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Trumpet Pedagogy A Compendium of Modern Teaching Techniques

© Hickman Music Editions 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced (except for Beginner’s Warm-Up by James West and Advanced Warm-Up by David Hickman), stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopied, recorded, or otherwise, without the express permission of the publisher.

Hickman Music Editions P. O. Box 11370 Chandler, Arizona 85248 USA (www.HickmanMusicEditions.com)

Trumpet Pedagogy A Compendium of Modern Teaching Techniques

David R. Hickman Arizona State University

Edited by Amanda Pepping Illustrations by Holly Nielsen Layout by Jean-Christophe Dobrzelewski

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Dedication

To Mr. Harry E. McNees, a great music educator and wonderful person who inspired me to become a professional musician and teacher.

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Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank the following persons for valuable assistance in producing this book. Their help and encouragement will always be remembered. Special thanks is given to Amanda Pepping—a former student and graduate teaching assistant, Fulbright Scholar, and brilliant trumpet soloist—for her excellent editing and proofreading of this text. Additional editing was provided by members of the 2005-2006 Trumpet Pedagogy Class at Arizona State University: Eric Baker, Jennifer Fletcher, Kent Foss, J. David Hunsicker, Ryan Lehr, Ryan Nielsen, Daniel Thrower, and Timothy Wootton.

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Preface

For those of us wrapped up in the world of trumpet performance, study, and teaching, Trumpet Pedagogy is destined to become the most frequently used book in our libraries. It is the most complete, modern, “user’s manual” on trumpet playing, offering an incredible wealth of information presented clearly, objectively, and concisely. While most books on trumpet technique and study make it a point to illustrate only the author’s point of view, Professor Hickman has carefully represented his own, plus many different but widely accepted approaches to the instrument. With hundreds of photographs and illustrations, Trumpet Pedagogy is an encyclopedia of various, sometimes diametrically opposed, ways of playing and teaching the instrument. I cannot think of another individual more qualified to undertake the daunting task of compiling such a book than David Hickman. He is not only a superb trumpeter and gifted artist, but is recognized as one of the finest trumpet teachers of our time. His vast trumpet knowledge, incredible organizational skills, and inexhaustible energy are simply unparalleled in the field. My congratulations to him for the great service he has done for the entire trumpet community with the publication of Trumpet Pedagogy: A Compendium of Modern Teaching Techniques.

Raymond Mase Trumpeter, American Brass Quintet Chair of Brass, The Juilliard School

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Author’s Comments Teaching trumpet would be relatively easy if all students possessed the same physical characteristics, musical background, mental capabilities, and enthusiasm. However, it is these differences that make trumpet pedagogy important if each student is to become a successful performer. I have often been amazed at the various manners in which the world’s leading trumpet artists play the instrument. In many cases, playing methods vary greatly, yet the artists are perfect examples of how well these methods work. An artist-teacher is the product of his or her unique background of experiences. From these experiences, certain philosophies are adopted as personal “truths,” many times with other concepts and methods being sub-consciously declared “non-truths.” When working with students, it is logical for the teacher to profess his or her most successful ideas. However, not all students are able to play the trumpet with the same manner of embouchure, articulation, or other specific physical actions as directed or used by their teachers. Therefore, teachers must understand that methods and approaches other than their own may be more successful with certain students. While studying trumpet with Dr. Frank W. Baird and earning a Bachelor of Music degree at the University of Colorado-Boulder (1972), I was intrigued and inspired by the work he did for his doctoral dissertation, A History and Annotated Bibliography of Tutors for Trumpet and Cornet. Frank and I had many discussions concerning several sometimes opposing playing methods. This was my first realization that each method has its place but may not be successful with all people. The present book, Trumpet Pedagogy, is a compendium of many of the leading thoughts and methods of trumpet playing. It would be virtually impossible to detail all of the ideas that exist—thus, I have included only the ones that have gained some popularity. I have attempted to present all views from a neutral standpoint even though certain ideas and statements are contrary to my own. Many of my personal teaching ideas and techniques are stated, but only in context with other pertinent philosophies or generally accepted principles. Therefore, Trumpet Pedagogy is offered as a general text and reference to hundreds of leading texts, articles, websites, and other useful information sources. Rather than using footnotes or endnotes, each source is cited within its appropriate paragraph. This is done to help readers locate works quickly that are associated with the various topics discussed. In addition, I incorporate a somewhat outdated system of citation that underscores titles of books and journals rather than italicizes them. This is done merely for visual clarity because there are many italicized quotes placed throughout the book. Trumpet Pedagogy: A Compendium of Modern Teaching Techniques is meant to be a useful reference for all players and teachers of the trumpet. It is my hope that the information, photographs, illustrations, and music examples provided assist teachers and students in becoming more effective and successful artists.

