A Guide To English Russian and Russian English Non-Literary Translatio000 [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

Alexandr Zaytsev

A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation

A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation

Alexandr Zaytsev

A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation

123

Alexandr Zaytsev Department of Foreign Languages I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University Moscow Russia

ISBN 978-981-10-0842-9 DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6

ISBN 978-981-10-0843-6

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016939058 © Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd.

Preface

This book may be useful for those who perform, investigate, teach, or try to master English–Russian and Russian–English non-literary translation. While reading it, you will notice that it is peppered with such words as ‘pragmatics’ and ‘pragmatic’. Of course, this is not without reason. Pragmatic aspects of translation are important. No less important, I believe, is to remain pragmatic when writing about translation. That is why, in my book, I do not examine all the famous principles, beliefs, or theories, especially given the abundance of comprehensive tomes which have already served this useful purpose (e.g., Munday 2001; Hatim and Munday 2004). Here, some theories are described inasmuch as they may help people working in the field of Russian–English and English–Russian non-literary translation develop solutions to the core practical problems. To be more exact, most of the focus in the book is directed toward three mutually complementary theories: that of speech products, that of types of knowledge, and that of translation techniques. I am convinced that only by building bridges between textual and discursive parameters of speech products and psycho-cognitive phenomena and operations can one provide a truly holistic view of the process of translation. …Addressing the book to the four different audiences (practicing translators, translation researchers, educators, and students) may seem imprudent only at first sight. On the one hand, I consider myself a perpetual learner, and so do all the good translators and scholars I know—they never rest on their laurels. On the other hand, many translation students and fledgling translators are prospective teachers and investigators. Besides, in a non-authoritarian classroom environment, teachers and students always learn from each other.

v

vi

Preface

References Munday, J. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 1st edition. Hatim, B. and Munday, J. 2004. Translation: An Advanced Resource Book. London and New York: Routledge.

Contents

1 Translation and Cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2

2 Types of Translation: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Types of Translation Summarized in a Diagram . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 R. Jakobson’s Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Machine Translation versus Human Translation. . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 ‘Stylistic’ Types of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 The Notion of ‘Functional Style’ Developed by I. Galperin and V. Nayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 The System of Functional Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 What Functional Styles Should not Be Mistaken for . . 2.4.4 Norms of Similar Functional Styles in Different Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5 Literary versus Non-literary Translation . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6 Functional Styles and the Written Variety of Language 2.5 ‘Psycholinguistic’ Types of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Written Translation and Interpreting Compared . . . . . . 2.5.2 Sight Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Consecutive Interpreting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Simultaneous Interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.5 Interdependence of ‘Stylistic’ and ‘Psycholinguistic’ Types of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

3 3 3 5 6

... ... ...

6 6 7

. . . . . . . .

8 8 8 9 9 9 10 11

... ...

11 12

3 What Is It That We Translate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 The Problem of Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The Notion of ‘Speech Product’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity. 3.3.1 Preliminary Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 The Textual Side of a Speech Product . . . . . . 3.3.3 The Discursive Side of a Speech Product . . . .

. . . . . . .

15 15 15 17 17 18 22

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

vii

viii

Contents

3.3.4 The Overall Content of a Speech Product. . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Types of Knowledge Required to Understand Speech Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.6 Speech Product Parameters Summed up . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

....

31

.... .... ....

31 36 37

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

39 39 44 44 57 59 63 94 98

5 Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Notes to Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Notes to Trainees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Sample Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

101 101 105 106 132

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products 4.1 Can You Translate Word-for-Word? . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation . . . 4.2.1 Stage One: Preliminary Analysis . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Stage Two: Translation Proper . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.1 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.2 Translation Techniques . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Stage Three: Self-editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Chapter 1

Translation and Cheese

Among other things, many scholars have been searching for the ultimate definition of translation—and this is something I would not attempt, because even if one were able to elaborate such an exact statement, its ‘all-embracingness’ would make it totally useless; it would never pass the ‘So What?’ test—i.e., it would be unclear what its practical implications could be. The so-called law of inverse relation between content and extension of ideas seems to hold up well in this case: the less one restricts the extension of an idea, the more vague its content becomes. The only thing we can say about ‘translation’ as an umbrella term for sure is that it is “characterized […] by its variability” (Toury 1998: 12; italics in the original). Let us try to answer the following question: “What can we translate?” An obvious answer will be “Lots of things.” Written texts, ranging from poems to international agreements to commercials to scientific articles to movie subtitles; different acts of oral speech, ranging from small talk during coffee breaks to formal discussions at the highest levels of government. To perform such tasks we should be aware of, and take into account, all the numerous unique characteristics different pairs of languages may have (not to mention the unique relationships between source and target languages); we should be able to utilize different cognitive mechanisms, types of knowledge, skills, and techniques, as well as different sorts of equipment and additional sources of information. Having thought of that, one may arrive at the idea that it is difficult to come up with an elegant classification of all the above-mentioned heterogeneous activities (that many of them truly are). Now let us try to answer the same question, shifting the emphasis: “What can we translate?” I do not think there are people, who, having a good command of two languages, or even being bilinguals, will say “I can translate anything.” Can you translate novels, patents, Ph.D. theses on nuclear physics, and musicological treatises?

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6_1

1

2

1 Translation and Cheese

Can you perform both chuchotage and sight translation? Can you translate from your first language (L1) into your second language (L2) as easily as from L2 into L11? Apparently, there are no ‘universal translators’ out there. The problem is that the ways we categorize things are often imposed on us by the languages we are speaking (and thinking). For example, if you are an English speaker and you wish to study, say, different kinds of cheese, you will surely study cottage cheese as well. Yet if your native tongue is Russian and you want to embark on the same tempting project, it will never occur to you to study cottage cheese, because in the Russian language cottage cheese is not assigned to the category of ‘cheeses’—it is believed to be a dairy product different from cheese (cыp), since there is a separate word to denote it (твopoг).2 I am not trying to say that all the activities we often call ‘types of translation’ should, in fact, be viewed as different categories, not as a set of entities belonging to the same category. Rather, I believe that the best way to understand important things about translation is to focus on its specific kinds and fields of application.

References Bernardini, S. 2001. Think-aloud Protocols in Translation Research. Achievements, Limits, Future Prospects. Target 13(2):241–63. Jakobson, R. 1959/2004. On linguistic aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (ed.) (2004), pp. 138–43. Toury, G. 1998. A Handful of Paragraphs on ‘Translation’ and ‘Norms’. In C. Schäffner (ed.) (1999) Translation and Norms, 10–32. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

“Though I would not go as far as to claim that 100 % of translators have zero experience of translating into the L2, it is certainly not difficult to find subjects for whom translations into the L2 constitute less than 10 % of their professional workload” (Bernardini 2001: 245). 2 See Jakobson (1959/2004). 1

Chapter 2

Types of Translation: An Overview

2.1

Types of Translation Summarized in a Diagram

Now it is time to look around and find out where we are—saying ‘we’ I mean translators working in the fields of non-literary (mostly academic, scientific, official, and technical) translation. Figure 2.1 is a diagram combining several ‘classifications’ of translation types that I put together for illustrative purposes.1 It may give you an overall idea of the vast list of activities that may be labeled ‘translation’.

2.2

R. Jakobson’s Approach

The first four types shown at the top of the diagram were described by Roman Jakobson (as a matter of fact, he came up with three terms: intersemiotic translation (aka transmutation), intralingual translation (aka rewording), and interlingual translation (or translation proper), but, obviously, the latter two fall under the heading intrasemiotic translation). Some scholars believe Jakobson’s approach is unnecessarily broad, encompassing too many phenomena. Some also question the validity of Jakobson’s illustrations of what intersemiotic translation can be (e.g., “transposition” of “verbal art into music, dance, cinema, or painting” (Jakobson 1959/2004: 118)). Of course, it is dubious if making a movie based on a book really involves translation of “verbal signs” “into another, nonverbal system of symbols” (Jakobson 1959/2004: 114)—a better example of intersemiotic translation, I guess, could be translating arithmetical symbols into words, and vice versa (25 ↔ twenty-five).2 However, there is no point in denying the fact that whatever 1

Adapted from Sdobnikov and Petrova (2006: 102). At the same time, there are no-nonsense scholars who investigate into what they believe to be intersemiotic translation (of, say, poetry into dance)—see, e.g., Quieroz and Aguiar (2015).

2

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6_2

3

4

2 Types of Translation: An Overview

TRANSLATION

R. Jakobson

Intersemiotic Translation

Intrasemiotic Translation

Intralingual Translation

Interlingual Translation

Machine Translation (MT)

Human Translation

I. Galperin Literary Translation V. Nayer (Translating Literary

Non-literary (‘Informational’) Translation

(or Belles-Lettres Style) Texts; Artistic Translation)

Translation of Official Documents

Translation of Technical and Professional Texts

Journalism Translation

(Written) Translation

Scientific Translation

Religious Translation

Sight Translation

Simultaneous Interpreting (+ Chuchotage)

Fig. 2.1 Types of translation from a bird’s eye view

Interpreting (Oral Translation)

Consecutive Interpreting (including Telephone Interpreting, etc…)

2.2 R. Jakobson’s Approach

5

we see, hear, smell, touch, feel, know, or think can be expressed with the help of words. A human being is capable of verbalizing his/her experiences, and in that respect ‘intersemiotic’ translation is one of the cornerstones of human existence, a cognitive procedure essential for survival. … What may come in handy for us is the idea that some cognitive procedures, being part of a series of actions known as interlingual translation act (see Sect. 4.2.1), involve intersemiotic translation: to be able to ‘rebuild’ a source language (SL) message in the target language (TL), we (at some stage) may try to ‘translate’ whatever information we extract from the SL message into a ‘picture of reality’ this message describes. As for intralingual translation, it is also not to be neglected when discussing the subtleties of translation proper. Rewording an idea with the help of the same language can be an important step towards verbalizing it in some other language. And there is more to it than that: intralingual translation may be a useful strategy when analyzing the SL document, trying to get a general understanding of it. The question ‘What is this text about?’ is not as childish as it sounds (if we set aside literary texts). To adapt the pearl of wisdom by Dr. Honnecker from Cat’s Cradle, “any translator who cannot explain to an eight-year-old what he is translating in the fewest possible words is a charlatan.” Being able to write a short abstract or outline of the SL text (no matter how long the latter is), to arrange its key ideas in a handful of sentences means to ensure that at the later stages of the translation process you will be on the right track. To sum up this subsection, Roman Jakobson viewed translation primarily at the cognitive level, as a fundamental mechanism of human thinking, and described its basic types underlying any other type of translation viewed through the prism of some other, narrower set of parameters.

2.3

Machine Translation versus Human Translation

The next ‘classification’ divides types of translation in accordance with who/what performs it into machine translation and human translation. “Machine translation (MT) is the translation, by means of a computer using suitable software, of a text written in the source language (SL) which produces another text in the target language (TL) which may be called its raw translation” (Forcada 2010: 215; italics in the original). Most experts seem to agree that machine translation “will never take the place of professional translators” (ibid., 222), and most websites providing ‘instant online translation’ prudently add a proviso along the lines of “[…] the quality of the machine translation cannot be compared to the translations delivered by the professional translation services.”3 So, these are humans that are the ultimate ‘translation machines’, and nobody (or should I say nothing) can translate better than us.

3

http://imtranslator.net/translation/.

6

2.4 2.4.1

2 Types of Translation: An Overview

‘Stylistic’ Types of Translation The Notion of ‘Functional Style’ Developed by I. Galperin and V. Nayer

What is shown in the boxes right below ‘Human Translation’ (Fig. 2.1) may be termed a ‘stylistic’ taxonomy of translation types. I do not believe linguists will ever reach a consensus on an exhaustive yet consistent set of factors among which all texts may be distributed. Still, for the purposes of this book, I will try to adapt the classification of functional styles developed by Russian scholars Ilya Galperin and Vladimir Nayer. A functional style, according to Nayer (2008: 55), is “a socially recognized and functionally conditioned type of systematic linguistic variation.” “Socially recognized” means that functional styles have been accepted and practiced by all the users of a language. “Functionally conditioned” means that these systems have been developed to meet specific social needs. Within functional styles, the choice and combination of various units of a language are functionally motivated and governed by some unwritten rules (ibid.).4

2.4.2

The System of Functional Styles

In the English language, the system of functional styles comprises at least seven ‘macrostyles’: (1) the belles-lettres (literary) style (emotive prose, poetry, drama (including movie scripts and libretti)), (2) the journalism style (lampoons, critique articles, essays; cover-ups and other types of article that originated in magazines), (3) the newspaper style (information articles, news bulletins and reports, factoids, etc.), (4) the religious style (scriptures, sermons, prayers, etc.), (5) the scientific style (dissertations, research reports, monographs, etc.), (6) the official documents style (contracts, agreements, by-laws, wills, court documents, etc.), and

4

This definition of functional style seems to be compatible with that of genre given by J. Swales (1981a, b: 10–11) (“a more or less standardized communicative event with a goal or set of goals mutually understood by the participants in that event and occurring within a functional […] setting”), or with that given by A. Dudley-Evans (1987: 1) (“a typified society recognized form that is used in typified society recognized circumstances”). Noteworthy, the theory of functional styles was devised by V. Nayer and I. Galperin much earlier (see Galperin 1954, 1971, Nayer 1981).

2.4 ‘Stylistic’ Types of Translation

7

(7) the technical-professional style (technical manuals, summaries of product characteristics, drug information leaflets (package inserts and pharmaceutical company literature), etc.). The Russian language has a similar system of functional styles. Obviously, each ‘macrostyle’ can be further divided into ‘substyles’, some of which I mentioned inside the parentheses above. Functional styles also overlap and interact at the levels of both system of a language (e.g., some lexical units found in dictionaries may be typical of two or more styles) and speech (e.g., one can come across essayistic chapters in novels, rhetorical devices in scientific, technical, or official texts, etc.). Historically, some of them are closer interrelated than others. Incidentally, it is for this reason that in Fig. 2.1 I put translation of newspaper style texts, essays, and various media reports under one heading—‘Journalism Translation’.

2.4.3

What Functional Styles Should not Be Mistaken for

Functional styles are not to be mistaken for topics. A newspaper article and a research report may be dedicated to the same subject, but their structure, as well as lexical and grammatical features, will differ greatly. Furthermore, functional styles should not be confused with this or that medium, or channel, of communication. If a short story is published in a magazine, it still belongs to the belles-lettres style, not to the journalism style. Another dichotomy: functional styles (by definition) differ from what may be called individual styles (or idiolects) of literary people. The individual style of an author is his/her own linguistic choices, turns of phrase specific to them. Studying the individual style of poets, fiction writers, playwrights, and essayists has mostly been the domain of literary criticism, not so much of linguistics. Last but not least, some wrongly identify functional styles with registers, or levels of language usage as determined by degree of formality. The latter (aka stylistic scales) can be found across different functional styles and characterize idiosyncratic choices an author (or speaker) makes in blending words, expressions, syntax, etc. in specific situations, rather than universal stylistic systems. [Peter Newmark (1988: 14) suggested the following stylistic scales: officialese (“The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically prohibited in this establishment”), official (“The consumption of nutriments is prohibited”), formal (“You are requested not to consume food in this establishment”), neutral (“Eating is not allowed here”), informal (“Please, don’t eat here”), colloquial (“You can’t feed your face here”), slang (“Lay off the nosh”), and taboo (“Lay off the fucking nosh”).]

8

2.4.4

2 Types of Translation: An Overview

Norms of Similar Functional Styles in Different Languages

Importantly, norms and conventions governing similar styles in different languages may not always agree with each other. For instance, rhetorical devices (metaphors, allusions, etc.) can sometimes be employed in English scientific texts (even in medical articles and textbooks—see example (105) in Sect. 4.2.2.2.3 and example (134) in Sect. 5.1), whereas they are usually being frowned on in similar scientific texts published in Russian, as they are believed to give the writings an air of ‘fictionalization’ and ‘unseriousness’.

2.4.5

Literary versus Non-literary Translation

In Fig. 2.1, I separated literary translation from the rest of the (non-literary) translation types on the grounds that there are too many differences between the former and the latter. The so-called aesthetic function, dominating in literary works, imparts an absolutely different flavor to their translations, making each case unique. Not all translations of literary writings deserve the attribute of ‘artistic’. For a translation of a literary work to be artistic (i.e., satisfying the aesthetic standards and sensibilities of the author, not of the translator or TL readers), it has to include some steps that are not usually taken when performing a non-literary translation (e.g., studying the author’s personality and aesthetic beliefs, delving deeply into his or her life, reading his or her other publications (both earlier and later ones), drafts, diaries, letters (if any), as well as some books about the author written by literary critics, relatives, friends, etc.). Since a description of literary translation falls outside the scope of this book, I would like to end this subsection by noting that, on the whole, artistic translation involves more creativity than non-literary translation.

2.4.6

Functional Styles and the Written Variety of Language

According to I. Galperin and V. Nayer, functional styles have been developing within the written variety of a language (that is why they used the term ‘text’, which I preserved above). However, I am convinced that all speech products,5 both written and oral ones, are, to a certain degree, governed by similar stylistic principles.

5

See Chap. 3 for explanation of this term.

2.4 ‘Stylistic’ Types of Translation

9

For instance, to be able to interpret a presentation at a scientific conference, one has to be aware of the norms of the scientific functional style. Likewise, to interpret a speech delivered by a diplomat, one has to understand both the norms of the official documents style and those of the journalism style. Even if an interpreter has to render the so-called ‘informal speech’ (which belongs to no functional style, as it has no single “socially recognized function”), it may still contain traces of some (or all) of them—and this is something that a seasoned interpreter has to detect and take into account.

2.5 2.5.1

‘Psycholinguistic’ Types of Translation Written Translation and Interpreting Compared

In Fig. 2.1, the arrows from the boxes with the names of ‘stylistic’ types of translation point to the two boxes with the names of the major ‘psycholinguistic’ types of translation: written translation and interpreting (oral translation). As is known, psycholinguistics studies, among other things, the processes of speech generation and perception. Obviously, speech can be produced orally or in writing (or with the help of sign language), and be perceived by ear or visually (or felt with the fingertips, if printed or transcribed in Braille). The processes of SL message processing and comprehension, as well as those of TL message production, are dissimilar in written translation and interpreting. The major differences are shown in the table below (Table 2.1).

2.5.2

Sight Translation

Figure 2.1 also mentions sight translation, wherein an interpreter has to immediately express orally his/her translation of a written text. This tricky type of cross-cultural interaction seems to be an overlap between written translation and interpreting. Normally, written translation requires good reading and writing skills, whereas interpreting is more dependent on good listening and speaking abilities. When doing sight translation, an interpreter has to understand a written text and produce an oral translation of it for his/her clients. (Sight translation is not to be mistaken for reading pre-translated speeches prepared by, or given to, interpreters before a meeting, that are delivered by SL speakers in front of audiences. Incidentally, only in such cases may ‘interpreting’ be truly synchronized with the original speeches.) More often than not sight translation is performed during an interpreting task.

10

2 Types of Translation: An Overview

Table 2.1 Major differences between written translation and interpreting Parameters

Written translation

Interpreting

Linearity

A non-linear process

Time constraints

Less dependent on time constraints Larger

A linear process (one-time action) More dependent on time constraints Smaller

Portions of original speech product to be processed Contact with the addresser/s and addressee/s Translation direction

Additional ways of obtaining information

Number of people involved in the translation process of one speech product

Usually no direct contact

Immediate contact/feedback at in-person events

L1→L2 or L2→L1 only

L1↔L2 (in some cases an interpreter has to translate into and from the SL and TL, this subtype of consecutive interpreting being called ‘liaison’) Capturing the modulations of intonation, pitch, or tone in the voice, as well as facial expressions, use of time, touch, distance, gestures, personal space that convey particular emotions and express different moods, attitudes, etc

Consulting experts and using references (dictionaries, databases, etc.), searching for texts in both the SL and TL that would be similar to the SL text in terms of both style and content (the latter helps translators choose appropriate terminology and ‘template phrases’ typical of this or that type of speech product) One translator working on an individual basis, or a group of translators collaborating on a project + editors + proofreaders, etc

An interpreter working alone (being substituted by a colleague when tired), with no one to verify his/her decisions ‘on the spot’ (although some oral translations may be recorded and improved later on for publication)

Adapted from Komissarov (1990: 99–102)

2.5.3

Consecutive Interpreting

The main types of oral translation are consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting. The former is, to put it simply, less challenging (which is why consecutive interpreters have always been outnumbering simultaneous ones). It involves rendering what was said by an SL speaker into the TL after the speaker makes a pause, allowing the interpreter to utter his/her translation. The speakers do not always stop after one or two sentences (sometimes they speak in chunks of

2.5 ‘Psycholinguistic’ Types of Translation

11

twenty minutes or more, stopping at the end of complete thoughts), and therefore it is essential for the interpreter to be able to take notes so as to retain, recall, and rebuild what was said. Developing solid note-taking skills is the focus of most educational programs for consecutive interpreting students. A consecutive interpreting event often involves the use of several types of oral translation, including telephone interpreting, which can also be a separate interpreting event (and which may be viewed as a type of remote interpreting6). One of the challenges of telephone interpreting (aka OPI—short for over-the-phone interpreting) is that an interpreter has no immediate eye contact with their clients, and thus is not able to obtain additional information through receiving the visual cues from them, or to benefit from other elements of nonverbal communication.

2.5.4

Simultaneous Interpreting

It has often been noted that simultaneous interpreting is not quite an accurate term: an interpreter is always speaking after the SL speaker, and sometimes will not start the interpretation until s/he grasps the overall sense of a chunk of speech, be it a phrase or sentence. Simultaneous interpreters sit in booths, wear headphones to listen to the SL speaker/s, and produce their translations speaking into microphones. This type of interpreting is particularly difficult to perform, as interpreters have to comprehend whatever portions of the original they can, translate them, and utter a translation in the TL at the same time as the SL message is being delivered. A type of simultaneous interpreting is chuchotage (aka whisper translation), with an interpreter sitting or standing next to their client or a small group of clients and whispering a translation in parallel to the SL speaker who, say, may be reading a lecture in front of a larger audience.

2.5.5

Interdependence of ‘Stylistic’ and ‘Psycholinguistic’ Types of Translation

Various speech products may be translated in writing and orally. For instance, a sermon may be translated for publication or interpreted consecutively in front of a congregation. On some occasions, even literary speech products may have to be interpreted simultaneously: for example, in the past it was not infrequent for simultaneous interpreters to interpret movies as they were shown (see, e.g., Razgolova 2014). So, when we try to understand what type of translation we are about to perform, we should consider both its stylistic aspects and psycholinguistic parameters.

6

In remote interpreting, the conference participants are all in one location, while the team of interpreters is in another and watches and interprets the proceedings via video conferencing (Andres and Falk 2009: 9).

12

2 Types of Translation: An Overview

When translating some texts belonging to the literary style, the journalism style, the scientific style, or the technical-professional style, we may also have to take into account additional spatial and visual parameters (e.g., if a text is in a comic book or on a poster) or additional audiovisual parameters (e.g., if a text is part of a movie, documentary, or TV show). Many scholars believe that audiovisual translation (AVT) should be viewed as an independent type of translation and “deplore the lack of an encompassing theory of AVT, yet one cannot help wondering if such a theory would even be useful” (Remael 2010: 16). Besides, translation direction may be a very important parameter to analyze when thinking about how to categorize a given translation task. For example, when we translate a Russian scientific paper into English, we translate UP (i.e., we anglicize it). “Translation UP is toward a language of greater prestige than the source” (Bellos 2011: 168). When we translate an English scientific or technical document into Russian, we translate DOWN (i.e., we also anglicize it to some degree). “Translation DOWN is toward a vernacular with a smaller audience than the source, or toward one with less cultural, economic, or religious prestige, or one not used as a vehicular tongue” (ibid.). However, original–translation relationships are not always vertical; some languages (e.g., Russian, Spanish, German) may have similar ‘prestige levels’. Thus, most Russian–Spanish–German translations may be described as horizontal, regardless of what translation direction is chosen. (The notions of vertical translation and horizontal translation were introduced by Gianfranco Folena (1973, quoted in Bassnett 2002: 59).) Looking back on the diverse range of types of translation outlined above, you may better understand what professional niche you are occupying or would like to occupy, and what parameters you have to consider when engaging in a new translation project.

References Andres, D., and S. Falk. 2009. ‘Remote and telephone interpreting’. In D. Andres and S. Pöllabauer (eds) Spürst Du wie der Bauch rauf runter?/Is everything all topsy turvy in your tummy?—Fachdolmetschen im Gesundheitsbereich/Health Care Interpreting, 9–27. München: Martin Meidenbauer. Bassnett, S. 1980, revised edition 2002. Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Bellos, D. 2011. Is that a fish in your ear?: Translation and the meaning of everything. New York: Faber and Faber. Dudley-Evans, A. 1987. Genre analysis and ESP. ELR Journal, Vol.1, The University of Birmingham, 1–9. Folena, G. 1973 ‘‘Volgarizzare’ e ‘tradurre’: idea e terminologia della traduzione dal Medio Evo italiano e romanzo all’umanesimo europeo’. In La Traduzione. Saggi e studi, 57–120. Trieste: Edizioni LINT. Forcada, M.L. 2010. Machine translation today. In Handbook of Translation Studies, ed. Y. Gambier, and L. van Doorslaer, 215–223. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

References

13

Galperin, I.R. 1954. ‘Recheviye stili i stilisticheskiye sredstva yazyka’ [Speech Styles and Stylistic Means of a Language], Voprosy Jazykoznanija, #4:76–86. Galperin, I.R. 1971. Stylistics. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola. Jakobson, R. 1959/2004 On linguistic aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (ed.) (2004), pp. 138–43. Komissarov, V.N. 1990. Teoriya perevoda (lingvisticheskiye aspekty) [A Theory of Translation (Linguistic Aspects)]. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola. Nayer, V.L. 1981. ‘K opisaniyu funktsionalno-stilevoy sistemy sovremennogo angliyskogo yazyka. Voprosy differentsiatsii i integratsii’ [Toward Describing the System of Functional Styles in Modern English. Issues of Differentiation and Integration]. In M.Y. Zwilling (ed.) Lingvostilisticheskiye osobennosti nauchnogo teksta [Linguostylistic Aspects of Scientific Text], 3–13. Moscow: Nauka. Nayer, V.L. 2008. Stylistics in Terms of Verbal Communication Theory (Stylistic Aspects of Verbal Communication). Moscow: Moscow State Pedagogical University. Newmark, P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York and London: Prentice Hall. Quieroz, J., and D. Aguiar. 2015. C. S. Peirce and Intersemiotic Translation. In International Handbook of Semiotics, ed. P.P. Trifonas, 201–215. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York and London: Springer. Razgolova, E. 2014. Listening to the Inaudible Foreign: Simultaneous Translators and Soviet Experience of Foreign Cinema. In Sound, Speech, Music in Soviet and Post-Soviet Cinema, ed. L. Kaganovsky, and M. Salazkina, 162–178. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Remael, A. 2010. Audiovisual translation. In Handbook of Translation Studies, ed. Y. Gambier, and L. van Doorslaer, 12–17. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Sdobnikov, V.V., and O.V. Petrova. 2006. Teoriya perevoda [A Theory of Translation], Moscow: Vostok – Zapad. Swales, J. 1981. Aspects of article introductions. (Aston E. S. P. research report.) Birmingham: Aston University. Swales, J. 1981/2011. Aspects of Article Introductions. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Chapter 3

What Is It That We Translate?

3.1

The Problem of Terminology

In Chaps. 3 and 4, I attempt to provide a holistic view of what the process of written non-literary translation may be like when translation is performed by a professional. Many scholars describe the process focusing on some of its aspects they believe to be the most important ones, sometimes even overstressing these aspects to the neglect of others. At the same time, more often than not they employ numerous ‘conventional’ terms (such as ‘text’, ‘sentence’, ‘meaning’, ‘information’, ‘context’, ‘translation unit’, ‘translation strategy’, ‘translation shift’) as self-explanatory, occasionally citing the definitions of these terms from earlier works without critical revision. Of course, on the one hand, I do not want to set myself overambitious goals that will never be reached. On the other hand, I realize that, if I do not give my own integrated theoretical account of the translation process and do not reconsider some fundamental concepts, they will never form a comprehensive whole in the minds of the readers willing to become better non-literary translators.

3.2

The Notion of ‘Speech Product’

Most theorists try to employ a ‘functional approach to language’ and claim that (written) translators deal with texts. It stands to reason that analyzing sentences or other text constituents in larger contexts will yield better results than translating them in a vacuum. However, the problem, as it seems, has often been that the very term text is not ‘functional’ enough.

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6_3

15

16

3 What Is It That We Translate?

To the best of my belief, translators work with complex communicative entities that I suggest calling SPEECH PRODUCTS. This term is calqued on the Russian term peчeвoe пpoизвeдeниe, which was used by many scholars (in particular, Vladimir Nayer), and, in its essence, appears to be close to what Mikhail Bakhtin (1952–1953/ 1979/1986) had termed either выcкaзывaниe (‘utterance’) or peчeвoй жaнp (‘speech genre’), defining the latter as a relatively stable type of utterance.1 Text is only one of the two major facets of a speech product; it is the materialized, static (i.e., graphic), and linguistic (i.e., grammatical, lexical, phonological, semantic, and, to a certain extent, stylistic) side of it. To denote the second major facet of a speech product, I shall employ another word, albeit an overused one,— discourse. Discourse is the extralinguistic (≈pragmatic), dynamic, and, in some ways, intangible side of a speech product. Thus I am trying to reconcile ‘text’ with ‘discourse’ within one umbrella term. (Note that, according to my approach, discourse is not a wider term than text, nor is it the other way round.) Some translatologists and translators tended to concentrate on the textual side, overlooking the discursive side. Others did the opposite. Still others claimed that some kinds of written matter may, nay, should, be translated as ‘text’ (‘semantically’), while its other kinds should be translated as ‘discourse’ (‘pragmatically’, or ‘communicatively’). All the three approaches seem to be unnecessarily rigid. One of the reasons why the proverbial controversy over ‘word-for-word’ versus ‘sense-for-sense’ translation has been dragging on for so long is precisely because the proponents of the former were apt to regard only the textual side of speech products, whereas the proponents of the latter tried to push the textual parameters to the sidelines, paying more attention to pragmatic phenomena (for a discussion of the problem of ‘word-for-word’ translation, see Sect. 4.1). In real-life work, it is counterproductive to try to separate the ‘textual strategy’ from the ‘discursive’ one, as both textual and discursive characteristics of a speech product are inextricably interwoven; in fact, no matter what element of a speech product you are trying to translate, it will always involve some consideration of both textual and discursive aspects. Textual and discursive parameters can be contemplated separately only when we endeavor to outline what a speech product is as an abstract concept, and not when we are dealing with its unique embodiments.

Here I define ‘utterance’, not unlike Bakhtin, as a sentence that acquires its sense in a context, in a given situation of verbal communication. Unlike Bakhtin, I try not to apply the term loosely, i.e., I do not use it to denote portions of written speech of any length, be it poems, essays, or scientific articles. In this book, utterances are described as communicative ‘building blocks’ of speech products that are equal in length to sentences.

1

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

3.3 3.3.1

17

Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity Preliminary Remarks

It is not quite clear to me what ‘a scientific approach to studying speech products’ (and translation, for that matter2) means, and, if it exists, why it should be considered the best one. In the first place, speech products had not been devised as constructs whose production and understanding is governed by ‘laws of a science’.3 Nor are they purely concrete objects, which is why one cannot ‘measure’ them inasmuch as one can measure the length, height, or depth of physical objects. Second, there are too many areas of science that may be connected to studying speech products, and thus tailoring a ‘multidisciplinary’ approach will always involve making a lot of arbitrary decisions as to what is to be included and excluded. Third, linguistics (the field usually associated with analyzing written and oral speech, as well as cross-cultural communication) provides rather flawed instruments for investigating whatever phenomena we want to investigate—they certainly lack validity. Fourth, the choice of the phenomena is usually made not so much on the basis of ‘objective’ observations and experiments, but rather on the basis of our culturally-conditioned beliefs about what a language is and what constituent parts it has, beliefs that we perceive as axioms. Fifth, linguistics is no uniform science, and very often there is no consensus among scholars even on the foundational assumptions, even when they are exploring the same language contemporaneously, not to mention their countless minor divergences. And, sixth, many excellent translators are linguistically naïve (not totally naïve, of course, but they have very little knowledge of linguistic theories, categories, etc.) or had no formal scientific training, whereas many superb linguists are far from being good translators. The brain can process speech products in different aspects, being able to spot and blend their numerous and very unlike elements that coexist in different dimensions. As speech products are multifaceted, the approach to studying them for the sake of getting to grips with translation problems should be, in a sense, ‘multidisciplinary’, or, better say, purely practical and commonsensical. It should not be deliberately ‘scientific’. It should work. The number of dimensions a speech product may have is virtually infinite. How many of them a translator is able to identify will vary from one speech product to another; it will depend on his/her experience (including education), knowledge and

2

All through my teaching career, I have been advocating pragmatism (this book is no exception— as you may remember, I stated this in the Preface) or, in the terms of Neubert and Shreve (1992: 18), “the practical model of translation”: “The designation practical emphasizes the fact that this approach to translation studies focuses on the processes of human translation practice. It is a way of looking at translation if you actually have to do it” (ibid., italics in the original). 3 Performing translation does not rest on our artificially generated theoretical models and hypotheses either.

18

3 What Is It That We Translate?

beliefs, mental power, alertness, thoroughness, interests, inventiveness, talent, and many other factors. Two translators may focus on a different number of ‘attention units’ when working on the same speech product.

3.3.2

The Textual Side of a Speech Product

Now let us take a look at the textual side of speech products first to see what dimensions it may have. Text is first and foremost the realm of meanings. Traditionally, they distinguish lexical meanings of morphemes, words, free word groups, set phrases, idioms, etc.; grammatical meanings of affixes, tenses, word classes, cases, genders, punctuation marks, clause and sentence types, etc.; meanings of phonological means and patterns (sounds, rhyme, rhythm, etc.); and their combinations that together form what I suggest calling semantic information. On top of that, the textual side of a speech product provides a reader with some pragmatic information about the speech product itself (this information may be derived, for instance, from text features). Put together, they form textual information. The textual level of understanding the ‘internal’ content of a speech product is confined to semantic assumptions (presuppositions and entailments4)—assumptions that can be directly deduced from combinations of lexical, grammatical, and phonological meanings, and help construct semantic information. The truthfulness of what is being said is not considered at this level. Semantic assumption implies taking for granted everything that is said and involves activation of some language/linguistic knowledge (without it, one would not be able to read a sentence), stereotypical (‘frame’) knowledge of the world5 and, to a lesser extent, of some background knowledge to accommodate new information. Stereotypical knowledge of the world (a) is very generic, (b) provides an indispensable ‘common ground’ for all language users who have no mental disabilities or cognitive disorders, live in the same era, and have equal access to basic education and current information sources, and (c) does not relate to specific things or instances. Background knowledge, on the contrary, does relate to specific things and instances. It is important to note that, at the textual level, a reader activates stereotypical knowledge or background knowledge only inasmuch as these two types of extralinguistic knowledge are reflected in the meanings of language units. In each sentence, semantic assumptions are more or less identical for all fluent language users. Thus, they will be unvarying in the following example: (1)6 Pedro regrets being Norwegian.

4

Semantic presuppositions remain the same under negation, whereas entailments do not. The frame constructs to represent knowledge of ordinary aspects of the world (their subtypes often being termed schemata and scripts) were introduced by Minsky (1975). 6 Examples 1 and 2 are borrowed from Lakoff (1971). 5

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

19

Here is what semantic information you can derive from this disembodied utterance (i.e., sentence7): a human being is mentioned (as only humans can ‘regret’—feel sad or disappointed over something (the verb ‘regret’ collocates only with human subjects)—and for that matter have a nationality or be citizens of a country, or, broader speaking, realize that they are); this person is a male, since ‘Pedro’ is a male name; Pedro exists now (the verb ‘regret’ is in the Present Simple Tense); Pedro is Norwegian (≈is from Norway). Additionally, you might notice that it is a simple two-member affirmative sentence comprising a subject, a predicate, and a direct object. Active voice is used in this sentence (therefore its subject expresses the agent of the main verb). The word order is direct (hence no meanings are intensified via emphatic structures). ‘Pedro’ is a noun, a proper name. ‘Regret’ is a transitive verb. ‘Being’ is a gerund. ‘Regret’ is normally used with a gerund. When used after this verb, a gerund expresses an earlier action/state. Etc. However, it is not a must for you to know linguistic terms and study theories of grammar to be able to grasp the basic semantic information. Apart from their linguistic parameters relating to lexical, grammatical, and phonological meanings, texts may be regarded as graphic products having a physical form that sometimes also carries semantic information (think about different fonts, italics, etc.). Consider the following example: (2) Sam’s murderer reads Reader’s Digest.

From this sentence we can learn that: Sam was a human being (since only human beings can be ‘murdered’); Sam was murdered (no longer exists); Sam’s murderer exists; Sam’s murderer can read; Sam’s murderer reads on a regular basis; Sam’s murderer reads a periodic publication (we can establish that, having analyzed the meanings of ‘reader’, ‘digest’, and their combination) called Reader’s Digest (we understand that it is a proper name because the words Reader’s Digest are capitalized and italicized). Larger bits of semantic information can be derived from stretches of text longer than a sentence8: (3) My parents are musicians. They graduated from the Leningrad Conservatory in 1976.

From the two successive sentences in example (3) we can learn that the writer’s parents, who are musicians, graduated from a school specializing in fine arts (the Cf.: a sentence “has neither direct contact with reality (with an extraverbal situation) nor a direct relationship to others’ utterances; it does not have a semantic fullness of value; and it has no capacity to determine directly the responsive position of the other speaker” (Bakhtin 1952–1953/ 1979/1986: 74). A sentence is “grammatical in nature. It has grammatical boundaries and grammatical completedness and unity” (ibid.). Also cf.: “the semantic component” represents “only those aspects of the meaning of the sentence that an ideal speaker-hearer of the language would know in an anonymous letter situation”. Such a person has “no clue whatever about the motive, circumstances of transmission, or any other factor relevant to understanding the sentence on the basis of its context of utterance” (Katz 1977: 14). 8 Noteworthy, a text is not defined by its size, and is not necessarily bigger than a sentence (see Halliday and Hasan 1976: 2). 7

20

3 What Is It That We Translate?

Leningrad Conservatory) in 1976 (i.e., based on our knowledge of the language and, possibly, of some linguistic notions/terms, we can establish that the anaphoric pronoun ‘they’ refers to the writer’s parents). Thus, some textual elements may also provide cohesion9 of semantic information that may be derived from different sentences, with their sequences forming a continuity of meanings (not senses!). This continuity may be divided into intersentential unities based on the degree of cohesion between them. Leaving aside the use of metalanguage for the sake of analyzing various lexical, grammatical, and phonological items, the existing cohesive ties10 and, broader speaking, semantic information as a complex and consistent whole will be interpreted in a uniform fashion by all readers, provided they have a good command of the language the text is written in. The meanings of idioms, proverbs, sayings, and the like can also be regarded as part of semantic information, as long as they are elements of the language system (i.e., you may know their ‘dictionary’ meanings simply because you activate your knowledge of the language, without establishing references to any phenomena outside the text, even if you are dealing with an idiom whose meaning diverges from the sum of word meanings and/or that is supposed to suggest a relationship with other speech products, facts, situations, events, historical figures, etc.). E.g., you may know that (4) to err is human, to forgive—divine

means ‘it is typical of humans to make mistakes themselves, while finding it difficult to forgive others.’ However, if you are only contemplating the textual aspect of a speech product wherein you have come across this proverb, you will not be able to consider that it was initially a quote from Alexander Pope’s An Essay on Criticism, that the first part of it was the English translation of the Latin proverb Errare humanum est, and that the content of the speech product may somehow be connected with the content of Pope’s poem. Likewise, on the textual stratum, (5) the writing is on the wall

may be interpreted as ‘there are clear signs that something bad is going to happen’, although this ‘dictionary’ meaning (usually termed ‘figurative meaning’) is not 9

A definition of cohesion that seems to be in line with my approach is that given by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 26): “Cohesion is the set of meaning relations that is general to ALL CASES of text, that distinguishes text from ‘non-text’ and interrelates the substantive meanings of the text with each other. Cohesion does not concern what a text means; it concerns how the text is constructed as a semantic edifice” (capitalization in the original). 10 The different types of cohesive tie put forward by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 13) are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. These categories contribute to intersentential unity (texture) and “provide a practical means for describing and analyzing texts. Each of these categories is represented in the text by particular features—repetitions, omissions, occurrences of certain words and constructions—which have in common the property of signaling that the interpretation of the passage in question depends on something else. If that ‘something else’ is verbally explicit, then there is cohesion” (ibid.).

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

21

deducible from the combination of word (‘literal’) meanings. What it may mean pragmatically (e.g., as an allusion to Dan. 5:5, 25–8) cannot be understood if you are exploring a speech product as text. Textual information may also incorporate those pragmatically significant data, the understanding of which does not require to move outside the textual domain: (6) […] 3.1. The Vendor hereby warrants to the Purchaser that: 3.1.1. The Vendor shall furnish to the Purchaser all the accounting and other documents that present a true and fair view of the financial condition of the Company; 3.1.2. Any and all taxes, for which the Company is or may be liable, have been completely paid prior to the date of signing the Contract; […].

From this excerpt you can infer that the speech product under consideration belongs to the official functional style, the substyle being ‘legal documents’. This is obvious from the use of the stylistically marked legal/official lexicon and grammatical structures (hereby, shall furnish, a true and fair view of, any and all, is or may be). Of course, you can often establish what type of speech product you are dealing with by simply reading its title or subtitle, provided that they explicitly state what type of speech product is below (‘Contract’, ‘Textbook’, etc.). Even some rhetorical (stylistic) devices can be derived from mere combinations of lexical, grammatical, and/or phonological meanings: (7) She is a living death.

