M O D U L E 2 - Applied Linguistics [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

MODULE

2

Concepts of Linguistics Competencies : At the end of the module, the student can be able to : 1. 2. 3. 4.

Define linguistics as a science. Gain an overview of the history and relevance of Linguistics, its concerns and divisions. Single out the Language dialect and cultural History of Language. Compare and contrast the various language competencies.

Module Overview: This module will introduce you to the appealing world of linguistics with its distinctive features. You can take the chance by discovering the domains of linguistics through a series of lessons toward the fascinating world of language.

MODULE 2 Lesson 1 Lesson 1

WHAT IS LINGUISTICS? Linguistics is the study of human language. Knowledge of linguistics, however, is different from knowledge of a language. Just as a person can drive a car without understanding the inner workings of the engine, so, too, can a speaker use a language without any conscious knowledge of its internal structure. And conversely, a linguist can know and understand the internal structure of a language without actually speaking it. Linguistics is a newer field and an exciting field in which many students are recently finding their niche. The field of Linguistics may fascinate students due to its advantages on the part of the learners. There is also a wide array of classes, meaning that students with different interests can each find their passion within the wide field of linguistics. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields: the study of language form, language meaning, and of language in context.

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION Linguistics has five domains. These domains are the focus of the study. The first domain is Semantics. It is the study of the meaning of words or language in general. The second domain of Linguistics is Morphology. Morphology is the study of the formation and composition of words. Another domain of Linguistics is the Syntax. The syntax is the study on the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from words. The fourth domain of Linguistics is Phonology. Phonology is the study of the sound systems of the language. Related to Phonology is Phonetics. It is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds, non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. The fifth domain of Linguistics is the Pragmatics. Pragmatics is the study of how language is used to communicate within its situational context. Descriptive and Applied Linguistics Linguistics is categorized into two general areas : the Applied and Descriptive Linguistics. The findings of linguistics, like the findings of any other theoretical study, can be applied to the solution of practical problems, as well as to innovations in everyday areas involving language. Such activities are the concern of applied linguistics. Descriptive Linguistics is the work of analyzing and describing how language is actually spoken now or how it was spoken in the past by any group of people. Accurate description of real speech is very difficult problem, and linguist have often been reduced to very inaccurate approximations. Descriptive linguistics deals with the description of how language is pronounced by specific type of people; how they form words; including a thorough description of syntax and word derivations. There are thousands of linguistic description of thousand of languages were prepared by people without adequate linguistic training. What matters most is the way linguists describe the language in a comprehensible way. Almost all linguistic theory had its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. Phonetics deals with how native speakers pronounce and enunciate language. Syntax has developed to describe what is going on once phonetics has reduced spoken language to a controlled level. Linguistics concerns itself with describing and explaining the nature of human language. There are still other areas of Linguistics. 1.Historical Linguistics. The study of language whose historical elations are recognizable through similarities in vocabulary, word formation and syntax. 2.Linguistic typology. The study of the grammatical features that are employed across all human languages. 3.Stylistics. The study of style in language. 4.Discourse analysis. The study of sentences organized into text. 5.Sociolinguistics. The study of though effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context in on the way language is used.

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

The study of language meaning is concerned with how languages employ logical structures and real-world references to convey the process and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve the ambiguity. This subfield encompasses semantics. Semantics deals on how meaning is inferred from words and concepts. Pragmatics deals on how meaning is inferred from context. Language in its broader context includes evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language. Historical linguistics on the other hand explores language to change. Sociolinguistics looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures. Psycholinguistics explores the representation and function of language in the mind. Neurolinguistics looks at language processing in the brain. Language acquisition explains how children or adults acquire language. Lastly, Discourse analysis deals with the structure of texts and conversations. How fascinated are you in the different languages in the world? Can you say “ I love you ” in different languages ?