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Table of Contents Dedication ....................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... iii Preface ........................................................................................................................... v Author’s Comments .................................................................................................... vii Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview ................................................... 1 Physical Attributes ............................................................................................... 1 Mouthpiece Placement on the Lips ...................................................................... 9 Jaw Position ....................................................................................................... 10 Forming the Embouchure ................................................................................... 12 Moist vs. Dry Lips ............................................................................................. 13 Tone Production ................................................................................................. 13 Holding the Instruments ..................................................................................... 22 Breathing and Posture ........................................................................................ 27 Fingering Chart .................................................................................................. 28 Single-Tonguing ................................................................................................. 29 Slurs, Glisses, and Rips ...................................................................................... 29 Adjusting Intonation ........................................................................................... 31 Selecting a Mouthpiece and Instrument .............................................................. 32 Daily Warm-up and Practice ............................................................................... 35 Study Materials .................................................................................................. 35 Chapter II: Dental Considerations ........................................................................... Length Proportions of Teeth and Lips ................................................................ Crooked Teeth .................................................................................................... Loose Teeth ....................................................................................................... Braces ................................................................................................................ Dental Implants and Dentures ............................................................................ A Selected Bibliography of Works Concerning Brass Playing and Orthodontics..

37 37 38 39 40 41 42

Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control .................................................. 43 “Fixed-Jaw” Embouchure ................................................................................... 46 Photographs of Famous Performers Utilizing “Fixed-Jaw” Embouchures .......... 49 “Floating-Jaw” Embouchure .............................................................................. 85 Photographs of Famous Performers Utilizing “Floating-Jaw” Embouchures ...... 87 Mouthpiece Placement ....................................................................................... 95 The Reinhardt Embouchure Classifications ........................................................ 96 Tongue Position ................................................................................................ 100 The “Tongue-Controlled Embouchure” (TCE) .................................................. 104

x The Airstream .................................................................................................. Lip Compression ............................................................................................. Lip Curl ........................................................................................................... Unwanted Neck and Chest Tension .................................................................. Neck Puffing .................................................................................................... Mouthpiece Pressure ........................................................................................ Left Hand Grip ................................................................................................. Special Mouthpieces ........................................................................................ Lip Trills and Shakes ....................................................................................... Vibrato ............................................................................................................. Changing Tone Color ....................................................................................... Multiphonics ....................................................................................................

105 106 110 111 111 113 116 119 125 126 128 130

Chapter IV: Developing Articulations .................................................................... Single-Tonguing ............................................................................................... Multiple-Tonguing ........................................................................................... Flutter-Tonguing and Growling ........................................................................ Selected Materials with Multiple-Tonguing ...................................................... Selected Recordings Demonstrating Multiple-Tonguing ...................................

133 133 143 148 148 149

Chapter V: Efficient Practice .................................................................................. Loosening-Up ................................................................................................... Warming-Up .................................................................................................... Daily Fundamentals .......................................................................................... Multiple Practice Sessions for Multiple Goals .................................................. Woodshedding Difficult Passages ..................................................................... Listening to Music ............................................................................................ Studying Music ................................................................................................ Selected Reference Materials for Practicing .....................................................