A reader can understand that an oxymoron is employed in example (7), without addressing the discursive side of the speech product, i.e., without looking for extratextual information in the ‘outer world’, as the word group ‘living death’ implicates irreconcilable lexical meanings. However, here the semantic assumption ‘a certain she paradoxically combines some features of life and death, which is logically absurd’ is insufficient for a reader to construe all the semantic information from this sentence. A longer stretch of text is needed to do that. If the textual context (pardon my clumsy wording) is as follows: (8) She was diagnosed with inoperable cancer. She is a living death,

the semantic assumption will be ‘she is still alive, but on the point of death.’ If the textual context is different, e.g.: (9) Last year she lost all her family in a car accident and has been feeling suicidal ever since. She is a living death,

the semantic assumption will be ‘she is living in a condition resembling death.’ At the same time, a possible indirect reference to John Milton’s Samson Agonistes cannot be recognized at the textual level, as it will require full activation of types of knowledge other than knowledge of language. Besides, if the textual context does not provide any additional semantic information, one will not be able to interpret the meaning of the sentence in example (7) with certainty. It will remain ambiguous.

22

3 What Is It That We Translate?

Clearly, dealing with this purely textual (linguistic/language/graphic) side of a speech product is the ‘launch pad’ from which the processing of a speech product begins. Understanding a whole speech product rests on a groundwork of text. However, if you go through an entire speech product in such a manner (i.e., taking into account only its textual aspect), you will never achieve effective communication.

3.3.3

The Discursive Side of a Speech Product

Being able to go beyond the textual dimensions of a speech product is a prerequisite for successful communication. To spot and explore extratextual (discursive) dimensions, one has to activate the two abovementioned types of knowledge (stereotypical knowledge of the world and background knowledge), however, without limiting their activation to the meanings of language units. What is more, one has to realize the need to activate some bits of knowledge, and, if they are missing, acquire the necessary bits of knowledge through additional reading, consultations, etc. Both stereotypical knowledge of the world and background knowledge employed at the discursive level may be situation-bound or situation-independent. Discourse is the ‘bottom-of-the-iceberg’ side of a speech product that connects it by myriads of intangible or ‘semi-tangible’ threads to the ‘outer world’. Discourse is the territory of senses. Senses are elements of pragmatic information which contributes to forming the internal content of a speech product, just like meanings are elements of semantic information which serves the same purpose. They are comprised of what we really come to know and what we guess about as we try to establish why something is said and why it is verbalized in such and such a way. Pragmatic information as part of the internal content (i.e., a total of senses) is a key constituent of discursive information. The latter is a combination of (a) pragmatic information forming the ‘internal content’ of a speech product, and (b) pragmatic information about the speech product found exclusively outside of its text, as well as about its place among other speech products, particularly with regard to its function (see Sect. 2.4.1). Senses, unlike meanings, are dynamic and connected to the circumstances, events, ideas, etc., that form what may be called extratextual (discursive) setting11 for the textual information to be understood to a greater extent. Senses are what we derive from utterances and their combinations in speech products, when the textual

11

I have coined this term to avoid the metaphorical term situational context, which may sound confusing to some readers. Cf.: “‘Context’ […] can be an awkward term. Sometimes it refers merely to the syntagmatic environment of a sound, phoneme, letter, morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or text unit, within the text itself. But it has often been used in a wider sense to signify the total socio-physical envelope of utterance” (Enkvist 1980: 75).

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

23

information merges with, and often gets modified by, the extratextual setting as we activate various types of extralinguistic knowledge. Thus, we may immerse the sentence Pedro regrets being Norwegian (see example (1)) in an extratextual setting which will help us find out (a) who the author of the speech product wherein this sentence occurs is/was, (b) who they initially intended it for, (c) if Pedro really exists, and if he does, (d) to infer what particular person is meant, (e) remember or learn something about his origins, as well as (f) about Norway and (g) the whole extralinguistic situation discussed. In such a case, we will be dealing with an utterance, not so much a sentence. If, for example, Pedro was born to a family of Argentinian immigrants who had moved to a more economically developed country in the vain hope of achieving wealth or success, the utterance may have a taunting flavor. Yet if we do not have this extratextual information, we may still feel that there is something ironic about the statement, as we make various pragmatic assumptions (e.g., ‘Pedro is not a typical name for an indigenous Norwegian’). So, the extratextual dimension of construing the content of a speech product rests on, but is not limited by, pragmatic assumptions. In the discursive domain, pragmatic information cannot be derived only from the semantic information a sentence contains. To understand utterances (i.e., to deduce senses from them that, by their union, will help construct pragmatic information and, eventually, understand the entire content of a speech product), readers (having derived whatever semantic information they could from the sentences) have to activate some additional bits of stereotypical world knowledge and/or background knowledge (so as to combine them with the semantic information and grasp senses); otherwise they have to rely on pragmatic assumptions (pragmatic presuppositions and implicatures) that are mostly based on stereotypical knowledge of the world, not on what is explicitly stated in a speech product or can be verified via finding some credible situation-specific extratextual data. E.g., if you read an isolated sentence (10) Johnny wants a new airplane, so I am going to buy one for him.

you almost involuntarily try to interpret it as though it were an utterance used in a concrete extratextual setting. What you do is guess about its extraverbal surroundings, constructing a “possible world” (see Stalnaker 1978). The pragmatic presuppositions induced by this utterance will be: (a) ‘Johnny is a child’, and (b) ‘he wants a new toy, not an actual airplane’. Thus, pragmatic presupposition is a conjecture based on what we believe to be probable, on our stereotypical, conventional, schematic knowledge and beliefs supported by most frequent experiences. Sometimes pragmatic presuppositions may be founded on a combination of stereotypical world knowledge and situation-bound background knowledge (i.e., knowledge of unique things relating to the communicative situation discussed, as well as to the topic matter): (11) In the sixties, estrogen derivatives and gonadotropins became available to stimulate fertility.

24

3 What Is It That We Translate?

This utterance triggers the pragmatic presupposition ‘the mentioned substances became available in the nineteen sixties’. This will seem plausible first and foremost for those who possess the (background) knowledge of a fact that hormonal infertility treatments were first developed in the twentieth century AD, not in the first century. However, you could establish verisimilitude of this assumption even without activating (or possessing) the relevant background knowledge. When you read but a word group ‘in the sixties’, you automatically choose an extratextual setting for it (which will be the 1960s, of course). You believe it is more probable to be true than any other discursive setting, as you rely on your knowledge of stereotypical communicative situations you most frequently witness, i.e., on your beliefs about what time period your contemporaries are more likely to speak about (if the author of the speech product is your contemporary). Paradoxically, the knowledge of such ‘standard’ situations, which is extralinguistic in its essence, incorporates the knowledge of what is typically said in such situations, the latter being a subtype of linguistic knowledge I suggest calling speech usage knowledge.12 So, to understand what an utterance means, you have to understand where and by whom it is used, and, more importantly, how it is constructed. E.g., when you read a short conversation (12) “Did you like the movie?” “It has its moments.”

you activate some stereotypical world knowledge relating to the standard script ‘an exchange of views on a movie’, an integral part of which is some knowledge of chunks of speech typically used during such an exchange. This helps you draw from It has its moments the implicature ‘the interlocutor did not like the movie’. So, as you can see, implicatures are pragmatic inferences; they are ‘post-suppositions’ based on extralinguistic knowledge (just like entailments are ‘post-suppositions’ based on lexical, grammatical, and phonological meanings which are analyzed at the textual level). Implicature is a counterpart of (semantic) entailment in the discursive domain, if you like. One of the major differences between them is that implicatures drawn from utterances can be cancelled, whereas entailments following from sentences remain the same. In some cases, implicatures must be supported by situation-bound background knowledge. Here is an utterance to illustrate this: (13) Today bread prices in Russia went up an average of 5 rubles.

An implicature from this utterance will obviously have to do with some evaluation of the situation. Additional background knowledge is clearly needed to do that. For instance, if we know that yesterday a loaf of bread cost about 1000 rubles, we will draw the implicature ‘this rise in prices is insignificant and does not affect Cf.: “When we select words in the process of constructing an utterance, we by no means always take them from the system of language in their neutral, dictionary form. We usually take them from other utterances, and mainly from utterances that are kindred to ours in genre, that is, in theme, composition, or style” (Bakhtin 1952–1953/1979/1986: 87).

12

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

25

the overall state of affairs in the country’. If, however, the day before the price for a loaf of bread averaged 1 ruble, the implicature will be something like ‘the country may be on the verge of an economic collapse and social unrest’. To decipher some utterances, one may have to activate certain bits of situation-independent background knowledge (i.e., knowledge of unique things that are not directly connected to the communicative situation and topic matter): (14) In mid-fall, the energy crisis burst upon the U.S. with the emotional impact of a modern-day handwriting on the wall. After a long Belshazzar’s feast of energy gluttony, it seemed, Americans were being called to a bitter reckoning. (Time Magazine, Jan. 21, 1974)

The complex sense of the two utterances, including their stylistic (rhetorical) value, may be appreciated only if a reader possesses some knowledge of the English text of the Book of Daniel and is able to build a semantic and pragmatic bridge between the biblical speech product and the magazine article in question, thus ‘reconceptualizing’ the sense of the older speech product in the light of the current extratextual setting described in the newer one. Moreover, without the mentioned background knowledge, one will not even be able to establish coherence of the utterances’ senses (i.e., their pragmatic connectedness, which is often implicit and/or exophoric13) and, therefore, construe thematic progression14 during comprehension. But if the required background knowledge is activated, you will realize that there is a connection between a bit of the ‘new information’ (rheme) in the first utterance (“a modern-day handwriting on the wall”) and the ‘old information’ (theme) in the second (“a long Belshazzar’s feast of energy gluttony”). Structurally speaking, this connection is linear;

13

Exophora is a reference in a speech product to something external to it, which can only be understood through the use of extralinguistic knowledge. 14 Thematic progression in a speech product is a means of ensuring coherence of senses that, from this angle, are viewed as the interplay of ‘given information’/ ‘known information’/ ‘information that is easily recoverable by the reader’ (theme) and ‘new information’ / ‘information that is more or less unpredictable for the reader’ (rheme). According to Daneš (1974), the 3 main types of thematic progression are:

26

3 What Is It That We Translate?

cognitively, it is mediated. Having read the first utterance, you have to ‘depart’ from the speech product at hand and activate your knowledge of the biblical speech product, the verbal trigger for doing so being “modern-day”. You have to recollect that, according to the Book of Daniel, Belshazzar, the king of Babylon before the advent of the Medes and the Persians, saw a man’s hand mysteriously appear and start writing on the wall of his palace, when he was at an extravagant banquet for his lords, drinking blasphemously from sacred vessels. Daniel interpreted the writing for Belshazzar. He learnt from Daniel that God was dissatisfied with what he had been doing and would soon bring his reign to an end, divide his kingdom, and give it to his enemies. Belshazzar was slain “that very night”. Thus, the sense of the two utterances in example (14) is enriched by the pragmatic effects of the rhetorical device of allusion. But let us move on. We have established so far that these are coherent utterances that make up a speech product. However, an experienced reader cannot help noticing the fact that, in many speech products, some groups of utterances form sense unities. These unities may be regarded as semi-autonomous entities having a ‘hypersense’ of their own. Sense unities may be delimited from each other by the hyperthemes they convey, no matter how diverse the senses extracted by different readers from their constitutive utterances may be. The idea of categorizing such entities on the basis of the hyperthemes developed in them can be arguably traced back to František Daneš himself, who concentrated on “the choice and ordering of utterance themes, their mutual concatenation and hierarchy, as well as their relationship to the hyperthemes of the superior text units (such as paragraph, chapter), to the whole of text, and to the situation” (Daneš 1974: 114; italics mine). At least two problems arise here. Firstly, the development of a hypertheme does not always coincide with one paragraph or chapter. Secondly, sometimes it is rather difficult to clearly yet concisely verbalize hyperthemes that unite some sequences of utterances, let alone verbalize inferences made from them, associations and images they evoke, and pragmatic effects they produce, all of which are amalgamated to form hypersenses. In fact, each time a reader constructs a hypersense on the basis of a sense unity, all the inferences, associations, images, pragmatic effects, etc. conflate in a complex mental representation which is never put into words in its entirety. The first problem is rather easy to solve, provided that sense unities in a speech product are organized around separable, intelligible hyperthemes. Utterances are thought of as forming one and the same unity of senses, as long as they are connected to one and the same hypertheme either by a relation of ‘answerhood’ (a hypertheme poses a ‘question’, and a group of utterances provides ‘answers’ to it) or by a relation of ‘aboutness’ (all the utterances representing a unity of senses are one way or another dedicated to the same hypertheme). Structurally, they may coincide with paragraphs or chapters, but not necessarily (in fact, a writer may switch to a different hypertheme even within one utterance). As for the second problem, we have to bear in mind that, in different types of speech product, sense unities are organized around different principles. I prefer to describe the differences between the speech products, as far as sense unities

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

27

formation is concerned, as scalar. Speech products occupy different positions between the extremes of ‘total and utter formalization’ and ‘absolute structural freedom’. When we read most speech products belonging to the scientific style, the technical-professional style, the official documents style, and some of those assigned to the journalism style and the newspaper style (news items and the like), it requires little effort to establish the boundaries between sense unities, because these speech products have a recognized organizational structure, and, hence, sense unities in them are more hypertheme-oriented and confined to certain structural patterns, such as paragraphs, sections, etc. Hyperthemes developed in, say, research reports, information articles, manuals, by-laws, or agreements are relatively easy to verbalize succinctly, because they are explicitly stated in them. In sum, speech products written in the scientific style, the technical-professional style, and the official style are closer to the ‘formalized’ end of the scale, although they may differ in their positions on it. At the more ‘structurally creative’ end of the scale are likely to be some speech products belonging to the journalism style (editorials, feature articles, nonfictional prose, or some essays), the religious style, and the belles-lettres style. In poems, novels, sermons, essays on literary or artistic criticism, etc., hyperthemes may be unverbalized or only hinted at, and are not always confined to discernible or uniform textual structures and their sequences. In a novel, for instance, the boundaries of sense unities, if discernible at all, may be marked by alternations of spatial and temporal perspectives, ‘voices’, ‘points of view’, ‘mind-styles’, etc.15 What is more, in such speech products, each hypersense is much more than a mere sum of utterances’ senses, with inferences, associations, images, and pragmatic effects being so numerous, subtle, vague, ambiguous, and sometimes even contradictory, that, overall, they can hardly be reduced to a short summary. Luckily, in this book, we are focusing on the speech products mostly based on conventional patterns, with their constitutive sense unities being formed by unequivocally stated hyperthemes, as is the case with the speech product below: (15) Figuring Out Fibromyalgia Perplexing Pain and Fatigue An unknown cause. A difficult diagnosis. No known cure. No wonder people with fibromyalgia syndrome, or FMS, can feel perplexed, under attack and isolated. FMS brings fatigue that drags you down and persistent pain that may render you nearly helpless. Researchers have been working to understand what fibromyalgia is and are making progress in developing treatments for the debilitating syndrome. FMS is a chronic pain condition that can occur by itself or along with certain conditions such as arthritis. In addition to muscle pain and fatigue, it can also bring headaches, memory problems, sleeplessness, irritable bowels, morning stiffness and numbness or tingling in the arms and legs. The syndrome affects as many as 1 in 50 Americans, most of them women.

15

See Fowler (1977), Galperin (1981).

28

3 What Is It That We Translate? What causes FMS? Many people associate their FMS with a physically or emotionally stressful event, like an accident. Some connect it to repetitive injuries, or to an illness; people with autoimmune diseases are particularly likely to develop the syndrome. Some scientists suspect problems with how the brain and spinal cord process pain. Genes may also be involved. People with FMS typically see a number of doctors before getting the diagnosis. There are no standard tests for the syndrome. Because many other conditions can cause pain and fatigue, a doctor must first rule out other potential causes. The diagnosis of FMS is based on two criteria: a history of widespread pain lasting more than 3 months and the presence of specific pain “tender points” on the body. FMS can last a long time. However, several medications may help to treat it. Over-the-counter or prescription painkillers may help. Antidepressants can elevate levels of certain brain chemicals to help with pain and fatigue. A class of medications called benzodiazepines can help relax muscles and improve sleep. Doctors may prescribe other drugs for specific FMS symptoms. In a recent study supported by NIH, scientists found that the medication gabapentin, which is used for certain types of seizures, can be an effective treatment for the pain and other symptoms associated with FMS. Lyrica (pregabalin), which is structurally similar to gabapentin, was more recently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the first drug to treat FMS. Lyrica reduces pain and improves daily functions for some patients with fibromyalgia. Physical and occupational therapy may also help some people with FMS. Learning pain-management and coping techniques can help as well. Some FMS patients have success with complementary and alternative therapies, including massage, movement therapies, chiropractic treatments, acupuncture, and herbs and dietary supplements. Researchers supported by NIH are continuing to make inroads into understanding FMS. The insights they are gaining will help them to develop potential medications and other interventions that may one day change the outlook for people with FMS. (NIH News in Health, August 2007) (http://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2007/August/docs/01features_02.htm)

This speech product (15), published in a magazine that provides “practical health information,”16 is a typical popular scientific article. It belongs to the journalism style and is aimed at a lay (mostly US) audience.17 The article is comprised of the heading, subheading, and eight paragraphs. The heading provides a macrotheme which can be worded as a question: ‘What do we know about fibromyalgia?’ The macrotheme is elaborated in paragraph 1. In paragraphs 2–8, the macrotheme is expanded via a series of hyperthemes to which new information is gradually added. Paragraph 2 introduces hypertheme 1 (‘What is fibromyalgia?’) that is further expanded in a series of themes (‘definition’, ‘key symptoms’, ‘prevalence’). Paragraph 3 puts in hypertheme 2 (‘What causes fibromyalgia?’) elaborated in the themes ‘psychological causes’ and ‘physical causes’. Paragraph 4 introduces hypertheme 3 (‘How is fibromyalgia diagnosed?’). Paragraphs 5, 6, and 7 are dedicated to hypertheme 4 (‘What measures can be taken to help people with fibromyalgia?’), the themes being ‘administering medications’ (further divided into 16

See http://newsinhealth.nih.gov/about.htm. Incidentally, such information may be regarded as part of a speech product’s internal content: to deduce it, readers do not have to explore a speech product’s extratextual setting; they only have to read it (see Sects. 3.3.4 and 3.3.6).

17

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

29

Macrotheme (‘What do we know about fibromyalgia?’)

Hypertheme 1 (‘What is fibromyalgia?’)

Hypertheme 2 (‘What causes fibromyalgia?’)

Theme 1.1 (‘Definition’) Theme 2.1 (‘Psychological causes’)

Theme 1.2 (‘Key symptoms’)

Theme 1.3 (‘Prevalence’)

Theme 2.2 (‘Physical causes’)

Hypertheme 3 (‘How is fibromyalgia diagnosed?’)

Hypertheme 4 (‘What measures can be taken to help people with fibromyalgia?’) Theme 4.1 (‘Administering medications’)

Subtheme 4.1.1 (‘Medications taken with limited success’)

Theme 4.2 (‘Non-drug treatments’)

Hypertheme 5 (‘What is the outlook for patients with fibromyalgia?’)

Subtheme 4.1.2 (‘Most effective medications’)

Fig. 3.1 The derived theme progression in article (15)

the subthemes ‘medications taken with limited success’ and ‘most effective medications’) and ‘non-drug treatments’. The article closes in a brief outline of hypertheme 5 (‘What is the outlook for patients with fibromyalgia?’) in paragraph 8. Thus, the article is composed of five sense unities. It is indicative that sense unities 1, 2, 3, and 5 are one paragraph long each. However, sense unity 4 embraces three paragraphs. Figure 3.1 illustrates the derived theme progression pattern in the article.

30

3 What Is It That We Translate?

As you can see, sense unities have a ‘syntax’ of their own, although it may be difficult to reduce them to such clear-cut diagrams as the one shown above when dealing with other speech products, particularly, longer ones. In a sense, a concise verbal representation of a theme progression resembles a table of contents wherein all the titles of ‘sections’ and ‘subsections’ are worded as pertinently as possible. After a reader has read a speech product written in one of the non-literary functional styles, s/he can, in most cases, construct a ‘hyperutterance’, including in it those elements of hypersenses (from all the sense unities) that can be verbalized. A hyperutterance (which appears like a kind of abstract) will restate the most relevant hyperrhemes. Their totality will form the backbone of what I suggest calling the overall content of a speech product. To oversimplify, overall content is a macrorheme, provided that it encompasses not only semantic information, but also pragmatic information, including all the pragmatic assumptions made by a reader and pragmatic effects s/he is consciously aware of. To illustrate this, I will produce a (not the) hyperutterance reflecting the content of article (15): Aiming at the American audiences, the author (who works for NIH News in Health) explains that fibromyalgia is a relatively rare difficult-to-diagnose chronic pain condition of unknown etiology (accentuating its ‘mysteriousness’ via a chain of short, rhythmical, hollywoodesque-movie-trailer-like introductory sentences that build up some tension); whose symptoms are muscle pain, fatigue, headaches, memory problems, sleeplessness, irritable bowels, morning stiffness, numbness or tingling in the extremities; that is caused by stresses, injuries, other illnesses, CNS or genetic problems; that is identified based on a history of widespread pain lasting more than 3 months and the presence of pain points on the body; that can be treated with drugs (among which are those of limited efficacy, such as over-the-counter or prescription analgesics, antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and those that are more effective and, hence, recommended by the author (who is presenting a view shared by experts), namely gabapentin and pregabalin (marketed by, as one may find out going beyond the text, Pfizer under the brand name Lyrica) – the author focuses more on the latter (sense unity 4 is three paragraphs long), possibly trying to endorse the drug; ergo, the article’s pragmatic goal may be not only to impartially provide some general information on fibromyalgia, but also to covertly advertise a pharmaceutical product); that can also be helped through non-drug treatments (massage, movement therapies, chiropractic treatments, acupuncture, and herbs and dietary supplements); and that is likely to be treated more effectively in the future (the author’s sanguine attitude toward the future conveyed in the final paragraph aims to create, in a rather trite way, a contrast with the ‘pessimistic’ introductory paragraph and provide an extra coherence tie between sense unities 1 and 5, ensuring integrity of the article as a whole).

This hyperutterance, artificial and long, serves to give you only a faint idea of what the overall content of a speech product may be composed of when constructed by a reader (in this case, myself). In it, I have not managed to verbally express everything I came to infer, imagine, and feel in the process of reading the article (if I had tried to do that, I would have ended up with a hyperutterance containing too many additional parenthetical phrases and clauses that I am making too much use of in this book, anyway). Of course, such hyperutterances are seldom if ever materialized ‘on paper’, in a linear fashion; rather, all of their constituents are ‘uttered’ at the cognitive level simultaneously, forming a collage.

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

3.3.4

31

The Overall Content of a Speech Product

Indeed, the overall content of a speech product is a complex mental representation constructed as a result of construing (1) a continuity of meanings (textual semantic information forming the internal content (what is said) plus textual pragmatic information about the text forming the external content) in parallel with (2) a continuity of senses and sense unities (pragmatic information forming the internal content, which is based on a merger between textual semantic information and verified, credible extratextual information, as well as pragmatic assumptions whose truth value is not or cannot be verified, together with various pragmatic effects, including emotive, evaluative, humorous, satirical, ironic, and aesthetic ones, each of which may be either shared by some audiences or idiosyncratic, plus extratextual pragmatic information about the speech product that forms its external content). Overall content is a total range of everything that a reader perceives, discovers, or learns, having read a speech product in its entirety (internal content) and having obtained or been given some data on the speech product (external content). In many cases, it is not a mere sum total of meanings and senses deduced; rather, it is a qualitatively new and, so to say, higher level understanding of the two interwoven continuities. Speech product content is semi-dynamic, since its semantic information is relatively stable and static, while pragmatic is not. Its stability depends on the type of a speech product and readership. For instance, the content of a contract will be subject to less fluctuation than the content of a novel, no matter who their readers are. On the other hand, readers’ attitudes, values, and beliefs may alter the pragmatic side of the construction of content dramatically. Besides, a deeper understanding of any speech product requires possession and activation of the different types of knowledge that I have mentioned above and that I would like to go over in the next section.

3.3.5

Types of Knowledge Required to Understand Speech Products

I don’t want to recklessly plunge myself into a philosophical discussion of what knowledge is in all its aspects and develop far-fetched theories of it. I will consider the phenomenon of knowledge only insofar as it may be relevant to reading, understanding, and translating speech products. That is why I would like to narrow the definition of knowledge down to what we know or have to know to be able to read a speech product, construct its overall content, and translate it into another language. The two major types of knowledge required to understand speech products are (1) language/linguistic (=metalanguage) knowledge, and (2) extralinguistic knowledge. Of course, some of the extralinguistic knowledge we possess is embodied in the meanings of language units, and a lot of it is communicated verbally via their

32

3 What Is It That We Translate?

combinations. Still, language knowledge is different from extralinguistic knowledge at least in two respects: first, the use of the knowledge of a language involves verbalizing different bits of extralinguistic knowledge (many of which presumably exist in our heads as non-verbal mental representations) and arranging them by meanings of its constituents; second, not all bits of extralinguistic knowledge can be verbalized (at any rate, fully), with the total volume of extraverbal knowledge far exceeding that of verbalized/verbalizable knowledge. Let me try to clarify what the term ‘language/linguistic knowledge’ refers to. Axiomatically, possessing language knowledge means being able to use a language—speak, read, and write in it. However, what criteria we should be benchmarking our language knowledge against is a difficult question. That is to say, how well should you speak, read, and write to qualify as someone who ‘knows’ a language? A possible answer may be found in an outline of the so-called “communicative competencies” (among which “linguistic competences” are the core ones), provided in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR) (Council of Europe 2001). The linguistic competences are: lexical competence (knowledge of the vocabulary of a language), grammatical competence (knowledge of morphology and syntax), semantic competence (knowledge of the organization of meaning), phonological competence (knowledge of phonemes, allophones, prosody, etc.), orthographic competence (knowledge of the writing system), and orthoepic competence (knowledge of how to produce the accepted pronunciation of, and use, words that one comes across in written speech products)18 (Council of Europe 2001: 108–18). I believe for a person to be classed as ‘possessing enough language knowledge to understand written speech products and work as a translator’, s/he should master the competences to achieve the level of a “proficient user” (C1 or C2, according to the CEFR Common Reference Levels Scale). Language knowledge is usually amplified by some amount of linguistic (metalanguage) knowledge, i.e., knowledge about language. In fact, what I am writing here about speech products and their translation, including the terminology I am using to describe their parameters, verbally represents some of my linguistic knowledge that I either acquired during my education or constructed based on my experiences and reasoning. While language proficiency is closely related to how much one is aware of what a language system is and what rules it is governed by, (1) this relationship is by no means strict (see, for example, Steel and Alderson 1994), and (2) the ability to use a language is probably even more contingent on a special subtype of linguistic knowledge that I have termed speech usage knowledge (see Sect. 3.3.3). Speech usage knowledge does not directly relate to the scientific study of a language. It involves being able to make correspondences between certain chunks of speech and situations they may or should be used in. Thus, speech usage knowledge merges some elements of language/linguistic knowledge (namely the knowledge of specific phrases and sentences) with some

18

Note that many of the similar terms used in the CEFR and in this book do not directly match.

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

33

elements of extralinguistic knowledge. This should not be regarded as a taxonomic inconsistency: I am compartmentalizing ‘types of knowledge’, just like I am compartmentalizing ‘categories of speech product’, for purely analytic purposes. Naturally, at the cognitive level, no type of knowledge is an island entire of itself. Possibly, all knowledge types exist in a state of interpenetration. Be that as it may, the actual relations between different types of knowledge in both ‘passive’ and ‘active’ modes are far more intricate, than the models of these relations reductively described in theories. According to my framework, the two ontological types of extralinguistic knowledge are stereotypical knowledge of the world and background knowledge (see Sects. 3.3.2–3.3.4). In terms of their communicative roles, both may function as situation-bound knowledge and situation-independent knowledge. Stereotypical knowledge of the world is shared by all non-mentally disabled and non-cognitively impaired adult individuals living in the same time period, and may be absolutely necessary either for biological survival, for normal functioning in society or for both. Stereotypical knowledge of the world very loosely corresponds with Minsky’s ‘frame constructs’ mentioned in Sect. 3.3.2 (see footnote 5), because stereotypical knowledge appears to be relatively well-structured, forming a more consistent “network of nodes and relations” (Minsky 1975: 211), as compared to what I call background knowledge. E.g., everybody knows that (16) spring

is the season after winter and before summer, when vegetation appears. This ‘core’ knowledge of what spring is has been indispensable and universal since time immemorial—even Paleolithic people were aware of the four seasons and other life cycles.19 Today this generic knowledge is somewhat expanded: an average modern person is supposed to know that, in calendar terms, spring is the season of the year from March to May in the Northern hemisphere and from September to November in the Southern hemisphere (or, astronomically, from the March equinox to the June solstice in the Northern hemisphere and from the September equinox to the December solstice in the Southern hemisphere20). So, stereotypical knowledge inevitably fluctuates from one epoch to another, and, to a much lesser extent, from one contemporary to another. Since stereotypical knowledge is held by, and is comprehensible to, all mature human beings, it has got to be somewhat superficial. What is important is that stereotypical world knowledge (1) fits into more or less clear-cut, basic, universally recognized structures/systems/hierarchies/etc., and (2) may be extrapolated to multiple specific situations, although, in itself, it is not confined to any particular time, place, thing, person, etc.

19

See, for example, Joseph (2011). As you may see, elements of stereotypical knowledge might form relations with elements of background knowledge (the latter, in this case, is awareness of what the two hemispheres of the Earth are, and what the specific equinoxes and solstices are).

20

34

3 What Is It That We Translate?

Thus, the knowledge of what spring is has to be connected to the knowledge of the vast concepts of time and nature, both of which are needed to understand what seasons are and what they are different in. It has to be fitted into the system of time units reflecting regular sequence of the seasons (year, month, etc.), as well as into the system of weather patterns (in spring the weather is warmer than in winter, yet colder than in summer). As for background knowledge, it does not seem to fit into consistent “networks of nodes and relations”.21 E.g., when you read (17) the spring of 1968

you may activate your knowledge of particular historical events, in the first place the Prague Spring (a short period of political and cultural liberalization in Czechoslovakia when this country was considered a satellite of the Soviet Union) or the so-called May 1968 events in France (a period of social unrest in France, mainly among students and factory workers). A speech product’s context and/or extratextual setting will help readers identify which historical episode is referred to. So, background knowledge is extralinguistic knowledge of unique phenomena, things, concrete individuals, particular events (real or fictitious), as well as that of specific speech products. The latter subtype of background knowledge may be illustrated by an utterance I wrote several paragraphs above: (18) Naturally, at the cognitive level, no type of knowledge is an island entire of itself.

Those of you who have read (or at least are familiar with) a poem by the English poet John Donne (from his book Devotion upon Emergent Occasions) recognized a ‘transformed quotation’ from the poem’s first line: No man is an island entire of itself; […].

Obviously, the background knowledge activated when reading utterance (18) is situation-independent. Also, while its activation will produce a host of pragmatic/ stylistic effects, this knowledge will not be needed to ‘reconceptualize’ the internal content of Donne’s poem so as to connect it to what is discussed in my book (contrariwise, in example (14), as you may remember, such a reconceptualization of the internal content of the two speech products—a magazine article and the Book of Daniel—did take place). To sum up this idea: there are two scenarios of what may happen when you identify some verbal markers in a speech product you are reading (let us call it speech product A) that trigger some knowledge of another (‘older’) speech product (speech product B). Scenario number one: you establish an ‘intertextual’ link between them and realize that this link helps you construct the internal content of speech product A, enriching it with some senses derived from speech product B. Scenario number two: you establish an ‘intertextual link’ and realize that it creates some interaction only at the level of ‘exterior form’, its value being

21

See Nayer (1993).

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

35

ornamental, and that it is not there to help you better comprehend or redefine the internal content of speech product A in one way or another. Situation-bound background knowledge is no less important when deducing senses from utterances and constructing the content of a speech product. For example, when reading a textbook of neurology, in a section describing how to conduct tests to check reflexes, you may come across something like this: (19) A little downward pressure may help accentuate a reticent ankle reflex.

If the authors of the textbook provide no verbal explanation of where and by whom this pressure should be applied, this means they expect their readers to activate some background knowledge of how the ankle reflex is checked (a patient may be asked to give some pressure on the doctor’s hand with his/her foot). Without this knowledge, you will not be able to understand the utterance and, for that matter, translate it into another language. In fact, the issue of acquiring different types of knowledge and being able to activate them when they are due is of paramount importance for translators. For example, without some speech usage knowledge you will not be able to adequately translate from Russian into English some utterances that may be found on different organizations’ websites, such as the following: (20) Cxeмa пpoeздa.

You should know how this communicative situation is typically described in English (i.e., what navigation labels are usually used for sections of websites providing maps of, and directions to, organizations), not so much the dictionary equivalents for the words cxeмa (scheme) and пpoeзд (trip), to be able to translate it as How to reach us. If a translator lacks some linguistic or extralinguistic knowledge, cannot realize the need to find additional information to fill a gap in his/her knowledge, or simply does not want to take pains to do it, s/he will often make embarrassing gaffes. Consider the following utterance from a short biography of Ernest Hemingway: (21) In the late 1920’s, Hemingway wrote his celebrated World War I novel A Farewell to Arms.

If a translator is not well-read or thorough, s/he may translate it into Russian as B кoнцe 1920-x гoдoв Эpнecт Xeмингyэй нaпиcaл знaмeнитый poмaн o Пepвoй миpoвoй вoйнe «Пpoщaйтe, pyки» (rendering the title of the novel as Goodbye, Upper Limbs). This laughable mistake could have been avoided, if the unwary translator had possessed (or made a little effort to acquire) some background knowledge of the whole text or synopsis of the novel in English (and/or Russian), as well as of how its title had been translated into Russian (Пpoщaй, opyжиe!). Sometimes translators’ mistakes may be indicative of lacunae in both language knowledge and extralinguistic knowledge. E.g., if a trainee translator renders the utterance (22) Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.

36

3 What Is It That We Translate?

as Фepдинaнд дe Coccюp был швeдcким лингвиcтoм, it signals two problems: (a) a gap in language knowledge (s/he does not know the word ‘Swiss’ (швeйцapcкий), having mistaken it for ‘Swedish’ (швeдcкий)), and (b) a gap in background knowledge (s/he does not know anything about de Saussure’s origins). I would like to close this subsection dedicated to types of knowledge by emphasizing the following: speech products, according to my framework, are not repositories for knowledge. Knowledge is ‘stored’ in our heads. Whenever we try to materialize (e.g., verbalize) some knowledge, we create/communicate information.

3.3.6

Speech Product Parameters Summed up

In this chapter, I have attempted to give an outline of what dimensions the two sides of a speech product—text and discourse—may have. They all contribute to what I have suggested calling the overall content of a speech product and are summed up in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Speech product Text

Speech product Discourse

Meanings Senses Sentences Utterances Semantic assumptions (semantic Pragmatic assumptions (pragmatic presuppositions and entailments) presuppositions and implicatures) Cohesion (reference, substitution, ellipsis, Coherence (ensured mainly by thematic conjunction, and lexical cohesion) progression) Combinations of sentences (‘intersentential Sense unities unities’) Context Extratextual (discursive) setting Semantic information that contributes to Pragmatic information that contributes to forming the internal content of a speech forming the internal content of a speech product product Textual pragmatic information about a speech Extratextual pragmatic information about a product that contributes to forming its speech product that contributes to forming its external content external content A total of textual information (including the A total of discursive information (including pragmatic/stylistic effects that are part of the pragmatic/stylistic effects that are part of semantic information); the only type of pragmatic information); to construct knowledge that is activated fully at the textual discursive information, extralinguistic level of understanding of a speech product is knowledge is used to the maximum degree language/linguistic knowledge; as for extralinguistic knowledge, it is used only inasmuch as it is presented in meanings of language structures Overall content

3.3 Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity

37

I admit that my explanation of what it is that we read and translate is rough-and-ready and condensed. It can be amplified in many ways and is not free of limitations. Yet I would like to cling to it because it seems practical. This is what counts most: the speech product parameters I have sketched out above appear to tally with what translators have to focus on in real-life situations. So, I believe my framework’s strengths are the following: it is practical; it is holistic; it helps unify terminology and adhere to it; and it is compatible with some other approaches.

References Bakhtin, M.M. (1952–1953/1979) Problema rechevykh zhanrov. In Éstetika slovesnogo tvorchestva, 237–280. Moscow: Iskusstvo, translated (1986) by V.W. McGee as ‘The problem of speech genres’, eds. C. Emerson and M. Holquist, 60–102. Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for language learning and teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Online available at: http://www.coe. int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. Accessed 15 Nov 2014. Daneš, F. 1974. Functional Sentence Perspective and the Organization of the Text. In Papers on Functional Sentence Perspective, ed. F. Daneš, 106–28. Prague: Academia/The Hague: Mouton. Enkvist, N.E. 1980. Categories of Situational Context from the Perspective of Stylistics. Language Teaching 13: 75–94. Fowler, R. 1977. Linguistics and the Novel. London and New York: Routledge. Galperin, I.R. 1981. Tekst kak ob’ekt lingvisticheskogo issledovaniya [Text as an Object of Linguistic Research]. Moscow: Nauka. Halliday, M.A.K., and R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman. Joseph, R. 2011. Evolution of Paleolithic Cosmology and Spiritual Consciousness, and the Temporal and Frontal Lobes. In Consciousness and the Universe, ed. R. Penrose, S. Hameroff, and S. Kak, 631–382. Cambridge, MA: Cosmology Science Publishers. Katz, J.J. 1977. Propositional Structure and Illocutionary Force: A Study of the Contribution of Sentence Meaning to Speech Acts. New York: Crowell. Lakoff, G. 1971. Presupposition and relative well-formedness. In Semantics: an interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics and psychology, ed. D.D. Steinberg, and L.A. Jakobovits, 329–340. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Minsky, M. 1975. A Framework for Representing Knowledge. In The Psychology of Computer Vision, ed. P.H. Winston, 211–277. New York: McGraw-Hill. Nayer, V.L. 1993. Freim kak instrument dekodirovaniya semanticheskoy i stilisticheskoy informatsii [Frame as an Instrument for Decoding Semantic and Stylistic Information]. In Sbornik nauchnikh trudov MGLU: vyp. 409, ed. K.M. Iriskhanova, 16–27. Moscow: MSLU. Neubert, A., and G.M. Shreve. 1992. Translation as Text. Kent and London: Kent State University Press. Stalnaker, R.C. 1978. Assertion. In Syntax and Semantics, vol. 9: Pragmatics, ed. P. Cole, 315–32. New York: Academic Press. Steel, D., and J.C. Alderson. 1994. Metalinguistic Knowledge, Language Aptitude and Language Proficiency. In Language in a Changing Europe, ed. D. Graddol, and T. Thomas, 92–103. BAAL and Multilingual Matters: Clevedon.

Chapter 4

Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

4.1

Can You Translate Word-for-Word?

“Inexperienced translators, trainees or amateurs, tend to translate word-for-word, as this is the easiest ‘strategy’,” some claim. “Word-for-word translation is the kind of ‘method’ every translator begins with, or even should begin with,” others believe. I would beg to differ on these two statements. In reality, word-for-word translation is an illusion. Let us address the notion of ‘word-for-word translation’. An obvious question springs to mind: how do we choose words for words? The major difficulty lies not so much in the fact that sometimes it is impossible to ‘choose similar words in the TL’ because of the lexical lacunae problem (see Markovina and Sorokin 2008) or syntactic constraints; it lies in the fact that most words have multiple meanings, and correspondences for separate words in the SL and the TL are anything but univocal. If I ask an average first-year student to translate the Russian word group (23) cтapшaя cecтpa

into English, s/he will inevitably choose the variant elder sister. But why does that happen? The Russian word cтapшaя, among many other things, may mean senior or head, while the word cecтpa may refer to a hospital nurse, not to mention other possible interpretations. Yet not a single freshman will translate it as head nurse or ask you to explain what extratextual setting the SL word group is immersed in. They will all blurt out elder sister, without a hesitation. How do they know it is a sibling that is meant? They ‘know’ it because they make a guess, i.e., they make a pragmatic assumption based on their speech usage knowledge and stereotypical knowledge of the world and choose an extratextual setting they believe to be most probable. Thus, when you read or translate any chunk of speech, you always select an extratextual setting for it—either the one borne in mind by the author or a made-up one, and you do it either consciously or involuntarily. And what are,

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6_4

39

40

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

according to my approach, meanings immersed in an extratextual setting?—The answer is ‘senses’. These are not only words that you perceive and process when you read a speech product, and, consequently, these cannot be words that you translate, no matter how hard you may try, because a speech product is always more than just words. If you are told that a chunk of speech you will have to render is nothing but an isolated sentence having no ‘context’, it will be only partially true. It surely will not have a con-text (i.e., sticking to my terminology, it will not be surrounded by other cohesive sentences forming a text), but what it will have is an extratextual setting. Even if I ask you to translate into Russian a separate monosemous word (24) Oxygen,

you will find an extratextual setting for it—most likely the one where somebody is referring to a gas (again, you will make a pragmatic assumption)—and translate it as киcлopoд. However, what if this ‘somebody’ is referring to, say, a music band called ‘Oxygen’? Then you will probably translate it as Oкcиджeн. Historically, there have been numerous attempts to differentiate between several key translation ‘strategies’, all of which seem to gravitate towards one of the two poles.1 The first one is stronger orientation towards the source culture, the source language, the source language speech product (to be more exact, towards its semantic side, even separate words and their combinations that should be somehow ‘preserved’ in the TL speech product, if possible—hence ‘word-for-word translation’), or towards the author/s of the SL speech product. The terms to describe this pole’s strategies abound: formal equivalence, direct translation, literal translation, faithful translation, foreignizing translation, semantic translation, overt translation, etc. (see Nida 1964; Vinay and Darbelnet 1958; Newmark 1988; Levý 1967/2000; Toury 1995; House 1997; Gibová 2012). It should be noted that some of the definitions of these terms are rather confusing.2 The second pole is more stress on the target language, the target culture, the target language speech product and its readers. The terms used to describe it are

1

This problem has already been touched upon in Sect. 3.2. Here is an explanation of what ‘semantic translation’ is from Newmark (1981). Since “the gap between emphasis on source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice” (Newmark (1981: 38), one should differentiate between “communicative translation” and “semantic translation”. The latter “attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original” (ibid.: 39). Several questions arise (apart from those that will be mentioned in the-next-but-two paragraph): Do we, in fact, translate language structures? What is “contextual meaning of the original”? Moreover, what is “the exact contextual meaning” and how can “exactness” be measured? Another example of a definition that is hard to understand: “an overt translation is one in which the addressees of the translation text are quite “overtly” not being directly addressed” (House 1997: 66). 2

4.1 Can You Translate Word-for-Word?

41

dynamic equivalence, oblique translation, domesticizing translation, free translation, idiomatic translation, pragmatic translation, communicative translation, covert translation, to name but a few (ibid.). For simplicity’s sake, let us call the strategies gravitating towards the first pole ‘source-oriented translation’, and those gravitating towards the second pole ‘target-oriented translation’. I have always been skeptical of such ‘strategies’. In the first place, as I have already mentioned in Sect. 3.2, they are unnecessarily rigid. Some scholars have even tended to suggest that translators are doomed to adopt only one of the two strategies. But why should one focus more on some aspects of cross-cultural communication than on other aspects? Why fail or decline to consider all the factors that come into view? I believe the human brain is much more potent than some theorists make it seem. Second, you can barely apply only ‘source-oriented translation’ or only ‘target-oriented translation’ in a systematic fashion when working on a speech product longer than a page. The relations among the various elements and dimensions within a speech product are legion and too intricate to be simplified down to a handful of strategies. When a translator is producing a translation, whatever his/her initial plans about the ‘methods’ they would like to employ for a whole speech product, s/he will have to rethink them many times in the light of dozens of contextual and situational factors and often abandon them in favor of other ‘methods’ that will help solve multifarious translation problems pinpointed when processing specific attention units (see Sect. 4.2) within a given speech product.3 But, obviously, these strategies would not have been introduced, had translatologists tried to provide a more or less integral and in-depth description of what they should be applied to, i.e., of what it is that one translates. If you adopt my view of what semantic and pragmatic information is, you will have to admit that neither source-oriented nor target-oriented translation is possible. When you read a speech product, you do not focus on one set of its parameters to the neglect of others. Likewise, you cannot limit the process of translation to nothing else but establishing matches for some bits of semantic information without considering whether this helps match pragmatic information or, the other way round, you cannot focus only on matching pragmatic information, abandoning all attempts to match semantic information. Yes, you do want to concentrate on the original and try to render as many SL textual parameters as possible. And yes, you do want everything you translate to be well understood and found appropriate by the TL readers. You just keep these two (and many other) tasks in mind when you translate.