Brief History of Linguistics Linguistics has its origins in Iron Age India with the analysis of Sanskrit. The work of Panini ( c.520-460 BC) deals with the generative grammar of Sanskrit by

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION formulating 4,000 rules of grammar. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, morpheme and the root. Panini’s sophisticated logical rules and techniques have been widely influential in ancient and modern linguistics. Noam Chomsky’s formal model of language, the transformational-generative grammar, developed under the influence of his teacher, Zellig Harris,who was in turn strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield, has been the dominant model since the 1960’s.Noam Chomsky remains one of the most influential linguists in the world today. Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641 the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language. Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the paradigm of generative grammar, has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world. This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties. The term linguist, used for one who studies language, applies within the field to someone who either studies linguistics or uses linguistic methodologies to study groups of languages or particular languages. Outside the field, this term is commonly used to refer to people who speak many languages fluently. FUNDAMENTAL CONCERNS OF LINGUISTICS

Linguistics concerns itself with describing and explaining the nature of human language. Fundamental questions include what is universal to language, how language can vary, and how human beings come to know languages. Linguistic fields can then be broadly divided into those that distinguish themselves by a focus on linguistic structure and grammar, and those that distinguish themselves by the nonlinguistic factors they consider. Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form. Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a Saussurean sign. For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns in spoken languages, movements of the hands and face in signed languages, and written symbols in written languages. Linguists focused on structure find and analyze rules of dialects and language , which govern how native speakers use language. IMPORTANCE OF LINGUISTICS

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION A person who makes scientific study is a linguist .A linguist tries to find answers to those questions that concern either the characteristics of language in general or the characteristics of particular language. He may try to isolate and describe the sounds that are common in English. He may compare two or more languages and analyze their similarities and differences. Or he may trace the changes that have taken place in language or family of languages. There is an almost limitless number of unanswered questions about language open to the investigation of linguists. In attempting to find answers to these questions, a linguist uses many of the attitudes and the methods of science. That is, he is not concerned with what language should be but what language is .He is not interested in forming rules that dictate how language should be used. Hence, like a linguist, one will realize that language never stops changing but the rules are never final. A linguist uses scientific procedure and techniques to discover and classify descriptive information about language and to reach conclusions about what language is and how it operates.

Lesson 2 Language, Dialect and Identity

Language Dialect and Identity Language is a mirror of our identity. Filipinos, Mongolians and Chineses all speak differently. When we meet foreigners from a different part of the country, they may use different languages , verbal gestures or grammatical structures. A dialect is a variety of language that is refers characteristic of a certain area.It is a systematic variety of a language specific to a particular region or social group. For instance, in the Northern part of the Philippines , people are often called Ilocanos and their dialect is Ilocano. So often, the way we speak says a lot about where we are from, who we are and what we care about. So studying dialects is one way of validating people's identities and ways of life. Linguistics and the Role of the Society

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION Socialization is the process by which we learn to live in our societies and by which social roles are learned. It gives us a definition of ourselves. Now adays,sexism occurs in our society.Sexism in language is the use of language which devalues members of one sex, almost invariably women and thus connotes. Sexism connotes gender inequality. Terms referring to the supremacy of men are often used by people.Unconsciously, it discriminates against women by perpetuating notions of male supremacy. Dialect and Cultural History In Northern Philippines, the Ilocos started developing as a distinctive language almost as soon as their region was established. As they expand, people moved and transferred to adjacent areas, taking their language varieties with them. Towns and farms were established and each one used language in a way that represented the identity of the people who lived there. Sometimes people would move to a new place and the language they spoke changed as they had to stay in a particular place. Linguists call this process language change. Thus, studying dialects is also a way of looking at how a language has changed and developed over time. Imagine a world where you could go to the bank and instead of pushing buttons on a machine, you could simply tell it what to do in your own language. Nowadays, ATM machines use Tagalog or English for transactions. In our society, it’s fascinating to use machines with language choices. Imagine going to Home Affairs, and instead of waiting for hours, be able to explain to a machine what you want in your own language. Imagine going to school and instead of having to study in a particular language, having a machine that will automatically translate the teacher's language into your own language. Linguists are now working on computers that aim to do these things. For many years we thought it would be impossible to do. But over the last ten years or so, computational linguists have managed to get computers to understand human language -- to a limited degree. But computers are pretty dumb -- they can learn to understand one person but when they hear another variety of language, they tend to get confused. One way of solving this would be to let computers listen to many different varieties and dialects of a language. If the computer listens long enough, it can learn to recognize many different people speaking many different languages. Of course, this can only happen if we study dialects and record people who speak them. Language and the Brain Humans are the only social beings that can use language. While some animals do communicate to a degree, only humans can really use language as we know it. Scientists have claimed that the human brain is uniquely designed to acquire language. This means that by studying linguistics, we can try and find out how our