151 151 153 162 163 164 166 167 167

Chapter VI: Psychology .......................................................................................... Student-Teacher Relationship .......................................................................... Positive vs. Negative Teaching ........................................................................ Subliminal Suggestions .................................................................................... Developing Musical Concepts .......................................................................... Thinking Music While Playing ......................................................................... Visualizing Successful Performances ............................................................... Recital and Audition Preparation ..................................................................... Beta-Blockers .................................................................................................. Suggested Readings .........................................................................................

169 169 169 173 173 173 178 178 180 180

Chapter VII: Efficient Breathing Techniques ........................................................ Estimated Vital Capacities ............................................................................... Breathing Aids and Devices ............................................................................. Circular Breathing ...........................................................................................

183 189 190 194

xi Chapter VIII: Advanced Range, Power and Endurance ....................................... Isometric Exercise ............................................................................................ Lip Buzzing ...................................................................................................... Mouthpiece Buzzing ........................................................................................ Lip Bends ........................................................................................................ Pedal Tones ......................................................................................................

197 198 201 202 203 204

Chapter IX: Common Problems and Suggested Remedies ................................... Air in Tone ....................................................................................................... Double Buzz .................................................................................................... Upper Register Inconsistency ........................................................................... Lip Swelling .................................................................................................... “Chatter” on Middle-High Note Attacks .......................................................... Stutter Attacks ................................................................................................. Grunting Noises ............................................................................................... Air Leakage Through Nose ............................................................................. Dull, Dead Tone ............................................................................................. “Quacky” Low Register .................................................................................... Tricky Trills ..................................................................................................... Dry Mouth ....................................................................................................... Inability to Play Softly ..................................................................................... Playing Low F ..................................................................................................

217 217 220 221 222 222 223 224 224 225 225 226 227 228 229

Chapter X: Medical Conditions That May Adversely Affect Trumpet Playing Hernias ............................................................................................................ Torn, or “Pulled,” Muscles ................................................................................ Skin Irritations and Sores ................................................................................. Incompetent Palate .......................................................................................... Blacking Out (Syncope) ................................................................................... Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) ...................................................................... Rupture of the Orbicularis Oris ........................................................................ Dystonias ......................................................................................................... Bell’s Palsy ...................................................................................................... Trigeminal Neuralgia ........................................................................................ Diabetes ........................................................................................................... Respiratory Problems ....................................................................................... Nerve Disorders of the Hands, Shoulders, and Neck ........................................ Clinical Help For Musicians ............................................................................ Selected Readings ............................................................................................

233 235 236 238 239 240 242 243 245 246 248 250 252 254 256

Chapter XI: Mouthpiece Design and Function ..................................................... Importance of Selecting a Proper Mouthpiece .................................................. Different Mouthpieces for Different Needs ..................................................... Mouthpiece Parts and Their Affects on Playing ...............................................

257 257 258 259

xii Length of the Mouthpiece ................................................................................ Heavy vs. Light Mouthpieces ........................................................................... Adjustable-Cup Mouthpieces ........................................................................... Component Mouthpieces ................................................................................. Alterations ....................................................................................................... Plating .............................................................................................................. Size Comparisons ............................................................................................. Mouthpiece Adapters ....................................................................................... General Recommendations ............................................................................... Selected References on Mouthpieces ...............................................................

268 271 273 275 276 279 279 280 281 282

Chapter XII: Trumpet Intonation and Acoustics ................................................... The Harmonic Series ...................................................................................... Intonation of Harmonics .................................................................................. Length of Valve Slides .................................................................................... Intonation Chart ............................................................................................... Altering the Pitch .............................................................................................. Bore Size and Bore Irregularities ...................................................................... Other Considerations ....................................................................................... Tuning Intervals and Chords ............................................................................ Suggested Reference Materials ........................................................................ General Tuning Advice .....................................................................................