Even when translating a legal document, one may have to move away from the ‘mirror-image’ strategy (see Sects. 4.2.1 and 4.2.2.2.7.) so as to render, say, a Russian postal address into English (e.g., 115088 Россия, г. Москва, ул. Новоостаповская, д. 4 ! 4 Novoostapovskaya St., 115088 Moscow, Russia).

3

42

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

True, sometimes translators find themselves in situations where there is very little room for maneuver and which, on the face of them, look like a choice between source-oriented and target-oriented translation (though this is always a misconception). However, in most cases you have to decide among many variants. For example, when translating a patient’s H&P (History and Physical Examination) form, you may come across a subsection that reads (25) Allergies: None.

Possible translations into Russian are: Aллepгии: нeт Aллepгии: – Aллepгии: oтcyтcтвyют Aллepгичecкий aнaмнeз: нe oтягoщeн Aллepгичecкий aнaмнeз нe oтягoщeн. Aллepгии: нeт Aллepгии: – Aллepгии: oтcyтcтвyют Aллepгичecкий aнaмнeз: нe oтягoщeн Aллepгичecкий aнaмнeз нe oтягoщeн.

Going through this list, you are not choosing between source-oriented and target-oriented translation; also, you are not choosing between emphasizing the source language or the target language. The choice will always be both source-oriented and target-oriented (provided that you have not made a mistake). Each of these variants reflects some meanings of the original sentence and, at the same time, may be more pragmatically adequate than others in a particular context (where you consider how the rest of the TL text is structured and represented visually to ensure its integrity) and extratextual setting (where you consider for whom and to what ends the speech product is translated). The thing is that, in the TL speech product, you can try to recreate only those elements and dimensions of the SL speech product that you have been able to grasp as a reader. Sometimes you can make your translation sound ‘translationese’/ ‘unidiomatic’/ ‘ungrammatical’/ ‘word-for-word’, being fully aware of it (and thus pursuing some pragmatic goals)—but this is usually not needed in non-literary translations (please remember that different types of translation may involve different actions). Problems arise when you do it unintentionally, rebuilding in the TL only one of the textual dimensions of a speech product and thus distorting the senses and/or violating the norms of the target language or of the functional style the TL speech product belongs to. Often you do not notice your mistakes in translation because you made them earlier as a reader: you fail to realize that something went wrong in some of the speech product dimensions when you were constructing the content of the SL speech product to form its complex mental representation in your head. Sometimes you make mistakes because you have not read the original thoroughly enough and have not tried to construct its overall

4.1 Can You Translate Word-for-Word?

43

content or the hypersenses of separate sense unities. Consider the following example from a translation of NIH’s Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment4:

The key mistake made by a translator in example (26) consists in the use of the word group yпoтpeблeниe нapкoтикoв in the first utterance, repeated in the second utterance (Знaниe тoгo, чтo зa yпoтpeблeниeм нapкoтикoв cлeдят, […]). How did this mistake come about? This is how I would explain it based on my model of speech product. The translator did not process the senses and their continuity that forms a unity of senses (hypersense). What is more, the translator did not even process the continuity of meanings of the three sentences that together form an intersentential unity. In fact, s/he managed to analyze neither the discursive side nor the textual side of the excerpt. S/he only tried to rebuild the meanings of the three sentences in an atomistic fashion, not paying enough attention to, and not trying to ensure, cohesion of meanings and coherence of senses. S/he started out by deducing a semantic presupposition from the word group drug use (‘drugs are used’) and did not go any further in terms of ‘reasoning’ (see description of modulation in Sect. 4.2.2.1): s/he did not attempt to correlate the isolated meaning of the first word group with the rest of the meanings found in the sentences (i.e., did not consider the microcontext of the intersentential unity and the context of the whole text); also, s/he did not try to reevaluate all the meanings in the light of some bits of stereotypical or background knowledge derived from outside the text (i.e., did not consider the extratextual setting). As a result, from the Russian translation in (24) we learn that patients are allowed to continue using drugs when undergoing treatment, yet under the watchful supervision of doctors, which sounds paradoxical, as peцидивы (lapses) and вoзвpaт к нapкoтикaм (a return to drug use) are also mentioned. To rectify this mistake, what the translator

4

Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment. A Research-Based Guide. Second Edition. National Institute on Drug Abuse. National Institutes of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH Publication No. 09–4180. Printed October 1999; Reprinted July 2000, February 2008; Revised April 2009. Available online at: https://www.google.ru/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc= s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CCYQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emcdda.europa.eu%2F attachements.cfm%2Fatt_231091_EN_INT13_NIDA_principles%2520of%2520drug%2520treat ment_2012.pdf&ei=slnMVNSVFcP7ywP9vYKgBA&usg=AFQjCNHSJPnNJBtSHsGSrdJJk6m 28K-tgQ&bvm=bv.85076809,d.bGQ. Accessed 30 Nov 2014.

44

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

has to do is to explore both the textual side and the discursive side of the excerpt so as to override the initial semantic presupposition5 by attempting to correlate it with the context (the “lapses” and “return to drug use” cannot “occur” if a patient never stopped using drugs) and the extratextual setting (most drug addiction treatment programs aim to prevent drug use among patients). An adequate translation of the excerpt would read

Mistakes leading to distortions of senses are made primarily because a translator may not know what dimensions a speech product has and how these dimensions and their elements interact; consequently, s/he may not know what to focus on (other than words and sentences) when translating it. And if a translator is not able to identify relevant attention units and consider their interplay, s/he will not be able to choose proper translation techniques to establish matches for them. After you have considered example (26), it should become clearer what a translator may be advised to do to ensure adequate translation: (a) read the SL speech product closely before translating it, (b) when reading, search for attention units in different speech product dimensions, (c) narrow and broaden the scope of attention units (e.g., so as to correlate the senses inferred from separate utterances with the hypersense of a given sense unity and the macrosense of the entire speech product), and (d) search for relevant attention units in a non-linear fashion, not necessarily reading from left to right. These and other actions in the process of written translation will be described in Sect. 4.2.

4.2 4.2.1

The Three Stages in the Process of Translation Stage One: Preliminary Analysis

The number of stages in the process of translation will vary in each particular case, as the process may be affected by a multitude of factors (such as technologies used, participation in a team translation project, number of people revising your translation, certifying a translation, etc.). In Sects. 4.2.1, 4.2.2, and 4.2.3, I would like to describe the most essential steps that are normally taken when one translator 5

See Sect. 3.3.3.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

45

performs what Toury (1998: 19) termed translation act, only sporadically touching upon what may be done as part of a translation event. (According to Toury, “a distinction is drawn between the act of translation, which is […] cognitive, and the context of situation where the person performing the act, and hence the act itself, are embedded” (ibid., italics in the original); the latter is called translation event.) I believe a trainee translator primarily has to concentrate on studying the translation act, for it is at the core of the process of translation. As one famous translator aptly put it, “translation is the most intimate act of reading” (Spivak 1993/2004: 398). This is a very pertinent point. In fact, this is what the first stage in the translation process (I prefer to call it preliminary analysis) will always start with: reading the SL speech product from beginning to end. You may not want to follow the rest of my tips on what should be done as part of the first stage, but if you do not read (or at least skim) the SL speech product through, you will encounter many problems when translating it. A builder who is putting bricks on top of each other, not always being aware of why a certain wall is needed and what structure he is erecting, may have every right to do so, as there are other people around him who take care of the ‘planning business’ (foremen, architects, etc.). A translator, however, cannot practice only ‘manual labor’, thoughtlessly piling up words and sentences on top of each other. In the first place, s/he has to do the work of an architect and foreman. So, in this sense, a good translator is a do-all. If the speech product you are going to translate is not extremely short, easy, of a very familiar type and in a familiar content area (e.g., your thousandth toaster manual), I suggest the following steps should be taken: (1) skim through the text and then (2) read it more carefully. Glancing over the text helps you get a rough idea of what kind of speech product it is and whether you can manage to translate it, identify its size (to set a tentative deadline for the completion of your translation), key structural elements and features (headings, sections, pictures, diagrams, tables), as well as highlight some frequent words or word groups (particularly, terms) that seem to be important and make some brief notes on the margin. At this phase, it is useful to think of the speech product as of a geographical area that has its landmarks, different types of terrain, etc. You take a perfunctory tour of the speech product, making a map of its parts and trying to plan a route for a more thorough expedition. Skimming through the SL speech product enables you to start constructing the external textual content of the speech product: you may establish who wrote it, when and where it was published, who its prospective readers are (if the author/s explain this in the preface, introduction or some other section), what functional style it belongs to, etc. Of course, going through this initial phase, you may try to grasp some of the internal content, too. Consider the following paragraph from an article on sociology6:

6

Plotnikova, E.B., and I.A. Germanov. 2014. Uroven zhizni i sotsialnaya stratifikatsiya naseleniya v gorodakh permskogo kraya (Living standards and social stratification in the city communities of the Perm region]. Vestnik Permskogo Universiteta. Filisofiya. Psikhologiya. Sotsiologiya. 1(17): 140.

46

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products (27) B cвязи c oтcyтcтвиeм дocтoвepнoй cтaтиcтичecкoй инфopмaции пo цeлoмy pядy пoкaзaтeлeй, xapaктepизyющиx ypoвeнь жизни, нaм пpишлocь пpибeгнyть к дaнным coциoлoгичecкoгo oпpoca, кoтopыe чepeз cyбъeктивныe oцeнки квaлифициpyют блaгoпoлyчиe житeлeй мyниципaльныx oбpaзoвaний. Дaнный пoдxoд пoдpaзyмeвaeт идeнтификaцию ypoвня жизни pecпoндeнтoв пocpeдcтвoм oцeнки cтeпeни лишeний, кoтopыe oни иcпытывaют в пoвceднeвнoй жизни. Пpи этoм выдeляютcя шecть вepтикaльнo cтpyктypиpoвaнныx coциaльныx гpyпп: «бeдныe» — индивиды, y кoтopыx дoxoдoв нe xвaтaeт дaжe для oбecпeчeния пoвceднeвныx нyжд (питaниe, oбщecтвeнный тpaнcпopт, кoммyнaльныe плaтeжи и т.п.); «нyждaющиecя» — тe, ктo зaтpaчивaeт вce cвoи cpeдcтвa нa пoвceднeвныe pacxoды; «мaлooбecпeчeнныe» — люди, кoтopыe пoлнocтью oбecпeчивaют пoвceднeвныe нyжды, нo иcпытывaют мaтepиaльныe зaтpyднeния пpи пoкyпкe oдeжды, oбyви, мeлкoй бытoвoй тexники; «oбecпeчeнныe» — cтaлкивaющиecя c финaнcoвыми тpyднocтями лишь пpи пoкyпкe дopoгocтoящeй тexники; «зaжитoчныe» — для кoтopыx зaтpyднитeльны пoкyпки пo-нacтoящeмy дopoгиx вeщeй (нeдвижимocть, aвтoмoбиль), и, нaкoнeц, «бoгaтыe», кoтopыe нe иcпытывaют никaкиx мaтepиaльныx зaтpyднeний и пoэтoмy ни в чeм ceбe нe oткaзывaют.

When skim-reading this excerpt, you will understand that it describes a sociological survey wherein respondents were stratified according to their incomes into six groups: бeдныe, нyждaющиecя, мaлooбecпeчeнныe, oбecпeчeнныe, зaжитoчныe, and бoгaтыe. Without delving deeper, you may highlight the six terms in the text, add a note on the margin that would read, for example, ‘stratification according to incomes’, and move on. In-depth reading involves more laborious tasks. The first major task is to form a mental representation of the speech product’s overall content, looking at it through the eyes of a SL reader. If you cannot explain to yourself ‘what the speech product is about’, try to write a short summary of it. If you have difficulty in organizing hypersenses of separate sense unities into a coherent summary (‘hyperutterance’), you may take a step back and write a sort of table of contents for the speech product wherein separate items will constitute separate hyperthemes.7 (Reading through an actual table of contents may be helpful, although titles of chapters/sections do not always reflect relevant hyperthemes.) Sometimes you cannot deduce hypersenses from utterance groups because you lack some extralinguistic knowledge of what is described. If this is the case, you are advised to do additional reading. E.g., if you are to translate an article on the latest developments in the field of substitution urethroplasty procedures, you may want to turn to encyclopedias, health handbooks, websites of professional organizations of urologists, publications listed in the References section of the article, and other information resources to find out what substitution urethroplasty is, what types it has, definitions of specific terms, etc. Reading earlier works published by the author of the speech product you are translating may give you a better understanding of some of his or her terms and ideas. Please note that sometimes this additional reading phase may take many days or even weeks and can be longer than the translation process itself (this is often the case in the fields of scientific and technical translation). Provided that you keep in mind the deadline and plan how much you have to

7

See discussion of thematic progression and analysis of example (15) in Sect. 3.3.3.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

47

achieve within the time period allowed, this approach can yield good results: the more extensively and thoroughly you investigate the issues the SL speech product describes, the faster and more adequately you will translate it into the TL. If there is not much literature available on the subject you want to learn more about, or the explanations you have found are too confusing, you may get in touch with specialists and ask them for a consultation. The fact is that no translator (and no doctor, for that matter), however seasoned s/he may be, is an expert on all things medical (or whatever the field). So asking a professional to give you a crash course in some aspects of his or her domain may save you problems later on. Doing additional reading in the TL also helps you find terms, conventional patterns and template sentences you may need when producing your translation. In many cases, you (and the authors of speech products you have to translate) do not try to reinvent the wheel and build utterances totally from scratch. You, either consciously or not, borrow some formulaic expressions from other speech products akin to the one you are dealing with in the functional style, substyle, subject, etc. (see a quote from Mikhail Bakhtin in footnote 12 in Chap. 3). The second major task of in-depth reading is to explore the SL speech product looking at it through the eyes of a translator. This has to be done to identify attention units in different speech product dimensions that seem to be challenging for you not as a reader (or not only as a reader), but as a translator. Incidentally, among them may be some printing, grammatical, factual, or logical mistakes made by the author/s that have to be discussed with the clients before the TL speech product is produced. While identifying attention units, think of the target audience (those for whom the TL speech product is meant) and differences and similarities between the norms of the respective functional styles in the SL and the TL. Let us go back to example (27): during in-depth reading, you should think of the possible English equivalents for the six terms you highlighted when scanning through the text for the first time. Analyzing these attention units, you will realize that together they form a sort of income scale, with бeдныe (at one end) referring to the extremely poor and бoгaтыe (at the other end) referring to the most affluent. This means that these two terms and all the other terms in between have to be translated with words or word groups denoting a gradual rise in income. A possible scale is the destitute ! the poor ! the low-income group ! the middle-income group ! the well-to-do ! the rich. At least two more things should be mentioned as regards the reading phase: first, you may want to read the SL text not only onscreen, but also on paper (there is some evidence that people find it more difficult to read certain types of speech product onscreen, as compared to their printed versions (see Li et al. 2013); second, try to remember where different bits of information are located (taking notes, highlighting and bookmarking can help with this) to be able to navigate the text easily and build mental links between distant paragraphs/sections/chapters/etc. What you are advised to do next is to sketch out a plan of how translation should be performed: (1) decide on the chronological sequence of actions (which sections/pages/titles should be translated first); (2) decide on what other strategies should be utilized.

48

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

The thing is that speech products, particularly long ones that are comprised of many parts, do not have to be translated ‘from left to right’. This is because many of them may be structured as ‘hypertexts’—i.e., their different sections may contain cross-references. That is why sometimes you can translate the first chapters more adequately (inter alia, maintaining the consistency of SL terms in the TL) after you have translated, for example, the Glossary section in the end of the book. To illustrate this point, let us take a look at the Table of Contents from The Anatomy Coloring Book by W. Kapit and L.M. Elson8: (28) Table of Contents x Preface xi Acknowledgments xii Introduction To Coloring Orientation To The Body […] Cells & Tissues […] Integumentary System […] Skeletal & Articular Systems […] Muscular System […] Nervous System […] Central Nervous System […] Central Nervous System: Cavities and Coverings […] Peripheral Nervous System […] Autonomic (Visceral) Nervous System […] Special Senses […] Cardiovascular System […] Lymphatic System […] Immune (Lymphoid) System […] Respiratory System […] Digestive System […] Urinary System […] Endocrine System […]

8

Kapit, W., and L.M. Elson. 2014. The Anatomy Coloring Book. New York: Pearson.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

49

Reproductive System […] Bibliography and References Appendix A: Answer Keys (to Reviews on pages 34, 41, 58, 66, 114, 119) Appendix B: SPINAL Innervation of Skeletal Muscles Glossary Index

Obviously, this speech product can be divided into three major parts: (1) the introductory part (from Preface to Introduction To Coloring), (2) the main part (from Orientation To The Body to Reproductive System), and (3) the closing part (from Bibliography and References to Index). Glossary contains a lot of supplementary information on the terms and notions discussed throughout the main part of the book, while Index draws together the numerous threads from all the chapters, which is why studying it will help choose the most appropriate matches for, and unify, terms used throughout the book. So, it is key to consider the Glossary and Index sections before translating the main part of the book. Also, before translating the chapters on the nervous system, it would not be unwise to work through the Appendix B section, as it provides more details on spinal innervation. The last step in the process of the preliminary analysis may be the choice of other translation strategies (or methods) that would somehow “relate to whole texts” (Newmark 1988: 81). I would not venture to devise a definitive list of strategies and claim that each of them should be applied to such and such a type of speech product, as reality will always be much more complex than any preselected strategy may envision. I believe that the best real-world translation strategies are situation-specific; most of them cannot be generalized to the level of universal guidelines that will work each time you translate a speech product of a given type. What they all amount to is working out one or more patterns (or ‘rules’) to be followed throughout a translation. For instance, when dealing with some (not all!) types of legal or formal documents, particularly international ones, you may have to comply with the following mutually dependent ‘rules’: (1) preserve the sentence/utterance division of the SL speech product in the TL speech product, (2) preserve the same themes and rhemes in each of the utterances, and, where possible, their arrangement, (3) preserve the thematic progression pattern/s, (4) preserve similar sense density in each utterance, i.e., avoid using the translation techniques of explication, ellipsis, addition, exclusion, label, or definition,9 as well as reduce to the minimum possible resorting to theme-rheme rearrangement, (5) preserve paragraphs/sections and their typography and layout (type of letters and characters, new lines, indentations, numbering, etc.). A salient example would be a resolution adopted by the UN Security Council10:

9

For explanation of these terms see Sect. 4.2.2. UN Security Council, Security Council resolution 2084. 2012. On renewal of the mandate of the UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) until 30 June 2013. 19 Dec 2012, S/RES/2084 (2012). Online available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/50ed38092.html. Accessed 12 Dec 2014. For more details on the layout of such speech products see original publications.

10

50

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

(29) Resolution 2084 (2012) Adopted by the Security Council at its 6893rd meeting, on 19 December 2012

Peзoлюция 2084 (2012), пpинятaя Coвeтoм Бeзoпacнocти нa eгo 6893-м зaceдaнии 19 дeкaбpя 2012 гoдa

The Security Council, Noting with concern that the situation in the Middle East is tense and is likely to remain so, unless and until a comprehensive settlement covering all aspects of the Middle East problem can be reached,

Coвeт Бeзoпacнocти, c oбecпoкoeннocтью oтмeчaя, чтo oбcтaнoвкa нa Ближнeм Bocтoкe являeтcя нaпpяжeннoй и, вepoятнo, бyдeт ocтaвaтьcя тaкoвoй, ecли и дo тex пop, пoкa нe yдacтcя дocтигнyть вceoбъeмлющeгo ypeгyлиpoвaния, oxвaтывaющeгo вce acпeкты ближнeвocтoчнoй пpoблeмы, paccмoтpeв дoклaд Гeнepaльнoгo ceкpeтapя o Cилax Opгaнизaции Oбъeдинeнныx Haций пo нaблюдeнию зa paзъeдинeниeм oт 27 нoябpя 2012 гoдa (S/2012/897) и внoвь пoдтвepждaя тaкжe cвoю peзoлюцию 1308 (2000) oт 17 июля 2000 гoдa, выpaжaя глyбoкyю oбecпoкoeннocть пo пoвoдy вcex нapyшeний Coглaшeния o paзъeдинeнии cил, в чacтнocти пo пoвoдy пpиcyтcтвия в paйoнe paзъeдинeния Boopyжeнныx cил Cиpийcкoй Apaбcкoй Pecпyблики и нepaзpeшeннoгo вoeннoгo имyщecтвa, paздeляя мнeниe Гeнepaльнoгo ceкpeтapя o тoм, чтo вoeнныe oпepaции, пpoвoдимыe Boopyжeнными cилaми Cиpийcкoй Apaбcкoй Pecпyблики, oтpицaтeльнo cкaзывaютcя нa ycилияx COOHHP пo эффeктивнoмy выпoлнeнию вoзлoжeнныx нa ниx зaдaч, выpaжaя cepьeзнyю oбecпoкoeннocть пo пoвoдy пpиcyтcтвия в paйoнe paзъeдинeния вoopyжeнныx члeнoв oппoзиции, подчеркивая, что недавние инциденты, связанные с нарушением режима, установленного для линии прекращения огня, продемонстрировали потенциал для эскалации напряженности в отношениях между Израилем и Сирийской Арабской Республикой и ставят под удар договоренность о прекращении огня между этими двумя странами, осуждая инцидент, произошедший 29 ноября, когда были ранены пять миротворцев, выражая неизменную признательность военному и гражданскому персоналу, который несет службу в составе СООННР во все более сложной оперативной обстановке, (continued)

Having considered the report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force of 27 November 2012 (S/2012/897), and also reaffirming its resolution 1308 (2000) of 17 July 2000, Expressing grave concern at all violations of the Disengagement of Forces Agreement, including the presence of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces and unauthorized military equipment inside the Area of Separation, Concurring with the Secretary-General’s finding that the military operations carried out by the Syrian Arab Armed Forces have affected adversely the efforts of UNDOF to effectively carry out the mandated tasks,

Expressing serious concern at the presence of armed members of the opposition in the area of separation, Underscoring that recent incidents across the ceasefire line have shown the potential for escalation of tensions between Israel and the Syrian Arab Republic, and jeopardize the ceasefire between the two countries,

Condemning the 29 November incident in which five peacekeepers were injured, Expressing its continued appreciation to the military and civilian personnel serving with UNDOF in an increasingly challenging operating environment,

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

51

(continued) Resolution 2084 (2012) Adopted by the Security Council at its 6893rd meeting, on 19 December 2012

Peзoлюция 2084 (2012), пpинятaя Coвeтoм Бeзoпacнocти нa eгo 6893-м зaceдaнии 19 дeкaбpя 2012 гoдa

1. Calls upon the parties concerned to implement immediately its resolution 338 (1973) of 22 October 1973; 2. Calls on all parties to cooperate fully with the operations of UNDOF, to respect its privileges and immunities and to ensure its freedom of movement, as well as the security of and unhindered and immediate access for the United Nations personnel carrying out their mandate, in conformity with existing agreements and stresses the need to enhance the safety and security of UNDOF personnel;

1. призывает соответствующие стороны незамедлительно выполнить его резолюцию 338 (1973) от 22 октября 1973 года; 2. призывает все стороны в полной мере сотрудничать с СООННР в их деятельности, уважать их привилегии и иммунитеты и обеспечить свободу передвижения их персонала, а также обеспечивать безопасность персонала Организации Объединенных Наций и предоставлять ему беспрепятственный и незамедлительный доступ при выполнении им его мандата, соблюдая действующие соглашения, и подчеркивает необходимость усилить охрану и безопасность персонала СООННР; 3. особо выделяет обязательство обеих сторон скрупулезно и в полной мере соблюдать условия Соглашения о разъединении сил 1974 года, призывает стороны проявлять максимальную сдержанность и не допускать никаких нарушений режима прекращения огня и района разделения и подчеркивает, что в районе разделения не должно вестись никакой военной деятельности, включая военные операции, проводимые Вооруженными силами Сирийской Арабской Республики; 4. приветствует усилия, прилагаемые Силами Организации Объединенных Наций по наблюдению за разъединением в целях осуществления проводимой Генеральным секретарем политики абсолютной нетерпимости к сексуальной эксплуатации и сексуальным надругательствам и обеспечения полного соблюдения их персоналом кодекса поведения Организации Объединенных Наций, просит Генерального секретаря продолжать принимать в этой связи все необходимые меры и информировать о них Совет Безопасности и настоятельно призывает страны, предоставляющие войска, принимать превентивные и (continued)

3. Stresses the obligation on both parties to scrupulously and fully respect the terms of the 1974 Disengagement of Forces Agreement, calls on the parties to exercise maximum restraint and prevent any breaches of the ceasefire and the area of separation, and underscores that there should be no military activity of any kind in the area of separation including military operations by the Syrian Arab Armed Forces;

4. Welcomes the efforts being undertaken by the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force to implement the Secretary-General’s zero-tolerance policy on sexual exploitation and abuse and to ensure full compliance of its personnel with the United Nations code of conduct, requests the Secretary-General to continue to take all necessary action in this regard and to keep the Security Council informed, and urges troop-contributing countries to take preventive and disciplinary action to ensure that such acts are properly investigated and punished in cases involving their personnel;

52

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

(continued) Resolution 2084 (2012) Adopted by the Security Council at its 6893rd meeting, on 19 December 2012

5. Decides to renew the mandate of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force for a period of six months, that is, until 30 June 2013, and requests the Secretary-General to ensure the Force has the capacity necessary to fulfil the mandate;

6. Requests the Secretary-General to report every 90 days on developments in the situation and the measures taken to implement resolution 338 (1973).

Peзoлюция 2084 (2012), пpинятaя Coвeтoм Бeзoпacнocти нa eгo 6893-м зaceдaнии 19 дeкaбpя 2012 гoдa дисциплинарные меры для обеспечения надлежащего расследования таких деяний и наказания за них в тех случаях, когда к ним причастен их персонал; 5. постановляет продлить мандат Сил Организации Объединенных Наций по наблюдению за разъединением на шестимесячный период до 30 июня 2013 года и просит Генерального секретаря обеспечить, чтобы они обладали достаточным потенциалом для выполнения своего мандата; 6. просит Генерального секретаря каждые 90 дней представлять доклад о развитии ситуации и мерах, принятых в целях осуществления резолюции 338 (1973).

Interestingly, in such speech products as (29), one utterance forming the bulk of it may be comprised of several sense unities. What matters in their translation is keeping this ‘parallelism’ in the target language (or languages) so that representatives of all sides can easily find whatever elements they need and discuss them. If in the English version a separate section of an agreement or contract is, say, two utterances long, while in its Russian version it is made up of one or three utterances, different problems may arise, including legal ones. Of course, this strategy will often result in many TL structures sounding like ‘translationese’ (or, as in (29), ‘UNese’, e.g., ecли и дo тex пop, пoкa or дocтигнyть вceoбъeмлющeгo ypeгyлиpoвaния). At the same time, this strategy does not work when translating certain types of legal document or their parts. For example, the WIPO Patent Drafting Manual (2007: 68)11 explains that, in English-language patents, a section known as the Patent Claim “is traditionally written as a single sentence in most jurisdictions.” In many Russian patents, however, this section (entitled Фopмyлa изoбpeтeния or Пaтeнтнaя фopмyлa) may be comprised of two or more utterances. Therefore, when you translate this part of a Russian patent into English, you will have to employ the translation technique of utterance unification.12 Importantly, the ‘mirror-image’ strategy will be absolutely unnecessary when translating speech products other than international contracts, agreements, or

11

World Intellectual Property Organization. 2007. WIPO Patent Drafting Manual. Geneva: WIPO. Online available at: http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/patents/867/wipo_pub_867.pdf. Accessed 30 Dec 2014. 12 For explanation of this term see Sect. 4.2.2.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

53

resolutions. When rendering journalism style speech products, it will not be a must for you to keep utterance (and even paragraph) division intact. To better understand this, let us consider three paragraphs from the article on fibromyalgia (see example (15)) and their translation into Russian: (30) FMS can last a long time. However, several medications may help to treat it. Over-the-counter or prescription painkillers may help. Antidepressants can elevate levels of certain brain chemicals to help with pain and fatigue. A class of medications called benzodiazepines can help relax muscles and improve sleep. Doctors may prescribe other drugs for specific FMS symptoms.

In a recent study supported by NIH, scientists found that the medication gabapentin, which is used for certain types of seizures, can be an effective treatment for the pain and other symptoms associated with FMS. Lyrica (pregabalin), which is structurally similar to gabapentin, was more recently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the first drug to treat FMS. Lyrica reduces pain and improves daily functions for some patients with fibromyalgia.

Physical and occupational therapy may also help some people with FMS. Learning pain-management and coping techniques can help as well. Some FMS patients have success with complementary and alternative therapies, including massage, movement therapies, chiropractic treatments, acupuncture, and herbs and dietary supplements.

Фибpoмиaлгия – длитeльнoe зaбoлeвaниe. Oднaкo для eгo лeчeния ycпeшнo мoжeт пpимeнятьcя цeлый pяд пpeпapaтoв. Cpeди ниx бoлeyтoляющиe cpeдcтвa (пpoдaвaeмыe кaк пo peцeптy, тaк и бeз нeгo), aнтидeпpeccaнты (yвeличивaющиe ypoвeнь oпpeдeлeнныx xимичecкиx вeщecтв в гoлoвнoм мoзгe, кoтopыe cпocoбcтвyют cнятию бoли и yтoмлeния), бeнзoдиaзeпины (cпocoбcтвyющиe paccлaблeнию мышц и yлyчшeнию cнa). Для бopьбы c oтдeльными дpyгими cимптoмaми вpaч мoжeт нaзнaчaть пpoчиe лeкapcтвeнныe пpeпapaты. Иccлeдoвaниe, нeдaвнo пpoвeдeннoe пpи пoддepжкe Haциoнaльныx инcтитyтoв здpaвooxpaнeния CШA (National Institutes of Health), пoкaзaлo, чтo в эффeктивнoй бopьбe c cимптoмaми фибpoмиaлгии пoмoгaeт пpoтивoэпилeптичecкoe cpeдcтвo гaбaпeнтин. Hoвeйшим cpeдcтвoм для лeчeния фибpoмиaлгии являeтcя «Лиpикa» (пpeгaбaлин), пpeпapaт, близкий пo cтpyктype к гaбaпeнтинy. Eгo пpимeнeниe oдoбpeнo aмepикaнcким Упpaвлeниeм пo caнитapнoмy нaдзopy зa кaчecтвoм пищeвыx пpoдyктoв и мeдикaмeнтoв (U.S. Food and Drug Administration). «Лиpикa», являющaяcя пepвым пpeпapaтoм для лeчeния фибpoмиaлгии, yмeньшaeт бoль и yлyчшaeт кaчecтвo жизни. Пepeчиcлим пpoчиe вoзмoжныe виды пoмoщи людям, cтpaдaющим фибpoмиaлгиeй: физиo- и эpгoтepaпия; caмocтoятeльнoe пpимeнeниe paзличныx cпocoбoв ycтpaнeния бoли и cпocoбoв пcиxoфизиoлoгичecкoй aдaптaции; дoпoлнитeльныe мeтoды лeчeния (мaccaж, мaнyaльнaя тepaпия, гимнacтикa, иглoyкaлывaниe); пpимeнeниe тpaв и пищeвыx дoбaвoк.

54

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Analyzing the paragraph starting with FMS can last a long time, the translator works out that it constitutes a small sense unity, its theme being ‘medications that can, with limited success, alleviate some symptoms of fibromyalgia’ (see Fig.3.1 in Sect. 3.3.3), within a (hyper-)sense unity whose (hyper-)theme is ‘What measures can be taken to help people with fibromyalgia?’. The translator also establishes that the most important rhemes are several medications, Over-the-counter or prescription painkillers, Antidepressants can elevate levels of certain brain chemicals [so as to fight] pain and fatigue, A class of medications called benzodiazepines […] relax muscles and improve sleep, and other drugs. Having thought of that, s/he pays attention to the fact that the theme is stated more than once—in utterances two, three, four, and five: may help to treat it, may help, to help with, and can help. Then the translator switches attention to the Russian language structures that may be used to reflect the senses grasped from the SL sense unity. A theme-rheme structure more appropriate in a Russian-language speech product of this type would be (theme) the drugs that can help alleviate some fibromyalgia symptoms ! (rheme) (a) over-the-counter or prescription painkillers, (b) antidepressants that can elevate levels of certain brain chemicals to fight pain and fatigue, (c) benzodiazepines that relax muscles and improve sleep.

as rhemes are seldom placed at the beginning of Russian utterances13 (if they are, it can impede a speech product’s intelligibility); apart from that, the repetition of the same theme several times using almost identical words (the verbs пoмoчь or пoмoгaть (help)) would be perceived as a stylistic blemish. This prompts the translator to unify the senses from English utterances two, three, four, and five in one Russian utterance so as to form the theme-rheme pattern described right above. A similar theme-rheme placement problem is solved in the next paragraph: the translator decides to put the rhemes from utterance one (the medication gabapentin, which is used for certain types of seizures) and utterance two (Lyrica (pregabalin), which is structurally similar to gabapentin… + approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration + as the first drug to treat FMS) after the themes. S/he also discovers that, in utterance two, the rheme is, in fact, made up of three bits of ‘new’ information, which makes the translator split the original utterance into two in Russian and transpose one of the original utterance’s sense elements into Russian utterance three, the theme-rheme patterns being

13

Theme and rheme are not to be mistaken for subject and predicate (purely grammatical categories), nor are they to be mistaken for the initial position or the final position of bits of information within an utterance. Here is one more consideration: within a speech product longer than a couple of pages, it may be difficult to find suitable terms for all the themes and rhemes forming hierarchical relations. When discussing example (15), I used the terms ‘macrotheme’, ‘hypertheme’, ‘theme’, and ‘subtheme’. But you can easily run out of prefixes trying to describe themes of different levels. You can either start using numbers (e.g., ‘theme 6.5.2.1’) or, when hierarchical relations are not the focus of attention, when these are separate utterances that you are analyzing, you can refer to them simply as ‘themes’ and ‘rhemes’.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

55

Russian utterance one (theme) a recent study supported by NIH [showed that] an effective treatment for the pain and other symptoms associated with FMS [can be] ! (rheme) the medication gabapentin, which is used for certain types of seizures + Russian utterance two (theme) more recently [it was found that] an effective treatment for the pain and other symptoms associated with FMS [can be] ! (rheme) Lyrica (pregabalin), which is structurally similar to gabapentin + Russian utterance three (theme) [it was] ! (rheme) approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration + Russian utterance four (theme) Lyrica ! (rheme) (a) [being] the first drug to treat FMS (b) reduces pain and improves daily functions for some patients with fibromyalgia

The last paragraph in (30) thematizes ‘non-drug treatments that can help people with fibromyalgia’. Hence, all the techniques and therapies enumerated in the original paragraph’s three utterances are their rhemes: Physical and occupational therapy; Learning pain-management and coping techniques; and complementary and alternative therapies, including massage, movement therapies, chiropractic treatments, acupuncture, and herbs and dietary supplements. As for the theme chunks (may also help some people with FMS, can help as well, and Some FMS patients have success with), they are of little informative value; in a Russian article, a reiteration of the theme akin to the one in the original paragraph would be perceived as unnecessary and awkward-sounding (as if the author were trying to annoyingly emphasize something obvious). Thus, the translator comes to the conclusion that it suffices to mention the theme only once, after which all the therapies and techniques may be listed in one unified utterance: (theme) [other ways to help people with fibromyalgia are] ! (rheme) physical and occupational therapy; learning pain-management and coping techniques; complementary and alternative therapies, including massage, movement therapies, chiropractic treatments, acupuncture, and herbs and dietary supplements

Another strategy may be aimed to preserve the length of the SL text in the TL. It is employed when working on such a type of written matter as, for example, a computer slideshow or paper poster. A translator has to fit the TL words, phrases, and sentences into the spaces provided for the original words, phrases, and sentences, and cannot change their format much so as not to change or clutter the layout of the slides and to make sure the translation is legible. Yet another strategy that may be pursued more or less consistently from beginning to end is to translate certain oft-recurring SL speech product elements with the help of the same TL matches (which can be either devised or chosen). Among them may be terms forming a sort of system (remember the income scale from example (27)), or names. For instance, if a John Wilson is mentioned in the SL speech product many times, a translator will have to find out whether this person’s name has been rendered into Russian before (so as to stick to a ‘traditional’ spelling variant—that

56

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

was used in, say, Russian translations of works by this John Wilson, if there are any), and if it has not, s/he will have to establish a match at his or her own peril, choosing among Джoн Bильcoн, Джoн Bилcoн, and Джoн Уилcoн, and use this match throughout the rest of the translation. Otherwise (if one and the same SL name is translated differently on different pages), some readers may get the impression that the TL names refer to different people. Yet even this ‘consistency’ strategy, however logical it may sound, will often have to be violated. To illustrate this, let us take a look at two excerpts from a guide to artificial reproductive technologies14: (31) Johan Smitz, MD, PhD. HORMONOLOGY LABORATORY CENTER FOR REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE, UZ BRUSSEL FREE UNIVERSITY BRUSSELS (VUB), BELGIUM […] Recent data from literature indicates that careful monitoring of reproductive hormones significantly contributes to increased live birth rates (Loumaye et al. 1997; Smitz et al. 2007; Fleming et al. 2008; Bosch et al. 2010).

The first excerpt in (31) is the ‘signature block’ from the Preface to the guide. When translating this block, you will naturally have to find a (or the) Russian-language equivalent of the name Johan Smitz in trusted Russian-language sources—luckily, this person’s name has been unanimously translated as Йoxaн Шмитц. (If you find several matches, you will have to choose one of them, largely basing your choice on such factors as frequency of use, authority of sources, and personal judgment. If no matches are found, you will have to devise your own translation.) Yet, later, when you come across the same name in the Introduction (from where the second excerpt in (31) is), you will have to take into account that here it is put in parentheses as part of a reference to one of this author’s publications. Your next step will be to find out whether this work is available in Russian. You will discover that it is not, which is why, in the References section of your Russian translation, it will have to be cited in English. And, consequently, in the parentheses, the name will have to be translated via the technique of original spelling15 as follows: Smitz и coaвт., 2007. Or: Smitz и дp., 2007. Thus, each time you see one and the same SL element in different utterances and sense unities, your duty will be to reevaluate its use in the light of a new context and extratextual setting. Let me briefly recap the things that can be done as part of the preliminary analysis stage (Table 4.1):

14

bioMérieux. 2012. Hormone Assays: Making a Key Contribution to Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART). Online available at: http://www.biomerieux-diagnostics.com/sites/clinic/files/ bm_livret_fiv_final.pdf. Accessed 5 Jan 2015. 15 Any decision made by a translator as regards what elements should be used in the TL speech product should be considered part of the translation act. So using original spelling does not constitute failure to translate some elements. For explanation of the term see Sect. 4.2.2.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

57

Table 4.1 Preliminary analysis Steps in the preliminary analysis

What can be done at each step

(1) Skim through the text (2) Read the text more carefully

Establish who wrote it, when and where it was published, who its prospective readers are, what functional style it belongs to, etc. Highlight (or add notes to) those elements of the text that you think should be looked into before translation begins Investigate the issues the SL speech product describes Find terms, conventional patterns and template sentences in the TL you may need when producing your translation Identify the most relevant attention units in different speech product dimensions While identifying attention units, think of the target audience and differences and similarities between the norms of the respective functional styles in the SL and the TL Clarify the terms and ideas found in the SL speech product that are difficult to understand and/or that have not been explained in the literature

(3) Do additional reading

(4) Get in touch with specialists and ask them for a consultation (5) Sketch out a plan of how translation should be performed (5.1) Decide on the chronological sequence of actions

(5.2) Decide on what other strategies should be utilized

Establish the most convenient order in which certain parts of the SL speech product should be translated Set up a schedule of when each part of the SL speech product is to be translated, providing enough time for self-editing in the end Work out one or more patterns (or ‘rules’) to be followed throughout your translation, e.g.: preserve ‘parallelism of senses’; preserve the length of the SL text in the TL; translate certain oft-recurring SL speech product elements with the help of the same TL matches; etc.

