Applied Linguistics S5 Summary [PDF]

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Applied Linguistics (S5)

Content Lesson One: Applied Linguistics (1). History & Definition………………………………..……………………………………………………4 (2). Definitions of Applied Linguistics……………….………………………………………………………5 (3). Defining Characteristics of Applied Linguistics………………………………………………...……….6 (4). The Relationships between AL and other language-related fields………………………………………6 (5). Applied Linguistics or Linguistics Applied? ............................................................................................7 (6). Why Study Applied Linguistic?.................................................................................................................7 (7). First Language Acquisition………………………………………………………………………………8 (8). Stages of Language Acquisition…………………………………………………………………………8 (9). Theories of Language Acquisition……………………………………………………………………...10 (10). Behaviorism…………………………………………………………………………………………...11 (11). Innateness or Mentalism………………………………………………………………………………13 (12). Evidence to Support the Innateness Theory…………………………………………………………...15 (13). Limitations of Chomsky’s Theory…………………………………………………………………….17 (14). Cognitivism…………………………………………………………………………………………....17 (15). Limitations of the Cognitive Theory…………………………………………………………………..18 (16). Cognitivism and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………………………...19

Lesson Two: Krashen’s Model (1). Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………..20 (2). The Five Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………………………20 (3). The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis………………………………………………………………….20 (4). Implications of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis in Language Teaching…………………………21 (5). Criticism of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis……………………………………………………..22 (6). The Monitor Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………..22 (7). Implications of the Monitor Hypothesis to in the Classroom…………………………………………..23 (8). Criticism of the Monitor Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………...23 (9). The Natural Order Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………….24 (10). Implications of the Natural Order Hypothesis in the Classroom……………………………………..24 (11). Criticism of the Natural Order Hypothesis……………………………………………………………24 (12). The Input Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………….25

(13). The Input Hypothesis in the Classroom……………………………………………………………….26 (14). Implications of Teaching in the Input Hypothesis…………………………………………………….26 (15). Comprehensible Input V.S. Vygotsky’s ZPD: (Social Constructivism)?..............................................27 (16). Strengths and Weaknesses of the Input Hypothesis…………………………………………………...28 (17). The Affective Filter Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………….28 (18). Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………….31

Lesson Three: Methods of Language Teaching (1). Grammar-Translation Approach……………………………………………..…………………………32 (2). Direct Approach………………………………………………………………………………………...33 (3). Reading Approach………………………………………………………………………………………34 (4). Audiolingual Method…………………………………………………………………………………...34 (5). Communicative Language Teaching (CLL)……………………………………………………………37 (6). Suggestupedia…………………………………………………………………………………………..39 (7). The Silent Way………………………………………………………………………………………….39 (8). Total Physical Response (TPR)………………………………………………………………………...40 (9). The Natural Approach………………………………………………………………………………......42 (10). Communicative Language Teaching………………………………………………………………….42

Lesson Four: Contrastive Analysis (1). Contrastive Analysis-(Hypothesis)……………………………………………………………………..43 (2). Contrastive Analysis-(Purpose)………………………………………………………………………...43 (3). Contrastive Linguistics (CL)……………………………………………………………………………44 (4). Contrastive Linguistics in Linguistics…………………………………………………………………..44 (5). Theoretical Contrastive Linguistics…………………………………………………………………….44 (6). Applied Contrastive Linguistics………………………………………………………………………...45 (7). Contrastive Linguistics-(Terms)………………………………………………………………………..45 (8). Contrastive Linguistics (CL) and First Language Teaching (FLT)…………………………………….45 (9). Contrastive Analysis-(Eclipse)…………………………………………………………………………46 (10). Interlanguage…………………………………………………………………………………………..46 (11). Transfer………………………………………………………………………………………………..46

Lesson Five: Error Analysis (1). Error Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….47 (2). Interlanguage………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...49

Lesson One: Applied Linguistics (1). History and Definitions:. AL (short for Applied Linguistics) is an Anglo-American Coinage. . Founded first at the university of Edinburgh school of AL in 1956. . In 1957, the center of AL became in Washington D.C. . The British Association of AL (B.A.A.L.) was formally established in 1967. . The aims of AL: “The advancement of education by fostering and promoting, by any lawful charitable means, the study of language use, language acquisition, language teaching, and the fostering of inter-disciplinary collaboration in this study.” (B.A.A.L.) (1994). . In the 1960’s and the 1970’s, AL was mainly about language teaching. . AL covers two main points: - The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching. - The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. . AL uses language-related research in a variety of fields (E.G. language acquisition, language teaching, literacy, gender studies, language policy, speech therapy, discourse analysis, censorship, workplace communication, media studies, lexicography, translation, forensic linguistics.)

(2). Definitions of Applied Linguistics:. “AL is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical tasks in which language is a central component.” (Corder, 1974, p.24). . “A branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have risen in other areas of experience.” (Crystal, 1985). . “A multi-disciplinary approach to the solution of language-related problems.” (Strevens, 1982). . “AL is using what we know about (a) language, (b) how it is learned, and (c) how it is used in order to achieve some purpose or solve some problem in the real world.” (Schmit & Celcemulcia, 2002, p.1). . “The focus of Applied Linguistics is trying to solve languagebased problems that people encounter in the real world, whether they be leraners, teachers, supervisors, academics, lawyers, service providers, those who need social service, test takers, policy developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of business clients.” (Grabe, 2002, p.9).

