Semantics PPT 2018 PDF [PDF]

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SEMANTICS 2017-18 Lecturer: Vu Thi Lan

INTRODUCTION

Assessment

- Mid-term test (1) + mini-tests

70%

- Participation

10%

- Attendance

20%

Note: => Permission for absence needs to be obtained BEFORE class attendance check. => Lateness (twice) = w/o P (once) => -1 => P (twice) = w/o P (once) => -1

Oral presentation (10% + Bonus) Unit 4 (Semantic relations) * Ex.5 (Homophones) Unit 5 (Idioms) * Ex.4 (Phraseological unities - Comparisons) * Ex.5 (number 1-5) * Ex.5 (number 6-10) Unit 6 (Figures of speech) 1. The last leaf 2. The gift of the magi (The Christmas gift) 3. A retrieved reformation 4. The cop and the anthem (Soapy and the cop) 5. Makes the whole world kin 6. The ransom of Red Chief

REFERENCE BOOKS Semantics - A coursebook (James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, & Michael B. Smith), Cambridge University Press, 2007 Language, Grammar, Communication (Gerald P. Delahunty & James J. Garvey), McGraw-Hill, 1994 An Introduction to English language (Koenraad Kuiper & W. Scott Allan), Palgrave Macmillan, 2010 Figures of speech (Stylistic devices) http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/writingstylistics.php http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/figure-ofspeech.html

Week/11

1

unit

1

2 3 2

4 5

3

topics

 What is Semantics? Basic concepts: Semantics, Pragmatics, Sentences, Utterances, Propositions  Sense and Reference * Sense, Referent, Reference * Predicate, Predicator, Referring expression * Generic sentence, Equative sentence * Deictic terms  Sense properties * Semantic properties/ features of words * Semantic properties of sentences (Analyticity, Syntheticity, Contradiction)

Week/11

6 7 8 9

unit

4

topics

 Mid-term Test  Sense relations * Synonymy & Paraphrase * Hyponymy & Entailment * Antonymy (Types: Gradable, Complementary, System of multiple incompatibility, Converses) * Homonymy (Full, Homophones, Homographs) * Polysemy & Ambiguity (lexical & structural)

Week/11

10 11 12

13 14 15

unit

5

6

topics

 Idioms * Characteristics (structure & meaning) * Classification (Phraseological combinations/ unities/ fusions) * Proverbs, Sayings  Figures of speech * Figures of comparison (metaphor, simile, personification) * Figures of contrast (irony, hyperbole, understatement) * Figures of association (metonymy, synecdoche)

Unit 1 BASIC IDEAS IN SEMANTICS By Vu Thi Lan 2017

Basic Ideas in Semantics I. WHAT IS SEMANTICS? II. MEANING III. SENTENCE, UTTERANCE, PROPOSITION IV. SEMANTIC TRIANGLE

I. WHAT IS SEMANTICS? Semantics = a branch of Linguistics

studying the meanings of words, expressions, or sentences dealing with N.B.

Semantics

vs.

Pragmatics

 study of relationships b/w

 study of relationships b/w





I. WHAT IS SEMANTICS? E.g.

Where can we find a peacock?

=> Where did you find that peacock?

=>

II. MEANING Language word formation

sounds

Meaning =

=>

structures

meanings

MEANING

Semantics Literal meaning words

Pragmatics Non-literal meaning

sentences

Linguistic context

Situational context

 Literal meaning   Non-literal meaning  in actual use, in utterances

 Linguistic context  actual words / sentences that precede or follow an utterance  Situational context  situation, background knowledge, physical context (where, when, who,…)

Meanings are complicated because There are non-literal meanings => understood by 1 stress, intonation 2 body language 3 contextual interpretation

Meanings may vary across dialects or individual speakers

* BE vs. AE ** Two women

III. SENTENCE, UTTERANCE, PROPOSITION 1.

=> Which has meaning? Which is a sentence? e.g. “She put my books on the counter.” “She put my book.” - “On the counter.” A sentence =>

-

An utterance =>

2.

- what is said by any speaker, -

=> Identify the utterances: E.g. Susan: Peter: Susan: Peter: Susan:

“Nice day today. Going out?” “No. I’d rather stay indoors. Coffee?” “Yes, no sugar.” “I know. You don’t like anything sweet.” “No.”

3. => How many basic meanings are there in this simple sentence?

E.g. Mary’s friend, Carol’s brother, is a married lawyer. - Mary has a friend. => 5 propositions

A proposition => - the basic meaning which a sentence expresses -

Exercise: Identify the propositions in these utterances. 1. “Malaria – a dangerous, infectious disease spread by mosquitoes – is usually found in the tropics.” 2. “Venezuela sits atop the world’s largest proven oil reserves, but its people are going hungry.” 3. “The tall, stately building collapsed after an earthquake measuring 8.5 on the Richter scale.”