To sum up, translation must be performed with a mental picture of what the finished product will be. Forward planning is very important. But we should not forget that, at the second stage, any of the strategies we have developed at the preliminary analysis stage may have to be abandoned or altered. Also, from this section, it can be seen that employing some of the strategies entails finding key attention units and choosing techniques to translate them. It is mostly to the description of the latter that the forthcoming section is dedicated.

4.2.2

Stage Two: Translation Proper

At the heart of the second stage in the translation process lies a series of cognitive operations and physical actions performed by a translator to produce a translation of (i.e., choose or devise a match for) a SL attention unit/units when constructing the TL speech product. I suggest calling this series of actions MODULATION.

58

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Modulation is by no means a new term in the field of translation studies, although my understanding of this concept differs from other translatologists’. The term was popularized by Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet16 as far back as 1958. They were the first to come up with the very idea of ‘translation procedures’ ( shifts  techniques) and defined modulation as a change in point of view. Their taxonomy of translation procedures suffers from many inadequacies and has been so extensively and, at times, caustically criticized by linguists and translators that I have almost nothing to add to their chorus. Other than a criticism that can be extrapolated to scores of theorists, which is this: it is difficult, if not impossible, to devise a more or less practical list of translation techniques, if you have never researched into what it is that translators translate and what dimensions it may have, if you do not have a broad picture of what you may need or want to match (for a review of the evolution of the term ‘translation techniques’, see Molina and Albir (2002)). Nevertheless, Vinay and Darbelnet intuitively felt (and not without reason) that, of all ‘translation procedures’, it is modulation that is of utmost importance, calling it “the touchstone of a good translator” (1958/1995: 245); they felt that, in their taxonomy, modulation somehow stands out among other translation techniques. Since then many students of translation have attempted to clarify the notion, their efforts mostly resulting in the extension of the original definition (see, e.g., Newmark (1988: 88), Hardin and Picot (1990), Salkie (2001)). It is indicative that numerous attempts have been made to describe modulation via certain categories of thought, from the angle of cognitive science. Salkie (2001: 439), for example, shrewdly outlined modulation as follows: “a translator’s goal is to produce a text in the TL which, in the right context, will enable the reader to construct a mental representation that resembles the one constructed by the reader of the ST.” … Interestingly, in Old French (from where it was borrowed into English) the word ‘modulation’ used to mean an act of making music. I am particularly fascinated by the fact that one of its present-day meanings in English also relates to this art: it is a transition out of the original key into a key related or remote (the Russian word мoдyляция has a similar meaning). Simplistically, what happens is this: you seem to hear the same melody, but the notes are different … I believe modulation is an algorithm that may encompass the use of one or several translation techniques—and this makes my approach different from other approaches. Most of the translators’ operations and actions I describe below as part of the modulation process (such as problem identification, match retrieval, spontaneous association and reformulation, etc.) have been outlined in the literature on the so-called Think-Aloud Protocols,17 e.g., in the works of Krings (1986), Lörscher In fact, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995) borrowed the term ‘modulation’ from George Panneton’s thesis (1945)—see discussion of this in Pym (2014). 17 Thinking Aloud is a method for research into the process of translation (borrowed from cognitive psychology) which involves participant translators minutely describing their thoughts and actions as they are performing translations. The data collected by this method are referred to as Think-Aloud Protocols. 16

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

59

(1991), Gerloff (1986), and Mondahl and Jensen (1996), to name but a few. Strangely, these activities were often referred to as ‘strategies’, the term I find inapt for two reasons. First, there is nothing ‘strategic’ about most of them, as they are not performed to achieve overall, speech-product level aims. Second, should I preserve the term ‘strategies’ to describe these moves, they may be confused with the methods applied to whole speech products (see the previous section).

4.2.2.1

Modulation

How is modulation performed? It has often been suggested that translation is a non-linear process (see Bernardini 2001: 247). I would say it is and it is not. Obviously, the very first step is reading (indeed, during the second stage you inevitably reread everything, even though this is something you have already done in the preliminary analysis stage), which involves character recognition word after word and sentence after sentence, so translation does start as a linear process. What happens next, however, constitutes a multidirectional activity: a translator (1) decides to stop after s/he has embraced a segment s/he believes to be convenient for handling (obviously, this segment has to be semi-autonomous, like a sense unity that has a hypersense of its own)—I shall call it an area of interest18—and (2) starts to decipher the senses of an utterance or utterances and their parts as fully as possible, focusing on them more than on any other sections of the SL speech product and yet relating them to other utterances, first neighboring ones and then distant, to the title, to the figures and illustrations, and to the senses derived from kindred speech products that had been found in the preliminary analysis stage. Guessing meanings and senses, skipping unknown elements, consulting dictionaries and other reference materials, and rereading to rectify comprehension difficulties or recall some information are also part of the picture (see Ozek and Civelek 2006). Within the chosen area of interest, a translator singles out attention units belonging to this or that speech product dimension. These dimensions may gravitate more to the textual side of a speech product (e.g., fonts or sentence length), to the discursive side (e.g., some pragmatic effects), or be a more or less equal combination of both (e.g., a sense materialized as a word group)—see Sect. 3.3 and, particularly, Table 3.1 in Sect. 3.3.6. Attention unit is something you establish a match for in the TL speech product. Attention units may be selected/constructed based on two criteria and be different in nature. The simpler criterion is to chunk an area of interest into words, word groups, and sentences, and try to render nothing but these textual components of a speech product, as they are material and their ‘borders’ are easily discernible. Such static attention units are believed to be favored by beginners. The more

18

This term has been abundantly used in the works on some psycho-cognitive aspects of translation (particularly, in those that utilized eye-tracking and/or key-logging software)—see, e.g., Hvelplund (2011) and Alves et al. (2012).

60

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

sophisticated criterion is to process these static elements so as to recognize multiple dynamic discursive phenomena behind them. The latter approach is preferred by more experienced translators and yields better results.19 Attention units, being mental constructs temporarily stored in the memory, should ingeniously amalgamate different semantic and pragmatic information (pragmatic presuppositions, implicatures, pragmatic effects, etc.). To construct as many attention units as possible in order not to overlook something important, one has to constantly bear in mind a broad range of source and target culture, source and target language, source and target audience, and source and target speech product parameters. Thus, their construction requires activation and interaction of different types of knowledge (stereotypical knowledge, language knowledge, speech usage knowledge, background knowledge, including the knowledge of current ‘translation norms’ accepted by most professionals working with a certain pair of languages, certain type/s of speech product, and in a certain translation direction). Most attention units, no matter how sophisticated they are and how many textual and discursive phenomena conflate in them, may be categorized according to what textual elements serve as their carriers into uninterrupted chunks of text and elements of text separated from each other and dispersed across an area of interest. If attention units found in a given area of interest are legion and very different in character, a translator involuntarily prioritizes them. Priorities will be established individually in each particular case. The attention units that are usually (but not always) processed and matched first are more core-sense oriented (i.e., they comprise basic elements of pragmatic information). What is important is that a translator must be sensitized to the most pertinent attention units. The two key cognitive operations employed to design attention units are intralingual translation20 and intersemiotic translation (the latter, in this case, involves ‘translation’ from a verbal language into mental representations and back). They may be performed consciously or unconsciously. Intralingual translation may involve paraphrasing some verbal structures (in the SL) so that they are framed in a more ‘target language-like’ manner. Intersemiotic translation, in turn, helps visualize some elements of reality or ideas referred to in the SL speech product, as well as relate them to other elements of reality and contiguous ideas, so as to

19

Likewise, novices often automatically equate areas of interest to paragraphs, sections, or other easily perceptible chunks of printed matter, whereas seasoned translators tend to select separate sense unities which, as you may remember from Sect. 3.3.3, do not always coincide with paragraphs or sections. Bigger problems arise, however, when novices do not even try to take the two steps mentioned above (i.e., first, to grasp an area of interest and, second, to analyze attention units within it) and when, throughout their translation, they do not use ‘top-down processing’ and resort only to ‘bottom-up processing’, moving from one SL sentence to another. In such cases, they cannot see the forest for the trees. In fact, the ‘forest’ should have been overviewed during the preliminary analysis stage, but beginners often skip it. At the same time, as you can see from my description of the modulation process, a skilled translator does not always move ‘top-down’: s/he should be able to see both the forest and the trees whenever s/he may need it. 20 See example (30), where the original themes and rhemes were first rearranged in the SL.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

61

contemplate their panorama from different angles and find additional ways to describe them. Further on, a translator starts searching for tentative matches. Tentative matches may be selected or devised and then abandoned or revised many times anew. Initially, they are verbalized in the TL in raw, ungainly, or simplified ways. Their verbalization and reformulation requires continuous shifting of attention from the SL speech product elements and phenomena to the TL ones (see Hvelplund 2011: 236). Some of the provisional matches are noted, and some are stored in the short-term memory without being typed or put on paper. Searching for matches will always involve some creativity. Now, what is creativity in the context of the modulation procedure? First, it is an attempt to move away from the “canonical viewpoint” (Langacker 1987: 123, quoted in Kussmaul 2000) and “seeing familiar things in a new light” (Kussmaul 2000: 118) when constructing attention units. Second, it is inventiveness in the process of retrieving (and, possibly, adjusting) or generating a match. Also, creativity may involve guided efforts (they are conscious and more or less time-consuming) or ‘spontaneous reformulation’ (a match is found seemingly effortlessly, ‘from nowhere’, and ‘instantly’). Naturally, if no illumination occurs, at the outset a translator tries to recall possible matches, for s/he may have come across similar attention units in other speech products having similar contexts and extratextual settings. If some matches are recalled, they have to be verified. If a translator cannot remember any suitable matches, s/he has to try to retrieve them. Both searching for such prefabricated matches and verifying them are creative processes. The matches may be historical/traditional or modern (e.g., Henry ! Гeнpиx, Aнpи, Гeнpи, Xeнpи, Гeнpик etc.), more frequent or less frequent, legally accepted or unofficial, etc. Choosing among them, adapting them to the given TL speech product, or making a decision to give up the found match in favor of a newly-established one all call for some degree of originative thinking.21 Today, translators are lucky to use not only conventional resources, but also online corpora, electronic dictionaries (a good example is a series of Lingvo dictionaries produced by ABBYY), and computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools to find a wider spectrum of translation matches and economize on time. A more challenging task for a translator is to devise from scratch their own solutions. Novel matches may also have to be rechecked several times. After most matches for the SL attention units have been found/devised, a translator will redistribute them within the limits of the yet non-existent TL speech product area of interest whose production is underway. Later, though, some of the senses may be transferred to other sense unities, or vice versa (also, the choosing of

21

Of course, as has been mentioned in Sect. 2.4.5, producing artistic translations of belles-lettres style speech products involves more creative work than producing non-literary translations. However, modulation, being an indispensable algorithm for all translators, will always require some amount of out-of-the-box thinking, no matter what type of speech product one is dealing with.

62

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

matches in the next sense unity may be influenced by the senses from the one you have just completed). Thus, gradually, this multidimensional ‘jigsaw puzzle’ is being assembled. Its ‘backing’, to which different ‘pieces’ (= matches) have to be attached, is the TL speech product’s area of interest under construction.22 Indeed, a lot relates SL attention units and TL matches to puzzle pieces. Both are oddly shaped, both have to interlock and tessellate. To extend the puzzle metaphor, the shape, size, and position of these pieces in the SL and TL speech products may be different. Also, parts of the same picture painted on them may be presented with more or less detail; sometimes the shades of colors will change. Some less significant pieces may be lost and/or substituted by different ones; at the same time, new pieces may be introduced. Using non-figurative language, the density, accentuation, and coherence (combinations and distribution) of the SL speech product’s senses, and even the senses themselves, may be modified in the TL speech product. Establishing coherence of senses within utterances, as well as that of utterances in relation to each other within the TL sense unity, is followed by, or combined with, ensuring cohesion/grammaticality/stylistic acceptability of sentences at the textual level. When choosing different cohesive markers/devices and making stylistic corrections, a translator may not have to switch his or her attention between the two areas of interest anymore. S/he may solely focus on the area of interest in the TL speech product to finalize the sentences and ensure they form an intersentential unity. As soon as the construction of one TL area of interest seems to be completed, a translator will move on to another one, and the modulation procedure will start anew. Of course, later, in the stage of self-editing, all the finalized matches may be altered because of stylistic/coherence/cohesion problems that a translator can see better only when s/he ‘zooms out’ as much as possible for a wide view of the piece of writing. In fact, we should never forget that the ultimate area of interest is the entire speech product (= its overall content), and when we are going through the process of modulation, focusing on one area of interest, it is the overall content of the SL and TL speech products that should constantly be our cynosure. The next question is: How do we materialize matches?

“The suggestion […] that attention units are better defined in hierarchical […] terms, with smaller units being processed within larger units” (Bernardini 2001: 249), the units themselves being viewed as language categories only, does not seem to hold up well if you adopt my framework or look at the problem discussed from the angle of cognitive science. I believe every skilled translator understands that all attention units are multidimensional, that they embrace not only language phenomena, and that they interact and overlap. Prioritizing does take place, and some information may be lost or ‘engrafted’, but it does not presuppose that one can come up with a classification of language units or phenomena that must always be matched in the TL speech product, whatever it takes, and that some of them are more important than others.

22

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

4.2.2.2

63

Translation Techniques

To do that, we, voluntarily or not, employ translation techniques. The paramount problem when discussing their types and definitions has often been that actual procedures of verbalizing SL attention units are mistaken for, or listed along with, attempts to directly connect certain more or less conventional language categories and units in two given languages via certain ‘formulae’. Many scholars have shown these attempts to be untenable (I have touched on this problem in Sect. 4.1). Within the framework adopted in this book, translation techniques can only be applied to attention units in speech products, as part of the modulation procedure aimed to establish matches for them; they cannot be applied to language structures in a vacuum. For example, I do not know how I could translate into Russian even something as simple as the abovementioned Henry, until I see it used in an utterance of a speech product that I can read from beginning to end. I could regard it as not only a separate attention unit, but also part of a more complex attention unit (e.g., a pun) and thus render it as anything—commencing with one of the numerous Russian variants of this proper name (e.g., Гeнpиx, Aнpи, Гeнpи, Xeнpи) progressing to the personal pronoun oн—he or a noun (e.g., вpaч—the doctor) to a word group (e.g., этoт чyдecный чeлoвeк—this wonderful man or этoт жecтoкий кopoль—this cruel king) to a zero match (hereafter I suggest marking zero matches as Ø). The second major problem in the description of translation techniques is that they often concur with each other: they may form ‘couplets’, ‘triplets’ (see Newmark 1988), or other combinations. Their use entails establishing a link or links between the mental representation of an attention unit (i.e., some portion of sense grasped from the SL speech product’s area of interest) and some structures that may become its ‘carriers’ in the TL speech product. These links are just as numerous (and the TL matches are just as multidimensional) as attention units themselves.23 What are attention units comprised of?—A blend of semantic and pragmatic information. Can all the bits of both semantic and pragmatic information derived from the SL speech product and ‘packaged’ into one attention unit always be matched in the TL speech product? The consensus is that it is impossible.24 In Chap. 3, I have tried to prove that successful communication is mostly contingent on certain elements of pragmatic information as part of the internal content of a speech product (that are, in some degree, deduced from semantic information). That is why, in typical instances of translation, some most significant pragmatic information as part of the SL speech product’s internal content (that should be

23

This all brings us to the conclusion that, when teaching and studying translation, it is more important to focus on the pragmatic reasons why such and such translation techniques may be utilized than on the techniques themselves. 24 See discussion of that, albeit in different terms, in, e.g., Jakobson (1959), Komissarov (1990).

64

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

present in most attention units) is always to be matched in the TL speech product. This is the essence of ‘conventional’ cases of translation. As for semantic information, it may be treated less respectfully. Within the TL speech product’s area of interest (sense unity) under construction, semantic information from a SL speech product’s attention unit may be: (1) matched as fully as possible—this involves referring to the same objects/ individuals/notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action25 through their similar description (most semantic information can be matched if, in the TL speech product, it happens to provide basis for the deduction of nearly identical bits of pragmatic information in a fashion similar to that in the SL speech product); (2) partially matched—this may involve referring to all or some of the same objects/individuals/notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action incorporated into an attention unit, yet (a) describing all or most of them differently within the same situation (that often requires omission of reference to some elements of the situation described in the original and/or introduction of new ones), or (b) referring to some of them but describing a different situation; (3) not matched at all—this involves equating some elements of pragmatic information through referring to the objects/individuals/notions/phenomena/ actions/states/attributes/manners of action none of which is mentioned in the original. These three tactics may be employed to construct some bits of pragmatic information in the TL speech product that will be similar to the bits of the most relevant pragmatic information from the SL speech product’s attention unit. However, even something as precious as pragmatic information (apart from being matched in one of the three abovementioned ways) may sometimes be (1) excluded or (2) distorted. 4.2.2.2.1

Translation Techniques Aimed to Match the Most Relevant Bits of Pragmatic Information, with Semantic Information Matched as Fully as Possible

Now let us outline the translation techniques that can be used within the framework of the five mental processes briefly defined in the previous section. Steps in the process of modulation wherein TL matches can be ‘filled’ with the most relevant bits of pragmatic information, while semantic information gets matched as fully as possible, may involve the use of the following translation techniques.

25

A combination of objects/individuals/notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action referred to in a word group, sentence, or intersentential unity is hereafter called semantic situation.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

65

Similar designation (with or without a change in register, expressiveness, and/or stylistic markedness26). A certain attention unit or a part of it that, in the original, was verbalized as a word or word group gets materialized in the TL speech product either as (1) a TL word/word group referring to the same constituents of the semantic situation and believed to be one of its typical dictionary matches, or as (2) a word/word group synonymous to the chosen typical dictionary match (provided that the chosen word/word group carries the same pragmatic information or an essential part of the same pragmatic information in the TL speech product). Here are some examples of similar designation that does not entail any significant change in register/expressiveness/stylistic markedness: (32) live ! живy, живeшь, живeтe, живeм, живут; (33) angina ! cтeнoкapдия; (34) diathermy coagulator ! диaтepмoкoaгyлятop; (35) regrettably ! к coжaлeнию; (36) лизoблюд ! bootlicker, lickspittle; (37) aдcкaя paбoтa ! intolerable work; (38) during latency ! вo вpeмя лaтeнтнoгo пepиoдa; (39) Xимичecкиe cвoйcтвa пcopaлeнoв (a headline) ! Chemistry of Psoralens; (40) half full ! нaпoлoвинy пoлный (a typical dictionary match), or пoлyпycтoй (a synonym of нaпoлoвинy пoлный).

(In cases like the latter, where some contrastiveness is present (half full—half empty), similar designation may be utilized as part of contrastive translation, which is defined below.) An example of similar designation that entails a change in register: (41) лизoблюд (appropriate to everyday speech or writing) ! ass kisser (vulgar slang).

An example of similar designation that entails a change in expressiveness: (42) тyмaнный Aльбиoн ! Britain.

An example of similar designation that entails a change in stylistic markedness: (43) Two follicles are seen in the ovary. ! B яичникe визyaлизиpyютcя двa фoлликyлa.

26

Registers are levels of language usage as determined by degree of formality (see Sect. 2.4.3). Expressiveness as a category of stylistics is non-neutrality in language and speech. Its constituents may be emotiveness, imagery, and/or intensification (see Nayer 2008). Stylistic markedness is a feature of some language structures: if a structure is stylistically marked, it is typical of a functional style (ibid.).

66

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

(Bизyaлизиpyютcя is used instead of the stylistically unmarked видны; in Russian, the word визyaлизиpoвaтьcя belongs to the scientific functional style whereas, in English, the word group to be seen is stylistically unmarked.) The sense of a SL idiom may also be said to have been translated via similar designation if it was matched by a TL dictionary match which is an idiom with the same figurative meaning but a different literal meaning: (44) Кoгдa paк нa гope cвиcнeт ! Not before hell freezes over.

If this is the literal meaning of an idiom that is rendered (in cases where it helps match the relevant pragmatic information), it qualifies as an instance of similar designation utilized to match the words/word groups comprising this SL idiom. The words making up the idiom are equated with their dictionary matches referring to the same constituents of the described situation (i.e., these are words and word groups, not the idiom they comprise, that are matched): (45) Кoгдa paк нa гope cвиcнeт ! When the crawfish whistles on the mountain.

Sometimes both the literal and the figurative meanings of a SL idiom and a TL idiom will be similar—such are the cases where different translation techniques will overlap: (1) similar designation utilized to translate idioms; (2) similar designation utilized to translate words/word groups they contain; and/or (3) literal or near-literal translation (these terms are explained below). E.g.: (46) Кyй жeлeзo, пoкa гopячo ! Strike while the iron is hot.27

Note that similar designation that entails a change in register/expressiveness/ stylistic markedness may be employed as part of the translation techniques of compensation or stylistic neutralization (see below). Transcription. A certain attention unit (or a part of it) is materialized as a sound form of some SL speech product’s textual element/s in the TL. It can be used to render a name or term in compliance with the current ‘translation norms’, to achieve phonetic similarity, to economize on space, to fill a lacuna in the TL picture of the world (see Markovina and Sorokin 2008), etc.; also it is used more often when ‘translating down’ (see Sect. 2.5.5). In most cases, the quality of transcribed sounds is different, e.g., (47) John ! Джoн,

and some of them are matched loosely, e.g., h ! т, as in (48) Smith ! Cмит,

If a translator renders an idiom’s figurative meaning via expressions that are not TL idioms listed as its dictionary matches, we are most likely dealing with an instance of situation substitution (e.g., type II stylistic neutralization: Куй железо, пока горячо ! Make use of the opportunity immediately)—see Sect. 4.2.2.2.3.

27

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

67

or ɪə ! и, as in (49) clearance ! клиpeнc.

Transcription is viewed as an instance of similar designation if it can be found in dictionaries as a typical match (i.e., if this match has become part of the target language system). Transliteration. A certain attention unit (or its part) is materialized via substituting the letters of which some SL speech product’s textual elements are comprised with the TL letters that seem to be similar to the original ones, e.g.: (50) NATO ! HATO; (51) КГБ ! KGB.

Like transcription, it can be used to render a name or term in compliance with the current ‘translation norms’, to economize on space, to fill a lacuna in the TL picture of the world, etc.; also it is used more often when ‘translating down’. Transliteration is viewed as an instance of similar designation if it can be found in dictionaries as a typical match (i.e., if this match has been included into the target language system). Calque. A certain attention unit (or a part of it) that, in the original, was verbalized as a word made up of two or more stems gets materialized in the TL speech product as a word containing similar stems, with some inflections and formative elements typical of the TL being added, e.g.: (52) penoscrotal ! члeнoмoшoнoчный.

Alternatively, a certain attention unit (or a part of it) that, in the original, was verbalized as a word group gets materialized in the TL speech product as a word group comprised of the same number of content words, e.g.: (53) the World Health Organization ! Bceмиpнaя opгaнизaция здравоохранения.28

In the latter case, the sense density is preserved, but the distribution of senses within the word group may change. Like the previous two techniques, calque can be used to render a name or term in compliance with the current ‘translation norms’, to economize on space, to fill a lacuna in the TL picture of the world, etc. Calque is more ‘target culture-oriented’, as, in most cases, separate stems in calqued words and separate words in calqued word groups can be comprehended by target audiences better than transcriptions or transliterations. Calque is viewed as an instance of similar designation if it can be found in dictionaries as a typical match (i.e., if this match has become part of the target language system). Original spelling. A segment of the SL text is copied into the TL text. This segment may be a letter, word, word group, sentence, group of sentences, etc. They 28

As part of calquing, function words may be elided (the technique of type I ellipsis) or added (the technique of type I explication).

68

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

may be in a third language—not infrequently these are some Greek or Latin terms in a scientific speech product, e.g., (54) in vitro ! in vitro,

or famous quotes, e.g., (55) kάhe biώra1 ! kάhe biώra1, (56) Veni, vidi, vici ! Veni, vidi, vici.

Like transcription, transliteration, and calque, original spelling can be used to render a name or term in compliance with the current ‘translation norms’, to economize on space, to fill a lacuna in the TL picture of the world, etc.; also it is used more often when ‘translating down’—which is typically the case when English scientific or technical speech products are rendered into Russian. E.g., many names and terms from the fields of IT or economics are usually left intact: (57) Windows ! Windows, (58) HR ! HR.

Literal translation. Cases where a SL utterance-as-an-attention-unit is materialized as one utterance in the TL speech product which, as a sentence, contains the same number of content words (referring to the same constituents of the situation) as the original one, with the sense density, distribution, and accentuation being more or less the same and the senses themselves remaining the same. Literal translation does not violate the TL norms of grammaticality, acceptability, and appropriateness and does not rob the TL utterance of the key pragmatic information similar to that inferred from the SL utterance. E.g.: (59) I live in Moscow. ! Я живy в Mocквe.

Near-literal translation. Cases where a SL utterance-as-an-attention-unit is materialized as one utterance in the TL speech product which, as a sentence, contains dictionary matches of the SL content words/word groups referring to the same constituents of the situation (or their synonyms), with the senses themselves remaining almost the same, while the sense density, distribution, and accentuation somewhat change due to the use of synonymy (as part of the similar designation technique), ellipsis of function words and linking verbs or explication of grammatical categories, function words, and linking verbs (i.e., type I ellipsis and type I explication), or theme-rheme rearrangement (transposition). E.g.:

In this example, a translator calqued the word group Two follicles, yet relocated it in the TL utterance, having put it at the end, because, in the dimension of sense coherence, this word group comes to be regarded as the carrier of the utterance’s rheme. At the same time, the calqued word group in the ovary, being part of the utterance’s

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

69

theme, takes the initial position. The sense from are seen (as has been explained above—see example (43)) gets matched via the use of similar designation entailing a change in stylistic markedness. The meaning of the article the from the word group in the ovary does not get matched by a TL word or words (type I ellipsis). Here are some examples of near-literal translation involving the (type I) ellipsis/ explication of function words (they may be omitted, added, or replaced with content words) and linking verbs (linking verbs are often utilized in English sentences but are usually elided in Russian present tense sentences): (61) the conspiracy theory of the U.S.S. Maine’s explosion ! тeopия зaгoвopa, oбъяcняющaя взpыв кopaбля BMФ CШA «Mэн» (explication of an association between two entities that is expressed in English by the function word of via the participle oбъяcняющaя; ellipses of the), (62) Aннa xopoшaя дeвyшкa. ! Anna is a good girl (explication of is and a), (63) This apple tastes sweet. ! Этo яблoкo cлaдкoe (ellipsis of tastes).29

Note that similar designation, transcription, transliteration, calque, and original spelling may all be part of literal or near-literal translation, as well as of some other techniques outlined below. 4.2.2.2.2

Translation Techniques Aimed to Match the Most Relevant Bits of Pragmatic Information, with Semantic Information Matched Partially

Now let us adumbrate steps in the process of modulation wherein TL matches can be ‘filled’ with the most relevant bits of pragmatic information while semantic information gets matched only partially. Within the framework of such ‘partial matching’, semantic information from the SL speech product’s attention units/areas of interest may be equated with that in the TL speech product’s attention units to different degrees: Scenario 1. A translator refers to all the same objects/individuals/notions/ phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action in translation but describes each or most of these constituents of the situation differently (i.e., not employing dictionary matches), the difference being prompted by the grammatical, lexical, stylistic, or, broader speaking, cultural peculiarities of the TL and TL speech product (Recent debate surrounds the advocacy of this technique. ! Ceгoдня oбcyждaeтcя цeлecooбpaзнocть пpимeнeния этoгo мeтoдa.). As a result, the reader of the TL sense unity will grasp the same situation.

29

These are not direct connections between the SL and TL language categories that are established via ellipsis or explication. Rather, ellipsis and explication as part of near-literal translation are adjustments involving the use of function words and linking verbs that are made in the TL sentences to ensure they do not violate the TL norms of grammaticality and stylistic acceptability.

70

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Scenario 2. A translator refers to all or some of the same objects/individuals/ notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action but describes them differently. When doing so, a translator either (a) leaves out references to some constituents of the situation mentioned in the original (if these references are found to be redundant for the constituents of the situation to be grasped by the reader) or (b) introduces new ones as s/he describes the same situation in the TL speech product’s area of interest or (c) both leaves out and introduces some constituents of the situation or (d) substitutes some constituents of the situation for other. (E.g., in Cxeмa пpoeздa ! How to reach us, the meaning of пpoeзд was recreated in reach, but the meaning of cxeмa was omitted and new meanings carried by how and us were introduced). As a result, the reader of the TL sense unity will still grasp the same situation. Scenario 3. A translator refers to few to none of the same objects/individuals/ notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action and introduces new ones to describe a different situation in the TL speech product’s area of interest (Этo тoлькo в peклaмныx poликax дeвoчкa нaчинaeт пeть co cцeны пoлypaзpyшeннoгo лeтнeгo тeaтpa, a в cлeдyющeм кaдpe oкaзывaeтcя нa эcтpaдныx пoдмocткax.30 ! Only in a cartoon does a girl scrubbing a floor in one frame turn into Cinderella in the next.).31 These are only scenarios 1 and 2 that involve recreation of a substantial amount of semantic information in the TL speech product. Within scenario 3, so little semantic information from the SL speech product gets reproduced in the TL speech product that it may be viewed as a borderline case between ‘partial matching of semantic information’ and ‘not matching semantic information’, gravitating more towards the latter. This is why cases falling under scenario 3 are described in the next section (4.2.2.2.3) dedicated to the translation techniques which entail the introduction of essentially different semantic information in the TL speech product. The steps in the process of modulation wherein the most relevant bits of pragmatic information are recreated in the TL speech product, while semantic information gets matched partially, may involve the use of some of the translation techniques that have already been listed above (similar designation, transcription, transliteration, calque, original spelling, type I ellipsis, type I explication, theme-rheme rearrangement) as well as other techniques that I outline right below. Alternative designation. The translation technique of alternative designation consists in recreating a reference to the constituent or constituents of the situation (objects/individuals/notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action) described in the original via wordings that are not typical dictionary matches of the SL structures referring to these elements.

Jet Бизнес & Авиация, April 2007 (27). All the three examples are analyzed in more detail below.

30 31

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

71

There are several mental ‘paths’ over which a translator’s thought may travel when s/he is devising an alternative match. All of them (described right below this paragraph) may result either in linear reformulation or in non-linear reformulation. Linear reformulation means that an attention unit constructed on the basis of an uninterrupted chunk of the SL text may be materialized as an uninterrupted chunk of the TL text in which alternative wordings (i.e., ones that are not found in dictionaries as typical matches) are chosen to describe the same set of objects/individuals/notions/phenomena/actions/states/attributes/manners of action and are placed in the same order. In cases of linear reformulation, reformulations of senses materialized as words/word groups in a SL speech product’s utterance/s remain within the limits of words/word groups of an utterance/utterances in the TL speech product. Non-linear reformulation means that an attention unit constructed on the basis of an uninterrupted chunk of the SL text may be materialized via some elements of the TL text (morphemes, words, grammatical categories, etc.) dispersed across the sense unity, or vice versa. Making a non-contrastive logical or causal connection. It is difficult to define this procedure more precisely, as, in each particular case, the logical or causal connections established will be different. What should be borne in mind is that the choices of matches will be heavily determined by a translator’s TL speech usage knowledge and his/her understanding of the context and extratextual situation. E.g. (an utterance from a research report):

The sense carried by Recent, although combined with the sense carried by debate, gets matched as a separate element of sense in the TL utterance with the help of the adverb ceгoдня, whose dictionary match is today. Restoring the chronological line of mental operations, what happens is this: at first, the microunit of attention recent debate gets reshaped into recent and then, via intralingual translation, into today, which is a better manageable element of sense in terms of equating it with the TL structures that may become its carriers (a translator can arrive at this conclusion having activated his/her knowledge of the Russian language (particularly, that of collocations) and Russian speech usage); then a link between the attention unit today/at present/currently/something happening around now/etc. and one of the Russian language carriers of this sense that can be placed at the beginning of an utterance is established (note that a translator should never intend to resort to non-linear reformulation where linear reformulation is possible). The match ceгoдня will remain tentative until the TL utterance is completed and/or the rest of the TL speech product’s sense unity is constructed. Next a translator constructs the microunit of attention debate surrounds (= something is being debated/discussed). It is based on two SL utterance’s elements of sense that get merged into one mental representation that, again, is more amenable to verbalization in Russian— oбcyждaeтcя. Moreover, this match fits well into the grammatical structure of the

72

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Russian sentence under construction and is typical of the scientific and technical functional styles. The microunit of attention the advocacy of may be paraphrased as something like whether or not this technique should be utilized or the expediency of the technique (intralingual translation); after that, this sense can be materialized via the Russian word group цeлecooбpaзнocть пpимeнeния (just like the previous one, this match turns out to be acceptable grammatically and stylistically). The microunit of attention this technique represents a separate element of sense in the SL utterance and does not have to be reshaped, as it can be translated via similar designation (i.e., via dictionary matches referring to the same constituents of the described situation): этoт мeтoд. The resulting utterance Ceгoдня oбcyждaeтcя цeлecooбpaзнocть пpимeнeния этoгo мeтoдa may not have to be altered further if a translator establishes that the pragmatic information from цeлecooбpaзнocть пpимeнeния этoгo мeтoдa should constitute the TL utterance’s rheme (i.e., if the utterance should answer the question What is being debated today?). If, however, they believe it is the disputability of the technique that should be made part of the rheme, they will resort to the additional technique of theme-rheme rearrangement: Цeлecooбpaзнocть пpимeнeния этoгo мeтoдa ceгoдня oбcyждaeтcя. The next example will involve non-linear reformulation:

One may be tempted to think that, in example (65), the underlined attention units and their TL matches illustrate type I explication (as the SL function words get matched by several TL content words), yet they do not. In such cases as (65), the English articles do not serve merely to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence (something function words normally do). They acquire important lexical meanings that, combined with a reader’s extralinguistic knowledge and understanding of the context and extratextual situation, form important bits of pragmatic information at the level of the utterance and/or sense unity and the entire speech product. The senses derived from the Russian perspective and a Russian perspective are the official opinion of the Russian government and the position of the book’s authors (who are Russians), respectively. One more illustration of non-linearity when choosing alternative designations:

In this example, the senses from the SL attention unit highlighted in green type (she was amazed beyond speech and this looked charming) are verbalized in different TL sentences, at a distance from each other: shocked into speechlessness ! oт нeoжидaннocти пoтepялa дap peчи, and beautiful ! oчapoвaтeльнoй.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

73

As for the words Ee peaкция былa, they were added by a translator to provide cohesion of the chosen language structures and coherence of senses. Such an additional translation technique is known as type II explication (see below). The match for beautiful (oчapoвaтeльнoй) (if viewed separately) was established via similar designation. However, combined with explication, it became part of alternative designation. Generalization. A ‘zooming-out’ procedure allowing to create a mental representation of some constituent of the situation described in the original that is part of a broader entity. E.g.: (67) a fungus ! микpoopгaнизм, (68) Bo Фpaнции ! In Western Europe, (69) Я paбoтaю кapдиoлoгoм. ! I am a cardiologist, (70) B бoльницe нe xвaтaeт мeдикaмeнтoв. ! The hospital lacks supplies.

Particularization. A ‘zooming-in’ procedure allowing to create a mental representation of some constituent of the situation described in the original via a narrower or more specific entity. Particularization is the opposite of generalization. E.g.: (71) пpaздник ! Christmas, (72) Этoт peaктивный caмoлeт гoтoв к paбoтe в cypoвыx климaтичecкиx ycлoвияx. ! This jet can fly through extreme conditions, (73) Inflammatory cytokines may be markers of carotid atherosclerosis. ! Bocпaлитeльныe цитoкины мoгyт иcпoльзoвaтьcя в кaчecтвe мapкepoв aтepocклepoзa coнныx apтepий, (74) Кoнтpacтнoe вeщecтвo ! gadolinium.

Contrastive translation. An attention unit large enough to contain a description of some situation gets matched by a description of the same situation via contrastive terms. E.g.: (75) Viruses are too small to be seen by light microscopy. ! Bиpycы нacтoлькo мaлы, чтo иx мoжнo yвидeть тoлькo в элeктpoнный микpocкoп, (76) У нac coxpaнилocь нe бoлee 5 % иcтopичecкoй Mocквы. ! We have lost no less than 95 % of historical Moscow, (77) I don’t think you are right. ! Я дyмaю, чтo вы нe пpaвы, (78) This technique remains investigational. ! Этoт мeтoд пoкa изyчeн нeдocтaтoчнo.

Definition. An explanation of some constituent of the situation referred to in the original via a word or word group. The TL explanation will always be longer yet will not comprise more details than the original word/word group does. E.g.: (79) The patient is afebrile ! Пaциeнт нe имeeт пoвышeннoй тeмпepaтypы,

74

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products (80) Cytokines can cause a fever in response to infection. ! Цитoкины мoгyт вызывaть пoвышeниe тeмпepaтypы тeлa в oтвeт нa инфeкцию, (81) Oни жили в кoммyнaлкe. ! They lived in a municipal apartment wherein separate rooms were given to different families and individuals. Each apartment had a communal kitchen and bathroom.

Label. The opposite of definition. E.g.: (82) capacity to cause disease ! виpyлeнтнocть (virulence). Ellipsis (type II).32 Leaving out content words referring to some constituents of the situation described in the original if they are believed to be redundant or tautological in the TL speech product’s sense unity describing the same situation. E.g.: (83) Этoт пoдxoд пoдpoбнo paccмoтpeн в нayчнoй литepaтype. ! This approach has been well described. (84) This is a great song to listen to. ! Этo oтличнaя пecня. (85) – Кoгдa oн yeзжaeт в Mocквy? – Oн yeзжaeт в Mocквy зaвтpa. ! “When is he leaving for Moscow?” “He is leaving tomorrow.” (86) Oнa нaчaлa пoceщaть вeчepниe зaнятия. ! She has started evening classes.

An example of ellipsis entailing the use of the additional technique of utterance unification: (87) Accoциaция X кoнcтaтиpyeт пaдeниe пpoдaж в cтpaнax миpa. Зa пocлeдниe дecять лeт пpoдaжи в Eвpoпeйcкoм coюзe coкpaтилиcь нa 7,7 %. Зa тoт жe пepиoд вpeмeни пpoдaжи в CШA cнизилиcь нa 8 %. ! The X Association reports a decline in sales by 7.7 % in the European Union and by 8 % in the United States over the past decade.

Explication (type II). The opposite of ellipsis (type II). It involves adding some content words to achieve cohesion and/or coherence, grammaticality, stylistic acceptability, and/or to provide more detail when describing the same situation (i.e., to introduce references to the constituents of the situation not mentioned in the SL attention unit). E.g.: (88) The Orofacial Pain Center ! Цeнтp лeчeния opoфacциaльнoй бoли, (89) Pig studies ! Иccлeдoвaния, пpoвoдившиecя нa cвиньяx,

32

Compare with ellipsis (type I) and explication (type I) described in Sect. 4.2.2.2.1. Note that ellipsis (type I) and explication (type I), i.e., ellipsis and explication of linking verbs and function words (including cases where function words are introduced in the TL speech product while they have zero matches in the SL one and cases where content words are introduced in the TL speech product to explicate some SL function words) may be combined with virtually any translation technique (except original spelling). At the same time, ellipsis (type II) and explication (type II), i.e., ellipsis of content words and explication of content words that have zero matches in the SL are part of alternative designation.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

75

(90) He came in. ! Oн вoшeл в кoмнaтy, (91) Recommendations for future research were also included. ! B дaннyю cтaтью тaкжe включeны peкoмeндaции пo пpoвeдeнию дaльнeйшиx иccлeдoвaний, (92) It isn’t raining anymore. ! Ceйчac дoждя yжe нeт.

Compensation (type I). Pragmatic (stylistic) effects produced by some word or words are compensated via non-dictionary matches while the described situation remains the same. E.g.: (93) Пипл xaвaeт. ! The plebs lap it up.

(Пипл xaвaeт was allegedly said by the Russian pop musician Bogdan Titomir in a 1990’s interview after a reporter remarked as to how primitive and tasteless pop music in Russia was. Instead of using the neutral word люди, Titomir referred to the general public as пипл, a transcription of the English word people, which, combined with the verb xaвaть (gorge oneself on something), came to sound derogatory.) Stylistic neutralization (type I). Stylistic effects produced by some word or words get neutralized via non-dictionary matches referring to the same constituents of the described situation. E.g.: (94) Пипл xaвaeт. ! The people lap it up.

Addition. Extra data on some constituents of the situation described in the original are added to ensure that (1) these constituents are well-understood by the readers of the TL speech product and/or that (2) the matches chosen to refer to them produce similar pragmatic effects on the readers. Addition is a helpful tool in filling the gaps in the TL audience’s language or background knowledge. E.g.: (95) Кoгдa paк нa гope cвиcнeт. ! As the Russians say, when the crawfish whistles on the mountain. Or: As the Russian saying goes, […].

Addition often accompanies similar designations, transcriptions, transliterations, calques, original spellings or their combinations, and/or takes the form of a footnote. E.g.: (96) Я живy в Кopoлёвe. ! I live in the small Russian city of Korolyov, about eight miles northeast of Moscow, (97) Dietary supplements were purchased from Lotus. ! Пищeвыe дoбaвки были пpиoбpeтeны y кoмпaнии Lotus, (98) Haм пoдaли пeльмeни. ! We were served pelmeni, which are boiled dumplings stuffed with meat.

If a translator wants to explain what pelmeni are in more detail, s/he may create a footnote, e.g.: (99) We were served pelmeni*. *Pelmeni are Russian dumplings that consist of a filling (typically pork, beef, or mushrooms) wrapped in thin unleavened dough.

76

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Note that addition should not be mistaken for definition. Unlike definition, addition amplifies information on some constituent/s of the described situation which have been translated with the help of other translation techniques. E.g.: (100) Oни жили в кoммyнaлкe. ! They lived in a kommunalka, a municipal apartment wherein separate rooms were given to different families and individuals.

Conventional description. A translator selects a formulaic TL expression to describe an extratextual situation normally described differently by the SL speaker. Unlike it was the case with the abovementioned types of alternative designation, when a translator resorts to conventional description, s/he does not make their own choices, but merely reproduces a standard description that has become traditional in the TL culture.33 Examples: (101) Cxeмa пpoeздa (a navigation label at a website) ! How to reach us,34 (102) Haпитки и пpoдyкты c coбoй нe пpинocить (a sign at a food court) ! No food or drink from outside.

