscopes, Compass, Magnetometers. • Necessary for autonomous flights • It allows a GPS receiver to work when GPS signals are unavailable

• The GPS module is responsible for the provision of longitude, latitude and elevation points. • It helps drones navigate BVLOS and capture details of specific locations on land. • GPS Module helps in enabling the "Return to Home" (RTH) capability in case of communication or battery failsafe

INNER ELECTRONICS OF A DRONE Power Distribution Board • Input is connected to the battery. (PDB) • Receives power from the battery. • Output is connected to the PDB • Provides 5 to 6.5 volts to the • Distributes the input to multiple ESCs. flight controller. • Can power different accessories • It is a voltage regulator which attached to the drone like HD converts the input into specific cameras or LED lights. amount.

Power Module

Application of Drones in Various Sectors

Business Ideas for UAV Industries

Business Ideas for UAV Industries

Business Ideas for UAV Industries

Hybrid Operations and Aerodynamics

Table of Contents • Principles of aerodynamics • Types of Hybrid drones and parts • Applications of hybrid UAVs

Principles of Aerodynamics • Four forces acting on a drone 1.

Lift

2.

Weight

3.

Thrust

4.

Drag

• Airflow changes and pressure distribution over airfoil

Forces acting on a Hybrid drone

• Lift Lift is the force that holds an drone in the air. The wings create most of the lift used by airplanes. • Weight Weight is the force caused by gravity. • Thrust Thrust is a force that moves an aircraft in the direction of the motion. It is created with a propeller, jet engine, or rocket. Air is pulled in and then pushed out in an opposite direction. One example is a household fan. • Drag Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. It tends to slow an object. Drag is caused by friction and differences in air pressure. An example is putting your hand out of a moving car window and feeling it pull back.

Aerofoil

Aerofoil Terminology • Leading edge is a part of an aerofoil (edge) that hits the air particles first. • Trailing edge is a part from an aerofoil (edge) that hits the air particles last. • Chord line is a straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil. • Chord is a distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord line. • Lower surface is the surface of an aerofoil between the leading and trailing edges, on the lower surface. • Upper surface is the surface of an aerofoil between the leading and trailing edges, on the upper surface. • Mean camber line is a line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces. • Maximum camber is the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord line. • Maximum thickness is the maximum distance of the lower surface from the upper surface.

Airflow and Pressure distribution over Airfoil

Parts of Hybrid Drones

Different Configuration of Hybrid Drones

Types of Hybrid Drone

Applications of Hybrid VTOL • Hybrid VTOL are used in operations where the terrain is difficult to land a fixedwing airplane but the endurance needed is more than multirotor. • It is used in large area mapping • It is used to transport heavy payload over a large distance with hilly terrain • Search and rescue • Cargo delivery

WEATHER & METEOROLOGY

Atmosphere • An atmosphere is a layer of gases that envelope a planet. • The earth's atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in parameters: Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Density

Weather • Weather is "The state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy“ Note:Weather is the one factor in modern aviation over which man has no control;

Meteorology

• Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics), with a major focus on weather forecasting. • To understand the meteorological hazards, their effect on aircraft and how to minimize the risks posed by those hazards • To identify the weather information that is required for each flight to interpret actual and forecast weather conditions from the documentation provided • To analyze and evaluate weather information before flight and in flight • a knowledge of meteorology will at least enable the aviator to anticipate some of the difficulties which weather may cause.

METAR • The letters METAR stand for METeorological Aerodrome Report. • METAR gives us the required data such as wind direction,wind speed etc. needed for safe flying. • For drone operation we need to cross check the METAR for safe and secure operations, where we don't risk the drone.

METAR • There are several mobile apps that provide real time METAR data. Some of them are mentioned below. ✓ UAV Forecast ✓ Good To Fly ✓ Drone Cast ✓ Drone Buddy ✓ AirData UAV ✓ Windy

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) • The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a static atmospheric model of how the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes or elevations. • It has been established to provide a common reference for temperature and pressure and consists of tables of values at various altitudes, plus some formulas by which those values were derived.