(3). Defining Characteristics of Applied Linguistics:. AL is autonomous, multidisciplinary, and problem solving. . Practical concerns have an important role in shaping the questions that AL answers. . Language-related problems concern learners, teachers, academics, lawyers, test takers, service providers, etc.… . Problems related to language can be said to also be related to (Language learning, Language teaching, and Literacy).

(4). The Relationship Between Applied Linguistics and Other Language-Related Disciplines:. AL occupies an intermediary, mediating position between language-related disciplines (linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics) and professional practice. . It uses theories/principles from language-related disciplines to understand language-related issues and problems. The choice of which disciplines are involved in AL matters depends on the circumstances. . Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: - Linguistics is primarily concerned with language in itself, and in finding ways to analyze language and building theories that describe language. - AL is concerned with the role of language in people’s lives and problems associated with language use in people’s lives.

(5). Applied Linguistics or Linguistics Applied:. Widdowson (2002, p.5) represents the question in terms of Linguistics Applied and Applied Linguistics: “The difference between these models of intervention is that in the case of linguistics applied, the assumption is that the problem can be reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and terms deriving from linguistic inquiry itself. That is to say, language problems are amenable to linguistic solutions. However, in the case of Applied Linguistics, intervention is crucially a matter of mediation. AL has to relate and reconcile different representations of reality, including that of linguistics without excluding others.”

(6). Why Study Applied Linguistics:. The understanding of how the learners learn will determine the approach method, procedure, classroom techniques and the philosophy of education. As was stated by Vivian Cook, “Well, I look at how people acquire language and how we can teach them better.” . It seeks to apply all the related fields to foreign language education. It is process-oriented in the sense that it is interested not only in the product, but also in the process of teaching. . The emphasis in AL is on language users and the way in which they use language, contrary to theoretical linguistics, which studies language in the abstract, not referring to any particular context.

(7). First Language Acquisition:. It is the process by which children become speakers of their native language or languages. . An interesting feature First Language Acquisition is that children seem to rely more on semantics than syntax when speaking. . First Language Acquisition (FLA) is an area of Psycholinguistics which focusses on how children acquire their mother language. . Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is an area of AL and studies the process by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign language, these processes are investigated with the expectation that this information may be of use to language teaching. Theories on SLA stem from different trends and backgrounds.

(8). Stages of Language Acquisition:1. Paralinguistic Development: They include the first years of a child’s life. Children do not usually begin to produce words until they are a year old. The main reason for studying the paralinguistic period, a part of the theory of children’s language acquisition, is to try to establish which links, if any, there are between the paralinguistic period and the period of linguistic development. 2. The Cooing Stage: By three months old, the child will have started producing cooing sounds, composed of velar consonants and high vowels. 3. The Babbling Stage: By six months old, sounds composed of repeated syllables (baba, mama, dada…) will have usually appeared by then.

During the babbling stage, from around nine to twelve months, intonation patterns and some imitation of other’s speech are present, and the infant’s sound production at this stage is often referred to as “sound play”. Some people talk to babies and children in a particular way known as motherese, baby talk, caretaker talk, or caregiver talk. 4. The One-word Stage: During this period, between twelve and sixteen months, children begin to comprehend words and produce one-word utterances, although the gap between comprehension and production is usually great at that time. The children’s utterances don’t show ant structural properties, and their meanings appear to be primarily functional. 5. The Holophrastic Stage: At around 16-18 months, single word utterances seem to begin to reflect semantic categories such as subject, action, object. Although the non-linguistic context often helps, it is difficult to assign adult meanings to the child’s utterances. What seems obvious is that the child is doing more than just naming object, action, etc. at this stage. 6. The Two-Word Stage: Normally lasting from 18-20 months until the child is 2 years old. Many children’s speech, which lacks grammatical inflection and function words, consists of strings like “cat drink milk”. This kind of language is known as “Telegraphic Speech” (Brown & Fraser, 1963). Even if the children are presented with full sentences to imitate, they tend to repeat the sentences in telegraphic form.

During this period, the child’s vocabulary grows rapidly, since children normally begin to acquire grammatical morphemes at the age of around 2 years. The order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English is usually: 1) –ing appears first. 2) Then the plural –s. 3) Then the possessive –s. 4) And then the irregular past tense forms before the regular past tense forms.

(9). Theories of Language Acquisition:1. Behaviorism: The central idea is that children imitate adults. Their correct utterances are reinforced when they get what they want or are praised. The individual who came with this theory is Skinner. 2. Innateness: The central idea is that a child’s brain contains special, language-learning mechanisms at birth. The individual who came with this theory is Chomsky. 3. Cognitivism: The central idea is that language is just one aspect of a child’s overall intellectual development. The individuals who came with this theory are Piaget & Vygotsky. 4. Interactionalist: The central idea is that this theory emphasizes on the interaction between children and their caregivers. The individual who came with this theory is Bruner. 5. Acculturation: The central idea is that language learning depends on the psychological and social distance that learners perceive between them and the target language speakers. The individuals who came with this theory are Schumann & Norton.

(10). Behaviorism:. The behaviorist psychologists (Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner) developed their theories while carrying on experiments on animals. . For example, they observed that rats or birds could be taught to perform various tasks by encouraging habit-forming. Researchers rewarded desirable behavior. . This was known as “Positive Reinforcement”. Undesirable behavior was simply punished or not rewarded, that is, “Negative Reinforcement”. . Learning is based on (a). Conditioning (A process of developing connections between a stimulus and a response), and (b). Habit formation (As the behavior is reinforced, habits are formed). . Importance of Environment: Learning is the result of environmental rather than genetic factors. That is, the child is born as a clean slate, and the environment writes its message on this clean slate. . while there are some truths in Skinner’s explanation, there are some objections to it. . Limitations of Behaviorism: 1) Language is based on a set of structures or rules, which could not be worked out by simply imitating individual utterances. 2) The mistakes made by children reveal that they are not simply imitating, but actively working out and applying rules. 3) The vast majority of children go through the same stages of language acquisition. There seems to be a defined sequence of steps that we refer to as developmental miles.