In example (102), what is matched is the relevant pragmatic information (the translation communicates a stylistically acceptable, standardized prohibition against eating or drinking something that has not been bought at one of this food court’s outlets) and two elements of semantic information: (1) reference to the same extratextual situation; (2) reference to the same two objects mentioned in the original (food and drink). As for the translation of Cxeмa пpoeздa (example (101)), a translator matches the relevant pragmatic information (the English variant provides a stylistically acceptable way to name the section of a website with driving or walking directions to a destination) and two elements of semantic information: (1) reference to the same extratextual situation; (2) reference to the same action (пpoeзд ! to reach). 4.2.2.2.3

Translation Techniques Aimed to Match the Most Relevant Bits of Pragmatic Information, with Little to No Semantic Information Matched

This subsection deals with the equating of some elements of pragmatic information through referring to objects/individuals/notions/phenomena/actions/ states/attributes/manners of action, none or very few of which are mentioned in the original. Hereunder the translation technique that helps recreate some most relevant bits of pragmatic information derived from a SL attention unit via describing a different situation in the TL shall be called situation substitution. The use of situation substitution will always result in the introduction of a different situation, even 33 Those conventional descriptions that involve the use of dictionary matches referring to the same constituents of the situation should be categorized as similar designations or literal/near-literal translations—e.g. (a warning label), Attention ! Внимание. 34 This example has already been discussed in Sect. 3.3.5.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

77

though some of the same constituents of the situation described in the original may be referred to in the TL with the help of similar designation or alternative designation. Naturally, situation substitution may be applied to attention units that are large enough to contain a description of some situation. Cognitively speaking, the subtypes of situation substitution are the following. Compensation (type II). A translator refers to few to none of the same constituents of the situation described in the original and introduces a new set of constituents to describe a different situation in the TL speech product’s area of interest in an attempt to make up for some pragmatic (stylistic) effect/s produced by the SL attention unit. E.g.: (103) Этo тoлькo в peклaмныx poликax дeвoчкa нaчинaeт пeть co cцeны пoлypaзpyшeннoгo лeтнeгo тeaтpa, a в cлeдyющeм кaдpe oкaзывaeтcя нa эcтpaдныx пoдмocткax. ! Only in a cartoon does a girl scrubbing a floor in one frame turn into Cinderella in the next.

The example above is an utterance from a magazine article discussing the history of the Audi Group (see footnote 30). Among other things, the article broadly states that most cheap-car makers can seldom, if ever, turn to the production of luxury cars and rival Porsche or Bentley. In the example, the key attention unit identified by the article’s translator was an allusion to a Gazprom TV commercial that was often broadcast in Russia when the article was published (obviously, some background knowledge had to be activated to spot it). At the beginning of the commercial, a girl is singing on the stage of a shabby Soviet-era open-air theater, but then, lo and behold (thanks to a charity program initiated by Gazprom), finds herself in a beautiful modern concert hall where hundreds of admirers are greeting her with applause; in the end, Gazprom’s logo appears along with the slogan Meчты cбывaютcя (Dreams coming true). Let us follow the translator’s train of thought: (1) he identified the attention unit of allusion in the SL speech product’s area of interest and explained it to himself; (2) he realized that the TL audience would not be able to decipher the allusion to the Russian commercial due to a lack of background knowledge; (3) he established that the most relevant bits of pragmatic information derived from the allusion are the implicature35 (miracles do not happen very often) and the stylistic effects produced by the allusion, which is why it would be best to create an allusion in the TL that would call to mind a story of some miraculous transformation familiar to most TL readers; (4) he remembered the fairy tale about Cinderella as well as the fact that, in the Western world, most people learn about it from a Disney cartoon, not from the books by Charles Perrault or the Brothers Grimm; (5) he created his own allusion to Cinderella, having matched some bits of semantic information from the SL attention unit (дeвoчкa—a girl, в cлeдyющeм кaдpe—in the next (frame); besides, the emphasis coming from the words Этo тoлькo […] got matched by the inversion Only in […] does a girl […] turn into […] (adverbial modifier + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb)).

35

See Sect. 3.3.3.

78

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Apart from allusions, translators often have to make up for the pragmatic effects produced by puns or combinations of puns and other literary devices. E.g.: (104) Marriage is not a word; it is a sentence. ! Xopoшee дeлo бpaкoм нe нaзoвyт, (105) Hemicraniectomy—To Halve or Halve Not.36 ! Гeмикpaниэктoмия: yдaлять или нe yдaлять, вoт в чeм вoпpoc.

Example (104) is a frequently used jocular statement based on the interplay between the two meanings of the noun sentence (a set of words vs. a punishment assigned by a court). However, the Russian noun пpeдлoжeниe denoting a sentence as a set of words has no meaning connected with punishment or spousal relationship. The translator’s task, therefore, was to find a popular Russian play on words that would ridicule the concept of marriage, which he did: the Russian version exploits the two meanings of the word бpaк—which are marriage and defect. Example (105) (the title of a medical article describing the advantages and disadvantages of hemicraniectomy) contains a pun (to halve vs. to have) and, at the same time, makes an allusion to the name of a 1937 novel by Ernest Hemingway—To Have and Have Not. Obviously, the allusion is not aimed at ‘reconceptualizing’ the content of Hemingway’s book in the light of the article’s content and is based on the activation of situation-independent background knowledge; it is of purely ornamental value, as it is eye-catching and somewhat comic. Not being able to compensate for the effects produced by the pun, the translator tried, however, to compensate for the effects produced by the allusion. Instead of making a reference to Hemingway (which would have been grasped only by a handful of TL readers, as this particular novel has never been popular in Russia), he preferred to allude to Shakespeare’s to be, or not to be (yдaлять или нe yдaлять, вoт в чeм вoпpoc—to halve, or not to halve, that is the question). Having matched the pragmatic effects produced by the allusion, the translator also managed to match some bits of the original’s semantic information (e.g., the grammatical structure Verb + Conjunction + Verb in the Negative Form). Stylistic neutralization (type II). A translator refers to few to none of the same constituents of the situation described in the original and introduces a new set of constituents to describe a different situation in the TL speech product’s area of interest in an attempt to neutrally render the implicature derived from an expressive SL attention unit. E.g.: (106) Этo тoлькo в peклaмныx poликax дeвoчкa нaчинaeт пeть co cцeны пoлypaзpyшeннoгo лeтнeгo тeaтpa, a в cлeдyющeм кaдpe oкaзывaeтcя нa эcтpaдныx пoдмocткax. ! As a matter of fact, miracles do not happen very often. (107) Кoгдa paк нa гope cвиcнeт. ! It will never happen. (108) Кyй жeлeзo, пoкa гopячo. ! Make use of the opportunity immediately.

36

Ropper, A.H. 2014. Hemicraniectomy—to halve or halve not. New England Journal of Medicine 370(12): 1159–60. Online available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24645949. Accessed 4 Sept 2014.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

79

Cultural equivalence. Equating bits of pragmatic information through references to different entities that have similar features. E.g., the Russian postgraduate academic degree of (109) кaндидaт нayк, in some contexts, may be translated as Ph.D., (110) пeльмeни may sometimes be translated as ravioli.

4.2.2.2.4

The Translation Technique of Exclusion (Deliberate Omission of Bits of Pragmatic Information Relevant to the SL Readers)

The previous three sections have familiarized you with the translation techniques aimed to recreate in the TL speech product some of the most relevant bits of pragmatic information grasped from a SL attention unit. Now let us consider the cases where a translator will (1) omit or (2) distort pragmatic information. Pragmatic information can be omitted either by mistake or intentionally, as a consequence of the translation technique of exclusion, which is discussed below. Exclusion. A translator does not match some attention units in the TL speech product either due to ‘the problem of untranslatability’ or because s/he believes some bit/s of pragmatic information will not be adequately understood and/or perceived by the TL audience. Curiously enough, over the decades many translators and theorists have claimed that a translator has no right to leave out any kind of information found in the original. The Czech scholar Jiří Levý, for one, “insisted that any contracting or omitting of difficult expressions in translating was immoral” (Bassnett 2002: 31). I believe it is a noble, if naïve, idea. In zillions of cases, the translation technique of exclusion has nothing to do with morality—it is purely a matter of common sense. E.g. (an utterance that could be found in a textbook on dentistry): (111) The premolars are also known as bicuspids because they have two cusps. ! Ø.

The key problem a translator faces when tackling this segment of the SL speech product is that the Russian language does not have a term to refer to the premolars that would comprise the morphemes meaning ‘having two’ (bi-) and ‘cusp’. What is more, Russian dentists do not need a new term (they call the premolars either пpeмoляpы or мaлыe кopeнныe зyбы). Of course, one might calque the word bicuspids to mint a new noun in Russian, but, pragmatically, it would be utterly unwarranted. Hence, the senses the SL utterance contains are of little value to the TL readers, and the best solution here is to resort to the translation technique of exclusion (the senses from the SL utterance ‘get zero matches’ in the TL speech product). One more example (a paragraph that could be found in a textbook of nursing): (112) There has been much international discussion about what term to use to describe injuries to the skin and/or underlying tissues that usually occur as a result of squeezing of the soft tissues over bony prominences. Most health professionals use the terms “decubitus ulcer”, “pressure sore” or “bedsore”. ! Пpoлeжни – этo пoвpeждeния кoжи и/или

80

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products ткaнeй, кoтopыe oбычнo вoзникaют в peзyльтaтe cдaвлeния мягкиx ткaнeй в мecтax кocтныx выcтyпoв.

As for this excerpt, the problem is that, in Russia, health professionals have never been engaged in a debate over what term should be used to refer to such injuries. Russian doctors and nurses seem to be quite satisfied with the term пpoлeжни, although synonymic terms do exist. Ergo, the only thing that has to be translated into Russian in this case is the definition of what a pressure sore is. As regards ‘the problem of untranslatability’, there is no untranslatability as such (for a discussion of that see Bellos (2011: 146–156)). However, there are situations where any attempts to translate some attention units will turn out to be pointless— i.e., pragmatically speaking, the minuses of recreating, say, some pun or metaphor in the TL speech product will outweigh the pluses. 4.2.2.2.5

Translation Techniques Aimed to Distort Relevant Bits of Pragmatic Information

Last but not least, translators sometimes have to resort to pragmatic information distortion. Anticipating the accusations of ‘immorality’, I hasten to add that pragmatic information may be distorted only in rare instances, as part of the translation technique of improvement. This technique has two types. Improvement (type I). A translator identifies minor factual slips or misprints and grammatical/stylistic inaccuracies that make the readers think the information in the SL speech product is factually incorrect and rectifies them in the TL speech product. In most cases, such inaccuracies are caused by lapses in concentration on the part of the author/s or whoever prepared the copy of the SL text. To be on the safe side, translators must discuss each correction with their clients, even if the mistake is glaring. E.g. (each of the three examples below is followed by a commentary in parentheses): (113) The blood pressure is 1300/80. ! Apтepиaльнoe дaвлeниe 130/80.

(Obviously, in example (113) we are dealing with a misprint (an extra zero)). (114) Fertility is not only determined by adequate functioning of the pituitary and the reproductive tract and its associated glands. Other endocrine organs such as the thyroid, the adrenal gland, the liver and total body composition also contribute to a normal body condition that allows conception.37 ! Фepтильнocть зaвиcит нe тoлькo oт нopмaльнoгo фyнкциoниpoвaния гипoфизa, пoлoвыx opгaнoв и cooтвeтcтвyющиx жeлeз. Cпocoбнocть к дeтopoждeнию oбycлoвливaeтcя paбoтoй и дpyгиx opгaнoв, тaкиx кaк щитoвиднaя жeлeзa, нaдпoчeчники, пeчeнь, a тaкжe oбщим cocтaвoм тeлa.

(The liver is not an endocrine organ, although it does have secondary endocrine functions. That is why the translator decided to omit endocrine. One would say this translation illustrates the translation technique of exclusion, were it not for the fact that the attention unit in the SL excerpt was a mistake.)

37

See footnote 14.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

81

(115) Cлизиcтaя oбoлoчкa щeки oблaдaeт pядoм yникaльныx cвoйcтв: пocтoянный кoнтaкт c влaжнoй cpeдoй, oтcyтcтвиe вoлocяныx лyкoвиц, выcoкaя ycтoйчивocть к мexaничecким, тepмичecким, xимичecким paздpaжитeлям, нaличиe coбcтвeнныx иммyнныx фaктopoв aнтибaктepиaльнoй зaщиты, xиpypгичecки пpocтaя и лeгкo пepeнocимaя пaциeнтoм пpoцeдypa взятия тpaнcплaнтaтa. ! Buccal mucosa possesses a number of unique qualities: constant contact with moist environment, absence of hair bulbs, resistance to mechanical, thermal, or chemical irritants, and innate antibacterial immune defense. Moreover, the harvesting of a graft from a cheek is an easy procedure, with a high patient satisfaction rate.

(The author of the excerpted medical article listed лeгкo пepeнocимaя пaциeнтoм пpoцeдypa взятия тpaнcплaнтaтa (easy procedure of graft harvesting that is well tolerated by patients) among the qualities that buccal mucosa has. To avoid this discrepancy, the translator opted to include the information about the ease of the procedure in a separate utterance.) Improvement (type II). When dealing with a speech product (or an excerpt) produced by an error-prone person, who does not have a good command of the source language, is inept in writing, and/or lacks the intelligence to explain complex ideas, a translator may have to improve the quality of the speech product, both refining the style and elucidating the ideas. Let us exemplify this by a quote from a Russian documentary advertising a college: (116) Meждyнapoднaя accoциaция мeдицинcкиx вyзoв – этo нe тoлькo плoщaдкa для oбмeнa мнeниями пo кaчecтвy пoдгoтoвки инocтpaнныx cтyдeнтoв, нo этo eщe и cвoeoбpaзнaя плaтфopмa для фopмиpoвaния нoвыx пoдxoдoв, идeй, тex иннoвaций в oбpaзoвaнии, кoтopыe нaм дoлжны oбecпeчить нoвoe кaчecтвo пoдгoтoвки этиx cтyдeнтoв. ! The International Association of Medical Colleges not only serves as a forum to exchange opinions on how to improve the quality of education for overseas students, but also provides platform for further development of strategies, ideas, and innovations designed to enhance the quality of their training.

The utterance above was said by a college official and was made part of the Russian version of the documentary. However, it seems the official was not quite sure what point he wanted to make. It is difficult to deduce implicatures from the Russian utterance (except the most general one—‘the college he represents is proud to be a member of the Association’). I believe the utterance contains a logical mistake: instead of saying “A is not only B, but also C” the speaker said “A is not only B, but also B” ([…] accoциaция […] нe тoлькo плoщaдкa для oбмeнa мнeниями пo кaчecтвy […], нo и […] плaтфopмa для фopмиpoвaния […] пoдxoдoв […], кoтopыe дoлжны oбecпeчить нoвoe кaчecтвo […]). The translator engaged to translate the documentary, obviously, had no opportunity to approach the college official and reprimand him for this clumsy turn of phrase. All he could do was to make the English utterance more logical. The translation technique of improvement is not the same as what Antoine Berman disparaged as “ennoblement” (Berman 1985/2000: 287, quoted in Munday 2001: 150), which is a stylistic improvement on the original where no improvement is needed (e.g., an attempt to increase expressiveness in the TL). Ennoblement is a problem more typical of literary translation. As for scientific and technical speech

82

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

products, many translation and editing companies, in fact, unequivocally encourage translators to ameliorate the quality of the SL manuscripts (see, e.g., ELSS translator instructions at ). 4.2.2.2.6

Intertextuality Matching

One translation technique, by nature, cannot be included into any of the groups of techniques described above. I have termed it ‘intertextuality matching’. Intertextuality matching. The unit of attention is a direct or indirect quote from a speech product other than the one being translated that either (1) has already been rendered into the TL (e.g., a quote from Shakespeare found in an English speech product may not have to be translated by a translator on their own; he or she may want to find one of its Russian translations believed to be adequate and authoritative and use it; see also example (21)) or (2) has originally been produced in the TL and later translated into the SL (e.g., an excerpt from Pushkin quoted in an English text that is being translated into Russian; naturally, a translator must recognize it and insert Pushkin’s original lines into the translation) or (3) has been produced in a language other than the SL and the TL and translated into both of them independently (a text from the Bible, for instance). 4.2.2.2.7

The Interaction between Translation Techniques

The translation techniques drafted in sections 4.2.2.2.1–4.2.2.2.6 are indispensable tools in the arsenal of English–Russian and Russian–English translators. With the help of these techniques we can verbalize in the TL the senses that we derive from a SL speech product and process through the prism of numerous pragmatic factors. What is important to emphasize now is the fact that, in the process of modulation, various translation techniques may overlap and intertwine to form a unique, intricate blend. In each case of modulation, some of the utilized techniques will come to the forefront, while others will perform a complementary function. The former and the latter establish the relationship of cause and effect, which has been illustrated in many examples above. There are some techniques that frequently play a complementary or subordinate role in most types of English–Russian and Russian–English non-literary translation. They are relocation of senses (within one utterance, e.g., as part of near-literal translation, or among different utterances; it may help change accentuation, achieve grammaticality and acceptability, etc.), theme-rheme rearrangement, keeping the same number of utterances, utterance unification, and utterance splitting (the terms speak for themselves, so I do not think I need to provide their definitions). Relocation of senses and theme-rheme rearrangement are no less important than the techniques described in the earlier subsections, as they may alter key pragmatic information; however, relocation of senses and theme-rheme rearrangement are secondary to the techniques described above inasmuch as they can be utilized either

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

83

after some matches have been devised with the help of other techniques or as part of these techniques. As for keeping the same number of utterances, utterance unification, and utterance splitting, they are grammatical consequences of the choices translators make when employing other techniques. The use of, say, ellipsis, explication, definition, addition, exclusion, relocation of senses, or theme-rheme rearrangement when dealing with a sense unity may increase or reduce the number of utterances, while the use of literal or near-literal translation will keep their number unchanged. [Keeping the same number of utterances may be regarded as a technique of primary importance only in official/legal translation where, traditionally, more stress has been laid on establishing linear correspondences between the components of the SL and TL texts (not speech products in their entirety) as part of the ‘mirror-image strategy’ (see example (29)), ensuring that the texts are parallel even in terms of typography and layout. Many experts on legal translation have emphasized the importance of fidelity to the original text, for example, R. Stolze (2013).] Table 4.2 sums up the translation techniques mentioned in this chapter. To make the table clearer, I have categorized the translation techniques into seven groups. … I think this section—devoted to the second stage in the process of translation— would remain incomplete without analyzing examples of the modulation procedure to illustrate the interplay of translation techniques. The one right below is the translation of the first sense unity from the article Figuring Out Fibromyalgia: Perplexing Pain and Fatigue, which has been studied in various aspects in the earlier sections (see example (15)): (117) An unknown cause. A difficult diagnosis. No known cure. No wonder people with fibromyalgia syndrome, or FMS, can feel perplexed, under attack and isolated. FMS brings fatigue that drags you down and persistent pain that may render you nearly helpless. Researchers have been working to understand what fibromyalgia is and are making progress in developing treatments for the debilitating syndrome. ! Фибpoмиaлгия (ФM) – зaбoлeвaниe нeизвecтнoй этиoлoгии, кoтopoe тpyднo диaгнocтиpoвaть и нeвoзмoжнo вылeчить. Heyдивитeльнo, чтo cтpaдaющиe им люди чacтo нe пoнимaют, чтo c ними пpoиcxoдит, пoдвepгaют здopoвьe pиcкy и нe знaют, к кoмy oбpaтитьcя зa пoмoщью. Пocтoяннaя бoль и измaтывaющaя ycтaлocть, вызывaeмыe ФM, дeлaют иx пpaктичecки бeccильными и зacтaвляют oпycкaть pyки. Oднaкo yчeныe пpoдoлжaют изyчaть пpиpoдy фибpoмиaлгии и дoбилиcь oпpeдeлeнныx peзyльтaтoв в paзpaбoткe мeтoдoв лeчeния этoгo изнypитeльнoгo зaбoлeвaния.

In this example, the area of interest grasped by the translator is paragraph 1 that, as you may remember, elaborates the article’s macrotheme (‘What do we know about fibromyalgia?’). In it, the translator focuses on different attention units representing different speech product dimensions. Simplistically, the overall sense of the area of interest is as follows: “we do not know much about fibromyalgia, it is a mysterious and dismaying disease” (original utterances 1–5); “yet the researchers are beginning to see the light at the end of the tunnel” (original utterance 6). To mark this contrast between the two ideas, the translator employs the technique of type I explication, introducing the connector Oднaкo (however) at the start of Russian utterance 4 wherein the senses from English utterance 6 are matched. The connector is clearly needed in Russian, otherwise the senses will not be coherent enough (TL speech usage knowledge has to be activated to realize this).

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Semantic information is matched as fully as possible: the same situation or constituents of the situation are referred to in the TL with the help of dictionary matches and/or transcriptions/transliterations/calques/original spelling or their combinations

Semantic information is matched partially through recreating a reference to the constituent/s of the situation described in the original via wordings that are not typical dictionary matches of the SL structures referring to these elements; zero matches may also be used

Semantic information is not matched: a different situation is described

Relevant pragmatic information is matched as fully as possible

Groups of translation techniques

Matching of semantic information

Matching of pragmatic information

Table 4.2 Translation techniques

Key translation technique: situation substitution

Key translation technique: alternative designation

Key translation technique: similar designation

Translation techniques

1.1 Similar designation proper 1.2 Transcription 1.3 Transliteration 1.4 Calque 1.5 Original spelling 1.6 Literal translation 1.7 Near-literal translation Types of alternative designation: 2.1 Making a non-contrastive logical or causal connection 2.2 Generalization 2.3 Particularization 2.4 Contrastive translation 2.5 Definition 2.6 Label 2.7 Ellipsis (type II) 2.8 Explication (type II) 2.9 Compensation (type I) 2.10 Stylistic neutralization (type I) 2.11 Addition 2.12 Conventional description Types of situation substitution: 3.1 Compensation (type II) 3.2 Stylistic neutralization (type II) 3.3 Cultural equivalence (continued)

84 4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Semantic information is matched inasmuch as it is reflected in the quote/excerpt from an ‘older’ speech product incorporated into the TL speech product Group 6

Group 5

Semantic information is matched partially or is not matched at all

Pragmatic information is matched via the use of a segment/s from a speech product other than the one being translated

Group 4

Semantic information is omitted

Pragmatic information is omitted (when this is pragmatically warranted) Pragmatic information is modified

Groups of translation techniques

Matching of semantic information

Matching of pragmatic information

Table 4.2 (continued)

Key translation technique: intertextuality matching

Key translation technique: pragmatic information distortion (= improvement)

Exclusion

Translation techniques

Types of pragmatic information distortion: 5.1 Improvement (type I) 5.2 Improvement (type II) Types of intertextuality matching: 6.1 The use of a direct or indirect quote in the TL that has already been rendered into the TL 6.2 The use of a direct or indirect quote in the TL that has originally been produced in the TL and translated into the SL 6.3 The use of a direct or indirect quote in the TL that has been produced in a language other than the SL and the TL and translated into both of them independently (continued)

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation 85

Matching of semantic information

Semantic information may be matched (to various degrees) or altered

Matching of pragmatic information

Relevant pragmatic information may be matched or altered

Table 4.2 (continued)

Group 7

Groups of translation techniques Complementary techniques (they are secondary to the techniques from groups 1–5, as they can be utilized either after some matches have been devised with the help of the techniques from groups 1–5 or as part of these techniques)

Translation techniques

7.1 Ellipsis (type I) 7.2 Explication (type I) 7.3 Theme-rheme rearrangement (transposition) 7.4 Relocation of senses 7.5 Keeping the same number of utterances 7.6 Utterance unification 7.7 Utterance splitting

86 4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

87

The verbalization of the first idea requires multiple modifications. First of all, the translator decides to avoid the pragmatic effect of climax (i.e., arrangement of utterances in ascending order of expressiveness) created by the first three ‘staccato’ utterances in the original, as this literary device is not typical of Russian popular medical articles. This is why he employs the translation technique of type II stylistic neutralization which, in this case, requires the use of utterance unification which, in its turn, triggers the use of explication (Фибpoмиaлгия […] – зaбoлeвaниe […]) amplified by the relocation of a sense from original utterance 2 ([…] or FMS […]) to TL utterance 1 ([…] (ФM) […]). Put it rather this way: to unite the senses carried by the original nominal sentences, the translator has to construct a major sentence that would have a subject and a predicate. The best way to get rid of the unnecessary build-up of tension (= to perform stylistic neutralization) is to introduce a subject that would clearly state what disease is meant—hence the use of type II and type I explication (Фибpoмиaлгия […] – зaбoлeвaниe […]). Interestingly, three elements of sense are explicated: the noun (term) фибpoмиaлгия functioning as the subject (type II explication); the linking verb ecть (type I explication) functioning as the predicate—although it immediately gets omitted via intralingual ellipsis and substituted by a dash (in Russian, present tense linking verbs are almost always elided); and the noun зaбoлeвaниe functioning as the direct object (type II explication). Then the translator comes to realize that the term фибpoмиaлгия is to be followed by its abbreviation in parentheses, as, in the second SL utterance, the author introduces the abbreviation FMS. Such abbreviations (in both English and Russian speech products) are usually added after a full term is used for the first time—hence the relocation of the abbreviation into Russian utterance 1. The abbreviation-as-anattention-unit gets matched via partial transliteration (ФM). Naturally, the translator had no right to invent his own abbreviation without having consulted dictionaries and relevant Russian speech products which describe the problem of fibromyalgia. (Of course, he had to do it at the preliminary analysis stage, not during the modulation procedure described.) The tentative matches he found were ФMC and ФM. To figure out which one to choose, the translator could (a) check the meaning of the word syndrome and compare it to the meaning of the Russian word cиндpoм to find out if this dictionary match can be used in the context/extratextual setting of the article; (b) compare the quality and status (authoritativeness) of the Russian speech products wherein they used ФMC and ФM; and/or (c) ask a Russian health professional for help (all of these steps could be taken if the translator did not have enough language and background knowledge and had not translated anything on fibromyalgia before). Having made step (a), the translator learnt that, in some communicative situations, the words syndrome and cиндpoм are false friends (false friends are related words in two languages that look similar yet differ somewhat in meaning—see Gutknecht 2003). In English, the word syndrome may sometimes be used interchangeably with the words disorder and disease, whereas, in the majority of cases, the Russian cиндpoм means nothing other than a group of symptoms and cannot be used as a synonym of зaбoлeвaниe. Step (b) showed that the Russian abbreviation ФMC is mostly found in low-quality translations or in some

88

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

professional medical texts whose authors, perhaps being overawed by their English-speaking counterparts, tend to blindly reproduce everything they come across in Western medical publications, while ФM is used in better-quality writings. As for step (c), it would help confirm the information collected during steps (a) and (b), provided that the person asked for professional advice is truly knowledgeable. The senses from An unknown cause, A difficult diagnosis, and No known cure regarded as separate attention units get matched via the translation technique of alternative designation which, in this case, consists in making a non-contrastive logical connection ( and respectively). The relative pronoun кoтopoe and the conjunction и are explicated to achieve grammaticality and acceptability. The use of translation techniques when recreating the senses from original utterance 4 is to a large extent affected by what has been done before. No wonder gets matched via similar designation as Heyдивитeльнo. Then the conjunction чтo is explicated to establish a grammatically correct connection between the two clauses. The next attention unit is people with fibromyalgia syndrome, or FMS. Devising a match for it, the translator has to avoid the stylistically unwanted repetition of фибpoмиaлгия, which is why he resorts to making a non-contrastive logical connection (им)—this anaphoric pronoun contributes to the cohesion of the meanings found in the first two Russian sentences. This alternative designation is combined with similar designation (people—люди) and amplified by type I explication (with —cтpaдaющиe) and exclusion (the abbreviation FMS is not needed in this Russian utterance, as it has been matched in the previous one). The next three senses the translator decides to match are can feel perplexed, under attack, and isolated. Dictionary matches are of no value here—in fact, their use would distort the senses: мoгyт чyвcтвoвaть ceбя cбитыми c тoлкy/пocтaвлeнными в тyпик/ cмyщeнными cannot be said about the feelings of people with health problems; пoдвepгнyтыми aтaкe is typically used to describe military action; and изoлиpoвaнными will mean that people with fibromyalgia are placed in quarantine and/or kept apart from everybody else in separate wards. That is why the translator goes for making non-contrastive logical connections: and (just like in the previous utterance, the conjunction и is explicated to achieve grammaticality and acceptability, as it is often placed before the last item in a list). Analyzing original utterance 5 in the light of the already translated utterances and what it is followed by, the translator focuses on the following problems. First, the English you denoting people with FMS cannot be rendered via similar designation as вы, because, in most non-literary Russian texts, such as the one at hand, one cannot refer to the same group of people using the second person and the third person within one paragraph—it would sound confusing and stylistically inappropriate. Second, in Russian, it would be more logical to mention pain before mentioning fatigue (this move is suggested by the article’s subtitle (Perplexing Pain and

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

89

Fatigue) and paragraph 2 wherein pain is emphasized as the number one symptom: FMS is a chronic pain condition that can occur by itself or along with certain conditions such as arthritis. In addition to muscle pain and fatigue […]). Third, grammatically, the non-defining relative clause that drags you down provides additional information relating only to fatigue, while the non-defining relative clause that may render you nearly helpless provides additional information relating only to pain. However, logically, both pain and fatigue can drag people down and render them helpless. (Besides, most grammar books suggest that in English non-defining relative clauses the pronouns who, whom, or which should not be replaced with that.) One more consideration: similar parallel clauses will sound awkward in Russian, particularly because the third person pronoun will have to be repeated twice, (and as for a rhythmic effect created by them, it will be barely noticeable). Fourth, helpless should not be translated as бecпoмoщный because the word with the same root (пoмoщь) has been used above. Having considered these problems, the translator generates the following translation (the key attention units the translator focuses on and their matches are in the same colors):

As we can see, to solve the first problem, the translator introduces the third-person pronoun иx in the accusative case (the translation technique of alternative designation, namely making a non-contrastive logical connection). Stylistically, the pronoun in this utterance will sound better than any noun (the noun люди has been used in the previous utterance). Problems two and three are tackled via type II improvement, which requires the following steps. To solve problem two, the translator swaps the senses derived from fatigue and persistent pain (the technique of relocation of senses). Fatigue gets matched via similar designation (ycтaлocть) plus type II explication (измaтывaющaя). This is done because the translator is not satisfied with the dictionary match ycтaлocть, as it means tiredness, but not extreme tiredness. Hence the explication. Persistent pain is calqued as пocтoяннaя бoль. To connect the senses from the two original relative clauses to both пocтoяннaя бoль and измaтывaющaя ycтaлocть and to avoid clumsy subordinate clauses in Russian, thus solving problem three, the translator resorts to theme-rheme rearrangement. Original rheme 1 (fatigue that drags you down) and original rheme 2 (persistent pain that may render you nearly helpless) get split in the TL utterance. The senses derived from fatigue and pain, combined with the sense derived from FMS brings, form the Russian utterance’s theme (Пocтoяннaя бoль и измaтывaющaя ycтaлocть, вызывaeмыe ФM), while drags you down and may render you nearly helpless become the utterance’s rheme (дeлaют иx пpaктичecки бeccильными и зacтaвляют oпycкaть pyки). This rearrangement accords with the previous utterance which also rhematizes what people with FMS usually go

90

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

through. Besides, the conjunction и is explicated twice to establish proper grammatical links between the coordinate subjects and coordinate predicates. The attention unit FMS brings gets matched via making a non-contrastive logical connection (вызывaeмaя) plus partial transliteration (ФM). The attention unit that may render […] nearly helpless is translated through a combination of type I ellipsis (that gets omitted), type II ellipsis (may gets omitted), and calque (дeлaют пpaктичecки бeccильными). The word бeccильными, a synonym of бecпoмoщными, is chosen to solve problem four. And lastly, that drags […] down is translated through a combination of type I ellipsis (that gets omitted) and making a non-contrastive logical connection: the match зacтaвляют oпycкaть pyки is an idiom which refers to feeling depressed and hopeless. Thus, it emphasizes the mental side of the problem, while the previous match was used to emphasize its physical side. The last original utterance gets rendered in a linear fashion by means of the following translation techniques. Oднaкo gets explicated to ensure coherence (this move has been explained above); researchers is matched as yчeныe via similar designation. Have been working to understand, what fibromyalgia is and and are making progress get reformulated as пpoдoлжaют изyчaть, пpиpoдy фибpoмиaлгии and и дoбилиcь oпpeдeлeнныx peзyльтaтoв, respectively (the technique of making a non-contrastive logical connection). In developing treatments is translated through similar designations accompanied by type II explication (the word мeтoдoв is introduced because the dictionary match for treatment (лeчeниe) has no plural form). The translation of for the debilitating syndrome seems to be a combination of type I ellipsis (for is omitted) and calque, yet, funnily, syndrome matched as зaбoлeвaниe has to be qualified as an instance of making a non-contrastive logical connection, as this match cannot be found in present-day dictionaries. Here is this last utterance, along with its translation, with the key attention units the translator focuses on and their matches in the same colors:

To sum up the analysis of this modulation procedure, I should note that it is sometimes difficult (and, possibly, useless) to try to establish the chronological sequence of the described moves because, as you may remember from Sect. 4.2.2.1, modulation is multidirectional and multidimensional. For example, when translating original utterance 5, the translator does not necessarily start with focusing on the word you. Even if he does, he does not immediately choose the match иx (i.e., the accusative form of the pronoun oни). He may come up with the tentative match oни first, then produce a draft translation along the lines of Oни чyвcтвyют ceбя бeccильными в бopьбe c пocтoяннoй бoлью и измaтывaющeй ycтaлocтью, and only then, trying to match the attention unit FMS brings, finalize the TL utterance

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

91

as Пocтoяннaя бoль и измaтывaющaя ycтaлocть, вызывaeмыe ФM, дeлaют иx пpaктичecки бeccильными и зacтaвляют oпycкaть pyки. Now let us analyze two modulation procedures from a Russian–English translation. The excerpt below is the first two paragraphs from a speech product describing the history of a string quartet (the speech product was to be posted on the quartet’s website for the sake of publicity): (118) Дoминaнт Квapтeт пo пpaвy зaнимaeт oднo из лидиpyющиx мecт cpeди мyзыкaльныx aнcaмблeй Poccии и являeтcя яpким пpeдcтaвитeлeм pyccкoй квapтeтнoй шкoлы. B мapтe 2010 гoдa иcпoлняeтcя 15 лeт co дня пepвoгo кoнцepтa aнcaмбля. Квapтeт был coздaн в клacce выдaющeгocя мyзыкaнтa, кopифeя pyccкoгo квapтeтнoгo иcкyccтвa, виoлoнчeлиcтa лeгeндapнoгo квapтeтa им. A. П. Бopoдинa, пpoфeccopa Poccийcкoй aкaдeмии мyзыки имeни Гнecиныx Baлeнтинa Aлeкcaндpoвичa Бepлинcкoгo. Ha мoмeнт coздaния кoллeктивa eгo yчacтники были cтyдeнтaми Mocкoвcкoй гocyдapcтвeннoй кoнcepвaтopии и Poccийcкoй aкaдeмии мyзыки: [пepeчиcлeниe имeн]. ! The Dominant Quartet ranks one of the foremost Russian string ensembles, and with good reason: it is the epitome of the world-famous Russian quartet school. Founded close to 15 years ago, the Dominant Quartet was the brainchild of cellist Valentin Berlinsky, a luminary of Russian music, who had been a member of the legendary Borodin Quartet. The Dominant Quartet was formed by the then students of the Moscow State Conservatory and the Russian Academy of Music. They were [a list of names].

Each of the paragraphs in example (118) constitutes a separate sense unity. The hypertheme of the first sense unity is ‘the formation of the quartet’; the hypertheme of the second one is ‘the original members of the quartet’. The overall sense of the first paragraph, in a nutshell, is ‘The quartet is a top-notch ensemble proud of its roots.’ The senses from original utterance 1 are all matched within TL utterance 1, yet their distribution and the way they are connected to each other change. The reason for introducing such changes is the attention unit пo пpaвy (which can be calqued as by right). The problem here is that, in the Russian utterance, the attention units зaнимaeт oднo из лидиpyющиx мecт cpeди мyзыкaльныx aнcaмблeй Poccии and являeтcя яpким пpeдcтaвитeлeм pyccкoй квapтeтнoй шкoлы are connected by the coordinating conjunction и (and). That is, the Russian utterance says the quartet is, ‘by right’, one of the foremost Russian string ensembles and (sic) the epitome of the world-famous Russian quartet school. Such a combination of senses does not seem to be very logical. That is why the translator employs the technique of type II improvement: he translates пo пpaвy via making a non-contrastive logical connection as and with good reason: and relocates it in the TL utterance to establish a causal relationship between one of the foremost Russian string ensembles and the epitome of the world-famous Russian quartet school—the former gets described as the consequence of the latter. To render the attention unit зaнимaeт oднo из лидиpyющиx мecт cpeди мyзыкaльныx aнcaмблeй Poccии, the translator chunks it into smaller attention units— из cpeди and мyзыкaльныx aнcaмблeй Poccии. The translator finds it pragmatically appropriate to match four words from

92

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

the first attention unit with the help of similar designations (ranks one of the foremost), the preposition cpeди being left out (type I ellipsis) and the words of the being explicated to ensure grammaticality. The second attention unit, a word group, is translated via a combination of (1) particularization (мyзыкaльныx—string), which helps avoid an exaggeration of praise, (2) making a non-contrastive logical connection (Poccии—Russian), as, in the TL word group, an adjective is more acceptable grammatically and stylistically than a noun, and (3) similar designation (aнcaмблeй—ensembles). Thus, the sense лидиpyющиx (foremost), verbalized in the first Russian word group, becomes part of the TL word group Russian string ensembles, because the dictionary match chosen for зaнимaть мecтo (verb plus noun) is rank (verb). The attention unit и являeтcя яpким пpeдcтaвитeлeм pyccкoй квapтeтнoй шкoлы is further divided into и являeтcя яpким пpeдcтaвитeлeм and pyccкoй квapтeтнoй шкoлы. The first one is matched via the translation techniques of type I ellipsis (и являeтcя – Ø) and label plus type I explication (яpким пpeдcтaвитeлeм—the epitome), while the second one is matched via calque (pyccкoй квapтeтнoй шкoлы—Russian quartet school) amplified by type I explication (of the). The quartet’s name is matched via transliteration (Dominant) plus similar designation (quartet) plus type I explication (the). In fact, the Dominant Quartet is a prefabricated match: it was coined by the band members a long time ago and used in many English speech products. The second Russian utterance explains, in a rather convoluted way, when the quartet was formed—‘In March 2010, it will be 15 years since the first concert of the ensemble’ (the speech product was written in early 2010). The only sense the translator finds pragmatically relevant is ‘the quartet was formed close to 15 years ago.’ He believes it is stylistically better to include it into the next TL utterance, translating it via exclusion (B мapтe 2010 гoдa […] co дня пepвoгo кoнцepтa aнcaмбля – Ø) plus making a non-contrastive logical connection (иcпoлняeтcя 15 лeт—Founded close to 15 years ago). The key attention units in the third SL utterance are: Валентина Александровича Берлинского. Having analyzed this utterance, the translator arrives at the following points: (1) the utterance contains several glowing phrases describing Valentin Berlinsky and mentions his academic rank to emphasize his high status, which is typical of Russian culture—however, so many rhapsodies of praise may sound pompous, if included in one English utterance; (2) some of the characteristics are clearly superfluous (мyзыкaнт and виoлoнчeлиcт, выдaющийcя and кopифeй); (3) the lengthy name Poccийcкaя aкaдeмия мyзыки имeни Гнecиныx is repeated in the next paragraph, which is stylistically unwelcome; (4) the use of many Russian names, especially patronymics, may hamper the English-language speech product’s readability, which, in this case, is more important than providing detailed information (the translator bears in

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

93

mind that the speech product’s number one aim is to publicize the band). No wonder the key translation technique the translator employs when dealing with the analyzed SL utterance-as-an-attention-unit is, again, type II improvement. Improvement triggers the use of other translation techniques through which different attention units within the utterance are matched. They are exclusion (выдaющeгocя мyзыкaнтa – Ø; A. П. – Ø; пpoфeccopa Poccийcкoй aкaдeмии мyзыки имeни Гнecиныx – Ø; Aлeкcaндpoвичa – Ø) and generalization (pyccкoгo квapтeтнoгo иcкyccтвa—Russian music) amplified by relocation of senses (e.g., виoлoнчeлиcт […] квapтeтa—cellist Valentin Berlinsky), as well as type I and type II explication (the Dominant Quartet; who had been a member of the). The rest of the attention units are matched as follows: был coздaн в клacce— was the brainchild of (making a non-contrastive logical connection); Квapтeт— Quartet, кopифeй—luminary (similar designations); лeгeндapный квapтeт им. Бopoдинa—legendary Borodin Quartet (similar designations—the name Borodin can be found in dictionaries, and Borodin Quartet is an extensively used match— plus type II ellipsis); Baлeнтин Бepлинcкий—Valentin Berlinsky (another prefabricated match (transcription)). The key translation technique employed to render the second sense unity is making a non-contrastive logical connection: the sense from the attention unit Ha мoмeнт coздaния кoллeктивa eгo yчacтники были […] is reformulated as The Dominant Quartet was formed by […] then […]. The translator devises this match based on his TL speech usage knowledge to make the utterance stylistically and grammatically acceptable. He then calques cтyдeнтaми Mocкoвcкoй гocyдapcтвeннoй кoнcepвaтopии и Poccийcкoй aкaдeмии мyзыки, having made sure that the matches chosen for the names of the two educational establishments are frequently used by their official representatives. The use of making a non-contrastive logical connection to match Ha мoмeнт coздaния кoллeктивa eгo yчacтники были […] entails utterance splitting—the names of the original members of the quartet are listed in a separate English utterance wherein the subject and predicate are explicated (They were […]). To conclude the discussion of modulation and translation techniques, I would like to make one comment. The tailoring of attention units within an area of interest is a psycho-cognitive process. That is, it is unique to each person and conditioned on such things as the scope and depth of different types of knowledge or the way they are prioritized, activated, and combined. Attention units are not necessarily formed and matched based on purely scientific grounds (although every translator involuntarily tries, at least to a certain extent, to accommodate his or her actions with the theories s/he knows). Their choice cannot be governed by a strict set of rules, whether linguistic or any other. Attention units will not be the same for all translators translating the same chunk of a speech product. Moreover, there is a strong probability that they will not be the same for the same translator, should we ask him or her to translate the same chunk anew.