4. “NY Metropolitan Museum of Art’s chief floral designer, an immigrant from Holland, has been creating floral arrangements in the Great Hall weekly for more than 20 years.” 5. “The 47-year-old Rena Sard decided to turn a 5-year prison sentence into an opportunity to better her life by enrolling in a program that allowed her to earn a college degree while behind bars.”

Important notes a) Sentences of different languages => same proposition e.g. Je m’appelle Alice.

b) Different sentences => same proposition e.g. The porters have shut the gates.

c) A declarative sentence + its corresponding interrogative / imperative one => same propositional content e.g. The porters have shut the gates. Have the porters shut the gates? Ask the porters to shut the gates! =>

d) A proposition can be TRUE or FALSE. e.g.

IV. SEMANTIC TRIANGLE sense

form

referent

IV. SEMANTIC TRIANGLE Form-sense rel. =>

form

sense

Sense-referent rel. =>

referent Form-referent rel. =>

Unit 2

SENSE AND REFERENCE I. SENSE VS. MEANING II. REFERENT VS. REFERENCE III. COMPLICATED SENSE-FORM-REFERENT RELATIONSHIPS IV. REFERRING EXPRESSIONS, PREDICATES, PREDICATORS V. DEICTIC TERMS

I. SENSE vs. MEANING Sense – meaning => Sense, not meaning: - when distinguishing ≠ senses of a word / expression e.g. - when considering semantic relations of words / exp. e.g. - when distinguishing sense from reference (referent) e.g.

• Table dinner table

tables

2

1

and charts

a task for this table

=> 3 senses of “table”

3

Light - a light room = - a light meal = - light clothes ≠ - a light book ≠ => 4 senses in relation to other senses / expressions

II. REFERENT vs. REFERENCE Referent =

Reference =

B.O.O.K

III. Complicated sense-form-referent relationships 1. one sense – one referent => unique, constant reference 2. one sense – many referents => variable reference 3. same exp. – different referents – different senses 4. ≠ exp. – same referents – same or ≠ senses

5. with sense – w/o referents

 imagery animals  abstract notions  non-existent entities

6. clear sense – ambiguous referents 7. with referents – w/o sense

Exercise

Exercise: Comment on the S-F-R relationship of these words / expressions. 1. the Queen of England

2. vest (BE) – vest (AE) 3. the capital of Vietnam 4. the capital of the SRV 5. the president of Japan 6. Mt Everest 7. the last king of Vietnam – Mr. Baûo Ñaïi

8. Donald Trump

IV. REFERRING EXPRESSIONS, PREDICATES, PREDICATORS 1. Referring expressions (REs) any expressions used in an utterance to refer to sth. / S.O. PN, personal pronouns, definite descriptive NPs => Other concepts related to REs: - Equative sentence: - Generic sentence:

=> Which expressions have referents? Examples: 1. Roses are flowers. Roses, flowers => generic, no referents

2. My roses are red. 3. John is my close friend. 4. He is a doctor.

REs

NOT REs

* Definite NP - My bike was broken down.

* Indefinite / generic NP -

* Definite NP - I know the person who stole your bike.

* Definite NP, but no referent -

* Existing in speaker’s mind - The phoenix then looked at Harry. - Tomorrow will be fine.

* Generic NP -

N.B. * Ambiguous cases E.g. She wants to hire a new maid.

 any maid =>

 a more careful, honest, hard-working person =>

** EQUATIVE SENTENCES => Used to identify two REs having the same referents - Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam.

- Vatican City is the world’s smallest country. => Two REs  usually reversible

**Non-equative sentences • Kim looks like Marilyn Monroe. => “Kim” / “MM” = => =>

“Reversal test” (p.42)  Not always applicable to Equative sentences

 Sometimes => 2 REs of equative sentence > E.g. That is my father. => ???  Sometimes => 2 parts are reversible, but only 1 RE  E.g. What I want is a drink. = A drink is what I want.

*** GENERIC SENTENCES => To express a fact or the truth - Roses are flowers. vs. - A billionaire is a rich man. vs.

2. Predicates & Predicators Predicator = a word / expression

=> ø RE =>

=> can be V, A, P, N (content words) E.g.

- This car is wonderful.

- He is a singer. - The old woman died.

- Your book is between his and mine.

N.B. What is the predicator in an equative sentence? Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam

=> No predicator =>

Predicate => any word that can function as predicator of another sentence / utterance => => => helping identify referent of a RE  E.g1 My old cat caught a small yellow bird. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates:

=> We admire his new car. REs: we, his new car Predicator: Predicates:

Another context: => Her book is new. => That is a car.

