Think: Week 1 What Is Science? [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

Week 1

What is Science?

Tutorial think 1.

What is science?

2.

How does scientific knowledge comes about?

Create/Innovate your image of a scientist? (Draw)

Reflect Has your conception of science changed? Can you be a scientist?

What is science?

Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge" or "knowing") is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding of how the physical world works. Knowledge in science is gained through research. The methods of scientific research include the generation of hypotheses about how natural phenomena work, and experimentation that tests these hypotheses under controlled conditions. The outcome or product of this empirical scientific process is the formulation of theory that describes human understanding of physical processes and facilitates prediction. According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," or "knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method concerned with the physical world." Some Other Definitions of Science 1. the systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts. 2. the organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation. 3. any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology, physics, geology, or astronomy. Academic Press Dictionary of Science & Technology

Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be organized into meaningful patterns. A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data). An ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists between and amongst the various facts. Dr. Sheldon Gottlieb in a lecture series at the University of South Alabama Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge. It is the systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. Science is about gaining a deeper and often useful understanding of the world. from the Multicultural History of Science page at Vanderbilt University. Science consists simply of the formulation and testing of hypotheses based on observational evidence; experiments are important where applicable, but their function is merely to simplify observation by imposing controlled conditions. Robert H. Dott, Jr., and Henry L. Batten, Evolution of the Earth (2nd edition) Science alone of all the subjects contains within itself the lesson of the danger of belief in the infallibility of the greatest teachers in the preceding generation . . .As a matter of fact, I can also define science another way: Science is the belief in the ignorance of experts. Richard Feynman, Nobel-prize-winning physicist, in The Pleasure of Finding Things Out as quoted in American Scientist v. 87, p. 462 (1999).

THE GIFT OF SCIENCE Constantly enhancing the mind Letting us search until we find The answer to our sudden birth On this caring sanctuary we call Mother Earth Or to become even more superior And make those who challenge our existence inferior

The hunger to reach our goals is so extremely vast Hoping science may be our holy repast Come and observe our constant yearn Of the knowledge that science offers us to learn We often foolishly go to the edge Yet science has saved us from jumping off the ledge The more we come to know The farther we may boldly go Whatever scientific knowledge man may reap Using common sense, he shall surely keep For it may be the key that man can use To unlock the secrets of a mythical muse Science exists for the benefit of man Waiting to be explored so one can reveal the universe's master plan. -Jonathan Woo

Science As A Process Scientific process refers to bodies of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in order to dependably predict any future results. Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many hypotheses together in a coherent structure. This in turn may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context. Elements of scientific method or process There are many ways of outlining the basic method shared by all fields of scientific inquiry. The following examples are typical classifications of the most important components of the method on which there is wide agreement in the scientific community and among philosophers of science. There are, however, disagreements about some aspects. The essential elements of a scientific method are iterations, recursions, interleavings, and orderings of the following: •

Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)

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Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)

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Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction from the hypothesis or theory)

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Experiments (tests of all of the above)

Each element of a scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that

scientists do (see below) but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry). The elements above are often taught in the educational system. Scientific method is not a recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. It is also an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia. On the contrary, if the astronomically large, the vanishingly small, and the extremely fast are reduced out from Einstein's theories — all phenomena that Newton could not have observed — Newton's equations remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories, and observations that increase our confidence in them also increase our confidence in Newton's approximations to them. A linearized, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding: 1. Define the question 2. Gather information and resources (observe) 3. Form hypothesis 4. Perform experiment and collect data 5. Analyze data 6. Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis 7. Publish results 8. Retest (frequently done by other scientists)

Science Attitude and Noble Values What are the characteristics of a scientist? I would say the curiosity is the main trait that drives a scientist. Why does something work? When does an event occur? How can I recreate this event? And so on. A formal education helps, but is

not always necessary for success. Look into the histories of Edison and Westinghouse, and you will see that their main education came not from schooling, but from experience and trying to "see why things worked". Chris Murphy Scientists come in all shapes and sizes, just like everyone else. What I think you mean is, "What attitude or aptitude do scientists have?" I think the short answer is a scientist is always asking: How? Why? does Nature behave the way it does? This is the distinguishing attitude all scientists must possess -- it is not like people in other fields do not have these qualities, though. The education and training of a scientist is important, but without an inquiring mind, all the education in the world will not produce a good scientist. Vince Calder Fernando I do not have an author to quote with a profound answer to your question. I will make a few comments as to what I have personally experienced in those I feel fall into the "good" scientist category: Someone who: 1. has a passion for learning 2. has an open mind and is not disabled by boundaries of thought 3. can look at situations from many angles 4. is not frustrated in finding one or several plausible solutions regardless of the time involved, and who can use failure to improve future approaches to problem solving 5. uses learned knowledge and theories but is not fully bound by them in facing new situations , i.e. can think outside the box

