Learning Theories [PDF]

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learning theories(johb b. Watson, ivan pavlov,, bf, skinner) behaviorism is a worldview that operates o a principle of “stimulus-response”. all behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). -

all behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability

classical conditioning (ivan pavlov) -

classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic tie of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus severed types of learning exist. the most basic form is associative learning, i.e,. making a new association between events in the environment there two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by ivan pavlov’s experiment with dogs) and operant conditioning john b. Watson further extended pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. in 1921, Watson studied albert, an 11 month on infant child. the goal of the study was to condition albert to become afraid of a white rat by paring the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise

operant conditioning (burrhus Frederic skinner -

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behaviors that age reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end in operant conditioning, a voluntary response in ten followed by a reinforcing stimulus. in this way, the voluntary response (e.g. studying for an exam ) is more likely to be done by the individual in contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers the term “operant conditioning” originated by b.f. skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations). o 1 parent is rewarding a child’s excellence

positive and negative reinforces -

positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior. this may come in the form of praise, reward, etc. punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows

skinner’s operant conditioning positive

presence of pleasant stimulus

behavior increases

negative reinforcement absence of unpleasant stimulus punishment

presence of unpleasant stimulus

behavior decreases

psychological behaviorism (Arthur w. staats -

psychological behaviorism (PB) extends behaviorism to the realm of psychology, positing that a person’s psychology can be explained through observable behaviors the components of a person’s psychology include personality, learning, and emotion Arthur w. staats was the first to propose that personality consists of a collection of learned behaviors that arise from the interplay of a person’s environment, biology, cognition, and emotions

PB & personality -

staats proposes that radical behaviorism is insufficient, because in his view psychology needs to unify behavioral sciences to include knowledge about learning and other internal processes that result in the behaviors making up personality. according to this theory, personality consists of three behavioral repertoires; o sensory motor repertoire, including basic sensory motor abilities, as well as attentional and social skills o language cognitive repertoire, including receptive language, expressive language, and receptive expressive language o emotional motivational repertoire, including positive and negative patterns of emotional reaction directing the whole behavior of the person o an individual experiences life according to their repertoires, and as they grow, they develop a basic behavioral repertoire (BBR) o an individual’s BBR and their life situation will inform their behavior, which constitutes their personality. according to this model, biology interacts with environment and learning to create an individual’s personality. o PB considers the study of personality, including how it is affected and how it affects behavior, to be important. personality test are seen as significant for how they might be able to predict what behaviors people will exhibit1. o an individual experiences life according to their repertoires, and as they grow they develop a basic behavioral repertoire (BBR) o an individual’s BBR and their life situation will inform their behavior, which constitutes o PB argues that as children develop, they learn basic repertoires upon which other and more complex repertoires are built o this called cumulative learning, which PB states is a kind of learning unique to huns o according to this cumulative learning model, when children learn a repertoire such as language

o o o

staats indicated that many words carry a positive or negative connotation, and they transfer that association to anything to which they are paired such “emotional words: have the purpose of 1) acting as rewards or punishments for behaviors ,and 2) encouraging either approach or avoidance behaviors this can be seen in the case of compliment paid to a person for a certain behavior, who will be more likely to repeat that behavior

social learning theory (albert bandura) -

bandura’s social learning theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling the theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling; from observing others, one forms an idea of ho attention – various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid retention – remembering what you paid attention to includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal reproduction – reproducing the image. including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction motivation – having a good reasons to imitate. includes motives such as past ( i.e. traditional behaviorism) promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)

reciprocal determinism -

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bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is , the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behaviors bandura, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well later, bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components the environment, behavior and one psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and languages)

behavior

albert bandura’s theory

personal factors (cognitive, affective, & biological events)

environmental environment

cognitivism (mariner, david merill, Charles reigetlut, rober mills’ gagne, jeorme bruner, romer schank) -

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the cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960 as the dominant paradigm. cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving eed to be explored knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata

attribution theory (Bernard wiener) -

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attribution theory assumes that people try to deterring why people do what they do, that is, interpret causes to an event or behavior. a three-stage process underlies an attribution o behavior must be observed wiener’s theory is mainly about achievement. when one succeed, ones attribution successes internally (my own skill), when a rival succeed, ones to credit externally (luck) internal attribution - assigning the cause of behavior to some internal characteristics. external – assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a person’s control.

arcs model of motivational design theories (john keller) -

according to john keller’s ARCS o attention  perceptual arousal- uses surprise or uncertain  inquiry arousal- stimulates curiosity by passing challenging questions or problems to solved o relevance  establish relevance in order to increase a learner’s motivation  experience-tell the learners how the new learning will use their exsting skills  present worth- what will the subject matter do for me today??  future usefulness- what will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?  needs matching- take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power and affiliation  modeling-“be what you want them to do”  choice- allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing choice in how they organize it o confidence  help students understand their likelihood for success