E.g.2 The car near the gate is expensive. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates: E.g.3 Peter’s house is on the hill. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates:

E.g.4 This well-furnished room is for her, not for you. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates: E.g.5 Our plane is taking off in a minute. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates:

E.g.6 My mother is as busy as a bee. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates: E.g.7 John found his wallet in the pool. - REs: - Predicator: - Predicates:

**NOTE: => Degree of a predicate => number of arguments (x, y, z) as indicated by REs and determined by the predicator one-place predicate: DIE BEAUTIFUL DOCTOR two-place predicate: HIT ON SISTER three-place predicate: GIVE BETWEEN

V. DEICTIC TERMS Take their meanings from the situation or context of the utterance Have different referents … Example: Ben (to Mary): I saw Tom yesterday.

Mary (to Ann): I saw Ben yesterday.

Deictic terms are usually  Adverbs:    

Demonstratives: Pronouns: Verbs: Tense marker:

here, there, this, that, I, you, come, go, past, present, future

N.B.  Deixis = general phenomenon of the occurrence of deictic terms  Terms are called “deictic” when they refer to sth. E.g. You can’t tell a book by its cover.

YOU => (In the exam room) Now… now… No cheating!

NOW =>

CONCLUSION Words, phrases, sentences have meaning and can be used to refer Sense and referent do not always correspond to each other =>

Unit 3

SENSE PROPERTIES & STEREOTYPES

SENSE PROPERTIES & STEREOTYPES I. SENSE PROPERTIES OF WORDS II. SENSE PROPERTIES OF SENTENCES III. STEREOTYPES

I. SENSE PROPERTIES OF WORDS CHILD

KID

INFANT

+ human

+ human

+ human

- old

+ young

- old

- formal

+ formal

Sense of a word / expression => => sum of its sense properties + sense relations with others

Sense properties of a word => smallest units of meaning in a word

Semantic features of a word => sense properties

N.B. Conversations will get stuck if a speaker seems to ignore some particular conventions about the sense of words / expressions. => Who ignores or violates the language conventions? Mary

I saw an animal on top of the clothes pole.

John

How do you know it was an animal?

Mary

I saw it. It was a cat.

John

You might have seen a cat, but how can you be so sure it was an animal?

Mary

Of course it was an animal if it was a cat.

John

I don’t think so.

EXERCISE: Find the shared semantic properties of the words within each group. 1. yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice cream 2. plate, glass, fork, knife 3. rhinoceros, buffalo, bison, whale 4. spade, rake, pruning shears, shovel

5. table-tennis, baseball, cricket, rounders

6. horse, mare, stallion, pony 7. pony, puppy, kitten, duckling 8. puppy, cub, calf, kitten 9. broom, vacuum cleaner, duster, mop

10. milk, lemonade, beer, coffee 11. bicycle, motorbike, moped, scooter 12. peach, plum, cherry, nectarine 13. dragonfly, locust, moth, butterfly 14. bee, wasp, scorpion, jellyfish

II. SENSE PROPERTIES OF SENTENCES 1. 2. 3. 4.

Cats are animals. Cats are not vegetables. Bachelors are male. Bachelors are unmarried.

5. Cats are clean. 6. Bachelors are lonely. 7. These cats are not animals. 8. Cats are not animals. 9. Everybody is sick, but some people are not. 10. Tim was killed but he was still alive.

Analyticity => => The truth => determined by the semantics of the language N.B. Analytically true vs. Empirically true.

- Roses are flowers. T/F? - The August Revolution broke out in 1845. T/F?

Syntheticity => => The truth / falsehood => determined by the circumstances E.g. Queens are kings’ wives. T/F?

Contradiction => => The falsehood => determined by the senses of the words in the sentence => Opposite of analyticity Bachelors are married. unmarried.

=> =>

not married. =>

Analyticity

Contradiction

N.B. Anomaly (Anomalous sentence) => a special case of contradiction

=> semantic oddness, i.e. violation of selectional restriction (= rules of combining words) E.g.

- That pregnant bachelor speaks with a big voice. => bachelor >

green >
< sleep (inactive activity) >
not used for imper. or interrogative sentences (not about facts) E.g. The door is open. => vs. Open the door! => Sense properties of sentences depend on the sense properties of the words in the sentences. E.g. Carrots are vegetables. A circle is a round shape.