4) Children are often unable to repeat what adults say, especially if the adult’s utterance contains a structure that the child has not yet started to use. 5) Few children receive much grammatical correction, since parents are more interested in politeness and truthfulness. . Behaviorism and Foreign Language Teaching: 1) It had a powerful influence on second and foreign language teaching between the 1940’s and 1970’s. 2) It influenced the development of the “Audiolingual Method”. 3) Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus, and students, as passive receivers of information, memorize dialogues and sentence patterns by heart. . Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement: 1) Learners are taught the language in small, sequential steps (structures and then sentence patterns). 2) A small part of the language is presented as a stimulus, to which the learner responds by repeating or substituting. This is followed by reinforcement from the teacher. 3) By repeating, the learner develops habits. Learning a language is seen as acquiring mechanical habits, and errors are frowned upon because they lead to the development of bad habits. 4) The role of the teacher is to develop in the learners good language habits.

(11). Innateness (or mentalism):. Noam Chomsky published a criticism of the behaviorist theory in 1057. . In addition to some of the arguments already mentioned above, he particularly focused on the impoverished language input that children receive. Adults don’t typically speak in grammatically complete sentences. . In addition, what the child hears is only a small sample language. . Chomsky concluded that children must have an in-born faculty for language acquisition. . According to this theory, the process of language acquisition is “biologically determined”; that is, the human species has developed a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic information at birth. . The child’s predisposition to learn language is triggered by hearing speech, and the child’s brain is able to interpret what she/he hears according to the underlying principles or structures it already has. . This natural faculty has become known as the “Language Acquisition Device” (L.A.D.) (or Black Box). Later on, Chomsky referred to this as the innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar (U.G.). . Children’s brains are not blank slates to be filled in by imitating the language they hear from the environment. Children are born with an innate capacity for language learning which allows them to discover for themselves the rules underlying the language.

. Chomsky isn’t suggesting that an English child is born knowing anything about English, of course. He suggests that all human languages share common principles (for example, they all have words for things and actions-nouns and verbs.) and it is the child’s task to establish how the specific language she/he hears expresses these underlying principles. . Chomsky’s ground-breaking theory remains at the center of the debate about language acquisition. . However, it has been modified over time, both by Chomsky and others. . Chomsky’s original position was that LADs contained specific knowledge about language. . Dan Isaak Slobin proposed that it may be more like a mechanism for working out the rules of language. He states, “it seems to me that the child is born not with a set of linguistic categories, but with some sort of process mechanism-a set of procedures and inference rules, if you will-that the child uses to process linguistic data. These mechanisms are such that, applying them to input data, the child ends up with something which is a member of the class of human languages. The linguistic universals, then, are the result of innate, cognitive competence rather than the content of such competence.” (cited in Russel, 2002).

(12). Evidence to Support The Innateness Theory:. Work in several areas of language study has provided support for the idea of an innate language faculty. Three types of evidence are offered here: 1) Human anatomy. 2) Creole varieties of English. 3) The languages used by the deaf. 1. Human Anatomy: . Slobin has pointed out that human anatomy is peculiarly adapted to the production of speech. Unlike our nearest relatives, the great apes, we have evolved a vocal tract which allows the precise articulation of a wide repertoire of vocal sounds. Neuro science has also identified areas of the brain with distinctly linguistics functions, most notably are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. . Stroke victims provide valuable data: depending on the site of the brain damage, they might suffer a range of language dysfunctions, ranging from problems with finding words to the inability to interpret syntax. . Experiments aimed at teaching chimpanzees how to communicate using plastic symbols or manual gestures have proved controversial. It seems likely that our ape cousins, while being able to learn individual “words”, have little to no grammatical competence. Pinker (1994) offers good account on this research. 2. Creole Varieties of English: . The formation of creole varieties of English appears to be the result of LAD at work.

. The linguist, Derek Bickerton, have studied the formation of Dutch-based creole in Surinam. Escaped slaves, living together but originally from different language groups, were forced to communicate in their very limited Dutch. The result was the restricted form of language known as a pidgin. . The adult speakers were past the critical age at which they could learn a new language fluently-they have learned Dutch as a foreign language and under unfavorable conditions. Remarkably, the children of those slaves turned the pidgin into a full language, known as a creole by linguists. . They were presumably unaware of the process, but the outcome was a language variety which follows its own consistent rules and has a full range of expression. Creoles based on English are also found in the Caribbean and elsewhere. 3. The Sign Language Used by the Deaf: . Studies of the sign language used by the deaf have shown that, far from being crude gestures replacing spoken words, these are complex, fully grammatical languages in their own rights. . A sign language may exist in several dialects. Children learning to sign as their first language pass through similar stages to hearing children learning spoken languages. Deprived of speech, the urge to communicate is realized through a manual system which fulfils the same function. . There is even a sign creole, again developed by children, in Nicaragua.