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provide objective and prerequisites-help students estimate the probability of success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria  allow for success that is meaningful  grow the learners – allow for small steps of growth during the learning process  feedback – provide feedback and support internal attributions for success  learner control – learner should feed some degree of control over their learning and assessment satisfaction  learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way, whetehr it is from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment  make the learner feel as though the skill is useful or beneficial by providing opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge in real setting  provide feedback and reinforcement. when learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn  do not patronize the learner by over-rewarding easy tasks

A-engage signpost activate r-signpost assumptions knowledge c – guidance performance

emotional intelligence (Daniel Goleman) -

emotional intelligence (EQ) the ability to identify, asses, and control one’s own emotions, the emotions of the others, and that of groups

Daniel golems’s model (1998) focuses on el as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance, and consists of five areas -

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self – awareness o know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings to guide decisions self- regulation o manage or redirect one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and adapt to changing circumstances social skill o manage other’s emotions to move people in the desired direction empathy o recognize, understand, and consider other people’s feelings especially when making decisions motivation

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motivate oneself to achieve for the sake of achievement

Experiential learning (divid a kolb) -

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concrete experience (or DQ) o first stage, concrete experience (CE) is where the learner actively experiences an activity reflective observation (or OBSERVE) o SECOND STAGE REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION (ro) IS WHEN THE LEARNER CONSIOUSLY REFLETS BACK ON THAT EXPERINCE abstract conceptualization (or think)

Maslows hierarchy of needs -

a motivational theory in psychology that argue that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a pyramid. the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment. any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for instance, going to a bar could satisfy ones needs for self-esteem and for social interaction.

Maslows hierarchy of needs has often been represented in a hierarchical pyramid with five levels. the four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level of the pyramid is considered growth needs. The lower level needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as follow. -

self-actualization- includes morality, creativity, problem solving, etc. esteem – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc. belongingness- include love, friendship, intimacy family, etc. safety – includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc. physiological – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep other factors towards homeostasis, etc.

Deprivation needs the first four levels are considered deficiency: -

growth needs – the highest level is self-actualization, or the self-fulfillment. Behavior in this case is not driven or motivated by deficiencies but rather ones desire for personal growth and the need to become all the things that a person is capable of becoming.

Constructivdism constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learing is an active, constructive process. the learner is an information constructor. people activevly construct or create their own suvjective representations or ovjective. Anchored instruction by john d. bransford -

anchored instruction involves the use of an “anchor” material or media, often a video, to create a shared experience among learners and a beginning point for further learning on a topic. The anchor video should support a few key instructional objectives. It should be: 1. short enough to showcase a case example which can introduce beginning vocabulary 2. engaging enough so that the students will want to watch it repeatedly to learn and reinforce the information. 3. understandable by students with a variety of background knowledge on the topic.

Cognitive dissonance by leon festinger -

is the negative feelings that results from conflicting belief and behaviors. refers to the uncomfortable feeling that occurs when there is a conflict between ones belief and behavior an individual experiencing dissonance as three optional courses of action in order to minimize the dissonance: change the behavior, change the belief, or rationalize the behavior.

action

change of belief

inconsistency belief

high dissonance

change of action

low dissonace

change of action perspective

Other theories Connectionism -

stimulus and response connection the concept of “belongingness” was introduced “polarity” which specifies that connections occure more easily in the direction in which ther were originally formed than the opposite/

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“spread of effect” idea i.e. rewards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well

other laws of learning -

law of primacy – things learned first create a strong impression. law of recency – things most recently learned are best remembered. law of intensity – the more intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned law of freedom – things freely learned are best learned.

Conditions of learning by Robert gagne 5 major categories of learning: -

verbal information, intellectual skills cognitive strategies, motor skills; and attitudes

instructional events: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

gain attention identify objective recall prior learning present stimulus guide learning elicit performance provide feedback assess performance enhance retention/transfer

meaningful lerning by david ausubel focus: cognitive structure or “present knowledge”

derivative subsumption theory: subsumption – is a process by which new materials related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure

subordinate learning -

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derivative subsumption – new information is linked to superordinate idea A and represents another case or extension of A. the critical attributes of the concept A are not changed, but new examples are recognized as relevant. correlative subsumption- new information y is linked to idea X, but is an extension, modification, or qualification of X. the critical attributes of the subsuming concept may be extended or modified with the new correlative subsumption.

Superordinate learning in superordinate earning, established ideas a1, a2, and a3 are Combinatorial learning -

new idea A is seen as related to existing ideas B, C, and D but is neither ore inclusive nor more specific than ideas B, C, and D. in this case, new idea A is seen to have some criterial attributes in common with preexisting ideas.

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describes the new content provides new knowledge that students will need to understand the upcoming information

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presents the new information

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is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview

expository

narrative

skimming

graphic organizers -

visuals to set up or outline the new information. i.e. pictographs, descriptive patterns

situated learning theory by jean lave -

a theory that suggest learning is “naturally tied to authentic activity, context, and culture.”