III. STEREOTYPES 1. Stereotype vs. Prototype

Example

- Prototype = an object - Stereotype = a list with feather, having wings, can fly, building nests in a tree, … made of glass, cylindrical base, with a narrow neck at the top,…

N.B. People of different cultures may have different views of the prototype & stereotypes E.g. => Vietnamese vs. European

2. Stereotype vs. sense => sense = hard core of meaning agreed by almost all people & cultures (conventional) E.g. woman

SENSE: [+ human, - male, + adult ] STEREOTYPE:

CONCLUSION • Stereotype   important => reflecting the typical view of people of a community in a certain place at a certain time

Unit 4

74

SEMANTIC RELATIONS I. Synonymy

II. Hyponymy

IV. Homonymy

III. Antonymy

V. Polysemy

CONCLUSION Exercises 75

SYNONYM, SYNONYMOUS, SYNONYMY

- “Bike” and “bicycle” are _________. - They are ____________ words. - The relation b/w “bike” and bicycle”

is _____________. 76

I. SYNONYMY 1. = the relationship b/w 2 predicates/predicators having the same sense (NOT: b/w 2 words) e.g. This room is bright. vs. This room is light. 2. Synonyms may share one sense in common, but not all others. =>

BRIGHT

= = = = …

LIGHT (a)

= = = = … 77

3. Synonyms share all semantic properties but one. infant => kid =>

78

3. Synonyms share all semantic properties but one. infant => kid =>

Other examples: a. adore, love => b. autumn, fall => c. thin, slim d. slim, slender e. lonely, alone 79

Other examples: f. shine, glow => g. happy (new year), merry (Christmas) => h. Christmas, Xmas => i. present, gift =>

80

NOTE: Denotation vs. Connotation • The denotation of a word/phrase is its explicit or primary meaning. e.g. infant & kid > • The connotation of a word/phrase is its secondary or implied meaning. e.g. infant vs. kid > Common types of connotation: style, degree,

81

Exercise 1: Identify the connotation of the following synonymous pairs. 1.

wound vs. injury

2.

choose vs. select

3.

continual vs. continuous

4.

cost vs. price

5.

gaudy vs. gorgeous

6.

clothes vs. garment

7.

desolate vs. deserted

8.

fat vs. plump

82

4. Synonyms => usually of the same class, but not always The house is burning (V) / My baby is sleeping (V) / 5. Synonymous sentences = PARAPHRASES My baby is sleeping My baby is asleep. => the same notion (symmetrical) => 2 kinds of paraphrases 6. Synonymous “opposites” => good = ? a good scare =

83

Two kinds of paraphrases a) Lexical paraphrase => making use of synonyms I have 3 kids.

=

I like table tennis. = b) Structural paraphrase => giving different structures The cat chased the mouse. =

It is tough to live with him. = N.B. Someone stole my bike  My bicycle was stolen. =>

Exercise

Structural paraphrase < Some common transformational rules 1. Passive structure 2. Extra-position movement To meet you is nice. => 3. Tough movement It’s difficult to deal with him. =>

4. Cleft structure Peter loves Mary. => 5. Pseudo cleft structure John hates doing the housework. => 85

Exercise 2: Paraphrase the following. 1. It was Jennifer that cheated in the exam. 2. It is my honour to entertain our distinguished guests. 3. It is possible that there would be a storm tonight. 4. It is expected that you all will win the game. 5. What I want to do now is sit down and have a rest.

6. The rioters set fire to the police car yesterday. 7. John saw a cock with three legs.

8. It was odd how proud he was.

II. HYPONYMY

ANIMAL

dog

Mammal

Reptile

cat

…

…

87

METAL

Gold (Au)

Silver (Ag)

Copper (Cu)

Iron (Fe)

Mercury (Hg)

…

88

(p.111)

= the set of all animals

= the set of all cows

89

Characteristics of Hyponymy 1. = sense relation b/w predicates such that the meaning of one predicate is included in the sense of the other (= inclusion) (p.105) CAT

+ +

=> The sense of ANIMAL ____________ in the sense of CAT.

=> The sense of CAT _____________ the sense of ANIMAL. 2. Two-way hyponymy (symmetrical)  synonymy => 90

METAL Gold (Au)

Silver (Ag)

Copper (Cu)

Iron (Fe)

Mercury (Hg)

Quicksilver

Co-hyponyms

91

3. ENTAILMENT = hyponymy applied to sentences (p. 107) My cat was stolen. They boiled the pork. N.B.

a) Entailment => cumulative

?

A rose is a flower ; A flower is a kind vegetation. =>

b) Two-way entailment = Paraphrase (p.108) => John and Mary are twins.  Mary and John are twins. 92

c) Hyponymy =>  Entailment With They didn’t boil the pork.

They didn’t cook the meat. They grilled the pork!

With All my roses have thorns

All my flowers have thorns.

My daisies don’t have thorns. With I saw a big mouse.

I saw a big animal.

93

SUMMARY Sense relation sense

synonymy Similarity b/w predi.

paraphrase

hyponymy

entailment

Similarity b/w senten.

Inclusion b/w predi.

Inclusion b/w senten.

94

III. ANTONYMY Traditionally => words with opposite meanings Currently => 4 basic types of antonyms or 1. Binary antonyms / Complementary pairs

e.g.