94

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

4.2.3

Stage Three: Self-editing

Having produced a complete version of the TL speech product through a series of modulations, a translator then has to perform the procedure of self-editing, which constitutes stage three in the process of translation. (Different theorists, translators, and agencies may use different terms to denote it—e.g., self-revision, translation review, self-check, etc.). One can find whole books and revision manuals dedicated to this part of the translation act alone (e.g., Mossop 2001; European Commission 2010). This is why I believe my task for this section is to outline stage three in the light of my theoretical account of speech products. I subdivide self-editing into two major types of activity: surface-level self-editing (which does not involve retranslation) and deep-level self-editing (which involves retranslation). Surface-level self-editing may be unilingual (a translator is working only with the TL speech product) and bilingual (a translator is chunking the TL speech product into areas of interest and compares each chunk with the original). Deep-level self-editing is bilingual by definition. Translators begin with surface-level self-editing but, while performing it, may see the need to switch to deep-level self-editing. The aims of surface-level self-editing are: (1) to read for spelling and typographical errors (some of which can be caught with the help of spellcheck software), partly corrected or incomplete utterances, and such like, (2) to read for grammatical errors, (3) to improve the speech product’s readability (i.e., to make it clearer through avoiding verbosity, clumsy wordings, improving cohesive ties etc., and/or generally refining the speech product’s style), (4) to check for consistency (of terminology, names, etc.), (5) to check translation completeness (identify chunks of the SL speech product that were not translated due to a lapse of concentration). A translator will have to resort to deep-level self-editing in the following cases: (1) s/he has come across an unwarranted distortion/s of sense or a logical fallacy, (2) s/he has established that some of the senses within utterances, sense unities, or some of the sense unities’ hypersenses are incoherent/are not coherent enough. As you can see, the borderline between translation proper and deep-level self-editing is rather hazy. Some translators say that to produce a ‘draft’ translation fast and then to spend more time rewriting and improving it is perfectly all right, that it is simply one of the ‘strategies’, which is as good as the one where you thoroughly perform what I call modulation procedures and then, during stage three, amend your translation insignificantly.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

95

I believe the first scenario cannot be justified. It will always take more time to translate a speech product twice, than to translate it once and then perform surface-level self-editing. In fact, the need to perform deep-level self-editing signals that something went wrong in the earlier stages of the translation act. In such cases, the problem is typically that the attention units chosen during stages one and two were mostly sentences and words, and that the translator failed to grasp the overall content of the SL speech product. Consider the following example (in it, I have highlighted some problems discussed below):

96

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Obviously, the speech product had to be improved in translation: first and foremost, a more logical thematic progression pattern had to be introduced to make the TL speech product coherent. The translator rearranged the themes as follows: focus + readership, fields, topics, major types of publication, and additional material published. Going back to the two scenarios I cited above, let us ask ourselves: should the translator have invested effort and time into blindly rendering the SL text, sentence after sentence, only to find out later that this was not how the thematic elements should have succeeded each other at the discursive level? Of course, s/he should have not. To do so would have meant to need to translate the speech product anew. It would have been more time-consuming, and, generally, not very sensible. All the content-oriented improvement work should have been performed during stage two, not stage three. To sum up this idea, the best translation is the one where little to no deep-level self-editing is needed.

4.2 The Three Stages in the Process of Translation

97

Suppose you have translated a speech product thoroughly enough, and what is left is to self-edit it at the surface level. How can surface-level self-editing be performed? The number of steps in the procedure and its length will depend on the time constraints, the length and complexity of the piece of writing as well as on how well you are familiar with the subject matter described. Below are all the key steps a translator may take during the surface-level self-editing procedure: (1) Prepare whatever you may need to run a bilingual self-editing procedure: open electronic documents (on one or two computers) and/or get printouts—you may want to use their combination (many translators find it more convenient, especially if they have to work with more than two texts). (2) Run a spellcheck. (3) Reread the SL and TL speech products, comparing them one area of interest after another and inserting corrections where necessary, focusing primarily on the consistency, completeness, and accuracy of information. As part of step three, you will also (a) correct typos and spelling mistakes, e.g., (120) form – from,

(122) 1000 people – 1,000 people,

(b) correct grammatical mistakes, e.g., (123) After he did had done some research, he knew that […]), and

(c) make corrections in accordance with the usage accepted in the community, company, or institution you are doing the job for, or in accordance with the suggestions/guidelines of the clients/reviewers, e.g., (124) seat belts vs. safety belts, (125) the Purchaser vs. the Buyer, (126) U.S. vs. US, (127) the University of […] vs. The University of […], (128) члeнoмoшoнoчнoe coeдинeниe vs. пeнocкpoтaльнoe coeдинeниe, (129) Hoэм Xoмcкий vs. Hoэм Чoмcкий.

(4) After a break (preferably the next day or even later), reread the TL speech product only and make corrections, focusing more on its readability, clarity, and stylistic appropriateness, e.g.,

98

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products (130) Emmochka little Emma,

(131) In 1961, American-trained Cuban emigrants landed in Cuba’s Playa Giron Bay of Pigs,

(5) Look through the TL text to assess its overall appearance (fonts, paragraphing, page numbers, etc.). In each particular case, I repeat, the actual number of edits and the choice of types of self-editing will depend on the length and complexity of the speech product as well as on the time constraints. To round off this section, I would like to note that self-editing is not the same as ‘conventional’ editing, as the former and the latter may involve different types of activity. Self-editing is part of the translation act and is performed by the translator himself/herself, while editing is part of the translation event and is always performed by an expert other than the translator. Self-editing and editing are different in scope, and it is difficult to say which procedure is narrower.

References Alves, F., J.L. Gonçalves, and K. Szpak. 2012. Identifying Instances of Processing Effort in Translation through Heat Maps: an Eye-tracking Study Using Multiple Input Sources. In Proceedings of the First Workshop on Eye-tracking and Natural Language Processing. Mumbai, India, 15 December 2012, ed. by M. Carl, P. Bhattacharya, and K.K. Choudhary, 5–20. Bassnett, S. 1980, revised edition 2002. Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Bellos, D. 2011. Is that a fish in your ear?: Translation and the meaning of everything. New York: Faber and Faber. Berman, A. 1985/2000. La traduction comme épreuve de l’étranger’. Texte 4(1985): 67–81, translated by L. Venuti. 2000. as ‘Translation and the trials of the foreign’, ed. by L. Venuti 284–97. Bernardini, S. 2001. Think-aloud Protocols in Translation Research. Achievements, Limits, Future Prospects. Target 13(2): 241–263. European Commission. 2010. Revision Manual, Brussels and Luxembourg. European Commission. Online available at: http://ec.europa.eu/translation/spanish/guidelines/documents/revision_manual_ en.pdf. Accessed 23 Mar 2015. Gerloff, P. 1986. Second language learners’ reports on the interpretive process: Talk-aloud protocols of translation. In Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and

References

99

Cognition in Translation and Second Language Acquisition Studies, ed. J. House, and S. Blum-Kulka, 243–262. Gunter Narr: Tübingen. Gibová, K. 2012. Translation Procedures in the Non-literary and Literary Text Compared (based on an analysis of an EU institutional-legal text and novel excerpt “The Shack“ by William P. Young). Norderstedt: Books on Demand GmbH. Gutknecht, C. 2003. In Translation, ed. by M. Aronoff and J. Rees-Miller, 692–703. Hardin, G., and C. Picot. 1990. Translate, Initiation à la pratique de la traduction. Paris: Dunod. House, J. 1997. Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revisited. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. Hvelplund, K.T.J. 2011. Allocation of cognitive resources in translation: an eyetracking and key-logging study, Ph.D. Thesis. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School. Jakobson, R. 1959/2004. In On linguistic aspects of translation, ed by L. Venuti, 138–43. Komissarov, V.N. 1990. Teoriya perevoda (lingvisticheskiye aspekty) [A Theory of Translation (Linguistic Aspects)]. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola. Krings, H. 1986. Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learners of French (L2). In Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and Cognition in Translation and Second Language Acquisition Studies, ed. J. House, and S. Blum-Kulka, 262–276. Gunter Narr: Tübingen. Kussmaul, P. 2000. Types of creative translating. In Translation in Context, ed. by A. Chesterman, N.G. San Salvador and Y. Gambier, 117–26. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Langacker, R.W. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Levý, J. 1967/2000. Translation as a Decision Process. In To Honour Roman Jakobson: Essays on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, vol. 2. The Hague: Mouton, 1171–82, reprinted in L. Venuti (ed.) (2000), pp. 148–59. Li, L.-Y., G.-D. Chen, and S.-J. Yang. 2013. Construction of Cognitive Maps to Improve E-book Reading and Navigation. Computers & Education 60(1): 32–39. Lörscher, W. 1991. Translation performance, translation process, and translation strategies: a psycholinguistic investigation. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. Markovina, M., and Yu. Sorokin. 2008. Vvedeniye v lakunologiyu [An Introduction to Lacunology]. Moscow: Geotar-Media. Molina, L., and A.H. Albir. 2002. Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach. Meta: Translators’ Journal 47(4): 498–512. Mondahl, M., and K.A. Jensen. 1996. Lexical search strategies in translation. Meta 41(1): 97–112. Mossop, B. 2001. Editing and Revising for Translators. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome Publishing. Munday, J. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 1st edition. Nayer, V.L. 2008. Stylistics in Terms of Verbal Communication Theory (Stylistic Aspects of Verbal Communication). Moscow: Moscow State Pedagogical University. Newmark, P. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Newmark, P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York and London: Prentice Hall. Nida, E.A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Ozek, Y., and M. Civelek. 2006. Study on the Use of Cognitive Reading Strategies by ELT Students. The Asian EFL Journal 1–26. Pym, A. 2014. Vinay and Darbelnet and the politics of translation solutions. Online available at: http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/on-line/translation/2014_vinay_darbelnet.pdf. Accessed 20 Nov 2014. Salkie, R. 2001. A New Look at Modulation In Translation and Meaning, Part 5, ed. M. Thelen, 433–41. Maastricht: Translation Institute. Spivak, G. 1993/2004. In The politics of translation, ed. by L. Venuti, 369–88. Stolze, R. 2013. Translation and Law. SYNAPS 28: 3–13. Toury, G. 1995. Descriptive Translation Studies—And Beyond. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

100

4 Written Translation of Non-literary Speech Products

Toury, G. 1998/1999. A Handful of Paragraphs on ‘Translation’ and ‘Norms’. In Translation and Norms, ed. by C. Schäffner, 10–32. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Vinay, J.-P., and J. Darbelnet. 1958, 2nd edition 1977. Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais: méthode de traduction, Paris: Didier, translated and edited by Sager J.C., and M.-J. Hamel. 1995. as Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A methodology for Translation, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.

Chapter 5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation

5.1

Notes to Educators

Despite the fact that systems of education differ from country to country and evolve (or, in some cases, degenerate) from decade to decade, and despite the fact that each college sets its own standards and develops its own programs, translator educators always have some leeway to teach translation the way they want. This is, in part, because no curriculum, ministerial regulation, or textbook can detail every assignment to be done, every speech product to be translated, and, more importantly, how assignments and translations may be performed step by step and how their quality may be assessed from every aspect. No matter how many new sophisticated classroom technologies and teaching pedagogies are introduced, like it or not, it is the personality of the educator that will always be central to the success of an education program. I believe a good educator’s students should grasp, first and foremost, the continuity of, and consistency between, his/her core ideas, no matter what courses s/he teaches. While remaining within the framework of this or that program, an educator has to be original and show students that there is something exclusively his/her own that s/he can bring to the table. This means that educators should have a vast experience in the field or fields of translation they teach. Translator educators do not simply ‘share knowledge’; they help students create knowledge of their own (see Kiraly 2000) and develop their own practical and consistent ‘translation theories’. All courses are different, so let me narrow the chapter down to a schematic plan of an average course in English–Russian and/or Russian–English non-literary translation, which could be included in a bachelor’s or master’s degree program,

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6_5

101

102

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

and further supplement it with examples of research and discussion points, exercises, and speech product translation tasks (simulated projects). When planning a course, you should establish in what proportions ‘stylistic’ types of translation will be studied. On the one hand, it is important to focus on the translation types your program is primarily dedicated to (it can be scientific and technical translation, official documents translation, or, narrower, medical translation, oil and gas translation, economic translation, legal translation, etc.). Translation work almost invariably involves specialization, which, in most cases, is in one of the fields of non-literary translation. Therefore, making literary translation (which requires artistic ability) part of every translator’s professional training (some colleges still do this) cannot be justified. On the other hand, it is no less important to find a balance between the translation type your program offers as a major and all the rest …. The last two or three decades saw the development of overspecialized programs whereby students focus on mastering only one translation type (or even subtype) to meet current job market demands. Their graduates are expected to make a cottage industry out of translating nothing but, say, patents or drug information leaflets. While experienced translators can benefit from such a program, novices who take it up are likely to encounter many problems later in their professional careers. The problems stem from the two false premises overspecialized programs rest on. The first one is that the program’s graduates are going to translate nothing else but the types of speech product the program has taught them to translate. In reality, this happens seldom if ever. You may be hired by a health center or a pharmaceutical company as a medical translator, but chances are that fifty percent of your workload will be contracts, business letters, press releases, and promotional material. The second false premise is that each speech product is stylistically homogeneous. In actual fact, not all of them are, especially long ones.1 Scientific-style speech products often contain expressive utterances and phrases that are believed to be typical of literary or journalism speech products. E.g.: (134) During diastole, the blood in the ascending aorta flows retrograde (backward), fills the cusps, and flows into the two coronary arteries. In this manner, the heart helps itself to the freshest blood in town!2

If students have been taught how to deal only with ‘classical’ scientific writings, many of them will be baffled when trying to render the heart helps itself to the freshest blood in town! I have had to edit translations wherein the quality of different parts fluctuated from excellent to poor, although they all were produced by one and the same translator. The originals were mostly lengthy scientific publications that comprised

Cf.: “[…] categories such as “scientific translation” and “literary translation” are not watertight. Literary texts, in common with other text types, are a hybrid form […]” (Harvey 2002: 177). 2 Kapit and Elson (2014). 1

5.1 Notes to Educators

103

not only chapters devoted to certain scientific topics, but also such sections as Dedication, About the Authors, or Preface. While ‘purely scientific’ chapters were translated decently, the more ‘essayistic’ parts left much to be desired. The explanation was simple: the translators were graduates of lopsided programs. After you have balanced out the types of speech product your students will be working with, you may want to establish the order in which the core issues will be studied. Chronologically, it is best to begin your course with discussing, no matter how briefly, the types of translation (see Chaps. 1 and 2), even if your students have already familiarized themselves with this topic when attending other courses. This is necessary to help them orient themselves and better understand what types of translation they are going to master under your watchful guidance as well as in what ways these types are different from others. Next, it may be wise to outline the nature of speech product (see Chap. 3), laying emphasis on the types of written matter your students will mostly have to focus on and providing relevant illustrations of the theoretical issues. At this point, you may also ask students (1) to write a speech product of their own (in L1, L2, or both) and/or (2) to revise low-quality speech products written by someone else (of course, the speech products should belong to the functional styles, substyles, and thematic fields that your students will have to deal with as translators later on). Such tasks will sensitize them to the different dimensions speech products have and make them deeper readers. Your next step may be to overview the three stages in the process of translation (i.e., the structure of the translation act) and translation techniques (see Chap. 4). A good way to do the latter is, within the framework of several seminars, to give students examples of speech products or excerpts from speech products where you think this or that technique could be used and ask them to think of the ways they could be translated. By doing so, you can spur your students to invent the translation techniques you want them to master and then explain in what situations their use is believed to be appropriate, thus developing their knowledge of translation conventions. All that has been described so far should not take up more than a third of your course. What should come next is a series of simulated translation projects. … Some might ask: “And what about the simple-to-complex principle? Wouldn’t it be better to start with exercises and then, gradually, move to whole texts?” I believe this is the wrong understanding of the principle, albeit still a popular one. Even today there are education programs that dedicate up to one academic year (!) to mastering ‘translation of lexical items’, and there are theorists who encourage doing so. Moving from the simple to the complex does not mean moving from the translation of separate word groups to sentences to longer chunks to complete speech products. In real-world situations, translators are never asked to render non-connected phrases or collections of sentences. Moreover, a student who has been translating nothing but isolated words, word groups, and decontextualized sentences for a long time develops a faulty problem-solving algorithm, which will

104

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

have to be altogether abandoned when s/he has to translate an actual speech product and think about all the various multidimensional attention units and their interplay. For the same reasons, trainees should not begin with predigested, abridged speech products. All speech products given to students as part of simulated translation projects have to be authentic.3 In fact, students should be given the opportunity to work on authentic translation tasks as early as possible. From this angle, the simple-to-complex principle means an increase in the level of complexity and length of the speech products as well as in the speed at which they are translated. [Working with authentic speech products will actually help educators better solve the problems that some of them have been trying to solve ‘traditionally’, i.e., through giving their students various exercises comprised of word groups or sentences before allowing them to move on to whole speech products. Checking draft translations of whole speech products done by trainees will make an educator aware of the logical, grammatical, lexical, stylistic, or any other mistakes each person makes; thus, instead of giving uniform ‘grammatical’ or ‘lexical’ exercises to all the students at the beginning of a course, an educator can design exercises tailored to each student’s needs, which will help remedy the problems they really have. This more discriminate approach will save everybody’s time and make the course more effective.] When you present introductory information on a new simulated translation project to your students, make sure you describe all the relevant extratextual factors: explain who produced the original; who the original’s readership was; when and where it was published; who the client/s are and why they need this speech product translated; who the prospective TL readership is; provide a deadline; explain how the quality of the translation will be assessed; etc. Thus you will simulate a translation act—the students will be able to conduct preliminary analysis procedures, do their translations, and then self-edit them. Our next question is: To what extent should simulated translation projects embrace the factors that are part of translation events? Of course, you need to think about how you can increase your trainees’ motivation and, so to say, make them forget that the projects are, in fact, simulated. In this sense, introducing some factors typical of translation events may be pedagogically useful. You may come up with different ideas of how to do it. For example, you may have your students work in groups and assign roles to everyone; then you may have “a colleague anonymously assess the quality of group translations, thus simulating feedback from the client. In this way, the authority of the teacher as the arbiter of a quality performance is displaced outside of the classroom, allowing the teacher and students to work and learn together more equitably” (Kiraly 2000: 119–20).

Cf.: “Using the authentic text, through which scientists and technicians communicate with each other, in learning and teaching, is crucial to the training process. It is a means by which the translator […] can learn the language of other professionals: the bakers, engineers, physicists and chemists” (Pelatt and Liu 2010: 55).

3

5.1 Notes to Educators

105

However, some scenarios and factors4 that one may encounter within the framework of translation events cannot be simulated in the classroom. And, maybe, they should not be simulated in the classroom, as, after all, there are other types of training that can be used to do it (e.g., practicums). What all of us should always keep in mind is this: if a student cannot perform translation acts, all our efforts to teach him or her something about translation events will be futile. So, focusing on translation acts within the framework of a classroom translation course is a broad enough goal.

5.2

Notes to Trainees

Good translators are, first and foremost, thoughtful readers and skilled writers. So, if you are going to translate speech products other than birth certificates (although there is nothing wrong with that, of course), you will have to try to understand what speech products are and in what ways they differ across functional styles and languages. Focus on reading, writing, and analyzing relevant speech products in L1 and L2 (so as to understand their inner workings) as well as on translating authentic speech products. Try to go through all the steps outlined in the previous section. The more you will learn about speech products, the better you will be able to perform the translation act. Of course, the success of the latter heavily depends on your knowledge of the subject matter5 and on how creative you are when using

4

The scenarios that are especially difficult to imitate in schools are (1) freelancers working for a translation company (individual or team work) and (2) full-time translators working at the translation department of an agency. 5 Many translators have taken sides in a debate over who performs better: a translator who understands the subject matter well, or a translator who understands how certain types of speech product are constructed? I would like to make two comments on this score. First, the dichotomy contains a logical mistake. If a translator knows the subject matter well, s/he must have read a lot of publications dedicated to it. This means s/he has got to be aware of the norms governing the construction of the relevant speech products. We cannot assess the quality of translations done by people who (a) would be excellent experts in some field yet (b) would know nothing about the stylistic aspects of the speech products devoted to their area of expertise, because such people do not exist. Second, if you are, say, a skilled ophthalmologist, the quality of your translations of articles on ophthalmology is likely to be superior to that of translations done by a non-ophthalmologist. But if a translator who is also an ophthalmologist is given an article on prostate cancer, it is highly probable that his/her understanding of the subject matter will not be much better than that of a translator who does not have a medical degree. Those claiming that a translator should always have an excellent understanding of the topic are either perfectionists or very lucky people who have always been asked to translate only the material on the topics they know inside out. I share the view that “the translator must understand the subject well enough to use references effectively, imitate the best writing of specialists, detect nonsense […]” (Teague 1993: 162; italics mine).

106

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

electronic dictionaries, online search engines, translation memory programs, databases, etc. However, a core skill you have to develop is being creative when choosing areas of interest in the SL speech product, attention units within them, and translation techniques to materialize matches for them in the TL speech product. Another important recommendation is to learn to teach yourself. No matter how good your academics may be, they will not be able to give you an exhaustive picture of all the kinds of translation projects you may be asked to work on over the course of your career. You may have participated in, say, one hundred projects, but your one hundred and first project may turn out to be something you have never done before, so you will have to learn to be adaptable and quick-thinking. In the next section you will find assignments which you can do independently. They may help you develop an understanding of what sort of problems you must learn to be sensitized to when doing English–Russian or Russian–English non-literary translations.

5.3

Sample Assignments

As I have stated in the two earlier sections, each practical lesson (practical lessons start after the key theoretical points have been overviewed) should revolve around translating this or that authentic speech product. That is why I would like to divide all the activities for practical lessons (exemplified below as part of unit 4) into two major groups: (1) main activities, i.e., those directly aimed at acquiring and/or honing skills at the level of speech products, and (2) auxiliary activities, i.e., those aimed at brushing up the various problems that may be identified when working on main, speech product-level activities. Apart from that, activities can be grouped according to the ‘chronological units’ of the course suggested in Sect. 5.1. Below are sample assignments for each of the units. Their list is by no means exhaustive, yet I hope they suffice to illustrate the model of teaching that I have outlined above. Assignments for Unit 1: Types of Translation Activity 1.1: Research points (individual work) 1. Prepare a report on the topic Roman Jakobson’s Classification of Translation Types. 2. Prepare a report on the topic Intersemiotic Translation. 3. Prepare a report on the topic Machine Translation. 4. Prepare a report on the topic Functional Styles in English and Russian: An Overview. 5. Prepare a report on the topic Consecutive Interpreting. 6. Prepare a report on the topic Simultaneous Interpreting. 7. Prepare a report on the topic Translation and Interpreting Compared.

5.3 Sample Assignments

107

8. Prepare a report on the topic Non-literary Translation versus Literary Translation. 9. Prepare a report on the topic English–Russian/Russian–English Translation of Official Documents. 10. Prepare a report on the topic English–Russian/Russian–English Journalism Translation. 11. Prepare a report on the topic English–Russian/Russian–English Translation of Technical and Professional Speech Products. 12. Prepare a report on the topic English–Russian/Russian–English Scientific Translation. 13. Prepare a report on the topic English–Russian/Russian–English Religious Translation. 14. Prepare a report on the topic English–Russian/Russian–English Translation of … (choose the subtype/s of speech product your education program focuses on). 15. Prepare a report on the topic Different translation directions: English–Russian versus Russian–English. (A tip for educators: it may be wise to assign the same topic to two students. This will make the discussions following presentations more intellectually stimulating.) Activity 1.2: Discussion points (group work) In class, discuss the report on the topic … (see the list of topics in activity 1.1). Assignments for Unit 2: Speech Product as a Complex Communicative Entity Activity 2.1: Research points (individual work) 1. Prepare a report on the topic The Role of Semantic Presuppositions and Entailments in Constructing Semantic Information. 2. Prepare a report on the topic The Notion of Cohesion and Different Types of Cohesive Tie Put Forward by M.A.K. Halliday and R. Hasan. 3. Prepare a report on the topic The Notion of Context. 4. Prepare a report on the topic The Role of Pragmatic Presuppositions and Implicatures in Constructing Pragmatic Information. 5. Prepare a report on the topic Coherence and Types of Thematic Progression Put Forward by F. Daneš. 6. Prepare a report on the topic Thematic Progression in … (choose a type or subtype of speech product relevant to your course, e.g., Thematic Progression in English Medical Research Reports). 7. Prepare a report on the topic The Notion of Extratextual Setting (Situational Context). 8. Prepare a report on the topic The Notions of Sentence and Utterance. 9. Prepare a report on the topic The Notions of Meaning, Sense, and Content. 10. Prepare a report on the topic The Notion of Language/Linguistic Knowledge. 11. Prepare a report on the topic The Notion of Extralinguistic Knowledge. 12. Prepare a report on the topic Stereotypical Knowledge versus Background Knowledge.

108

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

Activity 2.2: Discussion points (group work) In class, discuss the report on the topic … (see the list of topics in activity 2.1). Activity 2.3: Writing/editing (individual work) + discussion (group work) Rewrite the speech product (see example (119) in Sect. 4.2.3) to improve its coherence. In class, discuss the improvements you have made. Activity 2.4: Speech product analysis (individual work) + discussion (group work) Consider the speech product below (a letter written by student X) and discuss the implicature the student drew from professor N’s remark. Я блecтящe зaщитил кypcoвyю paбoтy, нaд кoтopoй paбoтaл пoлгoдa. B oбщeй cлoжнocти я пpoaнaлизиpoвaл в нeй 14 пpимepoв нeoлoгизмoв. Пpoфeccop N, мoй peцeнзeнт, cкaзaл мнe, чтo мoя тeмa eгo oчeнь yвлeклa и oн peшил caм зaнятьcя пoиcкoм нoвыx cлoв в пyблициcтичecкиx тeкcтax, пoтpaтил нa этo цeлый вeчep и нaшeл 20 пpимepoв, кoтopыми гoтoв co мнoй пoдeлитьcя. Mнe былa oчeнь пpиятнa пoxвaлa c eгo cтopoны. Assignments for Unit 3: The Three Stages in the Process of Translation Activity 3.1: Research points (individual work) 1. Prepare a report on the topic The Notions of Translation Act and Translation Event Put Forward by G. Toury. 2. Prepare a report on the topic The First Stage in the Translation Process: Preliminary Analysis (the topic can be narrowed down to the discussion of a specific type of speech product). 3. Prepare a report on the topic The Second Stage in the Translation Process: Translation Proper (an Overview). 4. Prepare a report on the topic The Notions of Area of Interest and Attention Units in Translation Studies. 5. Prepare a report on the topic The Notion of Modulation in Translation Studies. 6. Prepare a report on the topic Classifications of Translation Techniques. 7. Prepare a report on the topic The Translation Technique of … (choose a translation technique; you can specify the topic by deciding which type/s of speech product you want to use to illustrate the chosen translation technique). 8. Prepare a report on the topic The Third Stage in the Translation Process: SelfEditing (the topic can be narrowed down to the discussion of a specific type of speech product). 9. Prepare a report on the topic Dictionaries and Reference Works in English– Russian/Russian–English Medical (Legal, Religious, etc.) Translation. 10. Prepare a report on the topic Think-Aloud Protocols. 11. Prepare a report on the topic The English Wikipedia’s Manual of Style: An Overview. 12. Prepare a report on the topic The Chicago Manual of Style: An Overview. 13. Prepare a report on the topic Revision Manual (European Commission Directorate-General for Translation, Spanish Department): An Overview.

5.3 Sample Assignments

109

Activity 3.2: Discussion points (group work) In class, discuss the report on the topic … (see the list of topics in activity 3.1). Activity 3.3: Discussion (group work) Think about what audiences you had to translate for. Describe your experiences. Activity 3.4: Translation analysis (individual or group work) + discussion (group work) Analyze the modulation procedures below and discuss the choices of translation techniques made by the translators. Modulation 1 (a paragraph from a medical article discussing treatments for stress urinary incontinence): Инъeкции жиpoвыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк пpoдeмoнcтpиpoвaли cпocoбнocть вoccтaнaвливaть фyнкцию cфинктepa ypeтpы пocpeдcтвoм миoгeннoй диффepeнциpoвки, нeйpopeгeнepaции и нeoaнгиoгeнeзa в oблacти ввeдeния [38]. Пoкaзaнa cyщecтвeннaя cинepгичecкaя poль дoбaвлeния мacc-aгeнтoв, нaпpимep, шeлкoвыx микpoвoлoкoн [39] в yлyчшeнии пoкaзaтeлeй yдepжaния мoчи пo дaнным LLP. Дoбaвлeниe фaктopoв pocтa cocyдoв (VEGF и ERK1/2) к жиpoвым cтвoлoвым клeткaм выявилo пpeимyщecтвo пo cpaвнeнию c ввeдeниeм тaкoвыx бeз фaктopoв pocтa [40], тaкиe жe peзyльтaты пoлyчeны пpи дoбaвлeнии фaктopa pocтa нepвoв (NGF). Пpимeнeниe фaктopoв pocтa и мacc-aгeнтoв вмecтe co cтвoлoвыми клeткaми мoжeт oкaзaтьcя бoлee эффeктивным, нeжeли чeм иcпoльзoвaниe тoлькo cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. → Injections of ADSCs were shown to restore the urethral sphincter function inducing myogenic differentiation, neuroregeneration, and neoangiogenesis at the site of implantation [38]. Bulking agents (e.g., silk fibroin microspheres [39]) combined with ADSCs were shown to attain a synergy and recover LPP more efficiently compared to when ADSCs were used alone [40]. Likewise, vascular growth factors (VEGF and ERK1/2) and nerve growth factor (NGF) improved the therapeutic efficacy of ADSCs. Modulation 2 (a paragraph from a book on artificial reproductive technologies— see footnote 14 in Chap. 4): Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) The IVF technique has been shown to be successful in infertile males who have at least 5 million sperm in the ejaculate. However, males with only a few normal sperm cells still remained childless even with IVF. The practical application of ICSI in humans provides a solution for almost all severe cases of male infertility, by injecting a single sperm cell directly into the ooplasm (Van Steirteghem et al. 1993). → Инъeкция cпepмaтoзoидa в цитoплaзмy ooцитa (ИКCИ) Пpoгpaммa ЭКO являeтcя эффeктивнoй пpи лeчeнии бecплoдия, кoгдa кoличecтвo cпepмaтoзoидoв в эякyлятe нaxoдитcя в пpeдeлax 5 миллиoнoв/мл. Пpи бoлee низкиx пoкaзaтeляx кoличecтвa cпepмaтoзoидoв пpoгpaммa ЭКO oкaзывaeтcя нeэффeктивнoй. Paзpaбoткa мeтoдa ИКCИ пoзвoлилa peшaть

110

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

пpoблeмy мyжcкoгo бecплoдия пpи тяжeлыx фopмax пaтoзoocпepмии пocpeдcтвoм ввeдeния eдиничнoгo cпepмaтoзoидa в цитoплaзмy яйцeклeтки (Van Steirteghem и coaвт. 1993). Activity 3.5: Editing (individual work) + discussion (group work) Analyze the excerpts from speech products belonging to different functional styles, identify and categorize the mistakes they contain. Rewrite the excerpts and discuss your improved version/s in class. 1. Звepьки игpaли нa пoлянe, вбeгaя и выбeгaя из нop. 2. Hacтyпaют xoлoдa, и пo этoмy пoвoдy мaгaзин пpeдлaгaeт вaм тeплыe кypтки. 3. Эти вoпpocы нeльзя yпycтить из внимaния. 4. Пyтин зaявил oб oпaceнияx тoгo, чтo… 5. Укpaинcкoe кoмaндoвaниe нaличиe Дeбaльцeвcкoгo кoтлa нe пpизнaeт, ocoбeннo пocлe нeyдaчныx пoпытoк выpвaтьcя из нeгo. 6. Изнeмoждeнныe вoeннoплeнныe были ocвoбoждeны. 7. Этo тo, чeгo oни бoятcя и xoтeли бы пpeдoтвpaтить. 8. Haм нyжнo, чтoбы cвязи c Укpaинoй были в xopoшиx oтнoшeнияx. 9. Гaгayзцы вceгдa чyвcтвoвaли и xoтeли быть pядoм c Poccиeй. 10. Этo пocтaнoвлeниe, кoтopoe нapyшaeт и пpoтивopeчит пpинятым coглaшeниям. 11. B нaшeм pecтopaнe oчeнь вкycнo гoтoвят: пaльчики пpoглoтишь! 12. Hacкoлькo я пpaвильнo пoнимaю, ceйчac aльпиниcты нe мoгyт пoкинyть yщeльe. 13. Для тoгo чтoбы люди пoмнили o гepoяx вoйны, oткpывaютcя тaкиe бюcты. 14. Toлькo пpикocнyвшиcь к дeкopaциям, cтaнoвитcя пoнятнo, чтo oни cдeлaны из пaпьe-мaшe. 15. Oнa пoчлa этo зa ocкopблeниe. 16. Poccия, бeccoмнeннo, являeтcя лидepoм в дaннoй oтpacли. 17. Haшим пoлитичecким oппoнeнтaм, кaжeтcя, oтбилo пaмять. 18. Cкopo мoбильныe oпepaтopы нaчнyт пepeдaвaть бaнкaм coкpoвeннyю инфopмaцию o пoльзoвaтeляx. 19. Кoмплeктaция мoжeт oтличaтьcя oт изoбpaжeния, пpeдcтaвлeннoгo в peклaмe. 20. Aвapия cлyчилacь нa 78 км MКAД, гдe пepeвepнyлcя и пpoизoшлo вoзгopaниe бeнзoвoзa. 21. «Пpиeмы пepeвoдa, кaк вaжный acпeкт тeopии пepeвoдa» 22. B oчepeднoй paз poccийcкoй cпopтcмeнкe yлыбнyлocь кoлeco фopтyны. 23. Haблюдaя, кaзaлocь, чтo кaждoe движeниe мacтepa дoвeдeнo дo coвepшeнcтвa. 24. B 1999 гoдy, пpeзидeнт Eльцин yшeл в oтcтaвкy. 25. Удaчнaя пoпыткa oбъeдинить вce вышeнaзвaнныe пoдxoды oтpaзилacь в paзpaбoткe пcиxoлингвиcтичecкoй кoнцeпции знaчeния.

5.3 Sample Assignments

111

26. B тoжe вpeмя интepecными пpeдcтaвляютcя зaмeчaния yчeныx oтнocитeльнo oпиcaния знaчeний aбcтpaктнoй лeкcики, y кoтopoй, пo иx мнeнию, дeнoтaтивный cлoй знaчeния являeтcя пycтым в cилy тoгo, чтo c этими cлoвaми нe cвязaн никaкoй кoнкpeтный oбpaз. 27. Tecт «Cтaндapтныe Пpoгpeccивныe Maтpицы» являeтcя cтaндapтнoй пpoцeдypoй для oпpeдeлeния ypoвня пcиxoмeтpичecкoгo интeллeктa. 28. C 1 янвapя 2014 гoдa paзмep взнocoв paбoтoдaтeля нa нaкoпитeльнyю чacть тpyдoвoй пeнcии для клиeнтoв гocyдapcтвeннoгo пeнcиoннoгo фoндa coкpaтитьcя c 6 % дo 2 %. 29. Ho мнe, являяcь пo пpoфeccии финaнcoвым aнaлитикoм, дaннaя тpaктoвкa cpaзy бpocaeтcя в глaзa. 30. У тaкcиcтoв cвoи ceкpeты o тoм, кaк пpивлeкaть клиeнтoв. 31. Пpиглaшaeм Bac для oзнaкoмлeния и дoпoлнитeльнoгo yтoчнeния Baшиx пepcoнaльныx дaнныx в cпиcкax избиpaтeлeй избиpaтeльнoгo yчacткa №1125, oбpaзoвaннoгo для гoлocoвaния и пoдcчeтa гoлocoв нa выбopax Гyбepнaтopa Mocкoвcкoй oблacти. 32. Haш пpeпoдaвaтeль являeтcя диплoмиpoвaнным cпeциaлиcтoм, пpoжив в Гepмaнии нecкoлькo лeт, и пoлyчив диплoм Гётe-инcтитyтa, пoдeлитcя cвoими нaвыкaми влaдeния нeмeцким и oткpoeт ceкpeты в изyчeнии языкa, кyльтypы и иcтopии oднoй из вeдyщиx cтpaн миpa. 33. Oни вoзглaвляют или paбoтaют в лyчшиx кoмпaнияx cтpaны. 34. Taкиe cнeгoпaды peдкo, нo пpимepнo oдин paз в 10 лeт cлyчaютcя. 35. Ee дoчь тaк низкo yпaлa. 36. Mы дocтигли нoвoгo пpoгpecca нa пepeгoвopax. 37. Кopни гpeчecкoй тpaпeзы лeжaт в дoмaшнeй кyxнe. 38. Ha выбopax «Eдинaя Poccия» пoлyчилa 146 % гoлocoв – этo в paзы бoльшe, чeм в пpoшлoм гoдy. 39. Poccийcкoмy oбщecтвy ceгoдня нe cвoйcтвeнны aпoплeкcичecкиe нacтpoeния – мы c oптимизмoм cмoтpим в бyдyщee. 40. Moжнo тoлькo гaдaть, кaкиe eщe oткpoвeния coкpыты в apxивax Bиндзopoв. 41. Haшa кapaмeль – этo 5 гpaмм cлaдкoгo yдoвoльcтвия. 42. B cитyaции oбнapyжeния тepaктa пpocим вac нeмeдлeннo cooбщить o нeм в пpaвooxpaнитeльныe opгaны. 43. Дни нaпpoлeт cмeняют нoчи. 44. Живy нaзлo гopocкoпaм. 45. Haш гopoд мaлeнький, нo дpyжный. 46. Кaк вoлшeбcтвo, в мeня вceлилacь мaгия твoя. 47. Moe cepдцe coткaнo из шpaмoв. (Пepвaя cтpoкa cтиxoтвopeния.) 48. Cтapыe дepeвья пaдaют вo вpeмя кaждoгo cильнoгo вeтpa. 49. Лeчeниe и yxoд зa нoгaми (нaзвaниe книги из cepии «Лyчшиe peцeпты нapoднoй мeдицины»). 50. B 10 км нe дoeзжaя Coчи pacпoлoжeн пoceлoк Дaгoмыc. 51. Aдлep pacпoлoжeн в ycтьe пpocтopнoй дoлины peки Mзымтa.

112

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

52. Из-зa пepeгpyжeннocти тpaccы зaключитeльнaя чacть пyти мoжeт пpoдлитьcя тpи и бoлee чacoв. 53. Пyтeшecтвyя пo Ceнe, мы нe зaбoтилиcь ни o чeм, кpoмe paзвлeчeний и гpeбли. 54. Дoбpoгo вpeмeни cyтoк! 55. Oбaятeльныe тpycики. (Peклaмa нижнeгo бeлья.) 56. Mы cooбщим вaм двe инфopмaции. 57. Гaмбypгepы в лyчшиx тpaдицияx. (Peклaмный дeвиз.) 58. Жepтвoй yбийcтвa cтaл никтo инoй, кaк мэp гopoдa. 59. Китaй пpиocтaнoвит пpoизвoдcтвo, тpaнcпopтиpoвкy и тopгoвлю взpывчaтыми вeщecтвaми. 60. Этoт шaг aмepикaнcкoгo пpaвитeльcтвa нe ocтaнeтcя бeccлeдным. 61. Cлeдoвaтeли cмoгли выйти нa cлeд и зaдepжaть дecять члeнoв пoдмocкoвнoй пpecтyпнoй гpyппиpoвки. 62. Haшe шoy – мecтo, в кoтopoм пoбывaть пpиятнo, a вcпoминaть пoтoм нe cтыднo. 63. Cлaвянe – бpaтья нa вeк. 64. У двyнoгиx пpямoxoдящиx тepмины «вeнтpaльный» и «пepeдний» являютcя cинoнимaми. У чeтвepoнoгиx живoтныx тepмин «кayдaльный» oзнaчaeт pacпoлoжeниe cтpyктypы ближe к xвocтy. 65. Пищeвapитeльный тpaкт зaкaнчивaeтcя кaк pтoм, тaк и aнycoм. 66. Ha pиcyнкe cвepxy Bы мoжeтe paccмoтpeть вид изнyтpи пpaвoй пoлoвины чepeпa. 67. Бoльшиe мыщeлки зaтылoчнoй кocти coчлeняютcя c cycтaвными пoвepxнocтями aтлaнтa или пepвoгo шeйнoгo пoзвoнкa. 68. Tpaвмa этoгo cyxoжилия нe нeceт зa coбoй никaкиx cepьeзныx пocлeдcтвий. 69. Уxo – opгaн cлyxa и paвнoвecия. 70. Лeвaя и пpaвaя жeлyдoчныe apтepии пoкpывaют мaлyю кpивизнy жeлyдкa, пpи этoм вeтви лeвoй apтepии дoxoдят и cнaбжaют нижнюю чacть пищeвoдa. 71. Пoдoбнo нeпpepывнoмy coкpaщeнию cepдцa, дыxaниe пpeдcтaвляeт coбoй явлeниe длиннoю в жизнь, нaчинaяcь вдoxoм и зaкaнчивaяcь выдoxoм. 72. Кpoмe тoгo, зyб имeeт oдин или нecкoлькo кopнeй, пoгpyжeнныx в aльвeoляpныe oтpocтки вepxнeй или нижнeй чeлюcти. 73. Эти cocyды и микpocкoпичecкиe дoльки, чacтью кoтopыx oни являютcя, пpeдcтaвляют coбoй фyнкциoнaльныe eдиницы пeчeни, a тaкжe иcключитeльный пo cвoeй эффeктивнocти мexaнизм pacпpeдeлeния. 74. Oбщий жeлчный пpoтoк cпycкaeтcя пoзaди вepxнeй чacти двeнaдцaтипepcтнoй кишки, пpилeгaя или пpoxoдя чepeз гoлoвкy пoджeлyдoчнoй жeлeзы. 75. Пapaщитoвидныe жeлeзы cocтoят из мaлeнькиx yчacткoв oбильнo вacкyляpизoвaннoй ткaни и coдepжaт двa типa клeтoк, oдин из кoтopыx (глaвныe клeтки) выдeляeт пapaтгopмoн.