(13). Limitations of Chomsky’s Theory:. Chomsky’s work on language was theoretical. . He was interested in grammar and much of his work consists of complex explanations of grammatical rules. . He didn’t study real children. The study relies on children being exposed to language but takes no account of the interaction between children and their caretakers. Nor does it recognizes the reason why a child might want to speak; that is, the functions of language. . Subsequent theories have placed greater emphasis on the ways in which real children develop language to fulfil their needs and interact with their environment, including other people.

(14). Cognitivism:. Cognitive psychology, in contrast to behaviorism, is interested in the way that the human mind thinks. It is involved in the cognitive processes that are involved in learning and how the learner is involved in the process of learning. . Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. The learner is seen as an active participant in the learning process, using various kinds of mental strategies in order to sort out the system of the language being learnt. . Learning happens as a result of brain processes where knowledge is transferred from short-term to long-term memory. . In order for this to happen, new information must be linked to old information, and information and concepts must be logically organized. New ideas or concepts are based on the learner’s past and current knowledge.

. The Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget, known as a cognitive constructivist, placed the acquisition of language within a child’s mental cognitive development. He argued that a child must understand a concept before he/she can acquire that particular language form which expresses that concept. . A good example of this is seriation. There will be a pint in a child’s intellectual development when she/he can compare objects in relation to size. Piaget has suggested that a child who hasn’t yet reached this stage would not be able to learn and use comparative adjectives like “bigger” or “smaller”. . “Object Permanence” is another phenomena often cited in relation to the cognitive theory. During the first year of their lives, children seem unaware about the existence of objects that they cannot see. By the time they are the age of 18 months, they have realized that objects exist independently of their perception. . The cognitive theory draws attention to the large increase in children’s vocabulary around this age, suggesting a link between object permanence and learning labels for objects.

(15). Limitations of the Cognitive Theory:. During the first years to 18 months, connections of the types explained above are possible to track, but, as a child continues to develop, so it becomes harder to find clear links between language intellect. . Some studies have focused on children who learned to speak fluently despite abnormal mental development. . Syntax in particular doesn’t seem to rely on general intellectual growth.

(16). Cognitivism and Foreign Language Teaching:. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. . The cognitive structure (i.e. schema, mental model)provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information given. . The instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. They should engage in active dialogue (i.e. Socratic learning). . The task of the instructor is to translate the information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current state of understanding. The curricular should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds on what they have learned.

Lesson Two: Krashen’s Model. (1). Introduction . Linguist and educator, Stephen Krashen, proposed the Monitor Model-his theory of second language acquisition-in “principals and practices in second language acquisition” (1982). Influences by the theory of first language acquisition proposed by Noam Chomsky, the monitor model posits five hypotheses about language acquisition and learning.

(2). The Five Hypotheses of The Monitor Model:1) The acquisition-learning hypothesis. 2) The monitor hypothesis. 3) The natural order hypothesis. 4) The input hypothesis. 5) The affective filter hypothesis.

(3). The Acquisition-Learning Hypotheses:. According to Krashen, there are two ways of developing language ability: Acquisition & Learning. • Acquisition: It involves the subconscious acceptance of knowledge, where information is stored in the brain through the use of communication; this is the process used for developing native languages. Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through an implicit, informal, and natural way. • Learning: On the other hand, learning occurs actively or consciously through explicate or formal learning and instruction, resulting in explicit knowledge about language.

. Krashen states that this is often the product of formal language instruction. . Difference between acquisition and learning: • Acquisition: 1) Implicit/subconscious. 2) Informal situations. 3) Uses grammatical “feel”. 4) Stable order of acquisition. • Learning: 1) Explicit/conscious. 2) Formal situations. 3) Uses grammatical rules. 4) Simple to complex order of learning.

(4). Implications to language teaching:. The most important pedagogical implication of the first hypothesis of Krashen’s Model is that explicit teaching and learning is unnecessary, indeed inadequate, for second language acquisition. . Furthermore, the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that both children and adults acquire language via access to innate language acquisition devices (LAD) regardless of age and that learning cannot become acquisition. . According to this theory, the optimal way a language is learned is through natural communication. As a second language teacher, the idea is to create a situation where in language can be used to fulfil authentic purposes. In turn, this will help the student to ‘acquire’ the language instead of just ‘learning’ it.

(5). Criticism of The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:. Determining whether the process involved in language production was the result of implicit acquisition or explicit learning is impossible to prove. . Furthermore, critics consider the argument that “learning cannot become acquisition” as questionable. What may start as learning may become acquisition. . Krashen’s claims are meant to arouse controversy. Both McLaughlin (1978, 1987) and Gregg (1984) fond it difficult to accept the idea of a fully operational LAD in adults, since adults, with regard to language acquisition, are well past the age of puberty.

(6). The Monitor Hypothesis:. The monitor hypothesis complements the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis by claiming that “learning functions within second learning acquisition as a monitor”. It edists the language usage acquired by the acquired system. . The monitor allows the language user to alter the form of an utterance, either prior to or after production Vis self-production. . In other words, the learned system monitors the output of the acquired system. . Three conditions are required for the monitor to function: 1) Time. 2) Focus. 3) Knowledge. . Krashen asserts that they are “necessary but not sufficient”. Meaning that, despite the convenient of all three conditions, a language user may still not be able to utilize the monitor.

(7). Implications to the Classroom:. As an SL (Second Language) teacher, it will always be a challenge to strike a balance between encouraging accuracy and fluency in your students. . This balance depends on numerous variables, including the language levels of the students, the context of language use, and the personal goals of each students.