6. can acknowledge input / feelings from others as one source of information but not be overly swayed by that input 7. has at their core a desire to improve the human condition without adversely affecting the environment or other living things 8. is honest in the collection and analysis of data whether they support his (her) own theories or not 9. communicates clearly their findings with honesty as a primary consideration, leaving funding and politics for others to consider I am sure there are other good qualities, some indication of aptitude or intelligence as well as working with others without ego which could increase their effectiveness, but lacking these would not make them ineffective as a scientist. Bhaskara Rao (1989) stated that the most useful scientific attitudes are open mindedness, critical mindedness, respect for evidence, suspended judgment, intellectual honesty, willingness to change opinion, search for truth, curiosity, rational thinking, etc. Scientific attitude is really a composite of a number of mental habits, or of tendencies to react consistently in certain ways to a novel or problematic situation. These habits or tendencies include accuracy, intellectual honesty, open-mindedness, suspended judgment, criticalness, and a habit of looking for true cause and effect relationships. It is a cognitive concept; scientific attitudes are normally associated with the mental processes of scientists. These habits are important in the everyday life and thinking, not only of the scientist, but of everyone. Rationality It means 'the quality or condition of being rational'. Philosophers have the view that the aim of science is the achievement of truth

and the avoidance of error (Goldman, 1999). On this view, science is rational to the extent that the beliefs that it accumulates are true, and scientific reasoning is rational to the extent that it tends to produce true beliefs. Rationality, normally defined as giving reasons for actions or for holding beliefs. Man is a rational animal. Rationality is the process of using reason or logic to solve a problem.

Curiosity Every one shows desire for understanding new situations in general life. One will get so many new situations if they open science books but how may of them are interested to understand them is a big question mark? Open mindedness In the language of the general public, open-mindedness means being open to possible theories and explanations for a particular phenomenon. But in science, it means that and something more. Philosopher Jonathan Adler (1998) teaches us that science values another aspect of open-mindedness even more highly: "What truly marks an open-minded person is the willingness to follow where evidence leads. The open-minded person is willing to defer to impartial investigations rather than to his own predilections...Scientific method is attunement to the world, not to ourselves". Aversion to superstitious beliefs A superstition is the belief that events are influenced by specific behaviors, without having a causal relationship. Superstition is derived from the Latin words "super" (over, beyond) and "sto, stare" (to stand). Therefore, superstion means one who overly stands, or not being progressive. A superstition is a false belief based on ignorance (e.g., if we don't beat the drums during an eclipse, the evil demon won't return the sun to the sky), fear of the unknown (e.g., if we don't chop up this chicken in just the

right way and burn it according to tradition while uttering just the right incantations then the rain won't come and our crops won't grow and we'll starve), trust in magic (e.g., if I put spit or dirt on my beautiful child who has been praised, the effects of the evil eye will be averted), trust in chance (if I open this book randomly and let my finger fall to any word that word will guide my future actions), or some other false conception of causation. Objectivity-intellectual honesty Objectivity, another form of intellectual honesty in research, means that we let nature "speak for itself" without imposing our wishes on it--that we report the results of experimentation as accurately as we can and that we interpret them as fairly as possible. Objectivity is critical to the process of science, but it does not mean that such attitudes must characterize each and every scientist for science as a whole to work. Jacob Bronowski (1977) often argued that the unique power of science to reveal knowledge about the world does not arise because scientists are uniquely virtuous. It arises because fallible scientists are immersed in a process of checks and balances--a process in which scientists are always there to criticize and to root out errors. Philosopher Daniel Dennett (1999/2000) points out that "scientists take themselves to be just as weak and fallible as anybody else, but recognizing those very sources of error in themselves. They have devised elaborate systems to tie their own hands, forcibly preventing their frailties and prejudices from infecting their results". Suspended judgment All good scientists are skeptics. This means that they maintain an attitude of doubt or of suspended judgment about scientific ideas.In non-legal contexts, a judgment is a balanced weighing up of evidence preparatory to making a decision. The formal process of evaluation can sometimes be described as a set of conditions and criteria that must be satisfied in order for a judgment to be made. Diederich describes: "A scientist tries hard not to form an opinion on a given issue until he has investigated

it, because it is so hard to give up opinion already formed, and they tend to make us find facts that support the opinions... There must be however, a willingness to act on the best hypothesis that one has time or opportunity to form."