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) • The ICAO publish their Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is: • a MSL temperature of +15° Celsius • a MSL pressure of 1013.25HPa • a MSL density of 1225 grams / cubic meter, • a lapse rate of 1.98°C/1000 ft up to 11 km (36 090 ft) Note:Practically we use a lapse rate of 2°/1000 ft for calculations up to the Tropopause.

Types of pressure • In the aviation community (the terms QNE, QNH, and QFE are used to describe standard pressure, local altimeter, and field elevation, respectively. • QFE (Field Elevation) QFE is the altimeter pressure setting at the Take Off Location which indicate height. • QNH (Nautical Height) QNH is the altimeter pressure setting at the Take Off location reduced to MSL under ISA conditions which indicate altitute. • QNE is the altimeter pressure setting at the standard atmosphere pressure 1013.2hpa which indicate flight level.

Pressure

Measurement of Wind • •

•

•

Anemometer:-It is a device that is used to find the wind speed. It is analog as well as digital.Analog Anemometer are fixed while Digital Anemometer are pocket sized and compatible Digital hand-held anemometers are available in market which a drone pilot must always carry with them to cross check wind speed at the time of operation. The Wind speed should not be more than the permitted limits by manufacturer at the time of Drone Operations.

Measurement of Wind Windsock :-a light, flexible cylinder or cone mounted on a mast to show the direction and strength of the wind, especially at an airfield. the white and orange strips on windsocks are not for decoration, they actually indicate relative wind speeds! In absence of Equipment , We can measure wind speed and direction with use of windsock.

GUST and LULL • A gust is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction lasting less than one minute and it is a local effect. • A lull is a period without waves or wind.

Squall • A squall is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. Lasting for one minute or more and can cover a wide area. • A squall is really important to be predicted. • Carelessness on the part of squall can result in crashes of the drone and hence loss.

Gale and Hurricane • A gale exists when wind speed exceeds 33kt

A hurricane exists when speed exceeds 63 kt.

wind

Relation between speed units • In Aviation , generally speed should be measure in knot. But as per ICAO standard unit for speed is kmph. • Relation between Knot and kmph is 1 knot = 1.852 kmph • Relation between kmph and mph is 1 kmph = 0.623 mph

Cloud • Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevation. • As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth. They take various shapes. • According to their height , expanse ,density and transparency clouds are group under four types. • Cloud Types :- There are basically four types. 1) Cirrus 2) cumulus 3)stratus 4)nimbus

Cloud • Cirrus:- formed at high altitudes (8000 - 12000 mtr).They are thin and having a feathery appearance.They are always white in colour. • Cumulus:- formed at height of (4000- 7000) mtr. They exists patches and can be scattered here and there. Cumulus look likes cotton wool.

Cloud • Stratus :- these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or mixing of air with diff. Tempretures. • Nimbus:- Nimbus clouds are black and grey. They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth. They are extremely dense and thick. So, They don’t have any shape.

Weather impact of UAS Operation

Cloud Distance & Visibility

Cloud and Fog

• Clouds and fog both form when water vapor condenses or freezes to form tiny droplets or crystals in the air. • clouds can form at many different altitudes while fog only forms near the ground.

Fog • Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very near the ground. • Fog Caused by Cooling. As the air cools, it becomes denser and drains into low areas such as river valleys, where thick fog accumulations may occur. • Fog Caused by Evaporation. When cool air moves over warm water, enough moisture may evaporate from the water surface to produce saturation.

Icing • Freezing Rain is common ahead of warm fronts in winter. Serious icing occurs when the aircraft is flying near the top of the cold air mass beneath a deep layer of warm air. • Rain drops are much larger than cloud droplets and therefore give a very high rate of catch. • In freezing temperatures, they form clear ice.