285 285 286 286 287 288 291 294 296 299 301

Chapter XIII: Types of Modern Trumpets ............................................................ Contra-Bass Trumpets ...................................................................................... Bass Trumpets .................................................................................................. Alto Trumpets and Cornets ............................................................................... The B-flat Trumpet .......................................................................................... The B-flat Cornet ............................................................................................. The Flugelhorn ................................................................................................. The C Trumpet ................................................................................................. Soprano Trumpets ............................................................................................ Piccolo Trumpets ............................................................................................. Herald Trumpets .............................................................................................. Baroque Trumpet Replicas ............................................................................... Unusual Trumpets ............................................................................................ Bell-Tuned Trumpets ....................................................................................... Tuning Slide Shape .......................................................................................... Light vs. Heavy Trumpets ................................................................................ Lacquered vs. Plated Finishes .......................................................................... Valve Alignment .............................................................................................. Reverse Leadpipes ........................................................................................... Transpositions ..................................................................................................

303 305 306 306 307 310 314 316 318 321 324 324 326 333 335 336 339 340 342 344

xiii Chapter XIV: Types of Mutes ................................................................................. 355 Stop Mute and Hand-Stopping ......................................................................... 355 Straight Mutes .................................................................................................. 358 Cup Mutes ....................................................................................................... 360 Mica Mute ....................................................................................................... 362 Silencers ........................................................................................................... 362 Harmon Mutes .................................................................................................. 363 Wa-Wa Mutes .................................................................................................. 364 Bucket Mutes ................................................................................................... 365 Playing in the Stand ......................................................................................... 366 SoloTone Mute ................................................................................................. 366 Practice Mutes ................................................................................................. 366 Felt Crown Mute .............................................................................................. 368 Derby Mute ..................................................................................................... 369 Pixie Mute ...................................................................................................... 369 Buzz-Wow Mute .............................................................................................. 371 Mute Terminology ............................................................................................ 372 Chapter XV: Care and Maintenance of the Instrument ........................................ Cleaning and Oiling the Trumpet ..................................................................... Cleaning the Mouthpiece ................................................................................. Basic Repair .................................................................................................... Repair Resources .............................................................................................

373 373 377 378 386

Appendices 1. List of Recordings ..................................................................................... Baroque Trumpet Solos ........................................................................ Rococo Trumpet Solos ......................................................................... Classical Trumpet Solos ........................................................................ Cornet Solos .......................................................................................... Twentieth Century Solos ....................................................................... New Orleans-Style Solos ...................................................................... Commercial and Pop Solos .................................................................... Outstanding Trumpet Playing in a Symphony Orchestra ........................ Small Brass Ensemble .......................................................................... Large Brass Ensemble .......................................................................... Big Band Trumpet Features .................................................................. Jazz .......................................................................................................

389 389 390 390 391 391 393 394 394 395 396 397 397

2. Recommended Practice Materials ............................................................ Beginning (first 2 years) ........................................................................ Intermediate (3-5 years) ........................................................................ Advanced (6-9 years) ............................................................................

401 401 402 404

xiv Pre-Professional (college performance major) ....................................... 408 Guide to Publishers ............................................................................... 416 3. Suggested Readings ................................................................................... History of the Trumpet ......................................................................... Trumpet Repertoire ............................................................................... Biographies of Trumpet Players and Brass Ensembles .......................... Mouthpieces ......................................................................................... Trumpet Design and Acoustics .............................................................. General Pedagogical Texts .................................................................... Trumpet Methods ..................................................................................

419 419 423 424 429 430 432 434

4. Resources ................................................................................................... Magazines ............................................................................................. Internet Sites ......................................................................................... Organizations ........................................................................................ Libraries, Collections and Museums ..................................................... Mail Order Music Distributors ..............................................................