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION brains work. Dialects are important here too. Linguists can compare closely-related dialects and can use that information to make judgments about how grammar and the brain works.In the study of Linguistics, linguists get fascinated with the social attitudes of men and women in the set of language. Slang, Jargon and Taboo In many languages different words are used in different styles. Take the English word chat for example. It often refers to a casual, free talk with no particular purpose, while address often refers to a fully prepared speech. Synonyms will usually provide sources of choice for different styles. Slang usually develops from the attempt to find fresh vigorous, colorful, pungent or humorous expressions, and generally either passes into disuse or comes to ha\ a more formal status. It's up to you was once a slangy expression, but now it has lost the odor of slang and has gamed its formal status in English. Phone, TV were also once slangy terms, clipped versions of telephone and television respectively. Once a slang word has gained its broad acceptance by the community it becomes a common word or expression of the language.Therefore, it is spread very fast and even it is more and more penetrating into the literary language. Every trade- profession or occupation has its own set of words, some of which arc considered to be slang and others technical, depending on the status of the people using these words. Such words arc sometimes called Jargon. In this book we have used many linguistic jargon or argot words such as phoneme phone me, stem, root, base, inflection and so on. Like slang and other aspects of language, jargon or argot undergoes changes. Many jargon or argot terms pass into the standard language. Jargon or argot spreads from a small group of speakers of a profession till it is used and understood by a large part of the population. Eventually, it may lose its special status as jargon or slang, and gain entrance into the "respectable" formal usage of language. Some words are considered "dirty", offensive or unpleasant and not to ho used in a certain situation or "polite society'. Such "dirty" or unpleasant words are called taboo. The word taboo originally referred to the acts which were forbidden or were to be avoided. Now. it may refer to both such acts and their reference. What acts or words arc forbidden reflects the particular customs, cultural value and views of the society. Some words may be used in certain circumstances or certain cultures, hut not in others. Words like death and damn are not usually used in church service. In England, the word honey is considered as a taboo word and usually avoided.Words relating to sex, sex organs and natural bodily functions are usually considered as taboo words and are often avoided in speech.

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION In order to avoid taboo words. taboo ideas or anything offensive or unpleasant, people often use euphemisms. A euphemism is used in the attempt to avoid directly mentioning cither fearful or unpleasant subjects or ideas. In many societies the word death is considered as fearful and hence of ten avoided or replaced by its synonyms. English speakers use puss away or pass on to avoid the word die or death.

Lesson 3 The Language competencies

Oral communication is often called face-to-face communication. Due to the advancement of information technology face-to-face communication cannot be understood as literally as it is. Sometimes the two people who are communicating are not close to each other. They are actually separated possibly by even by continent as in teleconference and telephoning. Face-to-face communication, of which the interactants are close to each other, includes interview, teaching in the classroom, casual exchange, and many others. THE

LANGUAGE

COMPETENCIES.

The meaning of your language competence depends on your reasons for developing it. Are you mainly interested in speaking proficiency, foreign language literacy, cross-cultural awareness, or knowledge about language? Is language ability an end to itself, or a means to another end, such as graduate study, study abroad, preparation for field work or professional practice? There are many ways to define language ability and to learn and teach languages. Most language teachers try to include some work in each of the areas listed. With your decision to take English as your field of specialization, it worthwhile for you to reflect on your personal reasons for language study, and communicate these to your teachers so that they will know what matters most to you. One of the best known models of language ability is known as "Communicative Competence." This model was developed to account for the kinds of knowledge people need in order to use language in meaningful interaction. Whatever the term is when people want to be successful in communication they may have to possess the basic instrument to conduct a communication. They have to develop a model communicative competence, a competence which is useful for them to negotiate with others in a communication (Murcia 1995). Murcia’s communicative competence consists of four different competences namely linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence.