(8). Criticism of the Monitor Hypothesis:. Critics reveal that it is impossible to draw a clear cut distinction between acquisition and learning, since what may start as learning may end up as acquisition. . Consequently, determining that the function of the learned system is as a monitor only remains likewise impossible to prove. . In the monitor hypothesis, the learned system is undermined in favor of the acquired one. . Had speech been solely generated by the acquired system, L2 learners would’ve ended up throwing words together at random, without making much sense. . The monitor could be applied in case of “simple” rules only (e.g. determining 3rd person singular), but when in comes to “difficult” rules, such as dealing with complex semantic properties, the monitor is of little to no use. . Finally, the requirements of the three conditions for activating the learned/monitor system make it hard to either implement or test it in real-life situations in the first place.

(9). The Natural Order Hypothesis:. This hypothesis argues that acquisition of grammatical structures occurs in a predictable sequence. . According to Krashen, it applies to both L1 &L2 acquisitions, with slight differences. In other words, the prder of acquisition of a language as an L1 is different from the order of acquisition of that same language as an L2. . For example, the learners of English as an L2 usually acquire the grammatical structure of yes/no questions before the grammatical structure of wh-questions.

(10). Implications for the Classroom:. Teachers should start by introducing language concepts that are relatively easy for learners to acquire and then use scaffolding to introduce more difficult concepts.

(11). Criticism of the Natural Order Hypothesis:. Krashen’s tendencies to generalize the results of a study on the acquisition of limited set of English morphemes to second language acquisition as a whole is fallible. . Morpheme studies offer no indication that second language learners similarly acquire other linguistics features (phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics) in any predictable sequence, let alone in any sequence at all. . This hypothesis fails to account for the considerable influence of the first language on the acquisition of a second language. Therefore, L2 learners do not necessarily acquire grammatical structures in a predictable manner.

(12). The Input Hypothesis:. The input hypothesis stresses that acquisition of a language should occur in situations in which learners are exposed to new structures via natural, comprehensible input, as opposed to introducing learners to a new structure and attempting to drill it into memory. . In other words, an important condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understands (via hearing or reading) input language that contains structure “a bit beyond” her/his current level of understanding. . Messages that the child understands=Comprehensible input. . Krashen uses the formula (I+1), where ‘I’ represents the learner’s current level, and ‘+1’ represents the next most basic level of input (the next stage of language acquisition). . The idea is that learners will gradually acquire the new structures, provided if they are being presented alongside that have already been acquired. Rather than pointing out the structure, it is simply used in a comprehensible manner, and the learner is expected to gradually acquire it through the exposure alone. . In other words, if the learner is at stage ‘I’, then acquisition takes place when she/he is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to level ‘+1’.

(13). The Input Hypothesis in A Classroom:. Example: The teacher selects a reading text for upper-intermediate level learners that is from a lower advanced level course book. Based on what the teacher knows about the learners, the teacher believes this will give them ‘comprehensible input’ to help them acquire more language. . In the classroom: Trying to understand language slightly above their level encourages the learners to use natural learning strategies such as guessing words from context and inferring meaning. As the example suggests, the teacher needs to know the level of the learners very well, in order to select ‘comprehensible input’, and in a large class of mixed abilities, different learners will need different texts.

(14). Implications of Teaching in the Input Hypothesis:. Krashen suggests that natural communicative input (communicative language teaching approach & cooperative language approach (scaffolding)) is the key to designing a syllabus. . Michael Long takes off in a sense where Krashen left off by suggesting what has come to be known as the Interactive Hypothesis; that comprehensive input is the result of modified interaction. . Indeed, this hypothesis highlights the importance of using the target the language in the classroom, since the goal of any language program is for learners to learn how to communicate effectively. Giving learners this kind of input helps them acquire the language naturally, rather than consciously.

(15). Comprehensible Input V.S. Vygotsky’s ZPD (Social Constructivism):. Comprehensible output? . Developed by Merrill Swain. . A learner encounters a gap in his/her linguistic knowledge of L2. By noticing this gap, the learner becomes aware of it and may be able to modify their output so they learn something new about the language (noticing hypothesis). (Richard Schmidt, 1990) . Swain does NOT claim that comprehensible output is reasonable for most or all language acquisition. . There are there functions of the output: 1. Noticing Function: Learners encounter gaps between what they want to say and what they are able to say, and so they notice what they do not know or only partially know about the language. 2. Hypothesis-Testing Function: By uttering something, the learner tests this hypothesis and receives feedback from an interlocutor. This function enables the reprocessing of the hypothesis if necessary. 3. Metalinguistic Function: Comprehensible output has been found to be effective in the elicitation of modified output in foreign language acquisition. Production of language for the purpose of communicating in a meaningful way is hypothesized to help its acquisition.

(16). Strengths & Weakness of the Input Hypothesis:. The more comprehensible the input, the more L2 is proficient. , Teaching methods are dependent on comprehensible input. . Controversials: . Since not all learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, we are unable to define the level of ‘I’ in ‘I+1’.

(17). The Affective Filter Hypothesis:. There are certain conditions which may hinder acquisition. If a learner is exposed to language, via comprehensible input, yet yet CANNOT seem to acquire new structures, it may be due to what Krashen calls “The Affective Filter”. The Affective filter is essentially just an abstract way of looking at mental barriers to learning. . When there are conditions that prevent acquisition, we consider the filter raised. . When conditions are just right, we consider the filter lowered. . A number of factors come into consideration when looking at the affective filter. Some of the things that might cause the filter to be raised might be anxiety, lack of motivation, or emotional/mental conditions, whereas learners that feel confident, enjoy speaking the language, and are given the freedom to remain silent, typically have lower filters, and as a result acquire language more fluently. . This hypoothetical filter does not impact acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching the language part of the brain (i.e. the LAD).