435 435 437 438 439 442

5. List of Names of Labio-aerophones ......................................................... 445 6. A Partial Listing of Natural Trumpet Makers ......................................... 451 7. A Partial Listing of Trumpet Makers ....................................................... 453 8. A Partial Listing of Mouthpiece Manufacturers ..................................... 461 9. A Partial Listing of Mute Manufacturers ................................................ 467 10. A Partial Listing of Case Manufacturers ................................................. 471 Listing of Historical Artifacts .................................................................................. 479 Index of Names and Key Words ................................................................................ 481 Author Biography ...................................................................................................... 501

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CHAPTER I

Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview The first lessons given to beginning students are extremely important. Playing correctly significantly contributes to the overall enjoyment of their musical experiences. Players with good fundamentals progress much more quickly and significantly than their counterparts. Teachers of beginners must understand how all aspects of playing function so as to help their students achieve their full potentials. This chapter discusses basic fundamentals and aspects of teaching unique to beginners—particularly children.

PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES Almost any person can learn to play the trumpet. However, certain physical characteristics are more conducive to playing easily. The following physical aspects are very important to trumpet playing. TEETH: Children under the age of six generally have “baby” teeth. As these teeth begin to be replaced with permanent teeth, changes in dental support and alignment often wreak havoc on the child’s ability to play consistently and comfortably. As a general rule, it is best to start playing the trumpet between the ages of ten and twelve years, after permanent teeth have become strong. The front teeth must be relatively straight in order to provide a smooth contact surface for the lips. Students with crooked teeth should consider having them professionally straightened. The presence of braces or other dental appliances should not negatively affect trumpet playing. (Please refer to: “Braces” in Chapter II: Dental Considerations.) DENTAL BITE: A perfect dental occlusion is ideal for trumpet playing because the upper and lower teeth naturally align, forming a vertically even foundation for the lips and mouthpiece. However, a slight overbite is most common and poses no significant detriment. In the case of a severe overbite, the lower jaw needs to be thrust forward so that the front upper and lower teeth provide an even and flat surface to support the lips against the mouthpiece and allow the trumpet to be held in a horizontal manner. Bending the mouthpiece at the neck of the shank can help provide better embouchure support for players that are unable to position the lower jaw correctly, but this is only a temporary aid to be used while orthodontic devices such as a Herbst appliance corrects large dental overbites.

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severe overbite

severe overbite (buzzing lips without thrusting lower jaw forward)

severe overbite (playing position without jaw correction)

3 Although less common, a slight underbite is of no concern. However, a large underbite causes the lower lip to vibrate more than the upper lip, usually creating a dead and “blatty” tone quality. Many teachers refer to this as a “reverse embouchure” because the upper lip is normally the main source of vibration.

severe underbite

severe underbite (playing position)

nearly perfect dental occulsion

4 LENGTH OF UPPER LIP: Playing the trumpet is easiest if the upper lip is approximately the same vertical length as the front teeth. The shape and texture of the lips are most important. In the case of a short upper lip, the mouthpiece is positioned either very low on the upper lip, or the upper lip is “ironed” downward by the mouthpiece to place the aperture in the path of the airstream. If severe, either scenario is likely to limit the potential of embouchure strength and ease of tone production. (Please refer to the discussion and photographs in “Length Proportions of Teeth and Lips” in Chapter II: Dental Considerations.)

very short upper lip

extremely low mouthpiece placement

Long upper lips are often pushed upward by the mouthpiece so that the aperture is in the path of the airstream. This usually causes the upper lip to “bubble” outward, sometimes allowing a small air pocket to form behind the upper lip. This type of embouchure can work well, provided that the air pocket does not become large enough to loosen the entire embouchure from the teeth.

long upper lip pushed upwards by mouthpiece French trumpet soloist, Maurice André International Music (Philips), used with permission