Lightning • Lightning causes thunder, a sound from the shock wave which develops as gases in the vicinity of the discharge experience a sudden increase in pressure. • Lightning occurs commonly during thunderstorms as well as other types of energetic weather systems, but volcanic lightning can also occur during volcanic eruptions.

Wind shear • Wind shear (or windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. • Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear. • Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with a change in altitude. • Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with a change in lateral position for a given altitude.

Wind Shear • Vertical Wind Shear

• Horizontal Wind Shear

Turbulence • What is turbulence? • A sudden, violent shift in airflow • Causes:• Wind • Storms • Jet stream • Objects near the plane (particularly mountain ranges)

Turbulence • Light turbulence momentarily causes slight changes in altitude and/or attitude or a slight bumpiness. Occupants of the airplane may feel a slight strain against their seat belts. • Moderate turbulence is similar to light turbulence but somewhat more intense. Thereis, however, no loss of control of the airplane.

DRONE EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

Drone Equipment & Maintenance

INTRODUCTION v Regular usage may results in wear and tear of the UAV, thus requiring regular maintenance checks. v Comprehensive maintenance has be performed after 200 flights or 50 flight hours. v Pre-flight and post flights checks per flight. v Maintenance check list and manuals with Standard Operating Procedure.

DRONE MAINTENANCE - CHECKLIST 1. STRUCTURAL INSPECTION: v v v v v v v v v v v

Clean Airframe of mud and dirt Inspect Airframe for cracks Check for loose screws Check propellers for damage Check propellers for free-spinning Check motors for debris and obstructions Check state of wiring and solder joints Check gimbal and camera lens is clean Check landing gear condition Inspect Antennae Check control station for faulty components

DRONE MAINTENANCE - CHECKLIST 2. BATTERY CHECK: v Inspect charger for visible damage v Inspect battery packs for bulges or leakage v Charge all batteries 3. SOFTWARE/ FIRMWARE:

v Update drone firmware v Update Control Station software 4. FINISHING UP:

v Keep a track of maintenance report

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION (clean airframe of mud & dirt) v Over time, drone will gather layers of dirt from the rigors of flight, transport, and storage. v Battery pack has to be disconnected and the drone needs to be powered down. v Using an air duster in combination with a microfiber cloth, remove most of the dirt and build-up. v Care has to be taken while dealing with sensitive electronic components. v Tools required for cleaning 1. Anti-static cloth 2. Small cleaning brush 3. Compressed air canister (air duster) 4. Anti-static wristband 5. Isopropyl alcohol

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION (check inspect airframe for cracks) v Carefully inspect the airframe for damage. You should perform these checks on a regular basis and ensure all parts are serviced accordingly. v Even the smallest crack can cause critical problems if left unnoticed. v During routine maintenance, check each component extremely carefully and make a note of the damage you find.

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION (check for loose screws) v Ensure every component is secured tightly in place. During maintenance or repairs, it is likely that some components will need to be removed and replaced. v Double check the fastenings and bolts. v Don't over-tighten. This can lead to excess strain on joints and do even more damage.

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION (check propellers for damage)

Propeller damage can go unnoticed until it proves critical. Inspection for cracks. Proper fitting of props to motor. Unattended cracks can lead to mid flight failure Double check the type of prop while replacing. (CW props has to be replaced with CW props). v Check for smooth spinning of each propeller. v v v v v

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION (check state of wiring & solder joints) v v v v

Check exposed wiring for any wear outs. Open the chassis and inspect the internal wiring. Solder any loose connections Make sure you are complying with unit's manual before performing any repair.

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION (check motors for debris & obstructions) v Remove the propellers and prop adaptors to get proper motors. v Use air duster to clean any possible dirt inside the casing. v Remove the casing for further cleaning of debris by following the model specific maintenance manual.

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION Check Unit Camera is Clean v Insect splatter and other environmental factors can cause a large buildup matter. v Wipe the lens of the camera clean, and remove dirt

Check Landing Gear Condition v Without this module, the drone would not be able to perform a safe landing . v Make sure the legs and feet of the unit are not bent or cracked. v All rubber/ spring shock absorbers are intact. v If any parts are damaged or missing they will need to be ordered from your manufacturer and re-fitted.