. Strengths of Applying the Affective Filter in Teaching: - In any aspect of education, it is important to create a safe, welcoming environment in which students can learn. In language education, this may be especially important, since in order to take in and produce language, learners need to feel that it is ok to make mistakes and take risks, which relates directly to Krashen’s Affinitive Filter hypothesis. - Input should be interesting and students activities should be based on meaningful communication rather than on form. - The perfect variable scale: 1) Motivation: High. 2) Self Confidence: High. 3) Anxiety: Low. 4) Conclusion: Affective Filter=Low. . Weaknesses of the Affective Filter Hypothesis: - “Sheltered classroom environment” V.S, “Real world environment”. - The stress of everyday life and communication are Uncontrollable variables.

. Criticism: 1. How particular can it be? Many feel that Krashen has introduced a theory without explaining it many variations and functions, thus rendering it unsatisfactory when empirically tested. In the face of increasing criticism, Krashen is forced to acknowledge that “further research may change them or force us to reject one or more of them” (Krashen, 1982:2). But such constant chamges, modifications, and changes can frustrate both researchers and teachers interested in using this model alike. Had Krashen taken this into account, he may have been able to propose a more testable, viable, and useable monitor. 2. Too Abstract? - Due many of the hypotheses Krashen suggested had gained some popularity due to their intuitive nature, they have yet to be shown empirically to be accurate or useful, - Gregg (1984) voiced some the harshest criticism, using very strong wording: “We have seen that each of Krashen’s five hypotheses is marked by serious flaws, undefined or ill-defined terms, unmotivated constructs, lack of empirical content and thus of falsifiability, and lack of explanatory power. (Gregg, 1984, p. 94) - The attack on krashen’s theory is mainly aimed at the following aspects: 1) Excessive claims: His theory of LA is oversimplified and its claims are overstated. 2) An Absence of Evidence: McLaughlin, as he puts it, “what Krashen does is not provide ‘evidence’ in any sense of the term, but simply argues that certain phenomena can be

viewed from the perspective of his theory. (1987, p. 376) 3) Invalid theory: Some researchers question the validity of Krashen’s monitor model as a theory. McLaughlin (1987) measured his model against four criteria for evaluating a theory, such as definitional precision, explanatory power, etc. but dissapontedly came to the conclusion that “Krashen’s theory fails at every juncture”. This view is further echoed by Gregg (1984, p. 94), who asserted that his theory is not a ‘coherent theory’ and that it would be inappropriate to apply the word ‘theory’ to it.

(18). Conclusion:. Krashen’s model can be viewed positively in that it spurs other researchers to inspect Krashen’s theory more closely, and, most importantly, in the process of falicification, more insights and alternative theories will be proposed, built on Krashen’s “bold, if rash, insight”. Thus, giving overall SLA (Second Language Acquistion) researchers a good boost. (Brown, 200, p. 281)

Lesson Three: Methods of Language Teaching Methods of Language teaching Include: 1) Grammar-Translation Approach. 2) Direct Approach. 3) Reading Approach. 4) Audiolingual Method. 5) Community Language Learning. 6) Suggestopedia. 7) The Silent Way. 8) Total Physical Response. 9) The Natural Way. 10) Communicative Language Teaching.

(1). Grammar-Translation Approach:. In this method, classes are taught in the student’s mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. . Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. . Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. . Grammar instructions provide the rules for putting words together; the instructions focus on the form and inflection of the words. . Little attention is paid to the content of texts. . Drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. . Little or no attention at all is given to pronunciation.

(2). Direct Approach:. This approach was initially developed as a reaction to the Grammar-Translation Approach, in attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction. . Lessons begin in a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. . Materials are first presented orally with actions or pictures. . The mother tongue is NEVER used. There is no translation. . The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. . Questions are answered in the target language. . Grammar is taught inductively-rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. . Verbs are used first and are systematically conjuncted much later after some oral mastery with the target language. . Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. . Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. . The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. . Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

(3). Reading Approach:. This approach is for people who do not travel abroad, and for whom reading is the only useable skill in a foreign language. . The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability, and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken. . The grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is the only one that’s taught. . Minimal attention is given to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. . From the start, a great amount of reading is done in L2. . The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled in difficulty. . Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important than grammatical skills. . Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to the comprehension of the written text.

(4). Audiolingual Method:. This method is based on the principles of Behavioral psychology. . It adopted many of the principles and procedures of the direct method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills in the reading approach. . New material is presented in the form of Dialogue. . Based on the principles that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over-learning.

. Structures are sequences and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. . Little to no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. . Skills are sequenced: 1) listening, 2) speaking, 3) reading, 4) writing, and developed in order. . Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. . Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. . There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes, and visual videos. . There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. . Great importance is given to precise, native-like pronunciation. . Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. . Successful responses are reinforced; great care is given to prevent learner’s errors. . There is a tendency to focus on the manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.

. Hints for Using Audiolingual Drills in L2 Teaching: 1) The teacher needs to be careful to insure that all the utterances that the students will make are within the practice pattern. 2) Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possible to insure automaticity and to establish a system. 3) Ignore all but gross errors in pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice. 4) Use shortcuts such as hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cut the response time and keep the pace of the drills at a maximum. 5) The drilling material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meaning. 6) Intersperse short periods of drills (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom. 7) Don’t stand in one place; move around the room, standing next to as many students as possible to check their production.