= predicates which come in pairs & b/w them exhaust all relevant possibilities => either X or Y is true / false; no exceptions

N.B. 95

Binary antonyms Examples true ≠ false dead ≠

A

pass ≠ A

B

B

96

2. Converses / Relational opposites e.g. = 2 or 3 things / people are mentioned in the opposite order (= symmetric relationship) N.B. [x] ___ [y]  [y] ____ [x] [x] ____ [y], [z]  [z] _____ [y], [x] 3. System of multiple incompatibility (SMI) e.g. = including all the terms that are mutually incompatible (exclusive), and that cover all the relevant area N.B.  co-hyponyms 97

Converses Examples - parent vs. child [x] - husband vs. wife [x] - bigger vs. smaller [x] - own vs. belong [x] - give vs. receive

parent [y]  husband [y]  bigger [y]  owns [y] 

I give a book to Mary  Mary receives a book from me.

[x] gives [y], [z]  [z] receives [y], [x] 98

System of multiple incompatibility Examples - spring, summer, autumn, winter - hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades - south, north, east, west - Mon, Tues, Wed, Thurs, … - Jan, Feb, March, April, … =>

Sp

Su

Au

Wi

- red, yellow, blue, green, … - rose, daisy, lily, orchid, … => 99

4. Gradable antonyms e.g. = at opposite ends of a continuous scale of values N.B. “NOT” A B TESTS => very + => more A  (converses: [x] older [y]  [y] younger [x]) Applied to sentences => Contradiction E.g. That tall man is quite short. Exercise 100

Gradable pairs Examples YOUNG

N.B. NOT young

OLD

old

101

Exercise 3: Determine the types of antonymy.

1. yin – yang 2. doctor – nurse 3. doctor – patient 4. humane – inhumane 5. human – non-human 6. niece – nephew 7. black – white 8. white – non-white (n) 9. bigger – smaller 10. slow – fast

IV. HOMONYMY 1. No sense relations b/w predicates => unrelated meanings

=> 2. Classification [a] Full homonymy seal (animal) – seal (on containers) [b] Homophony meat – meet [c] Homography

lead (v) – lead (metal) 103

3. A source of lexical ambiguity & humor => Example: Customer Waiter! Waiter Yes, sir? Customer What’s this? Waiter It’s [bi:n] soup, sir. Customer Never mind what it has [bi:n]. I want to know what it IS now. Exercise 104

Exercise 4: Find the meanings of these full homonyms 1. long

2. flat 3. bank 4. bear

5. bat

Exercise 5: Find the other word of the homonymous pairs 1. role – roll 2. dear 3. no 4. need 5. pore 6. die 7. sail 8. which 9. whale 10. hole

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

idle lesson made night saw write symbol carrot kernel mare

Exercise 6: Say aloud these homographs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

minute (time) – minute (very small) desert (Sahara ~) – desert (v) close (v) – close (= near) invalid (person) – invalid (visa) bow (one’s head) – bow (and arrow)

V. POLYSEMY 1. Words having 2 or more closely related senses developed by extension

=> E.g. NECK

a. part of the body b. narrow part of a bottle c. flesh of an animal’s neck N.B. Distinction b/w Polysemy & Homonymy => based on dictionary entries for words  meanings in ONE entry =>  meanings in ≠ entries => 108

2. a source Example Customer: Bookseller: Customer:

of lexical ambiguity I’d like a book, please? Something light? That doesn’t matter. I have my car with me.

N.B.

(a) Lexical ambiguity < Wait for me near the bank.

I need a seal now.

Structural ambiguity < The policeman hit the man with an umbrella. ??? The lamb is too hot to eat. 109

(b) Referentially versatile word => referring to a wide range of different things / people (= multiple referents) => ambiguity e.g. “What should be done now?” –“We should call the police.” WE 

WE  (c) Referentially vague concept => no absolute distinction due to ≠ views of gradable pairs e.g.

He is SHORT. => She is the BEST student. => Exercise

110

Exercise 7: Identify the types of ambiguity in these sentences. Explain their meanings. 1. 2. 3. 4.

They are flying planes. He saw that petrol can explode. The long drill was boring. John passed the hammer and saw through the window.

CONCLUSION  Knowledge of semantic relations => help successful communication  Ambiguity used in creative writing => making jokes  Context or additional information => disambiguating or clarifying sentences e.g. The lamb is too hot to eat; we have to wait in hunger. 112

Exercise 8: Identify the semantic relations of each pair of predicates or predicators. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Is this substance flammable / inflammable? This cup is valuable / invaluable. A bicycle is usually convenient / inconvenient. Have you ever seen a football match? Did you see my match box? 5. What a dull lecture. / What a dull man. 6. She was given a gem / gemstone. 7. She was given an emerald / a gem. 8. He is her better / worse half. 9. You can take a tomato or a potato. 10. Where is my hair / hare?