STRUCTURAL INSPECTION Inspect Antennae v Make sure that the antennas are properly connected to the UAV. v Hold the antenna at the root while mounting. v Fold the antenna when not in use/ Transporting. v Replace the antenna if found unfit

Ground Control Station v Remote controller chassis v Remote controller antenna v Extended range transmitter/receiver(if applicable) v Ground Control Station

BATTERY INSPECTION- CHARGER v Check the docking station/ charger for each battery pack. v This component can often go for years without being properly serviced and is a surprisingly common cause of battery-related issues. v Inspect charger for visible damage v As well as a visual check, you should ensure the voltage specified by the dock is compliant with that of the battery pack.

BATTERY INSPECTION

Inspect battery packs for bulges or leakage v Bulges or deformities are signs of leakage and affected packs must be replaced immediately. v Active packs along with spares should be checked and replaced if necessary. v Inspect drone batteries, component batteries & additional component's batteries for any damage. v Replace damaged batteries (if necessary) v Cell voltages must not have differences more than 0.2 v.

SOFTARE / FIREMWARE Update drone firmware

v Update drone firmware periodically. v The system may prompt for an update or the operator has to manually check depending on the UAS. v Could be done with the help of a USB cable or wirelessly. v Refer the manual to know the model specific method.

SOFTARE / FIREMWARE

Update control station software v Prompt or notification will be sent by the developer. v Task has to be performed on the GCS controller. (Laptop, Tablet or a mobile device) v Ignoring the update may lead to unexpected error.

SCHEDULED SERVICING v v v v v v

Airframe Propellers Motors Gimbal Landing Gear Camera

SERVICE - AIRFRAME v Airframe is the major component of the drone and the following components has to be removed before servicing. • Remove drone battery • Remove all propellers • Detach non-fixed components from the frame • Remove all screws from the frame • Check the underside of the frame for additional components • Detach non-soldered wires from inside frame • Transfer components from old frame to new (if absent) • Route wires through new frame To re-assemble with the new frame, you'll want to follow the sub-task checklist in reverse. Be sure to refer to your manual for proper wiring guides and advice on how to route cables inside of the shell.

SERVICE - PROPELLERS v Propeller lifespan will vary depending on use-cases and quality of manufacture, with some lasting months and even years. v Firstly, be sure that the system is completely shut down and the motors are not connected to any power source. 1. Power off the drone unit 2. Disconnect the battery 3. Be sure all motors are run-down completely 4. Remove propellers v

Propeller orientation is important. Observe which way up the old propellers were positioned before removing them, so you can be sure the new components will be installed correctly. Often, this information will be marked on the propeller. 1. Remove damaged propellers 2. Observe propeller orientation 3. Retrieve matching replacement 4. Install new propeller

SERVICE - MOTORS v Always be considerate of the direction the motors are spinning. Flight depends on the propellers turning in the right direction. v Complete the sub-checklist below to replace the faulty motors. 1. Power off the drone unit 2. Disconnect the battery 3. Be sure all motors are run-down completely 4. Remove propellers v Generally, you will need to unscrew the frame of the unit and make sure all wires are properly disconnected. Many components will have clip fastenings for easy connecting and re-connecting, but some will need to be de-soldered and re-soldered upon reassembly. reconnecting, but some will need to 1. Disassemble frame 2. Disconnect component wires 3. Identify faulty motors 4. Make note of which direction each motor is spinning. 5. Install new motor

SERVICE - GIMBAL v Make sure you have the controller and application on hand, but they should be off, to begin with. v Follow the sub-checklists below, which begin with powering down the drone system. 1. Power off the drone 2. Disconnect the battery 3. Be sure all motors are run-down completely 4. Remove propellers 5. Unscrew gimbal frame 6. Remove camera and additional connections 7. Remove defective gimbal 8. Align new gimbal 9. Screw gimbal onto the frame 10. Reconnect additional components v After the service, assemble the system and check for stabilization, pan & tilt movements and video output.

