Language Learning Theory [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

(How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING Subtractive bilingualism: partially or completely losing the first language as a second language is acquired Additive bilingualism: learning a second language without losing the first 2. Truths vs. myths of early childhood bilingualism Truths - Jim Cummins (1984, 2000) and others

Myths - One particular group of children who

pointed out: it was a myth

arrive at their first day of school without an age-appropriate knowledge of the language of the school have often been misdiagnosed as having language delays or disorders These children’s knowledge of a different language or language variety

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There is little support for the myth that

is interpreted as a lack of knowledge of

learning more than one language in early childhood is a problem for

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with two languages. People fear that the

children (Genesee, Crago, and Pradis, -

2004) Some studies show minor early delays

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for simultaneous bilinguals Many simultaneous bilinguals achieve high levels of proficiency in both languages

language in general It is too difficult for children to cope children will be confused or will not learn either language well.

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Learning two languages substantially slows down their linguistic development or interferes with cognitive and academic development

3. Definitions of some terms -

Child directed speech: the language that caretakers address to children. In some cases, this language is simpler than that which is addressed to adults. In some cultures, it is also slower,

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higher pitched, more repetitive, and includes a large number of questions. Language acquisition devices (LAD): all children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop. The Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. The LAD is a system of

principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn

(How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown) structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn. Second language learning theory proposes that acquisition is possible in second and subsequent languages, and that learning programmes have to create the conditions for it.

4. Researchers – the theoretical approaches to language acquisition  

B. F. Skinner (1940s-1950s) Behaviorism Noam Chomsky (1959): all human languages are fundamentally innate and the same universal

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principles underlie all of them Innatism: o LAD o UG o CPH Jean Piaget (1951/1946): children’s language is built on their cognitive development. The developing cognitive understanding is built on the interaction between the child and the things that can be observed or manipulated. Language was one of a number of symbols systems that are developed in childhood. Language can be used to represent knowledge that children have acquired through physical interaction with the environment. => saw language as a symbol system that could

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be used to express knowledge acquired through interaction with the physical world Lev Vygosky (1978): language develops primarily from social interaction. In a supportive interactive environment, children are able to advance to a higher level of knowledge and performance. => thought was essentially internalized speech, and speech emerged in social interaction

5. Three main theories 

Behaviorism: A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place through the establishment of habits. According to this view, when learners imitate and repeat the language they hear in their surrounding environment and are positively reinforced for doing so,

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habit formation (or learning) occurs. Innatism: A theory that human beings are born with mental structures that are designed

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specifically for the acquisition of language o LAD o UG o CPH Interactionism: The hypothesis that language acquisition is based both on learners’ innate abilities and on opportunities to engage in conversations, often those in which other speakers modify their speech and their interaction patterns to match learners’ communication requirements. The innate abilities are not seen as being specific to language or language acquisition

(How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown)

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 1. Four main Theories 

Behaviorism: .... => development of audiolingual teaching materials and teacher training (classroom activities emphasized mimicry and memorization, students learned dialogues and sentence patterns by heart) Because language development was viewed as the formation of habits, it was assumed that a person learning a second language would start off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits would interfere with the new ones needed for the second language. => link to

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CAH – Robert Lado (1964) Innatism o UG o Krashen’s monitor model: five hypotheses Connectionism: a theory of knowledge (including language) as a complex system of units that become interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together. The more often units are heard or seen together, the more likely it is that the presence of one will lead to the activation of the other. Connectionism attributes greater importance to the role of the environment than to any specific innate knowledge in the learner. Connectionist argue that what is innate is simply the ability to learn, not any specifically linguistic principles learners gradually build up their knowledge of language through exposure to the thousands of instances of the linguistic features they eventually hear. After hearing language feature in specific situational or linguistic contexts over and over again, learners develop a stronger and stronger network of connections between these elements. Eventually, the presence of one situational or

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linguistic element will activate the other(s) in the learner’s mind. Interactionism: conversational interaction is an essential, if not sufficient, condition for L2 language acquisition. studied the ways in which speakers modify their speech and interaction patterns in order to help learners participate in a conversation or understand some information. Comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. Focus on how input could be made comprehensible => Modified interaction. What learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers, working together to reach mutual comprehension. Through these interactions, interlocutors figure out what they need to do to keep the conversation going and make the input comprehensible. Michael Long (1983) Interactional modification makes input comprehensible + Comprehensible input promotes acquisition => Interactional modification promotes acquisition

2. Krashen’s monitor model

(How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown) 

Acquisition – learning hypothesis: we acquire as we are exposed to samples of the second language we understand in much the same way that children pick up their first language – with no conscious attention to language form (let the tuition do it). We learn on the other hand through

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conscious attention to form and rule learning Monitor hypothesis: the acquired system initiates a speaker’s utterances and is responsible for spontaneous language use. The learned system acts as an editor or monitor, making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system has produced. Such monitoring takes place only when the speaker/writer has plenty of time , is concerned about producing correct language, and has learned the relevant rules => the amount of language we have can control what we say/ Our knowledge

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influences the way we learn new things Natural order hypothesis: was based on the findings that, as in L1 acquisition, L2 acquisition unfolds in predictable sequences. The language features that are easiest to state (and thus to learn) are not necessarily the first to be acquired. Eg. the rule for adding an –s to third person singular verbs in the present tense is easy to state but even some advanced L2 speakers fail to apply it in

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spontaneous conversations Input hypothesis: acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and that contains i+1. The i represents the level of language already acquired, and the +1 is a metaphor for language (words, grammatical forms, aspects of pronunciation) that is just a step beyond that

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level. Affective filter hypothesis: some people who are exposed to large quantities of comprehensible input do not necessarily acquire a language successfully. The AF is a metaphorical barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available. Affect refers to feelings, motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional states. A learner who is tense, anxious, or bored may “filter out” input, making it unavailable for acquisition.

(How Languages are Learned - Book by Nina Spada and Patsy Lightbown) 3. Terms 

Contrastive analysis hypothesis: the expectation that learners will have less difficulty acquiring

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target language patterns that are similar to those of the first language than those that are different Modified interaction: adapted conversation patterns that proficient speakers use in addressing language learners so that the learner will be able to understand. Examples of interactional

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modifications include comprehension checks, clarification requests and self-repetitions. Competence: Linguist Noam Chomsky used this term to refer to knowledge of language. This is contrast with performance, which is the way a person actually uses language – whether for speaking, listening, reading or writing. Because we cannot observe competence directly, we have

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to infer its nature from performance UG: innate knowledge of the principles of UG permits all children to acquire the language of their

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environment during a critical period of their development Comprehensible output hypothesis: the hypothesis that successful L2 acquisition depends on learners producing language (oral or written). Swan (1985) proposed this hypothesis in response to

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Krashen’s (1985) comprehensible input hypothesis Comprehensible input: a term introduced by Krashen to refer to language that a learner can understand. It may be comprehensible in part because of gestures, situations, or prior information Input: the language that the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in the environment Uptake: this term is sometimes used generally to refer to what a learner notices and/or retains in L2 input or instruction. Lyster and Ranta’s (1997) definition refers to a learner’s observable immediate response to corrective feedback on his/her utterances