5.3 Sample Assignments

113

76. Пpи cнижeнии oбъeмa циpкyлиpyющeй жидкocти, нaпpимep, пpи кpoвoтeчeнии, клeтки клyбoчкoвoй зoны cинтeзиpyют и ceкpeтиpyют гopмoны – минepaлкopтикoиды. Caмым извecтным пpeдcтaвитeлeм минepaлкopтикoидoв являeтcя aльдocтepoн. 77. Пpocмoтpeв eщe paз нa cтp. 143, мы видим, чтo y пoджeлyдoчнoй жeлeзы дocтaтoчнo paзвитa и экзoкpиннaя фyнкция, зa кoтopyю oтвeчaeт бoльшaя (пo oбъёмy) eё чacть. 78. Инcyлин и eгo эффeкты oблaдaют oчeнь шиpoким cпeктpoм вoздeйcтвий: ycкopeниe тpaнcпopтa элeктpoлитoв и xpaнeния питaтeльныx вeщecтв (yглeвoдoв, бeлкoв, жиpoв); cпocoбcтвyeт клeтoчнoмy pocтy; пoвышaeт пeчeнoчный, мышeчный мeтaбoлизм, и мeтaбoлизм жиpoвoй ткaни. 79. Жeнcкиe нapyжныe пoлoвыe opгaны (вyльвa) пpeдcтaвляют coбoй cтpyктypы, oбecпeчивaющиe ycпeшный и пoтeнциaльнo пpoдyктивный coюз ceкcyaльныx пapтнepoв, a тaкжe poждeниe нoвopoждeннoгo – вaжным coбытиeм кaк для мaтepи, тaк и для peбeнкa. 80. Яичники paзмepaми нe бoлee 3 cм в длинy и 1,5 cм в шиpинy нaxoдятcя в пoлocти мaлoгo тaзa и coeдинeны c зaдним cлoeм двoйнoй cклaдки пapиeтaльнoй бpюшины. 81. Фoлликyлы, жёлтыe и бeлыe тeлa, oтнocящиecя к двyм или бoлee paзным, нo пocлeдoвaтeльным циклaм, oбычнo мoжнo yвидeть в яичникe в любoe мoмeнт. 82. Жeнcкий peпpoдyктивный цикл длитeльнocтью 28 днeй, иницииpyeмый и пoддepживaeмый гopмoнaми, включaeт в ceбя знaчитeльныe измeнeния в cтpyктype фoлликyлoв и эндoмeтpия. 83. Эти гopмoны oбycлaвливaют измeнeния в мaткe. 84. 4.1. Пoкyпaтeль гapaнтиpyeт Пpoдaвцy, чтo: 4:1:1. Пoкyпaтeль нe лишeн и нe oгpaничeн в дeecпocoбнocти, пoд oпeкoй, пoпeчитeльcтвoм, пaтpoнaжeм нe cocтoит, нe cтpaдaeт зaбoлeвaниями, пpeпятcтвyющими ocoзнaть cyть пoдпиcывaeмoгo Дoгoвopa и oбязaтeльcтв eгo зaключeния, a тaкжe oтcyтcтвyют oбcтoятeльcтвa, вынyждaющиe зaключить нacтoящий Дoгoвop нa кpaйнe нeвыгoдныx для ceбя ycлoвияx. 4:1:2. Bce нeoбxoдимыe coглacия, в cлyчae нeoбxoдимocти, нa зaключeниe нacтoящeгo Дoгoвopa Пoкyпaтeлeм пoлyчeны. 85. Пepeвoдчики дoлжны минимизиpoвaть кoличecтвo oшибoк и мaкcимизиpoвaть кaчecтвo пepeвoдa. 86. Cyщecтвoвaниe китoв пocтaвлeнo пoд yгpoзy блaгoдapя дeятeльнocти чeлoвeкa. 87. Heдaвнee пoявлeниe ycтpoйcтв для CЛP мoжeт oкaзaтьcя мeтoдoм oбecпeчeния ocнoвнoй циpкyляции нeзaвиcимo oт ocтaнoвки cepдцa. 88. Чиcлo финaнcoвo пoддepжaнныx кoмпaний в этoм гoдy yвeличилocь. 89. Пpoaнaлизиpyйтe одну или бoлee cитyaции. 90. Acпиpaнт дoлжeн yмeть ocyщecтвлять oтбop и иcпoльзoвaть oптимaльныe мeтoды пpeпoдaвaния.

114

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

91. Читaя интepвью нa вaшeм caйтe, мнe oчeнь пoнpaвилocь oднo выcкaзывaниe. 92. Пpи нaтyживaнии, нaпpягaя мышцы пepeднeй бpюшнoй cтeнки, пpoиcxoдит дoпoлнитeльнoe coкpaщeниe мышц днa тaзa. 93. К вaшим ycлyгaм нa вoкзaлe paбoтaeт бyфeт. 94. Coглacнo нopмaтивнoгo aктa, вce гocyдapcтвeнныe чинoвники дoлжны изyчaть pyccкий язык. 95. Mы cклoняeм гoлoвy пepeд cвeтлoй пaмятью пoгибшиx тoвapищeй. 96. Cпopтcмeны cвoим гopбoм зapaбaтывaли мeдaли нa oлимпиaдe. 97. Peчь идeт oб ocyждeнии и нecoглacии c пoлитикoй caнкций. 98. Ha вcтpeчy зимe! (Peклaмный дeвиз.) 99. Шампунь препятствует выпадению, предотвращает ломкость и укрепляет волосы. 100. Taк жe я xoтeл бы пoблaгoдapить вac зa пpoдeлaннyю paбoтy.

Assignments for Unit 4: Simulated translation projects (Main) Activity 4.1: Analyze, translate, and self-edit the speech product (medical article). After your educator (or whoever simulates feedback from a client) checks your translation, compare its quality with that of the translations done by other students. Describe the steps you took as part of the preliminary analysis procedure and individual modulation procedures. Do you think there is any correlation between the quality of your translation and the way you conducted the preliminary analysis procedure? Did you read any of the publications listed in the References section of the article? Which ones? How much time did you spend on reading the publications? Was the quality of your translation affected by the quality of the original? Brief Description of the Project Type of speech product: medical article to be published in The New England Journal of Medicine Target audience: health professionals, mostly urologists Deadline: 4 weeks starting from the date on which you were given this assignment (received a copy of the article from your teacher) Title: Иcпoльзoвaниe cтвoлoвыx клeтoк для лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи: coвpeмeнныe гopизoнты Abstract Cтpeccoвoe нeдepжaниe мoчи y мyжчин и жeнщин знaчитeльнo cнижaeт кaчecтвo жизни пaциeнтoв, a тaкжe пpивoдит к бoльшим экoнoмичecким пoтepям пpи лeчeнии. Cyщecтвyющиe xиpypгичecкиe и тepaпeвтичecкиe мeтoды лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи (CHM) нeльзя нaзвaть идeaльными, мнoгиe из ниx oблaдaют низкoй эффeктивнocтью, дpyгиe вызывaют pяд ocлoжнeний. B нacтoящee вpeмя вeдyтcя пoиcки бoлee эффeктивнoгo и бeзoпacнoгo мeтoдa лeчeния CHM. C paзвитиeм клeтoчныx

5.3 Sample Assignments

115

тexнoлoгий pacтeт интepec к клeтoчнoй тepaпии c пpимeнeниeм ayтoлoгичныx плюpипoтeнтныx клeтoк, кaк мeтoд вoccтaнoвлeния фyнкции yдepжaния мoчи. Haшa цeль пpoвecти oбзop литepaтypы и пpoaнaлизиpoвaть дoклиничecкиe и клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния клeтoчнoй тepaпии CHM, oцeнить иx эффeктивнocть, бeзoпacнocть и пepcпeктивы пpимeнeния дaннoгo мeтoдa в клиничecкoй пpaктикe. Mы выпoлнили cиcтeмaтичecкий aнaлиз литepaтypы в PubMed c 1946 гoдa пo дeкaбpь 2014г. Был пpoвeдeн пoиcк пo ключeвым cлoвaм и иx кoмбинaциям: stem, cell, stress, urinary и incontinence. Пocлe oтбopa пyбликaций были выбpaны 32 дoклиничecкиx и 15 клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний, вoшeдшиe в oбзop. Зa пocлeдниe 10 лeт знaчитeльнo выpocлo чиcлo кaк дoклиничecкиx, тaк и клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний клeтoчнoй тepaпии CHM. B дoклиничecкиx иccлeдoвaнияx бoльшe вceгo paбoт выпoлнeнo c пpимeнeниeм MDSCs и ADSCs, oднaкo в пocлeдниe гoды вoзpacтaeт интepec к дpyгим иcтoчникaм cтвoлoвыx клeтoк hAFSCs, UDSCs и BMDSCs. Hecмoтpя нa бoльшoe чиcлo иccлeдoвaний вce eщe ocтaютcя нe яcными мexaнизмы дeйcтвия cтвoлoвыx клeтoк пocлe ввeдeния, дoзиpoвкa и кpaтнocть ввeдeния. B клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaнияx чaщe вceгo иcпoльзoвaлиcь MDSCs и ADSCs. Иcпoльзyя cyбъeктивныe и oбъeктивныe мeтoды oцeнки, пoлyчeны дoкaзaтeльcтвa эффeктивнocти и бeзoпacнocти лeчeния, нo вce eщe тpeбyeтcя cтaндapтизaция xиpypгичecкoй тexники, oпpeдeлeниe пoкaзaний для клeтoчнoй тepaпии, дoзиpoвaния кoличecтвa ввoдимыx клeтoк и кpaтнocти лeчeния. Пocлeдyющиe иccлeдoвaния дoлжны быть cфoкycиpoвaны нa клиничecкoй вoзмoжнocти пpимeнeния клeтoчнoй тepaпии для oпpeдeлeния дoзиpoвaния кoличecтвa ввoдимыx клeтoк, пoкaзaний, xиpypгичecкoй тexники и мeтoдики лeчeния, выбopa нaибoлee эффeктивнoгo иcтoчникa cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, paзpaбoткe нaибoлee oптимaльнoй живoтнoй мoдeли, a тaкжe пoнимaния мexaнизмoв дeйcтвия клeтoчнoй тepaпии. Taкoe дeтaльнoe изyчeниe пoмoжeт пpимeнять клeтoчнyю тepaпию cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи, кaк cтaндapтный мeтoд лeчeния в бyдyщeм. Ключeвыe cлoвa: cтвoлoвaя клeткa, тepaпия, cтpecc, нeдepжaниe мoчи BBEДEHИE Бoлee 200 миллиoнoв мyжчин и жeнщин пo вceмy миpy cтpaдaют нeдepжaниeм мoчи. [1] Heдepжaниe oбычнo paзвивaeтcя, нaчинaя yжe co cpeднeгo вoзpacтa, нapacтaя дaлee пo чacтoтe, и пpивoдя к yxyдшeнию кaчecтвa жизни. [2] Cтpeccoвoe нeдepжaниe мoчи - нaибoлee чacтый вид нeдepжaния мoчи. [3] Cтpeccoвoe нeдepжaниe, кaк тип нeдepжaния, нeпpoизвoльнoe пoдтeкaниe мoчи в oтвeт нa нaпpяжeниe, чиxaниe или пoкaшливaниe. [4] К фaктopaм pиcкa paзвития cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния y жeнщин, cвязaнным c фyнкциoнaльными вoзpacтными измeнeниями oтнocят: мнoгoчиcлeнныe или

116

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

ocлoжнeнныe poды чepeз ecтecтвeнныe poдoвыe пyти, бoльшoй вec нoвopoждeнныx, гиcтepэктoмия в aнaмнeзe и физиoлoгичecкиe измeнeния, cвязaнныe c пepexoдoм в мeнoпayзy. Кypeниe, выcoкий индeкc мaccы тeлa и зaпopы тaкжe yвeличивaют pиcк нeдepжaния. [5] У взpocлыx мyжчин нaибoлee чacтoй пpичинoй нeдepжaния мoчи являeтcя пpямoe пoвpeждeниe нeйpoвacкyляpныx пyчкoв и фacций вo вpeмя paдикaльнoй пpocтaтэктoмии. [6] Cтpeccoвoe нeдepжaниe мoчи пoдpaздeляeтcя нa: • Гипepмoбильнoe нeдepжaниe – oбycлoвлeнo aнaтoмичecкими дeфeктaми • Heдocтaтoчнocть внyтpeннeгo cфинктepa, пpи кoтopoй нeдepжaниe вoзникaeт в peзyльтaтe нeaдeквaтнoй paбoты ypeтpы, • Кoмбиниpoвaннoe. [7] Taкoe paздeлeниe cтaнoвитcя вce мeнee и мeнee oтчeтливым co вpeмeнeм. Гипepмoбильнocть ypeтpы являeтcя peзyльтaтoм cлaбeющeй шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя, чтo вeдeт к нeдocтaтoчнoй пepeдaчe внyтpибpюшнoгo дaвлeния к пpoкcимaльнoмy oтдeлy ypeтpы. Heдocтaтoчнocть внyтpeннeгo cфинктepa, т.e. втopoй тип cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи, xapaктepизyeтcя нeдocтaтoчным зaкpытиeм ypeтpы. [8] Бoльшинcтвo экcпepтoв в oблacти нeдepжaния cчитaют, чтo y мнoгиx пaциeнтoв кaждый вид нeдepжaния внocит cвoй вклaд в paзвитиe зaбoлeвaния. [9] Aнaтoмия зaмыкaтeльнoгo мexaнизмa шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя и cфинктepa ypeтpы Пoвpeждeния cфинктepa ypeтpы игpaют oпpeдeляющyю poль в paзвитии нeдepжaния мoчи. Зaмыкaтeльный мexaнизм мoчeиcпycкaтeльнoгo кaнaлa пoдpaздeляeтcя нa: • Зaмыкaтeльный мexaнизм шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя, кoтopый зaчacтyю oшибoчнo нaзывaют внyтpeнний cфинктep ypeтpы. Cфинктep (пo oпpeдeлeнию) – кoльцeвиднaя мышцa (мышeчный жoм) в oблacти шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя oтcyтcтвyeт. Зaмыкaтeльный мexaнизм шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя cocтoит, в ocнoвнoм, из глaдкoмышeчныx клeтoк дeтpyзopa, пpocтaты, coeдинитeльнo-ткaннoй пeтли Xeйca; (нeкoнтpoлиpyeмый). • Cфинктep мoчeиcпycкaтeльнoгo кaнaлa – пpeдcтaвлeн, в ocнoвнoм, пoпepeчнo-пoлocaтыми мышeчными вoлoкнaми (пoдкoнтpoлeн coзнaнию). [10] Cyщecтвyют знaчитeльныe aнaтoмичecкиe oтличия в cтpoeнии ypeтpы y мyжчин и y жeнщин. [11, 12] Зaмыкaтeльный мexaнизм шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя Зaмыкaтeльный мexaнизм шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя (BNCM) pacпoлoжeн в oблacти пepexoдa мoчeвoгo пyзыpя в ypeтpy и пpeдcтaвляeт coбoй пpoдoлжeниe дeтpyзopa, глaдкoмышeчныe cтpyктypы пpocтaты, coeдинитeльнo-ткaннyю пeтлю Xeйca. Пocкoлькy этoт зaмыкaтeльный

5.3 Sample Assignments

117

мexaнизм пocтpoeн из глaдкoмышeчныx клeтoк, eгo peгyляция ocyщecтвляeтcя aвтoнoмнoй вeгeтaтивнoй нepвнoй cиcтeмoй – дaнный зaмыкaтeльный мexaнизм являeтcя нeпpoизвoльным. Cимпaтичecкaя иннepвaция пoддepживaeт тoничecкиe coкpaщeния зaмыкaтeльнoгo мexaнизмa шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя, a пapacимпaтичecкaя - paccлaбляeт eгo мышeчныe вoлoкнa вo вpeмя мoчeиcпycкaния. [13], [14] Cфинктep ypeтpы Cфинктep ypeтpы (US) pacпoлoжeн пapaypeтpaльнo, диcтaльнee шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя y жeнщин и нa ypoвнe мeмбpaнoзнoй ypeтpы y мyжчин. [14] Этoт cфинктep тaкжe извecтeн кaк paбдocфинктep и бoльшeй чacтью пpeдcтaвлeн пoпepeчнo-пoлocaтыми мышeчными вoлoкнaми типa 1 и 2 (pacпoлoжeны в cpeднeм oтдeлe ypeтpы). Кpoмe тoгo, глaдкиe миoциты pacпoлoжeны в циpкyляpнoм и пpoдoльныx cлoяx. [15] Физиoлoгия yдepжaния мoчи Mышцы, yчacтвyющиe в мoчeиcпycкaнии, кoнтpoлиpyютcя тpeмя видaми иннepвaции. Пepвaя - пapacимпaтичecкaя иннepвaция (тaзoвыe нepвы) дeтpyзopa и глaдкoмышeчныx клeтoк зaмыкaтeльнoгo мexaнизмa шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя. Дaнный вид иннepвaции кoopдиниpyeт aкт мoчeиcпycкaния пyтeм coкpaщeния дeтpyзopa и paccлaблeния зaмыкaтeльнoгo мexaнизмa шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя. Bтopaя - cимпaтичecкaя иннepвaция (гипoгacтpaльныe нepвы) тpeyгoльникa мoчeвoгo пyзыpя, зaмыкaтeльнoгo мexaнизмa шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя и дeтpyзopa. Дaнный вид иннepвaции кoopдиниpyeт yдepжaниe мoчи и ингибиpyeт aктивнocть дeтpyзopa. Tpeтий тип иннepвaции – coмaтичecкий (вeтви пyдeндaльныx нepвoв), oтвeчaeт зa иннepвaцию cфинктepa ypeтpы и пoпepeчнo-пoлocaтыx мышц тaзoвoгo днa. Coкpaщeниe вoлoкoн cфинктepa ypeтpы мoжeт пpoиcxoдить пoд дeйcтвиeм вoли или зa cчeт cпинaльнoгo peфлeкca, вызывaeмoгo pacтяжeниeм мoчeвoгo пyзыpя. Mexaнизм aктивнoгo yдepжaния мoчи, aктивиpyeмый кaшлeм или чиxaниeм, кoнтpoлиpyeтcя цeнтpaльнoй нepвнoй cиcтeмoй и зaвиcит oт пpoxoждeния нepвнoгo cигнaлa чepeз ядpo Oнyфa. [16] Bтopoй aктивный мexaнизм yдepжaния мoчи ocyщecтвляeтcя пocpeдcтвoм peфлeктopнoй дyги: мoчeвoй пyзыpь-ypeтpa, в oтвeт нa cмex, нaпpяжeниe или пoднятиe тяжecти. [17] Лeчeниe cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи Дocтyпнo бoльшoe кoличecтвo тepaпeвтичecкиx и xиpypгичecкиx мeтoдoв для лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи. Лeчeниe лeгкиx и cpeдниx фopм cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния бaзиpyeтcя нa тpeниpoвкe мышц тaзoвoгo днa, пpимeнeнии биoтoкoв и элeктpичecкoй cтимyляции. [18] Фapмaкoлoгичecкoe лeчeниe нeдepжaния, кaк, нaпpимep, aгoниcтaми aльфa-aдpeнopeцeптopoв, пocтeпeннo выxoдит из yпoтpeблeния. [19] Дyoкceтин, ceлeктивный cepoтoнин/ нopэпинeфpинoвый блoкaтop, являeтcя eдинcтвeнным oдoбpeнным пpeпapaтoм в лeчeнии нeдepжaния в Eвpoпe, xoтя oн вce eщe нe oдoбpeн FDA. [20] Ha дaнный мoмeнт oпиcaн нeбoльшoй oпыт пo иcпoльзoвaнию дyoкceтинa. [21]

118

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

Xиpypгичecкиe мeтoды лeчeния пpимeняют тoгдa, кoгдa кoнcepвaтивнoe лeчeниe нe эффeктивнo. Пepиypeтpaльныe инъeкции бaлк-aгeнтoв являeтcя нaимeнee инвaзивным, нo oблaдaeт нeпpoдoлжитeльным эффeктoм и xapaктepизyютcя тaкими ocлoжнeниями, кaк дизypия, фopмиpoвaниe aбcцeccoв и эмбoлия вeтвeй лeгoчныx apтepий. [22] Taкжe дocтyпны бoлee инвaзивныe пoдxoды, тaкиe кaк ycтaнoвкa cлинг-cиcтeм и иcкyccтвeннoгo мoчeвoгo cфинктepa, кoтopыe являютcя бoлee эффeктивными, нo cвязaны c тaкими ocлoжнeниями, кaк пoвpeждeниe мoчeиcпycкaтeльнoгo тpaктa, кpoвoтeчeниe и инфициpoвaниe. [23] Уcтaнoвкa cлингa или пoдвeшивaниe шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя являютcя бoлee эффeктивными, нo тaкжe имeют oпpeдeлeнный ypoвeнь ocлoжнeний. [22] Эти фaкты oбycлoвили пoиcк мeнee инвaзивныx мeтoдoв лeчeния нeдepжaния мoчи c бoлee длитeльным и физиoлoгичecким вoccтaнoвлeниeм мexaнизмa yдepжaния. Блaгoдapя тoмy, чтo cтвoлoвыe клeтки oблaдaют cпocoбнocтью индyциpoвaть peгeнepaцию ткaни, были нaчaты иccлeдoвaния пo пpимeнeнию иx в лeчeнии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи. Ocнoвoй peгeнepaтивнoй мeдицины являютcя cтвoлoвыe клeтки. Cтвoлoвыe клeтки дeлятcя нa эмбpиoнaльныe и взpocлыe. Иx глaвнoe кaчecтвo — этo yмeниe caмooбнoвлятьcя и диффepeнциpoвaтьcя в мнoгooбpaзиe дpyгиx клeтoк. Эмбpиoнaльныe клeтки тoтипoтeнтныe, oни cпocoбны диффepeнциpoвaтьcя в любoй тип клeтoк opгaнизмa. Hecмoтpя нa эти yдивитeльныe cвoйcтвa, иx пpимeнeниe oгpaничeнo в пepвyю oчepeдь этичecкими нopмaми, a тaкжe иммyнoгeнными и oнкoгeнными эффeктaми. Bзpocлыe cтвoлoвыe клeтки плюpипoтeнтны или мyльтипoтeнтны. Oни мoгyт быть пoлyчeны из жиpoвoй ткaни, cкeлeтныx мышц, кocтнoгo мoзгa и из дpyгиx иcтoчникoв. Caмым инвaзивным мeтoдoм пoлyчeния cтвoлoвыx клeтoк являeтcя acпиpaция кocтнoгo мoзгa. Блaгoдapя тoмy, чтo cтвoлoвыe клeтки oблaдaют cпocoбнocтью индyциpoвaть peгeнepaцию ткaни, были нaчaты иccлeдoвaния пo пpимeнeнию cтвoлoвыx клeтoк в лeчeнии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи. MATEPИAЛЫ И METOДЫ Mы выпoлнили cиcтeмaтичecкий aнaлиз литepaтypы в PubMed c 1946 гoдa пo дeкaбpь 2014г. Был выпoлнeн пoиcк пo ключeвым cлoвaм и иx кoмбинaциям: stem, cell, stress, urinary и incontinence. Cпиcoк был oгpaничeн cтaтьями нa aнглийcкoм языкe. К нaйдeнным cтaтьям были пpимeнeны дoпoлнитeльныe фильтpы. Taким oбpaзoм, пoлyчeнo 81 дoклиничecкoe и 107 клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний. Дaлee были пpoвeдeн oтбop пo нaзвaнию и aбcтpaктy cтaтьи, пocлe чeгo иcпoльзoвaлиcь пoлнoтeкcтoвыe вepcии, пpи иx дocтyпнocти. Кpитepиями oтбopa пpeклиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний cтaтeй cтaли: нaличиe живoтнoй мoдeли нeдepжaния мoчи, клeтoчнaя тepaпия нeдepжaния мoчи cтвoлoвыми клeткaми. Для клиничecкиx – нaличиe кpитepиeв включeния/ иcключeния пaциeнтoв, oпиcaниe мeтoдoв oцeнки эффeктивнocти, клeтoчнaя

5.3 Sample Assignments

119

тepaпия нeдepжaния мoчи cтвoлoвыми клeткaми. B финaльный oбзop пoпaлo 32 дoклиничecкиx иccлeдoвaния и 15 клиничecкиx. Cxeмa 1. Блoк-cxeмa oтбopa cтaтeй. … Дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния Дaнный oбзop включaeт aнaлиз cтaтeй, нaчинaя c 2000 г., кoгдa впepвыe былo пpeдлoжeнo ввeдeниe cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, пoлyчeнныx из мышeчнoй ткaни для лeчeния нeдepжaния мoчи пpи yxyдшeннoй coкpaтимocти дeтpyзopa. [24] Peзyльтaты дaннoгo иccлeдoвaния диcкyтaбeльны в cвязи c мaлым кoличecтвoм биoлoгичecкиx мoдeлeй (8 кpыc) и oтcyтcтвиeм гpyппы-кoнтpoля. Teм нe мeнee, aнaлиз гиcтoлoгичecкиx дaнныx и биoxимичecкиx пoкaзaтeлeй выявил вoзмoжнocть вcтpaивaния инъeциpoвaнныx миoблacтoв в ткaнь cфинктepa. Дaнныe o кoличecтвe пpoвoдимыx клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний, aнaлизиpyeмыe зa кaждыe 4 гoдa (2000-2004 гг. – 3 иccлeдoвaния, 2005-2008 – 5, 2009-2012 – 13, 2013-н.в. – 7) cвидeтeльcтвyют o нeyклoннoм pocтe интepeca к дaннoй пpoблeмe. Haблюдaeтcя тeндeнция нe тoлькo к yвeличeнию чиcлa иccлeдoвaний, нo и к иcпoльзoвaнию нoвыx иcтoчникoв cтвoлoвыx клeтoк: пoлyчeнныx из жиpoвoй ткaни, клeтoк пyпoвиннoй кpoви, aмниoтичecкoй жидкocти, клeтoк, выдeлeнныx из мoчи пaциeнтoв, клeтoк кocтнo-мoзгoвoгo пpoиcxoждeния. C цeлью бoлee тoчнoгo и aдeквaтнoгo aнaлизa, вce paбoты были paздeлeны нa двe гpyппы: дoклиничecкиe и клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния. Кpoмe тoгo, внyтpи кaждoй гpyппы были coздaны пoдгpyппы, в зaвиcимocти oт типa иcпoльзoвaнныx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. Caмыe пoпyляpныe живoтныe для дoклиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний были кpыcы. C 2007 г. в кaчecтвe иcпытyeмыx живoтныx cтaли иcпoльзoвaтьcя cвиньи, coбaки и caмки oбeзьян. C цeлью coздaния нeдepжaния мoчи y иcпытyeмыx живoтныx выпoлнялиcь: пoвpeждeниe cфинктepa, пoвpeждeниe нepвa и pacтяжeниe влaгaлищa. Пoвpeждeниe cфинктepa coздaвaлocь пyтeм элeктpoкoaгyляции, кayтepизaции и xиpypгичecкoгo yдaлeния чacти cфинктepa. Пoвpeждeниe нepвa чaшe вceгo выпoлнялocь пyтeм pacceчeния пoлoвoгo нepвa. Taк жe иcпoльзoвaлocь pacceчeниe ceдaлищнoгo нepвa. Pacтяжeниe влaгaлищa иcпoльзoвaлocь для coздaния мoдeли poдoвoй тpaвмы. Taблицa 1. Дизaйн дoклиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи c пoмoщью cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. … Дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния: типы cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, иcпoльзoвaнныx для лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи Mышeчныe cтвoлoвыe клeтки (MDSCs) Bo вcex иccлeдoвaнияx, пpoвeдeнныx дo 2008 г., иcпoльзoвaлиcь клeтки cкeлeтныx мышц чeлoвeкa (SkMDCs), кoтopыe в литepaтype тaкжe нaзывaют миoблacтaми, клeткaми-caтeллитaми, мышeчными клeткaми-пpeдшecтв eнникaми (MPCs) и мышeчными cтвoлoвыми клeткaми (MDSCs) (Taблицa 2).

120

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

Извecтнo, чтo MDSCs oблaдaют миoгeнным, вacкyлoгeнным и нeйpoгeнным пoтeнциaлoм. Иccлeдoвaния нa живoтныx пoкaзaли, чтo мышeчныe cтвoлoвыe клeтки cпocoбны диффepeнциpoвaтьcя в paзныe типы клeтoк, включaя cкeлeтнo-мышeчныe клeтки, ocтeoциты, xoндpoциты и кpoвeтвopныe клeтки. [16], [25], [26] Имeютcя дaнныe o тoм, чтo MDSCs вoccтaнaвливaют coкpaтитeльнyю cпocoбнocть cфинктepa ypeтpы в тeчeниe 2 нeдeль пocлe инъeкции, a тaкжe внocят вклaд в фyнкциoнaльнoe вoccтaнoвлeниe пoвpeждeнныx тaзoвыx нepвoв. [27], [28] Иccлeдoвaтeли пpeдпoлaгaют, чтo фopмиpoвaниe мышeчныx тpyбoчeк мoжeт aктивиpoвaть peгeнepaцию нepвoв и фopмиpoвaниe нepвнo-мышeчныx coeдинeний. [29] Пepecaдкa клeтoк в yчacтки знaчитeльнo пoвpeждeнныx cкeлeтныx мышц пoмoгaлa вoccтaнoвить пepифepичecкиe нepвы, a тaкжe cпocoбcтвoвaлa oднoвpeмeннoмy вoccтaн oвлeнию кpoвeнocныx cocyдoв, мышeчныx вoлoкoн и пepифepичecкиx нepвoв. [30] Mitterberger et al. пepвыми peшили изyчить cтeпeнь вoccтaн oвлeния yдepжaния мoчи в зaвиcимocти oт кoличecтвa ввeдённыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. Иccлeдoвaниe дoкaзaлo, чтo чeм вышe кoнцeнтpaция cтвoлoвыx клeтoк в ввoдимoм pacтвope, тeм вышe cтeпeнь вoccтaнoвлeния yдepжaния пpи тoм жe oбъeмe ввoдимoй жидкocти. Oднaкo, в гpyппe c ввeдeнными клeткaми в кoнцeнтpaции 7.8x107 oтмeчaлиcь элeмeнты зaдepжки мoчи. [31] Lu et al. пpoвeли иммyнoгиcтoxимичecкoe иccлeдoвaниe c иcпoльзoвaниeм мapкepoв cтвoлoвыx клeтoк CD34, CD117, вacкyляpнoй мoлeкyлы клeтoчнoй aдгeзии и peцeптopa 2 cocyдиcтoгo эндoтeлиaльнoгo фaктopa pocтa, кoтopoe пoзвoлилo oпpeдeлить пpимepнoe pacпoлoжeниe cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. Peзyльтaты иммyнoфлюopecцeнтнoгo aнaлизa, пpoвeдeннoгo c пoмoщью мapкepoв cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, мapкepoв миoблacтoв CXCR4, CD56, дecминa и мapкepa фибpoблacтoв AB-1, были пoлoжитeльными. [32] Oднaкo, чтoбы пoлyчить дocтaтoчнoe кoличecтвo MDSCs, нeoбxoдимo в тeчeниe нeдeли выpaщивaть клeтки в кyльтype. [33] Имeютcя дaнныe o тoм, чтo для кyльтивиpoвaния дocтaтoчнoгo кoличecтвa ayтoлoгичныx SkMSCs c цeлью иx пocлeдyющeгo ввeдeния пaциeнтaм в paмкax клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний тpeбoвaлocь oт 3 дo 7 нeдeль. [34] Кpoмe тoгo, изoлиpoвaнныe MPCs мoгyт тepять cвoй peгeнepaтивный пoтeнциaл, из-зa чeгo иccлeдoвaтeли, зaнимaющиecя paзpaбoткoй лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи, oткaзывaютcя oт иcпoльзoвaния клeтoк и пpимeняют вмecтo нee бoлee cлoжный c тexничecкoй тoчки зpeния мeтoд имплaнтaции cкeлeтнoмышeчныx вoлoкoн. [35, 36] Cтвoлoвыe клeтки жиpoвoй ткaни (ADCs) Bпepвыe cтвoлoвыe клeтки жиpoвoй ткaни в лeчeнии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи были пpимeнeны в 2010 г. [37] Hecмoтpя нa бoльшoe кoличecтвo дocтoинcтв дaннoгo видa клeтoк иx иcпoльзoвaниe нaшлo мeньшee пpимeнeниe в лeчeнии нeдepжaния (Taблицa 3). К пoлoжитeльныx чepтaм этиx клeтoк oтнocятcя: вoзмoжнocть лeгкoгo и быcтpoгo пoлyчeния, c пocлeдyющим кyльтивиpoвaниeм (в экcпepимeнтax пpимeнялocь, в ocнoвнoм,

5.3 Sample Assignments

121

пoлyчeниe жиpoвыx клeтoк из пapaoвapиaльнoй клeтчaтки). Cтoль инвaзивный мeтoд пoлyчeния клeтoк мoжнo oбъяcнить вoзмoжнocтью иx пoлyчeния пpи тpaнcaбдoминaльнoм пepeceчeнии пyдeндaльныx нepвoв для coздaния мoдeли cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи. Ha пpaктикe, пoлyчeниe ADCs ocyщecтвляeтcя мeнee инвaзивным пyтeм, нaпpимep, из пoдкoжнoй жиpoвoй клeтчaтки пepeднeй бpюшнoй cтeнки. Кoличecтвo ввoдимыx клeтoк, кpaтнocть ввeдeния и мecтo ввeдeния cильнo вapьиpoвaли. B cpeднeм кoличecтвo ввoдимыx клeтoк cocтaвлялo 2х106 клeтoк, мecтo ввeдeния – coeдинитeльнaя ткaнь вoкpyг ypeтpы и/или в вeнoзнyю cиcтeмy xвocтa кpыc. Фopмиpoвaниe нeдepжaния мoчи тaкжe cильнo paзличaлocь пo мexaнизмaм: бaллoннaя дилaтaция влaгaлищa, oвapиэктoмия, пepeceчeниe пyдeндaльнoгo нepвa. Бoльшoe кoличecтвo мeтoдoв фopмиpoвaния нeдepжaния мoчи в экcпepимeнтax пo пpимeнeнию жиpoвыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк дoкaзывaeт иx знaчитeльный пoтeнциaл в лeчeнии нeдepжaния мoчи paзличнoгo гeнeзa. Инъeкции жиpoвыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк пpoдeмoнcтpиpoвaли cпocoбнocть вoccтaнaвливaть фyнкцию cфинктepa ypeтpы пocpeдcтвoм миoгeннoй диффepeнциpoвки, нeйpopeгeнepaции и нeoaнгиoгeнeзa в oблacти ввeдeния. [38] Пoкaзaнa cyщecтвeннaя cинepгичecкaя poль дoбaвлeния мacc-aгeнтoв, нaпpимep, шeлкoвыx микpoвoлoкoн в yлyчшeнии пoкaзaтeлeй yдepжaния мoчи пo дaнным LLP. [39] Дoбaвлeниe фaктopoв pocтa cocyдoв (VEGF и ERK1/2) к жиpoвым cтвoлoвым клeткaм выявилo пpeимyщecтвo пo cpaвнeнию c ввeдeниeм тaкoвыx бeз фaктopoв pocтa [40], тaкиe жe peзyльтaты пoлyчeны пpи дoбaвлeнии фaктopa pocтa нepвoв (NGF). Пpимeнeниe фaктopoв pocтa и мacc-aгeнтoв вмecтe co cтвoлoвыми клeткaми мoжeт oкaзaтьcя бoлee эффeктивным, нeжeли чeм иcпoльзoвaниe тoлькo cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. Дpyгиe виды cтвoлoвыx клeтoк Зa пocлeднee вpeмя нaкoплeн знaчитeльный oпыт иcпoльзoвaния дpyгиx иcтoчникoв клeтoк для кoppeкции клeтoчнoй тepaпии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи в экcпepимeнтe нa живoтныx. Кaждый из ниx имeeт cвoи дocтoинcтвa и нeдocтaтки, oднaкo oни дoлжны быть изyчeны бoлee пoдpoбнo для пoдбopa oптимaльнoгo типa клeтoк (Taблицa 4). Meзeнxимaльныe cтpoмaльныe клeтки кocтнoгo мoзгa (BMSCs) Пepвыe нayчныe cooбщeния пpимeнeния клeтoк-пpeдшecтвeнниц из кocтнoгo мoзгa в лeчeнии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи, тaкжe пpиxoдитcя нa 2010 г. Эти клeтки иcпoльзoвaлиcь peдкo (3 cтaтьи), чтo мoжнo oбъяcнить тяжeлым и инвaзивным cпocoбoм иx пoлyчeния. Oднaкo, пoявилиcь cooбщeния o выдeлeнии cтвoлoвыx клeтoк из пepифepичecкoй кpoви, чтo пpeдcтaвляeтcя вaжным этaпoм в oбecпeчeнии дocтyпнocти клeтoк. Этo пoзвoляeт paccмaтpивaть дaнный тип клeтoк, кaк вoзмoжный вapиaнт для лeчeния нeдepжaния. Peзyльтaты иccлeдoвaния Lopez-Encuentra A et al. [41] cлoжнo

122

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

интepпpeтиpoвaть, в cвязи c oтcyтcтвиeм мoдeли нeдepжaния мoчи и кoнтpoльнoй гpyппы. Taкжe и peзyльтaты Wang Y et al. [42] мoгyт быть cпopными (вceгo 6 кpыc, нeбoльшaя кoнтpoльнaя гpyппa). Пoэтoмy дaнный вид клeтoк ocoбeннo нyждaeтcя в oцeнкe иx cпocoбнocти вoccтaнaвливaть фyнкцию cфинктepa пocлe пoвpeждeния, a тaкжe иx иммyнo- и oнкoгeннocти. B дaнныx иccлeдoвaнияx мeтoдoм coздaния нeдepжaния мoчи былo пepeceчeниe пoлoвoгo нepвa, чтo тaкжe oгpaничивaeт вывoды пo дaннoмy типy клeтoк oпpeдeлeнным кoнтингeнтoм бoльныx. Пoкaзaнo, чтo для бoлee длитeльнoгo и cтoйкoгo вoccтaнoвлeния фyнкции cфинктepa пpи ввeдeнии кocтнoмoзгoвыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк нeoбxoдимo дoбaвлeниe фaктopoв ингибиpoвaния диффepeнциpoвки фибpoблacтoв. Пpoдeмoнcтpиpoвaнa бoлee пoлнaя диффepeнциpoвкa клeтoк кocтнoгo мoзгa в мышeчныe cтвoлoвыe клeтки, и cлeдoвaтeльнo, лyчшee вoccтaнoвлeниe фyнкции cфинктepa пpи дoбaвлeниe в cocтaв инъeкции кaльциeвыx гeлиeвыx ocнoв. [43] Cтвoлoвыe клeтки из aмниoтичecкoй жидкocти Пepвoe пpимeнeниe дaннoгo видa клeтoк oпиcaнo в 2012 гoдy. Дaнныx oб иcпoльзoвaнии клeтoк aмниoтичecкoй жидкocти мaлo. Этoт cпocoб oбpeчeн нa бoльшoe кoличecтвo этичecкиx coглacoвaний. Пpи этoм бoльшoe кoличecтвo экcпepимeнтoв нa живoтныx и нaличиe гpyппы-кoнтpoля пoвышaeт знaчимocть и пoтeнциaльнyю пepcпeктивнocть дaннoгo нaпpaвлeния. Teм нe мeнee, нeoбxoдимы дaльнeйшиe иccлeдoвaния в oблacти иммyнoгeннocти и oпyxoлeвoй бeзoпacнocти этиx клeтoк. Былo пpoдeмoнcтpиpoвaннo, чтo ввeдeниe cтвoлoвыx клeтoк из aмниoтичecкoй жидкocти ycкopяeт диффepeнциpoвкy и дeлeниe миoблacтoв, пoэтoмy цeлecooбpaзным пpeдcтaвляeтcя coвмecтнoe ввeдeниe чeлoвeчecкиx cтвoлoвыx клeтoкпpeдшecтвeнникoв мышeчныx вoлoкoн, пoлyчeнныx из aмниoтичecкoй жидкocти (hAFDSCs), и MDSC. [43] Meтoдoм coздaния нeдepжaния мoчи в дaннoм иccлeдoвaнии былo пepeceчeниe пoлoвыx нepвoв. Cpeднee кoличecтвo инъeциpoвaнныx клeтoк cocтaвлялo 0.5 x 106 клeтoк. Cтвoлoвыe клeтки, пoлyчeнныe из мoчи Boзмoжнocть иcпoльзoвaния дaннoгo типa клeтoк oпиcaнa лишь Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, нo дoкaзaтeльcтвa иx ycпeшнocти oчeвидны в cвязи c бoльшим кoличecтвoм живoтныx в экcпepимeнтe и нaличиeм гpyппы-кoнтpoля. B иccлeдoвaнии тaкжe былo пpoдeмoнcтpиpoвaнo пoлoжитeльнoe влияниe, oкaзывaeмoe кoллaгeнoвым гeлeм c фaктopaми pocтa, в кoтopoм coдepжaлиcь дaнныe клeтки. [44] Гeль пoзвoлял клeткaм выcвoбoждaтьcя пocтeпeннo. Этo игpaeт cyщecтвeннyю poль в cвязи c тeм, в тaкoм cлyчae yмeньшaeтcя пoтpeбнocть в пoвтopныx инъeкцияx. Дaльнeйшиe иccлeдoвaния нeoбxoдимы для ycтaнoвлeния вoзмoжнocти иcпoльзoвaния дaннoгo видa гeля c дpyгими видaми клeтoк. B иccлeдoвaнии пo пpимeнeнию дaнныx клeтoк coздaниe нeдepжaния мoчи нe пpoизвoдилocь.