SERVICE – LANDING GEAR v Your drone's landing frame may have additional connections that require dismantling before it can be replaced. Make sure you refer to your manual so that you know how to properly reassemble each component. v First, take proper precaution by fully powering down the drone system. 1. Power off the drone unit 2. Disconnect the battery 3. Be sure all motors are run-down completely 4. Remove propellers 5. Turn the drone upside-down 6. Place drone on firm, flat surface 7. Remove screws securing landing gear to drone surface 8. Remove rubber supports 9. Carefully detach/reattach wiring 10. Transfer components from old frame (If applicable) 11. Align new landing gear 12. Screw new landing gear in place

SERVICE – CAMERA v Camera compatibility is an important factor to be aware of. Especially with DJI's models, cameras can be difficult to replace, and replacement components are highly inflexible. Be sure to consult the model-specific manual for camera specifications and investigate whether camera replacement is within the scope of your current warranty. v For some camera installations, including mounted GoPro cameras, the installation is relatively straightforward. Follow the sub-checklists below. 1. Unscrew gimbal frame 2. Remove gimbal panels 3. Remove faulty camera v Once the new camera is installed, the yaw and roll will need to be configured with the controller application. 1. Align new GoPro camera with the gimbal fixtures 2. Firmly press the GoPro into the gimbal frame 3. Calibrate gimbal yaw and roll in-app

Risk Assessment & Analysis – safety management / Threat and error management (Tem) 1

RISK ASSESSMENT : It is the Process of assessing the risks to People’s Safety and Health from Workplace hazards.

❖ WHAT IS HAZARD ?

❖ WHAT IS RISK ?

Source, Situation or act with a potential for harm in terms of human injury or ill health or damage to property or a combination of these.

Combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event or exposure and the severity of injury or ill health that can be caused by the event or exposure.

Ex; Hazards - The Lion out of his cage

Risk - Injury or killed People

2

What is Emergency ? ❖ An emergency is a situation that poses an immediate risk to health, life, property, or environment. ❖ An unforeseen combination of circumstances or the resulting state that calls for immediate action.

3

Types of Emergency : ➢

FIRE

➢

MEDICAL

➢

ENVIRONMENTAL

➢

HUMAN

➢

TECHNICAL (HARDWARE OR SOFTWARE EMERGENCY)

❖ Emergencies can be reduced or mitigated by preparing an EMERGENCY PLAN. ❖ An emergency plan specifies procedures for handling sudden or unexpected situations

4

Emergency : Loss of Communication or Control Link ❖Possible Effects

❖Contingency Plan

1. RPAS crash into a one or more buildings.

1. Communication failure will also trigger the smart Return to Home(RTH) where Aircraft returns at a safe altitude.

2. Obstacles resulting in widespread secondary injury to humans from UAS debris and/or buliding damage.

2. FS-COMM (Communication failsafe) feature is available to counter this type of Emergency. 5

Emergency : Aircraft Fly Away (Geo-Fence Non Conformance) Fly away Emergency which occurs due to GPS and Hardware/Software failure is known as Straying.

❖Possible Effects

❖Contingency Plan

1.

1.

Mid Air Collision with another manned or unmanned aerial aircraft.

2. Crash into buildings/obstacles.

Geo-Fencing is always enabled and doesn’t allow pilot to fly outside the defined Corridor.

3. Crash Debris injuring People on the Ground.

6

Emergency : Battery Power Loss or Failure ❖Possible Effects

❖Contingency Plan

1. Uncontrolled descent or landing could cause serious injury to many persons on the ground and possible fatalities.

1. Battery failsafe cautions the pilot of low battery warning and immediately initiates Return to Home(RTH) Or Return to Launch(RTL) and land the Aircraft autonomously at pre-defined location.