(5). Communicative Language Learning:. This approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat, as well as the personal and language problems, a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. . The learner is not thought of as a student, but as a client. . The instructors are not thought of as teachers, but rather as trained individuals in counseling skills who adapted their roles as language counselors. . The language-counseling relationship begins with the client’s linguistic confusion and conflict. . The aim of the language counselor’s skill set is first to communicate empathy for the client’s threatened, inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. . Then slowly, the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly inadequate language adequacy. . This process is furthered by the language counselor’s ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an other “language-self” for the client. . The process involves Five Stages of Adaptation: • Stage (1): The client is completely dependent on the language counselor. 1) First, he only expresses to the counselor, and in their mother tongue, what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this exchange, but no other members of the group are involved in this interaction.

2) The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the target language in a warm and accepting tone, in simple languages, and in phrases of five or six words. 3) The client then turns to the group presents his/her idea in the target language. They have the counselors aid if thet mispronounce or hesitate at a word or phrase. This is the client’s maximum security stage. • Stage (2): 1) Same as above. 2) The client turns and begins to speak the target language directly to the group. 3) The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small steps are signs of positive confidence and hope. • Stage (3): 1) The client speaks directly to the group in the targt language. This presumes that the group now has acquired the ability to understand their simple sentences. 2) Same as 3 above, this presumes that the client’s greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it. • Stage (4): 1) The client now is speaking freely and complexly in he target language. Presumes the group’s understanding. 2) The counselor directly intervenes in the grammatical errors, mispronunciations, or when aid in complex expressions are needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction. • Stage (5): 1) Same as stage (4). 2) The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction, but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.

3) At this stage, the client can become the counselor for the group in stages (1), (2), and (3).

(6). Suggestupedia:. this method developed out of the belief that human brains could process great quantities of material given to them, given the right conditions of learning, like relaxation. Music was central to this method. . Soft music lead to an increase in Alpha brain waves and a decree in blood pressure and pulse rate, resulting in the high intake of large quantities of information. . Learners were encouraged to be as “childlike” as possible. . Apart from soft, comfortable seats in a relaxed environment, everything else remained the same.

(7). The Silent Way:. This method begins by using a set of colored wooden rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following: 1) To avoid the use of vernacular. 2) To create simple linguistic situations to remain under the complete control of the teacher. 3) To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. 4) To let the teacher concentrate on what the students are saying and they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. 5) To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon, by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mine.

6) To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the target language to a number of voices using it. 7) To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noise mean, thus brining in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one’s use of the mother tongue. 8) To provide a duration of sponteniuos speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heared. . Materials: - The materials utilized as the language learning progresses include: 1) A set of colored wooden rods. 2) A set of word charts containing words of a “functional” vocabulary, and some additional ones. 3) A pointer for use with the charts in visual dictation. 4) A color-coded phonic chart(s), tapes, or discs. 5) Films, drawings, or pictures. 6) A set of accompanying work sheets, transparencies, texts, a book of stories.

(8). Total Physical Response (TPR):. The Total Physical Response (TPR) method is one that combines both information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. . This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid pace.

. The Basic Tenets Are: 1) Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. 2) Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. 3) The student is not forced to speak but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak whenever they feel comfortable and confident in understanding and producing utterances. . Procedure: - Step 1: the teacher says the command as he himself performs the action. - Step 2: the teacher says the command as both he and the students then perform the action. - Step 3: the teacher says the command but only the students perform the action. - Step 4: the teacher tells one student at a time to do commands. - Step 5: the roles of teacher and students are reversed. now, the students give commands to both the teacher and the students. - Step 6: the teacher and students allow for command expansion and produce new sentences.

(9). The Natural Way:. This method emphasizes the development of basic personal communication skills. . Delay production until speech emerge (i.e. learners don’t say anything until they feel ready to do so). . Learners should be as ready as possible. . Advocates the use of TPR at beginning levels. . Comprehensible input is essential for acquisition to take place.

(10). Communicative Language Teaching:. This method stresses a ,eans of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of the communicative situations in which they are used. . There is a negation of meaning. . A variety of language skills are involved. . Material is presented in context. . It pays attention to registers and styles in terms of situation and participants. . Fluency and accuracy (different competencies). . Forms and functions. . Development of autonomous learners.

Lesson Four: Contrastive Analysis (1). Contrastive Analysis-(Hypothesis):. Lado’s and other’s contrastive analyses lead him to formulate “The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)” (He does not really give us any data; this is not a “study”, as defined by this class). . “Those elements that are similar to (a learner’s) native language will be similar for him (or her) and those elements are different will be difficult”. (Lado, p.2) . This is the “strong” version of the CAH (Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis): Contrastive analysis has predictive power. Through contrastive analysis, we can predict areas of difficulty (and vice versa) for our students.

(2). Contrastive Analysis-(Purpose):. predicting areas of difficulty will allow teachers to facilitate second language learning through informed attention to materials, tests, classroom activities, etc. “To find (and address) the hurdles that have to be surmounted in the teaching”. (Lado, p. 3) . Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, - With the aim of describing their similarities and differences, focusing, however, on differences. - It is predominantly predictable. . The term “Contrastive Analysis”: - Was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941. - Predicts and describes the patterns that will cause difficulty in learning, and those that won’t, by systematically comparing the language, and the culture to be learned, with the native language and the culture of the student.