Unit 5

Unit 5 - IDIOMS I

Definition

II

Characteristics

III

Classification

**

NOTES

•Idioms = idiomatic expressions = Cf. Collocations / Expressions E.g.

I. Definition: = fixed phrases => their meanings are not the combination of the meanings of the individual words => e.g.

red tape to lose one’s head

Note: Idioms vs. phrases Idioms 1. structure Fixed -

2. meaning

Phrases Changeable -

Usually transferred Combined -

II. Characteristic 1. Invariable structures (frozen in form)

a. Restriction in substitution => no word of the idiom can be substituted without destroying its sense e.g. to give S.O. the cold shoulder b. Restriction in introducing additional components => no insertion of new words to the idiom is allowed

Exception: “… While dressing herself for dinner, she built ……………………………………………………… castle in the air of which she was the mistress…”

II. Characteristic (cont.) c. Restriction in grammatical changes => word order, word forms cannot be changed e.g. to find fault with S.O. Exceptions: to build castle in the air => a black sheep =>

II. Characteristic (cont.) 2. Violation of the rules on combining semantic properties (= anomaly) e.g. * to eat one’s word

=> ** to have one’s heart in one’s boots => *** to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve =>

III. Classification 1 Phraseological combinations (motivated) * from head to foot * 2 Phraseological unities (partially motivated) * from hand to mouth * 3 Phraseological fusions (completely non-

motivated)

* Achilles’ heels * Exercise 1 

Ex 1. Classify the following idioms. 1. Many moons ago 2. To feel pity for S.O. 3. Over / under the counter 4. Gonzo journalism 5. To split hairs 6. In prison 7. Under lock and key 8. A rough diamond 9. Spartan life 10.To clear the table

Ex 2. Complete the following idioms and then classify them. 1. My uncle rules the family business with a rod of .... 2. We can’t let the grass grow …. – we need to get going with the project. 3. He had another drink to give him Dutch … before taking part in the fight. 4. It will be a disaster if you are on … terms with your boss. 5. After work, my father drinks like … 6. I want a qualified plumber to fix the pipes, not just any Tom, Dick or … 7. I fell in love with her at first ….

NOTES 1

Idioms may have synonyms * as black as soot * walking dictionary

2

Many idioms are created from proverbs / sayings * A bird in the hand * The last straw

< A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush

Proverbs, Sayings Proverbs  …  complete or elliptical sentences, =>  moral lessons

Sayings  …  complete sentences  moral lessons, advice

Ex 3. - Find the original proverbs or sayings. - Find their meanings. 1. to lie on the bed one has made 2. a rolling stone 3. birds of a feather 4. a new broom

Ex 4. Complete these phraseological unities 1. as black as … 2. as blind as 3. as bright as … 4. as cold as … 5. as clear as … 6. as dark as … 7. as easy as … 8. as fresh as … 9. as hot as … 10. as mad as … 11. as quick as … 12. as red as …

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

as as as as as as as as as as as as as

silly as … smooth as… strong as … rich as … poor as … sour as … thin as … true as … ugly as warm as … weak as … white as … wise as …

Cues: butter

crystal

glass

pitch

a church mouse

a baby blood

coal Croesus

lightning ice

oil a sheet

a March hare a toad

ABC a bat a bell pepper ink a goose

day a daisy fire a rose night charity

a Jew a horse glass marble a mole silver

a serpent soot Solomon snow thought a frog

a rake steel vinegar water wool a sheep

Ex 5. Find the origins and meanings of these idioms •1. apple of discord •2. Trojan horse •3. Achilles’ heel •4. between Scylla and Charybdis •5. a pound of flesh •6. have Hobson’s choice •7. Midas touch •8. Pandora’s box •9. Catch-22 situation •10. the lion’s share

Ex6. - Find the meanings or Vietnamese equivalents of these proverbs. 1. Familiarity breeds contempt. 2. Set the fox to mind the geese. 3. No pains, no gains. 4. No money, no piper. 5. The leopard cannot change its spots. 6. The rotten apple injures its neighbour. 7. The tailor makes the man. 8. More haste, less speed. 9. Walls have ears. 10.When candles are out, the cats are grey.

Unit 6

FIGURES OF SPEECH

FIGURES OF SPEECH Boiling water was rising rapidly inside him.

There was a long minute’s quivering silence. They scrabbled like a monkey up the stone steps.

It seemed to take him an age to fall.



Unit 6 – FIGURES OF SPEECH GENERAL FIGURES OF COMPARISON FIGURES OF CONTRAST

FIGURES OF ASSOCIATION MISCELLANY

Conclusion

= extended reference of meaning beyond the word ordinary sense = a word or phrase used for special effect beyond its usual meaning

=>

FIGURES OF COMPARISON 1. Metaphor 2. Simile 3. Personification Exercise

METAPHOR

Definition => substitution based on … => The comparison is covert, not stated directly => No function words E.g. These are sweet. May I have three hands, please?