2. Chances of mid-Air fire leading to damage of ground assets. 3. Crash Landing

2. FS-BATT (Battery failsafe) feature is available for this. Ex; if bat volt is less than 21.2 V, switched to RTL mode.

7

Emergency : RPAS Loss of Control ❖Possible Effects

❖Contingency Plan

1. Undesired flight trajectory could cause mid-air collision with other RPAS or Manned Aircraft.

1. Stabilization and position holding based on GPS and INS reduce any Uncontrolled action risk.

2. landing could cause serious injury to many persons on the ground and possible fatalities.

2. Pilot should take manual control to recover the UAV.

8

Emergency : Unsuccessful Landing or Flight Termination ❖Possible Effects 1. Vehicles Totaling

break-up

❖Contingency Plan or

2. Post crash fire that injures ground crew/threatens wildlife and environment.

Smart Return To Home is always active, thereby preventing aircraft from landing outside defined areas.

3. RPAS collides with buildings/ bridges/other obstacles causing debris that injure or cause fatalities on ground.

9

Emergency : Hostile Remote Takeover and Control of RPAS ❖Possible Effects

❖Contingency Plan

1. One of more RPAS is intentionally crashed into another manned/unmanned Aircraft.

1. Anti-tampering measures have been implemented.

2. RPAS is intentionally crashed into vital infrastructure or important dignitaries or property/life.

2. Hardware is detectable by only specific proprietary software and is accessible only on machines installed with driver. 3. Software interface used for firmware access is protected by Password protection and access is not provide to any customers.

10

Threat and Error Management (TEM) Threat and Error Management (TEM) is an overreaching safety Concept regarding aviation operations and Human performance. The TEM Framework is a conceptual model that assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter-relationship between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational contexts. There are three basic components in the TEM Framework. Threats, Errors and undesired(aircraft) states. Threats : generally defined as events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the line personnel, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to maintain the margins of safety. Errors : generally defined as actions or inactions by the line personnel that lead to deviations from organizational or operational intensions or expectations. Undesired states : generally defined as operational conditions where an unintended situation results in a reduction in margins of safety.

11

EMERGENCY IDENTIFICATION 1.

Pilot Error

2.

Heavy Winds

3.

Loss of Altitude (IMU Failure)

4.

Remote Controller Failure

5.

Compass Failure

6.

Motor/Propeller damage

7.

Medical Emergencies

12

PAYLOAD INSTALLATION AND UTILIZATION

PAYLOAD: THE DEFINITION ØPayload Is The Weight A Drone Or Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPA) Can Carry Or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)can Carry. ØIt Is Usually Counted Out Side Of The Weight Of The Drone Itself And Includes Anything Addional To The Drone- Such As Extra Cameras, Sensors Or Packages For Delivery.

PAYLOAD: THE PHYSICS ØIt might all seem a bit obvious, but here goes: the higher power-to-weight ratio your drone has, the greater a payload it can carry. ØHowever: drones with a high power-to-weight ratio are also those couldn’t carry ten feet. ØHeavier drones will have some impact on the power required to carry big payloads, and you’ll see this payoff in flight duration possibilities.

PAYLOAD: THE PHYSICS ØYou could always consider upgrading the battery but a bigger battery means a heavier payload, restricting what else you can include! ØIt’s all about lift: you can have two drones of the same mass, one with large rotors and one with small rotors. The one with larger rotors will create more air thrust with the same power, despite the air flow being slower than that generated by the smaller-rotored drone.

WHAT IS A GIMBAL? ØGimbals are used to stabilise camera payloads that have been mounted on drones and other autonomous vehicles such as UGVs. ØThe gimbal integrates an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) that responds to motion and provides inputs to a controller that activates separate motors to keep the payload steady on each axis.

TYPES OF ELECTRO-OPTIC PAYLOAD?

EO PAYLOAD

RGB CAMERA

THERMAL CAMERA

LIDAR

MULTISPECTRAL CAMERA

RGB CAMERA Ø What is drone RGB? The human eye is sensitive to red, green, and blue (RGB) bands of light. Most standard drones come with cameras that capture the same RGB bands so the images they produce recreate almost exactly what our eyes see.