(3). Contrastive Linguistics (CL):. Differences (usually) between two (usually)nlamguages: - Basis for typological description. - Mainly practical applications (translation, foreign language teaching and learning, bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)). . Why Differences? - It is assumed that the two languages are similar, except for the points described as different.

(4). CL in linguistics:. The languages being compared can be related. - Like Polish and English. . Or can be unrelated. - Like Polish and Chinese. . Can be from the same historical period. - Polish and English from the 20th Century. . Or can be from different historical periods. - English and Polish from the 16th and 20th Century.

(5). Theoretical CL:. Gives an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages. . Provides an adequate model for their comparison.

(6). Applied CL:. On the basis of the theoretical framework. . Provided by Theoretical CA. . Gives the researcher the information necessary. . To conduct actual contrastive analysis.

(7). CL: Terms:. Contrastive Linguistics (or its methods) is also called: - Contrastive Studies. - Contrastive Analysis. - Interlingual Linguistics.

(8). Contrastive Linguistics (CL) and First Language (FL) Teaching:. Contrastive studies are (were) used as a means of predicting and/or explaining difficulties of second language learners with a particular mother tongue. . In learning a particular target language (English), however, CL does not explain all problems of foreign language students. . Advantages: - Is is suggested that when FL laerners are made of L1:L2 contrasts, this makes it easier for them to learn difficult FL structures. - L1 interference accounts for some 30% of error.

(9). Contrastive Analysis-(Eclipse):. Contrastive Analysis fell out of favor for 3 reasons: 1) Teachers didn’t know the languages of their students, and couldn’t do extensive contrastive analysis. 2) The strong version of the CAH did not work. When the CAH was tested empirically, its predictive value was proved inadequate. - Question: what would CAH predict about native English speakers learning to pronounce French words? Especially words beginning with /z/? - Answer: It would be difficult for native English speakers to pronounce words beginning with /z/. 3) CAH fell victim to a shift in SLA research.

(10). Interlanguage:. Interlanguage (IL) was introduced by the American Linguist Larry Selinker to refer to the linguistic system evidenced when an adult second language learner attempts to express meaning in the language being learned. . IL is viewed as a separate linguistic system, clearly different from the learner’s ‘native language’ (NL) and the ‘target language’ (TL) being learned, but linked to both NL and TL by interlingual identifications in the perception of the learner.

(11). Transfer:. Role of the first language. . Positive transfer, which facilitates learning. . Negative transfer or Interference that leads to errors.

Lesson Four: Error Analysis & Interlanguage (1970’s) (1). Error Analysis (EA):. Error Analysis is a branch of applied linguistics. It is concerned with the compilation, study, and analysis of errors of second language learners, and it aims at investigating aspects of second language acquisition. . According to the linguistics carder, the following are the steps in any typical EA (Error Analysis) research: 1) Collecting samples of the learner’s language. 2) Identifying the errors. 3) Describing the errors. 4) Explaining the errors. 5) Evaluating/correcting the errors. . EA (Error Analysis) is the first approach to SLA (Second Language Acquisition) which includes an internal focus on the learner’s ability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of actual learner’s errors in L2, rather than on focusing on idealized linguistic structures attributed to the native speakers of L1 &L2. . EA (Error Analysis) replaced CA (Contrastive Analysis) by the 1970’s because of the following developments: 1) Over prediction of errors. 2) Under prediction of errors. 3) A change in linguistics theory: structural linguistics/underlying structures. 4) Being based on the notion of habit formation: behaviorism/nativism.

5) The developing distinction between L2 teaching and L2 learning: learning process. . Error analysis in behaviorism/nativism: - Language thus came to be understood as a rule-governed behavior. - The child is an active participant and not a passive recipient. . EA (Error Analysis) approach for the first time: - Learner’s errors are not a bad habit but a source of insight into the learning process. - According to Corder (1967), “Errors are windows into the language learner’s mind”. (transitional competence) - The learner’s language is viewed as a target analysis which is potentially independent of L1 &L2, and the state of the learner’s knowledge is seen as a transitional competence on the path of SLA (Second Language Acquisition). . EA (Error Analysis0 methodology: the procedure for analyzing the learner’s errors includes the following steps: 1) Collection of a sample of the learner’s language. 2) Identification of errors. 3) Description of errors. 4) Explanation of errors. 5) Evaluation of errors. . EA (Error Analysis) Critism. EA is mainly criticized for the following reasons: 1) Ambiguity in classification (Interlingual? Intralingual? L1 influence?). 2) Lack of potential date. 3) Potential for avoidance. 4) Influence of L2 curricula.

(2). Interlanguage (IL):. Selinker (1972) introduced this term to refer to the intermediate states of learner’s language/system as it moves towards the L2. . This linguistic term has been named in different terms, such as: 1) Transitional competence. 2) Interlanguage. 3) Approximative systems. . IL Assumptions: - Learners construct a linguistic system that is different from both L1 & L2 but based on L2 input (Learner’s Language). - Learners reconstruct and approximate a certain variety of L2 that rarely becomes identical to the normal/original L2. . IL Characteristics: 1) Systematic. 2) Dynamic. 3) Variable. 4) Reduced system in both function and form. . IL Criticism: - No concrete hints in the literature on how to describe the changing linguistic system in IL. - A large body of data is needed to ascertain a linguistic rule in the learner’s IL. - This is only achieved through longitudinal studies in order to follow the development of language. - The observation of the truly most systematic of a learner’s IL is not an easy process, since it needs a number of considerations related to the social status of both the learner and the researcher (topic, classroom, monitored speech, etc.).