5.3 Sample Assignments

123

Клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния Bпepвыe клeтoчнaя тepaпия cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи былa пpoвeдeнa Mitterberger et al. [45] Для oцeнки эффeктивнocти пoмимo cтaндapтныx мeтoдoв oцeнки, тaкиx кaк I-QOL и ypoдинaмичecкиx тecтoв, были пpoвeдeны визyaлизaция cфинктepa и oцeнкa eгo coкpaтимocти c пoмoщью yльтpaзвyкoвoгo иccлeдoвaния, кoтopыe пoкaзaли yвeличeниe тoлщины cфинктepa и пoвышeниe eгo coкpaтимocти cпycтя гoд пocлe ввeдeния миoблacтoв и фибpoблacтoв в paбдocфинктep. Клeтoчнaя тepaпия y 119 жeнщин пoкaзaлa yвeличeниe мaкcимaльнoгo дaвлeния зaкpытия ypeтpы (MUCP) нa 40,6 %. Кaк и в дpyгиx клиничecкиx иcпытaнияx клeтoчнoй тepaпии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи y жeнщин [46, 47] пpи peкpyтиpoвaнии пaциeнтoв были иcключeны cлyчaи гипepмoбильнocти ypeтpы и пpoлaпca шeйки мoчeвoгo пyзыpя, кoтopыe мoгyт быть пpичинoй нeдepжaния, в тo вpeмя кaк фyнкция cфинктepa ypeтpы coxpaнeнa. Былo пpoвeдeнo pяд иccлeдoвaний c oцeнкoй нa ocнoвe oпpocникoв I-QOL, ICIQ-QOL, PGI-I и т.д., пoкaзaвшиe xopoшyю эффeктивнocть пpимeнeния клeтoчнoй тepaпии нeдepжaния мoчи y жeнщин [48–50], oднaкo эти peзyльтaты мoгyт нocить cyбъeктивный xapaктep ввидy oтcyтcтвия пoдтвepждeния кaкими-либo ypoдинaмичecкими тecтaми. B иccлeдoвaнияx c кoнтpoлeм MUCP нaблюдaлocь yвeличeниe MUCP нa 29-120 % [46, 51, 52], oднaкo Kuismanen et al. нe oбнapyжили измeнeния в MUCP пocлe тpaнcypeтpaльнoгo ввeдeния ADSCs coвмecтнo c кoллaгeнoвым гeлeм, вepoятнoй пpичинoй этoгo мoжeт быть кopoткий пepиoд нaблюдeния (6 мecяцeв), либo мaлaя гpyппa пaциeнтoв (5 пaциeнтoв). Caмoe бoльшoe клиничecкoe иccлeдoвaниe клeтoчнoй тepaпии нeдepжaния y мyжчин выпoлнeнo Gerullis et al. [53] Cпycтя гoд пocлe ввeдeния MDSCs былo пpoвeдeнo aнкeтиpoвaниe, пo peзyльтaтaм кoтopoгo 46 % нe oщyтили эффeктa oт пpoвeдeннoй тepaпии, 42 % пoчyвcтвoвaли yлyчшeниe и лишь 12 % пoлнocтью yдepживaли мoчy пo зaвepшeнию иccлeдoвaния. Иныe peзyльтaты были пoлyчeны в иccлeдoвaнияx c пpимeнeниeм oбъeктивныx мeтoдoв oцeнки ypoдинaмики, чepeз гoд пocлe лeчeния yлyчшeниe MUCP дocтигaлo oт 41 дo 47 % пo cpaвнeнию c нaчaльными знaчeниями. [53], [54] Hи в oднoм из пpoвeдeнныx клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний нe былo зaфикcиpoвaнo знaчимoгo кoличecтвa пoбoчныx эффeктoв, чтo пoзвoляeт выcкaзaтьcя o бeзoпacнocти дaннoгo мeтoдa. Пpeoблaдaющee бoльшинcтвo клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний пpoвoдилocь c пoмoщью MDSCs и ADSCs, oднaкo в пocлeдниe гoды пpoвoдятcя пoпытки изyчaть aльтepнaтивныe иcтoчники cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, тaкиe кaк пyпoвиннaя кpoвь [51], a тaкжe иcпoльзoвaниe ядpocoдepжaщиx клeтoк c тpoмбoцитaми. [55] Клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния эффeктивныx дoзиpoвoк и кpaтнocти ввeдeния были пpoвeдeны Carr et al. [49] Haблюдaлacь пoлoжитeльнaя кoppeляция мeждy кpaтнocтью ввeдeния и дoзиpoвкoй c эффeктивнocтью пpoвoдимoгo лeчeния. Дpyгoe иccлeдoвaниe дoзoзaвиcимoгo эффeктa клeтoчнoй тepaпии

124

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

нeдepжaния мoчи [56] выявилo лyчший oтвeт пaциeнтoв нa выcoкиe дoзы ввoдимыx клeтoк, oднaкo и тo, и дpyгoe иccлeдoвaниe oцeнивaлиcь тoлькo cyбъeктивным мeтoдoм. ЗAКЛЮЧEHИE B пocлeдниe гoды вoзpoc интepec к клeтoчнoй тepaпии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи y жeнщин и мyжчин, кaк c нayчнoй, тaк и c клиничecкoй тoчки зpeния. Клeтoчнaя тepaпия c пpимeнeниeм плюpипoтeнтныx клeтoк мoжeт cтaть вaжным шaгoм к вoccтaнoвлeнию cфинктepa ypeтpы и кoppeкции cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи y мyжчин и жeнщин. Пpoвeдeнныe дoклиничecкиe и клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния дaют ocнoвaния пoлaгaть, чтo клeтoчнaя тepaпия пpeдcтaвляeт coбoй эффeктивный и бeзoпacный мeтoд лeчeния нeдepжaния мoчи. Oднaкo для тoгo, чтoбы pyтиннo пpимeнять cтвoлoвыe клeтки пoвceмecтнo в клиникe нeoбxoдимы пocлeдyющиe иccлeдoвaния cтвoлoвыx клeтoк in vitro, нa живoтныx мoдeляx, a тaкжe в клиничecкиx иccлeдoвaнияx. Дoлжны быть пpoвeдeны дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния пo yвeличeнию кaчecтвa и кoличecтвa ввoдимыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. Пpoвeдeниe гиcтoлoгичecкиx иccлeдoвaний cфинктepнoгo кoмплeкca пocлe пpoвeдeния клeтoчнoй тepaпии нa живoтныx нeoбxoдимo для бoлee дeтaльнoгo изyчeния мexaнизмoв дaннoгo мeтoдa лeчeния, a тaкжe пoдбopa нaибoлee эффeктивнoгo иcтoчникa клeтoк. B нacтoящee вpeмя нaибoлee изyчeны MDSCs и ADSCs, пocтeпeннo пoявляютcя клиничecкиe и дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния дpyгиx типoв клeтoк для клeтoчнoй тepaпии (клeтoк, пoлyчeнныx из мoчи, кocтнoгo мoзгa, aмниoтичecкoй жидкocти, пyпoвиннoй кpoви). B идeaлe клeтки для клeтoчнoй тepaпии дoлжны быть ayтoлoгичными, лeгкo пoлyчaeмыми в xoдe миниинвaзивныx пpoцeдyp, oбecпeчивaть дocтaтoчнoe кoличecтвo клeтoк, oблaдaть пoтeнциaлoм диффepeнциaции в paзличныe типы клeтoк и быcтpo пpoлифepиpoвaть. Пpeждe чeм пpимeнять клeтoчнyю тepaпию cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи в клиникe, нeoбxoдимo пpoвecти иccлeдoвaния, пoдтвepждaющиe oтдaлeннyю эффeктивнocть и бeзoпacнocть. Бoлee тoгo, дoзиpoвaниe ввoдимыx клeтoк, кpaтнocть ввeдeния и тexникa ввeдeния дoлжны быть изyчeны в дoпoлнитeльныx двoйныx и плaцeбo-кoнтpoлиpyeмыx иccлeдoвaнияx. Кpoмe тoгo, нeoбxoдимo cpaвнeниe эффeктивнocти клeтoчнoй тepaпии c дpyгими мeтoдaми лeчeния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи. Oднaкo, пpeждe чeм пpoвoдить пoдoбныe клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния, нeoбxoдимo пpoвecти бoльшe дoклиничecкиx иccлeдoвaний для пoнимaния мexaнизмoв дeйcтвия cтвoлoвыx клeтoк пocлe ввeдeния в cфинктep ypeтpы. Hecмoтpя нa мнoжecтвo пpoвeдeнныx иccлeдoвaний, мexaнизм вce eщe нe яceн. Дeйcтвиe cтвoлoвыx клeтoк в мecтe ввeдeния мoжeт быть oбycлoвлeнo иx диффepeнциaциeй в глaдкиe и пoпepeчнo-пoлocaтыe мышeчныe клeтки, пapaкpинным эффeктoм клeтoчныx фaктopoв pocтa, coчeтaниeм пapaкpиннoгo и иммyнocyпpeccopнoгo эффeктoв, a тaкжe дpyгими мexaнизмaми. Пoнимaниe мexaнизмoв дeйcтвия

5.3 Sample Assignments

125

cтвoлoвыx клeтoк в мecтe ввeдeния пoмoжeт лyчшe кoнтpoлиpoвaть дaнный пpoцecc для yвeличeния эффeктивнocти лeчeния. Taким oбpaзoм, пocлeдyющиe иccлeдoвaния дoлжны быть cфoкycиpoвaны нa изyчeнии нaибoлee эффeктивнoгo иcтoчникa cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, paзpaбoткe oптимaльнoй живoтнoй мoдeли, пoнимaнии мexaнизмoв дeйcтвия клeтoчнoй тepaпии, a тaкжe клиничecкoм пpимeнeнии клeтoчнoй тepaпии для oпpeдeлeния кoличecтвa ввoдимыx cтвoлoвыx клeтoк, пoкaзaний к пpимeнeнию дaннoгo видa лeчeния, xиpypгичecкoй тexники и мeтoдики лeчeния. Taкoe дeтaльнoe изyчeниe пoмoжeт чaщe пpимeнять клeтoчнyю тepaпию cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи. Taблицa 2. Дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния клeтoчнoй тepaпии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи c иcпoльзoвaниeм muscle-derived stem cells. … Taблицa 3. Дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния клeтoчнoй тepaпии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи c иcпoльзoвaниeм adipose-derived stem cells. … Taблицa 4. Дoклиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния клeтoчнoй тepaпии cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи c иcпoльзoвaниeм дpyгиx типoв cтвoлoвыx клeтoк. … Taблицa 5. Клиничecкиe иccлeдoвaния cтpeccoвoгo нeдepжaния мoчи c иcпoльзoвaниeм paзличныx типoв клeтoк. … Список литературы [1] Norton P, Brubaker L. Urinary incontinence in women. Lancet. 2006; 367:57-67. [2] Corcos J, Beaulieu S, Donovan J, Naughton M, Gotoh M. Quality of life assessment in men and women with urinary incontinence. The Journal of urology. 2002; 168:896-905. [3] Wilson L, Brown JS, Shin GP, Luc KO, Subak LL. Annual direct cost of urinary incontinence. Obstetrics and gynecology. 2001; 98:398-406. [4] Abrams P, Cardozo L, Fall M, Griffiths D, Rosier P, Ulmsten U, et al. The standardisation of terminology of lower urinary tract function: report from the Standardisation Sub-committee of the International Continence Society. Neurourology and urodynamics. 2002; 21:167-78. [5] Danforth KN, Townsend MK, Lifford K, Curhan GC, Resnick NM, Grodstein F. Risk factors for urinary incontinence among middle-aged women. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 2006; 194:339-45. [6] Kim JC, Cho KJ. Current trends in the management of post-prostatectomy incontinence. Korean journal of urology. 2012; 53:511-8. [7] McGuire EJ, Lytton B, Pepe V, Kohorn EI. Stress Urinary Incontinence. Obstetrics and gynecology. 1976; 47:255-64. [8] Kayigil O, Iftekhar Ahmed S, Metin A. The coexistence of intrinsic sphincter deficiency with type II stress incontinence. The Journal of urology. 1999; 162:1365-6.

126

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

[9] Magon N, Kalra B, Malik S, Chauhan M. Stress urinary incontinence: What, when, why, and then what? Journal of mid-life health. 2011; 2:57-64. [10] Stoker J, Bartram CI, Halligan S. Imaging of the posterior pelvic floor. European radiology. 2002; 12:779-88. [11] Oelrich TM. The striated urogenital sphincter muscle in the female. The Anatomical record. 1983; 205:223-32. [12] Oelrich TM. The urethral sphincter muscle in the male. The American journal of anatomy. 1980; 158:229-46. [13] Ashton-Miller JA, DeLancey JO. Functional anatomy of the female pelvic floor. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2007; 1101:266-96. [14] Jung J, Ahn HK, Huh Y. Clinical and functional anatomy of the urethral sphincter. International neurourology journal. 2012; 16:102-6. [15] Schroder HD, Reske-Nielsen E. Fiber types in the striated urethral and anal sphincters. Acta neuropathologica. 1983; 60:278-82. [16] Peng H, Huard J. Muscle-derived stem cells for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration and repair. Transplant immunology. 2004; 12:311-9. [17] de Groat WC. Anatomy of the central neural pathways controlling the lower urinary tract. European urology. 1998; 34 Suppl 1:2-5. [18] Hunter KF, Moore KN, Cody DJ, Glazener CM. Conservative management for postprostatectomy urinary incontinence. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2004: CD001843. [19] Radley SC, Chapple CR, Bryan NP, Clarke DE, Craig DA. Effect of methoxamine on maximum urethral pressure in women with genuine stress incontinence: a placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study. Neurourology and urodynamics. 2001; 20:43-52. [20] Sweeney DD, Chancellor MB. Treatment of stress urinary incontinence with duloxetine hydrochloride. Reviews in urology. 2005; 7:81-6. [21] Tsakiris P, de la Rosette JJ, Michel MC, Oelke M. Pharmacologic treatment of male stress urinary incontinence: systematic review of the literature and levels of evidence. European urology. 2008; 53:53-9. [22] Sharifi-Aghdas F. Surgical management of stress urinary incontinence. Urology journal. 2005; 2:175-82. [23] Gilchrist AS, Rovner ES. Managing complications of slings. Current opinion in urology. 2011; 21:291-6. [24] Chancellor MB, Yokoyama T, Tirney S, Mattes CE, Ozawa H, Yoshimura N, et al. Preliminary results of myoblast injection into the urethra and bladder wall: a possible method for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence and impaired detrusor contractility. Neurourology and urodynamics. 2000; 19:279-87. [25] Cao B, Zheng B, Jankowski RJ, Kimura S, Ikezawa M, Deasy B, et al. Muscle stem cells differentiate into haematopoietic lineages but retain myogenic potential. Nature cell biology. 2003; 5:640-6. [26] Lee JY, Qu-Petersen Z, Cao B, Kimura S, Jankowski R, Cummins J, et al. Clonal isolation of muscle-derived cells capable of enhancing muscle regeneration and bone healing. The Journal of cell biology. 2000; 150:1085-100.

5.3 Sample Assignments

127

[27] Cannon TW, Lee JY, Somogyi G, Pruchnic R, Smith CP, Huard J, et al. Improved sphincter contractility after allogenic muscle-derived progenitor cell injection into the denervated rat urethra. Urology. 2003; 62:958-63. [28] Kwon D, Minnery B, Kim Y, Kim JH, de Miguel F, Yoshimura N, et al. Neurologic recovery and improved detrusor contractility using muscle-derived cells in rat model of unilateral pelvic nerve transection. Urology. 2005; 65:1249-53. [29] Hoshi A, Tamaki T, Tono K, Okada Y, Akatsuka A, Usui Y, et al. Reconstruction of radical prostatectomy-induced urethral damage using skeletal muscle-derived multipotent stem cells. Transplantation. 2008; 85:1617-24. [30] Tamaki T, Uchiyama Y, Okada Y, Ishikawa T, Sato M, Akatsuka A, et al. Functional recovery of damaged skeletal muscle through synchronized vasculogenesis, myogenesis, and neurogenesis by muscle-derived stem cells. Circulation. 2005; 112:2857-66. [31] Mitterberger M, Pinggera GM, Marksteiner R, Margreiter E, Plattner R, Klima G, et al. Functional and histological changes after myoblast injections in the porcine rhabdosphincter. European urology. 2007; 52:1736-43. [32] Lu SH, Wei CF, Yang AH, Chancellor MB, Wang LS, Chen KK. Isolation and characterization of human muscle-derived cells. Urology. 2009; 74:440-5. [33] Lin CS, Lue TF. Stem cell therapy for stress urinary incontinence: a critical review. Stem cells and development. 2012;21: 834-43. [34] Furuta A, Carr LK, Yoshimura N, Chancellor MB. Advances in the understanding of stress urinary incontinence and the promise of stem-cell therapy. Reviews in urology. 2007; 9:106-12. [35] Yiou R, Dreyfus P, Chopin DK, Abbou CC, Lefaucheur JP. Muscle precursor cell autografting in a murine model of urethral sphincter injury. BJU international. 2002; 89:298-302. [36] Lecoeur C, Swieb S, Zini L, Riviere C, Combrisson H, Gherardi R, et al. Intraurethral transfer of satellite cells by myofiber implants results in the formation of innervated myotubes exerting tonic contractions. The Journal of urology. 2007; 178:332-7. [37] Lin G, Wang G, Banie L, Ning H, Shindel AW, Fandel TM, et al. Treatment of stress urinary incontinence with adipose tissue-derived stem cells. Cytotherapy. 2010; 12:88-95. [38] Silwal Gautam S, Imamura T, Ishizuka O, Lei Z, Yamagishi T, Yokoyama H, et al. Implantation of autologous adipose-derived cells reconstructs functional urethral sphincters in rabbit cryoinjured urethra. Tissue engineering Part A. 2014; 20:1971-9. [39] Shi LB, Cai HX, Chen LK, Wu Y, Zhu SA, Gong XN, et al. Tissue engineered bulking agent with adipose-derived stem cells and silk fibroin microspheres for the treatment of intrinsic urethral sphincter deficiency. Biomaterials. 2014; 35:1519-30. [40] Li GY, Zhou F, Gong YQ, Cui WS, Yuan YM, Song WD, et al. Activation of VEGF and ERK1/2 and improvement of urethral function by adipose-derived stem cells in a rat stress urinary incontinence model. Urology. 2012; 80:953 e1-8.

128

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

[41] Lopez-Encuentra A, Varela-Simo G, Sotelo-Rodriguez T. [Pleural malignant mesotheliomas. Description of 23 cases with analysis of survival]. Revista clinica espanola. 1987; 181:496-502. [42] Wang Y, Xu H, Liu X, Liu L, Liang Z. Inhibition of fibroblast differentiation of muscle-derived stem cells in cell implantation treatment of stress urinary incontinence. Cellular reprogramming. 2011; 13:459-64. [43] Chun SY, Cho DH, Chae SY, Choi KH, Lim HJ, Yoon GS, et al. Human amniotic fluid stem cell-derived muscle progenitor cell therapy for stress urinary incontinence. Journal of Korean medical science. 2012; 27:1300-7. [44] Liu G, Pareta RA, Wu R, Shi Y, Zhou X, Liu H, et al. Skeletal myogenic differentiation of urine-derived stem cells and angiogenesis using microbeads loaded with growth factors. Biomaterials. 2013; 34:1311-26. [45] Mitterberger M, Marksteiner R, Margreiter E, Pinggera GM, Colleselli D, Frauscher F, et al. Autologous myoblasts and fibroblasts for female stress incontinence: a 1-year follow-up in 123 patients. BJU international. 2007; 100:1081-5. [46] Mitterberger M, Pinggera GM, Marksteiner R, Margreiter E, Fussenegger M, Frauscher F, et al. Adult stem cell therapy of female stress urinary incontinence. European urology. 2008; 53:169-75. [47] Sebe P, Doucet C, Cornu JN, Ciofu C, Costa P, de Medina SG, et al. Intrasphincteric injections of autologous muscular cells in women with refractory stress urinary incontinence: a prospective study. International urogynecology journal. 2011; 22:183-9. [48] Blaganje M, Lukanovic A. Intrasphincteric autologous myoblast injections with electrical stimulation for stress urinary incontinence. International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 2012; 117:164-7. [49] Carr LK, Robert M, Kultgen PL, Herschorn S, Birch C, Murphy M, et al. Autologous muscle derived cell therapy for stress urinary incontinence: a prospective, dose ranging study. The Journal of urology. 2013; 189:595-601. [50] Gras S, Klarskov N, Lose G. Intraurethral Injection of Autologous Minced Skeletal Muscle: A Simple Surgical Treatment for Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Journal of urology. 2014. [51] Lee CN, Jang JB, Kim JY, Koh C, Baek JY, Lee KJ. Human cord blood stem cell therapy for treatment of stress urinary incontinence. Journal of Korean medical science. 2010;25: 813-6. [52] Stangel-Wojcikiewicz K, Jarocha D, Piwowar M, Jach R, Uhl T, Basta A, et al. Autologous muscle-derived cells for the treatment of female stress urinary incontinence: a 2-year follow-up of a Polish investigation. Neurourology and urodynamics. 2014; 33:324-30. [53] Gerullis H, Eimer C, Georgas E, Homburger M, El-Baz AG, Wishahi M, et al. Muscle-derived cells for treatment of iatrogenic sphincter damage and urinary incontinence in men. The Scientific World Journal. 2012; 2012:898535. [54] Mitterberger M, Marksteiner R, Margreiter E, Pinggera GM, Frauscher F, Ulmer H, et al. Myoblast and fibroblast therapy for post-prostatectomy urinary

5.3 Sample Assignments

129

incontinence: 1-year followup of 63 patients. The Journal of urology. 2008; 179:226-31. [55] Shirvan MK, Alamdari DH, Mahboub MD, Ghanadi A, Rahimi HR, Seifalian AM. A novel cell therapy for stress urinary incontinence, short-term outcome. Neurourology and urodynamics. 2013; 32:377-82. [56] Peters KM, Dmochowski RR, Carr LK, Robert M, Kaufman MR, Sirls LT, et al. Autologous muscle derived cells for treatment of stress urinary incontinence in women. The Journal of urology. 2014; 192:469-76. [57] Yokoyama T, Yoshimura N, Dhir R, Qu Z, Fraser MO, Kumon H, et al. Persistence and survival of autologous muscle derived cells versus bovine collagen as potential treatment of stress urinary incontinence. The Journal of urology. 2001; 165:271-6. [58] Lee JY, Cannon TW, Pruchnic R, Fraser MO, Huard J, Chancellor MB. The effects of periurethral muscle-derived stem cell injection on leak point pressure in a rat model of stress urinary incontinence. International urogynecology journal and pelvic floor dysfunction. 2003; 14:31-7; discussion 7. [59] Yiou R, Yoo JJ, Atala A. Restoration of functional motor units in a rat model of sphincter injury by muscle precursor cell autografts. Transplantation. 2003; 76:1053-60. [60] Chermansky CJ, Tarin T, Kwon DD, Jankowski RJ, Cannon TW, de Groat WC, et al. Intraurethral muscle-derived cell injections increase leak point pressure in a rat model of intrinsic sphincter deficiency. Urology. 2004; 63:780-5. [61] Lee JY, Paik SY, Yuk SH, Lee JH, Ghil SH, Lee SS. Long term effects of muscle-derived stem cells on leak point pressure and closing pressure in rats with transected pudendal nerves. Molecules and cells. 2004; 18:309-13. [62] Yao QS, Ye ZQ, Chen CB, Wang XK, Wang WM, Chen LX. [Feasibility of muscle-derived cell autotransplantation as a treatment for post-prostatectomy urinary incontinence]. Zhonghua nan ke xue = National journal of andrology. 2005; 11:272-4, 7. [63] Kwon D, Kim Y, Pruchnic R, Jankowski R, Usiene I, de Miguel F, et al. Periurethral cellular injection: comparison of muscle-derived progenitor cells and fibroblasts with regard to efficacy and tissue contractility in an animal model of stress urinary incontinence. Urology. 2006; 68:449-54. [64] Kim YT, Kim DK, Jankowski RJ, Pruchnic R, Usiene I, de Miguel F, et al. Human muscle-derived cell injection in a rat model of stress urinary incontinence. Muscle & nerve. 2007; 36:391-3. [65] Furuta A, Jankowski RJ, Pruchnic R, Egawa S, Yoshimura N, Chancellor MB. Physiological effects of human muscle-derived stem cell implantation on urethral smooth muscle function. International urogynecology journal and pelvic floor dysfunction. 2008; 19:1229-34. [66] Eberli D, Aboushwareb T, Soker S, Yoo JJ, Atala A. Muscle precursor cells for the restoration of irreversibly damaged sphincter function. Cell transplantation. 2012; 21:2089-98. [67] Badra S, Andersson KE, Dean A, Mourad S, Williams JK. Long-term structural and functional effects of autologous muscle precursor cell therapy in a

130

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

nonhuman primate model of urinary sphincter deficiency. The Journal of urology. 2013; 190:1938-45. [68] Zhao W, Zhang C, Jin C, Zhang Z, Kong D, Xu W, et al. Periurethral injection of autologous adipose-derived stem cells with controlled-release nerve growth factor for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence in a rat model. European urology. 2011; 59:155-63. [69] Watanabe T, Maruyama S, Yamamoto T, Kamo I, Yasuda K, Saka Y, et al. Increased urethral resistance by periurethral injection of low serum cultured adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells in rats. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association. 2011; 18:659-66. [70] Wu G, Song Y, Zheng X, Jiang Z. Adipose-derived stromal cell transplantation for treatment of stress urinary incontinence. Tissue & cell. 2011; 43:246-53. [71] Obinata D, Matsumoto T, Ikado Y, Sakuma T, Kano K, Fukuda N, et al. Transplantation of mature adipocyte-derived dedifferentiated fat (DFAT) cells improves urethral sphincter contractility in a rat model. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association. 2011; 18:827-34. [72] Corcos J, Loutochin O, Campeau L, Eliopoulos N, Bouchentouf M, Blok B, et al. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cell therapy for external urethral sphincter restoration in a rat model of stress urinary incontinence. Neurourology and urodynamics. 2011; 30:447-55. [73] Kinebuchi Y, Aizawa N, Imamura T, Ishizuka O, Igawa Y, Nishizawa O. Autologous bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell transplantation into injured rat urethral sphincter. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association. 2010; 17:359-68. [74] Imamura T, Ishizuka O, Kinebuchi Y, Kurizaki Y, Nakayama T, Ishikawa M, et al. Implantation of autologous bone-marrow-derived cells reconstructs functional urethral sphincters in rabbits. Tissue engineering Part A. 2011; 17:1069-81. [75] Gunetti M, Tomasi S, Giammo A, Boido M, Rustichelli D, Mareschi K, et al. Myogenic potential of whole bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in vitro and in vivo for usage in urinary incontinence. PloS one. 2012; 7:e45538. [76] Luo X, Yao RS, Song H, Jiang XF, Lan JF, Shuai HL, et al. [Study on human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells transplantation in treatment of stress urinary incontinence in rats]. Zhonghua fu chan ke za zhi. 2013; 48:579-83. [77] Lim JJ, Jang JB, Kim JY, Moon SH, Lee CN, Lee KJ. Human umbilical cord blood mononuclear cell transplantation in rats with intrinsic sphincter deficiency. Journal of Korean medical science. 2010; 25:663-70. [78] Yamamoto T, Gotoh M, Kato M, Majima T, Toriyama K, Kamei Y, et al. Periurethral injection of autologous adipose-derived regenerative cells for the treatment of male stress urinary incontinence: Report of three initial cases. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association. 2012; 19:652-9. [79] Gotoh M, Yamamoto T, Kato M, Majima T, Toriyama K, Kamei Y, et al. Regenerative treatment of male stress urinary incontinence by periurethral injection

5.3 Sample Assignments

131

of autologous adipose-derived regenerative cells: 1-year outcomes in 11 patients. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association. 2014; 21:294-300. [80] Kuismanen K, Sartoneva R, Haimi S, Mannerstrom B, Tomas E, Miettinen S, et al. Autologous Adipose Stem Cells in Treatment of Female Stress Urinary Incontinence: Results of a Pilot Study. Stem cells translational medicine. 2014. (Main) Activity 4.2: Translate Russia Today’s documentary Битвa зa кocмoc (available at http://doc.rt.com/filmy/bitva-za-kosmos/#part-1) into English. After your translation is done, compare it to the one available at http://rtd.rt.com/films/ space-race-ussr-usa/#part-1. After your educator (or whoever simulates feedback from a client) checks your translation, compare its quality with that of the translations done by other students. Describe the steps you took as part of the preliminary analysis procedure and individual modulation procedures. Has the duration of scenes in the documentary affected your choices of translation matches? (Auxiliary) Activity 4.3: Compare the following translations with the originals, identify and categorize the mistakes they contain, make corrections, and discuss them. (A note to educators: Such assignments may be given at the beginning or end of each practical lesson dedicated to a translation project and may be based on the most common errors in grammar, punctuation, word choice, style, or choice of attention units and translation techniques your students have made while working on this or that project. Some of the examples may be aimed at developing your students’ creativity.) 1. Цeнтp нeвpoлoгии. The Center of Neurology. 2. B ayдитopии былo мeньшe тpидцaти cтyдeнтoв. There were less than thirty students in the classroom. 3. Пoжaлyйcтa, cнимитe вepxнюю oдeждy и лягтe нa кyшeткy. Please take off your top clothes and lay down on the couch. 4. B pacтвop дoбaвили двaдцaть гpaммoв диcтиллиpoвaннoй вoды. Twenty grams of distilled water were added into the solution. 5. Пpeдиcлoвиe, a тaкжe глaвa 1 были пepeвeдeны в фeвpaлe. The preface, as well as chapter one, were translated in February. 6. Ha шoy пpишлo бoльшoe кoличecтвo людeй. A large amount of people came to the show. 7. This device is the ‘Egg of Columbus’. Этoт пpибop нaзывaeтcя «Яйцo Кoлyмбa». 8. Oни пpoвeдyт этoт экcпepимeнт в ближaйшeм бyдyщeм. They will conduct this experiment in the nearest future. 9. Coronal section. Кopoнapный cpeз. 10. Hи к чeмy oткpывaть Aмepикy зaнoвo. There is no need to rediscover America. 11. Boccтaнoвить кoнтpoль нaд мoчeиcпycкaниeм—to restore urinary retention.

132

5

Teaching and Studying English–Russian and Russian–English …

12. The GI Bill of Rights took him through most of his college. Coлдaтcкий Билль o пpaвax пpoлoжил eмy дopoгy в кoллeдж. 13. B вoздyxe cтoял cильный зaпax пepeгapa. There was a strong smell of peregar in the air. 14. This scientist was bound by the dogma of his times. Этoт yчeный был cвязaн дoгмoй cвoeгo вpeмeни. 15. Я нe xoчy бoльшe cлышaть этy cкaзкy пpo бeлoгo бычкa. I don’t want to hear this fairytale about the white bull anymore. 16. B Tpeтьякoвcкoй гaлepee пoявилacь нoвaя кapтинa: Apкaдий Гaйдap yбивaeт cвoeгo внyкa. There is a new picture exhibited in the Tretyakov Gallery: Arkadiy Gaidar Kills his Grandson. 17. John of Gaunt. Джoн Гoнт. 18. The book was written by a ghost writer. Книгa былa нaпиcaнa нeизвecтным aвтopoм. 19. Ha тeppитopии бoльницы—on the territory of the hospital. 20. Дaйтe мнe pyчкy, кoтopyю вы кyпили вчepa. Give me the pen, that you bought yesterday. 21. Этa книгa пpeднaзнaчeнa и для пpeпoдaвaтeлeй, и для cтyдeнтoв. This book is addressed both to teachers and to students. 22. Жypнaл пyбликyeт нayчныe и пpaктичecкиe мaтepиaлы. The journal publishes scientific and practical materials. 23. A team of observers are monitoring the situation on the ground. Гpyппa нaблюдaтeлeй cлeдит зa cитyaциeй нa зeмлe. 24. Зaбoлeвaния в oблacти лицa и пoлocти pтa. Facial and oral pathologies. 25. Meдикo-coциaльнaя экcпepтизa. Medical-social expertise. 26. Пoиcкoвo-cпacaтeльнaя oпepaция. A search and salvation operation. 27. The United Nations Organization. Opгaнизaция oбъeдинeнныx нaций. 28. Silicon Valley. Cиликoнoвaя дoлинa. 29. Juxtamedullary nephrons. Юкcтaмeдyляpныe нeфpoны. 30. Mы пyбликyeм кpaткиe cooбщeния и диcкyccиoнныe cтaтьи. We publish brief messages and discussion articles.

References Harvey, M. 2002. What’s so Special about Legal Translation? Meta: Translators Journal 47(2): 177–185. Kiraly, D. 2000. A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education: Empowerment from Theory Practice. Manchester: St. Jerome. Pelatt, V., and E.T. Liu. 2010. Thinking Chinese Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Chinese to English (Thinking Translation). London: Routledge. Teague, B. 1993. “Retooling” as an adaptive skill for translators. In Scientific and Technical Translation, ed. S.E. Wright, and L.D. Wright, 161–172. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

References

Aronoff, M., and J. Rees-Miller (eds.). 2003. The Handbook of Translation. Oxford: Blackwell. Emerson, C., and M. Holquist (eds.). 1986. Speech Genres and Other Late Essays by M. M. Bakhtin. Austin: University of Texas Press. Hatim, B., and J. Munday. 2004. Translation: An Advanced Resource Book. London and New York: Routledge. Venuti, L. ed. 2000. The Translation Studies Reader. 1st ed. London and New York: Routledge. Venuti, L. ed. 2004. The Translation Studies Reader. 2nd ed. London and New York: Routledge.

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6

133

Index

A Allusion, 8, 21, 26, 77, 78 Area of interest, 59–64, 69, 70, 77, 78, 83, 93, 94, 97, 106, 108 Assumption pragmatic assumption, 23, 30, 36, 39, 40 semantic assumption, 18, 21, 36 Attention unit, 18, 41, 44, 47, 57, 59–69, 71–74, 76–80, 82, 83, 87–93, 95, 104, 106, 108, 131 C Chuchotage, 2, 11 Climax, 87 Coherence, 25, 30, 36, 43, 62, 68, 73, 74, 90, 107, 108 Cohesion, 19, 20, 36, 43, 62, 73, 74, 88, 107 Content external content, 22–31, 36, 45 internal content, 18, 22–31, 34–36 overall content, 30, 31, 36, 43, 46, 62, 95 Context, 16, 21, 22, 34, 36, 40, 42–44, 56, 61, 71, 72, 87, 103, 107 D Discourse, 16, 22, 36 Discursive setting. See Extratextual setting E Emotiveness, 65 Entailment, 18, 20, 36, 107 Expressiveness, 65, 66, 78, 81, 87, 102 Extratextual setting, 23–25, 28, 34, 39, 40, 42, 43, 56, 61, 87, 107 F False friends, 87

H Hyperrheme, 30 Hypersense, 26, 27, 30, 43, 44, 46, 59, 94 Hypertheme, 26–30, 46, 54, 91 I Idiolect. See Individual style Idiom, 18, 20, 66, 90 Imagery, 65 Implicature, 23–25, 36, 60, 77, 78, 81, 107, 108 Information discursive information, 22, 36 extratextual pragmatic information as part of external content, 31, 36 pragmatic information as part of internal content, 22, 36, 41, 60, 63–66, 68–70, 72, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 86, 107 semantic information as part of internal content, 18–23, 30, 31, 36, 41, 60, 64, 69, 70, 76–78, 84–86, 107 textual information, 18, 21, 36 textual pragmatic information as part of external content, 18, 21, 31, 36 Intensification, 65 Interpreting consecutive interpreting, 10, 11, 106 major differences between translation and interpreting, 9, 10 remote interpreting, 11 simultaneous interpreting, 11, 106 telephone interpreting (aka OPI), 11 Intersentential unity, 20, 36, 43, 62, 64 K Knowledge background knowledge, 18, 22–25, 33–36, 43, 60, 75, 77, 78, 87, 108

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 A. Zaytsev, A Guide to English–Russian and Russian–English Non-literary Translation, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0843-6

135

136 Knowledge (cont.) extralinguistic knowledge, 18, 23–25, 32–36, 46, 72, 107 language/linguistic knowledge, 18, 21, 31, 33, 35, 36, 60, 75, 87, 107 speech usage knowledge, 24, 33, 35, 39, 60, 71, 87, 93 stereotypical knowledge of the world, 18, 22, 23, 33, 34, 39, 60, 108 L Literary device. See Rhetorical device M Macrorheme, 30 Macrotheme, 28, 54, 83 Meaning, 18–22, 24, 31, 32, 36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 59, 66, 69, 70, 72, 78, 87, 88, 107 Modulation, 58, 57–64, 69, 70, 82–94, 108, 109, 114, 131 O Oxymoron, 21 P Pragmatic effects, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34, 36, 59, 60, 75, 77, 78, 87, 89 Preliminary analysis, 45–57, 59, 60, 87, 104, 108, 114, 131 Presuppositions pragmatic presuppositions, 23, 24, 36, 60, 107 semantic presuppositions, 18, 19, 36, 43, 44, 107 Pun, 63, 78, 80 R Register, 7 Rewording. See Intralingual translation Rheme, 25, 49, 54, 55, 60, 68, 72, 89 Rhetorical device, 7, 8, 21, 26, 87 S Self-check. See Self-editing Self-editing, 57, 62, 94–98, 108 Self-revision. See Self-editing Semantic situation, 64, 65 Sense, 16, 20, 22, 23, 25–27, 31, 34–36, 40, 42–44, 54, 57, 59, 61–63, 66–69, 71–73, 79, 82, 83, 86–89, 91–94, 107

Index Sense unity, 26–30, 31, 36, 43, 44, 46, 52, 54, 56, 59, 60, 62, 64, 69, 71, 72, 74, 83, 91, 93, 94 Sentence, 15, 16, 18–21, 23, 24, 30, 32, 36, 40, 42–44, 47, 49, 52, 55, 57, 59, 62, 67–69, 72, 87, 88, 95, 103, 104, 107 Situational context. See Extratextual setting Speech product, 8, 10, 11, 15–37, 40–49, 52–55, 57, 59–72, 74, 75, 77–83, 85, 87, 91–98, 101–108, 110, 114 Style belles-lettres functional style, 6, 27 functional style, 6, 30, 42, 45, 47, 57, 103, 105, 106, 110 individual style, 7 journalism functional style, 6, 27, 28, 53 newspaper functional style, 6, 27 official documents functional style, 6, 21, 27 religious functional style, 6, 27 scientific functional style, 6, 27, 66, 72, 102 system of functional styles, 9 technical-professional functional style, 7, 27, 72 Stylistic device. See Rhetorical device Stylistic markedness, 21, 65, 66, 69 Stylistics, 65 Stylistic scale. See Register T Text, 6–10, 15, 16, 18–22, 26, 30, 31, 36, 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 49, 55, 57, 58, 60, 67, 71, 80, 82, 83, 96–98, 102–104 Thematic progression, 25–30, 36, 46, 49, 96, 107 Theme, 25, 28, 49, 54, 55, 60, 69, 89, 96 Translation psycholinguistic’ types of translation, 9–12 stylistic’ types of translation, 6, 9 translation’ as an umbrella term, 1, 2 audiovisual translation, 12 human translation, 5 interlingual translation, 3, 5 intersemiotic translation, 3, 60, 106 intralingual translation, 3, 5, 60, 71, 72 intrasemiotic translation, 3 machine translation, 5, 106 sight translation, 9, 2 translation proper. See Interlingual translation

Index whisper translation. See Chuchotage written translation, 9, 10 Translation direction, 12, 60, 107 Translation review. See Self-editing Translation strategies, 40–44, 47–58, 94 Translation technique, 44, 58, 103, 106, 108, 109, 131 addition, 49, 75, 76, 83, 84 alternative designation, 76, 77, 84, 88, 89 calque, 67–70, 75, 79, 84, 89–93 classification of translation techniques, 63, 64, 83–86 compensation (type I), 75, 84 compensation (type II), 66, 70–78, 84 contrastive translation, 65, 73, 84 conventional description, 76, 84 cultural equivalence, 79, 84 definition, 49, 74, 76, 83, 84 ellipsis (type I), 67–70, 83, 86, 90, 92 ellipsis (type II), 49, 54, 74, 83, 84, 93 explication (type I), 67–70, 72, 74, 83, 86–88, 90, 92, 93 explication (type II), 49, 73–75, 83, 84, 87, 89, 90, 93 generalization, 73, 84, 93 improvement (type I), 80, 81, 85 improvement (type II), 81, 82, 85, 89, 91, 93 intertextuality matching, 82, 85 keeping the same number of utterances, 82, 83, 86 label, 49, 74, 84, 92 literal translation, 66, 68, 69, 76, 83, 84 making a non-contrastive logical or causal connection, 71–73, 84, 88–93

137 near-literal translation, 66, 69, 76, 82–84 original spelling, 56, 67–70, 74, 75, 84 particularization, 73 relocation of senses, 82, 83, 86, 87, 89, 93 similar designation, 65–70, 72, 73, 75–77, 84, 88–90, 92, 93 situation substitution, 66, 76–79, 84 stylistic neutralization (type I), 75, 84 stylistic neutralization (type II), 66, 78, 84, 87 theme-rheme rearrangement, 49, 54, 55, 68, 70, 72, 83, 86, 89 transcription, 67–70, 75, 84, 93 transliteration, 67–70, 75, 84, 87, 90, 92 use of translation techniques, 59–93 utterance splitting, 54, 82, 83, 86, 93 utterance unification, 52, 54, 55, 74, 82, 83, 86, 87 Transmutation. See Intersemiotic translation Transposition. See Theme-rheme rearrangement U Utterance, 16, 19, 22–27, 34–36, 43, 44, 47, 49, 52, 54–56, 59, 62, 63, 68, 69, 71, 72, 77, 79, 81–83, 87–94, 102, 107 W Word, 2, 16, 18–21, 32, 35, 36, 39–45, 47, 54, 55, 59, 65–69, 71–75, 77–79, 87, 89–91, 95, 103, 131 Word group, 18, 21, 24, 45, 47, 59, 63, 65–68, 71–73, 92, 103, 104