RGB CAMERA Ø What is drone RGB? With an RGB camera on your drone, you can see your entire field in one place by processing aerial imagery into an orthomosaic map, quickly make observations, enter the geodata into your GPS, and drive right into the problem area without damaging your entire field.

RGB CAMERA Ø What is an RGB camera? A visible camera sensor is an imager that collects visible light (400~700nm) and converts that to an electrical signal, then organizes that information to render images and video streams.

FEATURES OF PAYLOADS

Ø Software Stabilization of the video stream Ø Object Tracking -Video processor steers the Gimble to maintain the object of interest inside the video framre, even if the object is moving and aircraft platform is moving.

APPLICATION OF RGB SENSORS

TRAFFIC MONITORING

CROWD MONITORING

APPLICATION OF RGB SENSORS DISASTER MANAGEMENT? Drone can be used for fire detection, intervention monitoring and also for post-fire monitoring.

BORDER SECURITY? A drone can quickly fly over, detect threats and provide aerial images and real-time footage.

APPLICATION OF RGB SENSORS

Ariel surveillance

The use of unmanned and, increasingly, completely automated drone inspection has already caused huge waves in the asset management sector.

APPLICATION OF RGB SENSORS

ØSolar farms, Wind farms ØRailways ØBridge inspections ØPower lines ØMobile Phone Towers ØOil and Gas ØWater Pipes ØBuildings and Construction

APPLICATION OF RGB SENSORS MAPPING a. 2D mapping (fix camera) b. 3D mapping (gimbal camera)

APPLICATION OF RGB SENSORS

ØMining ØErosion detection ØBoundary management ØProject progress monitoring

THERMAL CAMERA ØA thermo graphic camera(or infra red camera) detects infrared light(or heat) invisible to the the human eye. Ø A thermal imager (also known as a thermal camera) is essentially a heat sensor that is capable of detecting tiny differences in temperature. The device collects the infrared radiation from objects in the scene and creates an electronic image based on information about the temperature differences.

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD Originally developed for surveillance and military operations, thermal cameras are now widely used übuilding inspections (moisture, insulation, roofing, etc.) üFirefighting üautonomous vehicles and automatic braking, üSkin temperature üindustrial inspections üSolar panel inspection üPower line inspection üPipe line inspection üWild life monitoring

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD übuilding inspections (moisture, insulation, roofing etc.)

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD üFirefighting

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD üautonomous vehicles and automatic braking

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD üSkin temperature,

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD üindustrial inspections

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD übuilding inspections (moisture, insulation, roofing etc.)

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD üSolar inspection

APPLICATION OF THERMAL PAYLOAD POWER LINE INSPECTION

LiDAR SENSOR TECHNOLOGY Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensors use light energy, emitted from a laser, to scan the ground and measure variable distances.

What is LiDAR technology in drones? LiDAR drones are any drones made to carry a LiDAR sensor. They are used to collect data that can be used to make detailed 3D models for a variety of applications and industries.

APPLICATION OF LiDAR SENSOR iDAR, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote-sensing technology that uses a laser beam to get information about surrounding objects. Since its inception, scientists have used LiDAR to map the earth's surface and acquire meteorological data.

APPLICATION OF DRONES: AGRICULTRURE Drones can help farmers to optimize the use of inputs (seed, fertilizers, water), to react more quickly to threats (weeds, pests, fungi), to save time crop scouting (validate treatment/actions taken), to improve variable-rate prescriptions in real time and estimate yield from a field.

APPLICATION OF DRONES: LIGHT SHOWS

Introduction to drone data and analysis

Table of content • Principles of Observation • Elements of Image & Video Interpretation • Introduction to Photogrammetry • Types of Image & Video Data • Analysis

Principles of observation •

Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation and information extraction.