METAPHOR (1) Classification: 1. Similarity of shape / appearance 2. Similarity of position 3. Similarity of function / use

METAPHOR (2) Classification: 4. Similarity of movement 5. Similarity of size 6. Similarity of temperature

METAPHOR (3) Classification: 7. Similarity of color 8. Similarity of sound / manner 9. Similarity of quality

Simile = an expression in which sth. is compared to sth. else by using a function word

=> The comparison is stated explicitly. e.g. They speak like saints and act like devils. Her hands are as cold as …

She is as hard-working as ...

Personification = a special kind of metaphor

= some non-human thing is compared by implication to a human being Human characteristics are given to sth. non-human e.g. This drawer …………. to open. My goldfish is ………….. to be fed.

Exercise 1: Identify the kinds of metaphor. 1. Cold weather / cold war

2. Tail of a dog / tail of a procession 3. A worm / to worm through a tunnel 4. Hand of a person / hand of a clock 5. A dog / to dog a film star 6. A fox (an animal / a cunning man) 7. A red scarf / red hot 8. A giant / giant leap 9. A head / head of a cabbage 10. A finger / chocolate fingers

FIGURES OF CONTRAST 1. Irony 2. Hyperbole / Overstatement 3. Understatement / Litotes

Irony = extension of meaning in a direction opposite to the normal one

e.g. (On a rainy day) “Oh! What a lovely day for a picnic!”

Hyperbole = = saying more than what is actually meant e.g. I just died laughing. I’d rather kill myself than watch that film.

Understatement  = saying less than what is actually meant e.g. (In a violent storm) Sailor: “It’s just a wee bit of a blow.”

FIGURES OF ASSOCIATION 1. Metonymy

2. Synecdoche

METONYMY = substitution based on ……………… of meanings of 2 entities

METONYMY (2) Types

1. container used for the content 2. body organ used for its function 3. concrete things used for sth. abstract

METONYMY (3) Types 4. material used for the thing made of it 5. place used for its inhabitants 6. place used for the things produced there

METONYMY (4) Types 7. inventor used for his invention / product 8. author used for his works

Exercise 2: Metaphor or Metonymy? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

I like to eat chicken legs. The chair legs have been broken. Who is the head of the department? Are you out of your head? She has a kind heart. His office is in the very heart of the city. Let’s look into the heart of the matter. Violence is a cancer in our society. She takes the chair in all our meetings.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

There’s a variety of seafood dishes here. I was shocked at his cool manner. This cave has a very low roof. I wish to have a cashmere scarf. They will exhibit Van Goghs soon. Harry is afraid of being under the knife. They are night owls before the exam. He has an iron fist in a velvet glove. The prisoners are clapped in irons.

SYNECDOCHE = substitution in which PART WHOLE =>

“Can I borrow your WHEELS?”

= substitution in which WHOLE PART The sun rises in the east. Kim was born in the East.

Exercise 3: Identify the words with metonymic use in the following sentences. 1. Carol and her family vow to boycott all products made from endangered species. 2. Would you like a champagne or a whiskey? 3. Are hamburgers good for your health? 4. Here is your mackintosh – don’t forget it. 5. Scotland Yard is tracking the terrorists down.

6. We have always remained loyal to the crown. 7. How much are these 60-watt light bulbs? 8. To make a hot dog, put a frankfurter inside. 9. What makes a difference between a chauvinist and a patriot?

10. Go on with your story – we’re all ears.

Exercise 4: Which figure of speech is used? - Figures of similarity - Figures of contrast - Figures of association

1. Her floods of tears have stopped him. 2. We need some new faces around here. 3. Squeeze your towel out and hang it up to dry. 4. Your words are squeezing my poor heart. 5. He's so nice to leave you and run away with another.

6. The noise is like a waterfall. 7. We are reading Hugos. 8. She earns a humble income of 5,000,000 USD a year. 9. Most students are hungry for knowledge. 10. The whirlwind hungrily swept away all houses.

MISCELLANY 1. Pun 2. Paradox

3. Antithesis 4. Oxymoron

1. Pun => Humorous use of a word or combination of words that are alike or nearly alike in sound

=> to emphasize different meanings e.g. Is life worth living? - Yes, it depends on the liver.

2. Paradox => self-contradictory statement -> to surprise or impress listeners / readers => e.g. The child is the father of the man.