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION 1. Grammatical Competence . Grammatical competence refers to a person’s knowledge of the code or language itself. Grammar is the set of rules which governs how English is constructed. Linguistic competence also includes knowledge of vocabulary and rules of word formation, pronunciation, spelling and sentence formation. This competence is a declarative knowledge which is focused on the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive grammatical structures of a language and to use them in communication. It includes knowledge of grammar and the rules to be applied both in utterances and written. Grammatical competence is the primary focus of study in most academic language courses. Most scholars agree that there is some kind of fundamental difference between being able to use the forms of the language and being able to talk about the forms of the language. The relationship between those two kinds of knowledge is a controversial topic up to these days. 2. Sociolinguistic Competence is a socio-cultural knowledge of using the language.

Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to interpret the social meaning of the choice of linguistic varieties and to use language with the appropriate social meaning for the communication situation, be it formal or informalThis includes such elements as participation, situation, style and culture. Sociolinguistic Competence takes into account what is considered appropriate within the context of a culture. It reflects the speaker’s ability to be able to use appropriate body language such as eye contact, facial expressions and gestures. Also with the speaker’s ability to speak using appropriate volume and tone, communicate with appropriate levels of politeness and formality based on the listener’ s social or professional status and age or gender. It comprises knowledge of cultural customs and taboos, and how to interpret what is funny or sarcastic, and when you may use vulgarity and idioms. This competency also include the ability of a person to express language functions properly such as strategies for making small talk, changing the topic, agreeing, disagreeing, expressing, or regret. 3.Discourse Competence

Discourse Competence is the is knowledge about genre. Discourse competence is the proficiency of knowing how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that parts make up a coherent whole. Discourse competence asks :How are words, phrases and sentences put together to create conversations, speeches, e- mail messages, newspaper articles. Discourse competence is used to refer to two related, but distinct abilities. Textual discourse competence refers to the ability to understand and construct monologues or written texts of different genres, such as narratives. This competence is the ability to understand and create forms of the language that are longer than sentences, such as stories, conversations, or business letters. Discourse competence

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION includes understanding how particular instances of language use are internally constructed. 4.Strategic Competence .

It refers to the strategies we use to enhance the effectiveness of the message or to repair communication breakdowns. In short this strategy is knowledge about communication strategy. These are verbal or non-verbal strategies, which are used to get the message across to the listener. They include such tactics as: paraphrasing, repetition, writing or spelling words, asking for assistance or clarification, guessing, predicting, changing registers, gestures and other non verbal clues, avoidance, hesitations, memorizing key words and phrases, and changing intonation to indicate uncertainty. What do you do when you don't know a word that you need? How do you manage a social situation when you aren't quite sure about the rules of etiquette? In both cases, you rely on your strategic competence to help you communicate. Everyone has some degree of strategic competence in any language. If you are hungry, but cannot speak the language, you can probably still make your need known through gesture and facial expression because hunger is a universal fact of human life. Language learners who really need to communicate in their adopted language tend to develop a number of strategies for making themselves clear in spite of their incomplete knowledge. Let us suppose that you are visiting Hungary and suddenly realize that you need to buy some dental floss. You speak some elementary Hungarian but you don't know how to say "dental floss." Having located a likely place to make your purchase, you approach the clerk. Now what? How can you express your intention ? Strategic competence is knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language and in the context. Strategic competence asks : How do I know when I’ve misunderstood or when someone has misunderstood me ? What do I say then ? How can I express my ideas if I don’t know the name of something or the right verb to use ? Code switching ,the use of 2 or more dialect or languages in single setting is one of the element of strategic competence. Codeswitching is the process by which a bilingual speaker changing from one language to another during the course of a conversation; often triggered by a change of topic or attitude.

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY DIFFUN CAMPUS Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

End of Module 2