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Observing the differences between targets and their backgrounds involves comparing different targets based on any, or all, of the visual elements of tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow, and association

Tone Refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image. Generally, tone is the fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features. Variations in tone also allows the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.

Shape Refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual objects. Shape can be a very distinctive clue for interpretation. Straight edge shapes typically represent urban or agricultural (field) targets, while natural features, such as forest edges, are generally more irregular in shape, except where man has created a road or clear cuts. Farm or crop land irrigated by rotating sprinkler systems would appear as circular shapes.

Pattern Refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects. Typically an orderly repetition of similar tones and textures will produce a distinctive and ultimately recognizable pattern. Orchards with evenly spaced trees, and urban streets with regularly spaced houses are good examples of pattern.

Size Size of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of a target relative to other objects in a scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in the interpretation of that target. A quick approximation of target size can direct interpretation to an appropriate result more quickly. For example, if an interpreter had to distinguish zones of land use, and had identified an area with a number of buildings in it, large buildings such as factories or warehouses would suggest commercial property, whereas small buildings would indicate residential use.

Texture Refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas of an image. Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change abruptly in a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal variation. Smooth textures are most often the result of uniform, even surfaces, such as fields, asphalt, or grasslands. A target with a rough surface and irregular structure, such as a forest canopy, results in a rough textured appearance. Texture is one of the most important elements for distinguishing features in radar imagery.

Shadow Shadow is also helpful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the profile and relative height of a target or targets which may make identification easier. However, shadows can also reduce or eliminate interpretation in their area of influence, since targets within shadows are much less (or not at all) discernible from their surroundings. Shadow is also useful for enhancing or identifying topography and landforms, particularly in radar imagery.

Association Association takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or features in proximity to the target of interest. The identification of features that one would expect to associate with other features may provide information to facilitate identification. In the example given above, commercial properties may be associated with proximity to major transportation routes, whereas residential areas would be associated with schools, playgrounds, and sports fields. In our example, a lake is associated with boats, a marina, and adjacent recreational land.

Types of image and video data • Infra red image • Near infra red image • Night vision • Thermal image • Multispectral image

Infrared image

Near infrared image

Thermal Image

Multispectral image

Night vision image

Introduction to photogrammetry • Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining spatial measurements and other geometrically reliable derived products from photographs. • Photogrammetric analysis procedures can range from: Obtaining approximate distance, areas and elevations using hardcopy photographic products with unsophisticated equipment. Geometric concepts to generating precise digital elevation models (DEMs), orthophotos and thematic GIS data. Digital photogrammetry is changing rapidly and forms the basis for most current photogrammetric operations. • Mapping from aerial photographs can take on numerous forms and can employ either hardcopy or softcopy approaches. • Orthophotos combine the geometric utility of a map with the extra real world image information provided by a photograph. • The process of creating an orthophoto depends on the existence of a reliable DEM for the area being mapped.

Drone data analysis • The images gathered during a mission can be processed using your software to sort, organize, and manage the data contained within the images. Image processing tools then produce a final data set that can be easily analyzed and provide valuable business insights such as the severity of damage on a wind turbine blade or the degree of degradation of insulators on a powerline. • If desired, the data can also be turned into 2D or 3D maps using photogrammetry engines to provide orthomosaic maps, digital surface models, or contour maps. • Storing and analyzing drone data from every mission allows the end-user to easily make comparisons over specific timeframes. Examples include the progress on a construction site, the number of materials stored in a specific location, or the incremental degradation of a wind turbine blade. • A final report can then be generated to share with key stakeholders or decision-makers to review and take further action if needed.

Ways to view drone data • Depending on the software you utilize, you should be able to view your data concisely in the following ways: • Report Exports: including CSV, PDF, and charts, graphics, and tables • Platform Analytics: including performance figures on orders, missions, inspections, flights, pilots, data • Return on Investment: so you can track efficiency, safety benefits, and program results • Data Mapping and Navigation: with a graphical user interface to navigate across 2D/3D models, visualize on maps, and click through images