3. Antithesis => striking contrast of ideas => with paralleled structures e.g. Give me liberty or give me death.

4. Oxymoron => combination of two opposite words => e.g. loving hate heavy lightness

Exercise 5: Identify the figures of speech. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. Look deep into our ryes. Man proposes; god disposes. I didn't kill anyone. I'm an extreme pacifist. Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana. This place is too black for heaven, and yet too white for hell. 7. Some day you will be old enough to start reading fairy tales again. 8. Many are called, but few are chosen. 9. In seeking happiness, one does not find happiness. 10. A yawn may be defined as a silent yell.

Exercise 6: Which figure of speech is used?

1.

We need some new blood in our group.

2.

Her lips look like a red rose.

3. 4.

He’s really a beast, beating children like that! She doesn’t want to lose face in public.

5.

The face of my clock is broken.

6.

He has millions of reasons not to do it.

7.

Even the fastest runner is a turtle to him.

8.

I believe a turtle can run faster than him.

9.

Our new model is awfully pretty.

10. Do you believe that war is peace?

11. When it pours, it reigns. 12. She is really an advanced beginner in my class. 13. You are my sunshine, darling! 14. He’s easy on the eyes but hard on the heart. 15. The earth may get clean after a meteor shower. 16. He’s a good person, but his face doesn’t fit for the job. 17. To be free, we need to have laws to restrict individual freedom.

18. Have some more food. You’re eating like a bird. 19. Don’t go out in the snow. It’s burning cold and you may get hurt.

20. The arm of this chair is broken. Fix it.

CONCLUSION  Figurative language => necessary to create effectiveness & impress readers  Excessive use =>

FIGURES OF SPEECH IN LITERATURE 1. The last leaf 2. The gift of the magi (The Christmas gift) 3. A retrieved reformation (Jimmy Valentine) 4. The cop and the anthem (Soapy and the cop) 5. Makes the whole world kin 6. The ransom of Red Chief

Ex 7. Identify the figures of speech used in the following excerpts. (1. The Last Leaf, by O’Henry) 1. Old Behrman was a failure as an artist. 2. Sue told him about Johnsy’s silly idea regarding the last leaf. Sue said she feared that Johnsy, being as light and fragile as a leaf herself, really would die when the last leaf floated down from the vine. 3. Still dark green near its stem, but turning yellow along the edges, the leaf was hanging bravely from a branch about twenty feet above the ground. 4. The day passed slowly, and the lonely leaf was still hanging there against the wall.

(2. The Christmas Gift, by O’Henry) 5. So now, her beautiful hair fell about her like a shining brown waterfall. It reached below her knees and almost covered her like a dress. 6. She put on her own brown coat and hat; then, with her eyes still sparkling, she rushed out the door and down the stairs to the street. 7. When Della reached home, she took her curling irons, lighted the gas, and tried to repair in some way the damage to her hair. 8. Isn’t it a fine chain, Jim? I hunted all over town for it. You’ll have to look at your watch a hundred times a day to see what time it is.

(3. A retrieved reformation, by O’Henry) 9. Mike laughed and handed Jimmy a glass of milk. Jimmy had never touched “hard” drinks. 10. Fifteen hundred dollars in currency was taken; the silver and other valuables remained untouched. 11. Mr. Ralph Spencer, the phoenix that arose from Jimmy Valentine's ashes – ashes left by the flame of a sudden and alterative attack of love – remained in Elmore, and prospered. He opened a shoe-store and secured a good run of trade. 12. To a woman, nothing seems quite impossible to the powers of the man she worships.

(4. The cop and the anthem, by O’Henry) 13. A dead leaf fell on Soapy’s leg. That was winter’s first greeting. Winter is kind to those who sleep on benches in Madison Square Park; it gives them a warning before it comes. 14. For years, the friendly prison on Blackwell’s Island has been his winter home. 15. The pleasantest way was to dine in luxury at some expensive restaurant, and then declaring that he could not pay the bill. The kind judge of the police court would sentence him to three or more months at the Island prison.

(5. Makes the whole world kin, by O’Henry) 16. The other well-known type is the burglar who wears a coat and tie. He is always referred to as a “gentleman thief.”… He is said to have a wife in every state and a sweetheart in every big city. 17. I can forecast rain better than any professional weatherman. Any dampness in the air gives me an awful pain in my left shoulder and arm.

(6. The ransom of Red Chief, by O’Henry) 18. There was a town down there, as flat as a flannelcake, and called Summit, of course. 19. Every few minutes he would remember that he was a pesky redskin, and pick up his stick rifle and tiptoe to the mouth of the cave to rubber for the scouts of the hated paleface. 20. Bill gets down on his all fours, and a look comes in his eye like a rabbit's when you catch it in a trap.

(The ransom of Red Chief, by O’Henry)

21. I'm sorry we lose the ransom; but it was either that or Bill Driscoll to the madhouse. 22. "Enough," says Bill. "In ten minutes I shall cross the Central, Southern and Middle Western States, and be legging it trippingly for the Canadian border."