5 SIZE, SHAPE, AND TEXTURE OF LIPS: Many pedagogues are in agreement that large, full lips are not conducive to trumpet playing. This may be true in many cases, but the thickness of lips is of little concern. The shape and texture of the lips are most important. The lips should be firm enough that the red area of the upper lip does not buckle outward, or fold, when the lips are held flat against the teeth. A buckle causes the soft underpart of the lip to be positioned at the aperture, reducing the brilliance and frequency of lip vibrations.

lips in relaxed position

lips with extreme “buckle”

“buckled” lips, side view

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lips in relaxed position

upper lip slightly “buckled”

The upper lip must not be allowed to buckle. Should this occur, the player should slightly tuck the upper lip inward so that the vibrating surface of the aperture is the firm, outer red tissue, as opposed to the soft, inner tissue of the lip.

lips formed correctly with slight inward curl It should be noted that buckling may occur on either side of the mouthpiece without any ill effect on the aperture. (Please refer to the photograph of Maynard Ferguson in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) Lip shapes tend to fall into two categories—round and flat. Rounded lips tend to provide a less secure foundation for the mouthpiece than do flat lips. As the lips are tightened, rounded lips may allow the mouthpiece to slip or be pushed by the changes of muscle tension. Flat lips are more likely to retain consistent mouthpiece contact over the entire surface of the rim.

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rounded lips (side view)

rounded lips (front view)

rounded lips forming embouchure

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large, rounded lips

forming embouchure

flat lips (side view)

flat lips (front view)

flat lips forming embouchure

9 MOUTHPIECE PLACEMENT ON THE LIPS Determining a beginning trumpeter’s correct mouthpiece position is difficult because his or her embouchure is not yet developed. The teacher can only guide the novice player in a general way until the mouthpiece settles into a comfortable and workable position. As a guideline, the mouthpiece should be vertically and horizontally centered on the lips. Each player must make slight adjustments in mouthpiece position and angle to accommodate jaw position, teeth alignment, length of top lip, and size of lips. (See “Mouthpiece Placement” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) The horizontal position of the mouthpiece is not a critical factor in forming a working embouchure. However, playing on one side of the mouth prevents facial muscles on both sides of the face from sharing the workload equally, causing one side of the face to tire quickly. It may also cause the tongue to shift to one side of the mouth, limiting efficiency of air flow and articulation. Vertical mouthpiece placement on the lips is critical. If the setting is very high (80+% top lip), the upper lip area under the mouthpiece is large, and the player loses some of his or her ability to maintain a consistently firm and stable lip aperture because the upper lip has a tendency to bow inward and change shape when loud dynamics are played. This also places the aperture very low inside the cup of the mouthpiece which may cause excessive blow resistance due to air reflection against the side of the cup. On the other hand, placing the mouthpiece extremely low on the upper lip dampens vibrations, resulting in a loss of fullness of tone and a diminished upper register.

mouthpiece placed somewhat low on embouchure (acceptable)

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mouthpiece placed very low on embouchure (not acceptable) Mouthpiece placement varies with each player. However, it is generally advised that the mouthpiece be placed so that the lip aperture is within the middle one-third of the mouthpiece rim. This provides firm support of the lip’s vibration. (See photos of famous players’ embouchures in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

JAW POSITION The relationship between the upper and lower jaws is very important to the trumpet player because it determines the alignment of the lips. This alignment has a huge effect on the formation of the embouchure and how the muscles of the face control the lips. The majority of children’s jaws are not fully grown; thus, children’s teeth often shift position as they get older. Teachers may need to assist young players in aligning the lower jaw properly so the teeth provide an even and flat surface as a basis for the embouchure. When playing the trumpet or cornet, a player’s upper and lower jaws must be vertically aligned. If the student has a large overbite, the lower jaw should be extended forward until the playing angle of the instrument is fairly horizontal. Since most people have a slight overbite of perhaps one-eighth inch, a slight downward angle of the bell is normal. The bell should not be angled upward unless the player has an underbite. Beginning players with large overbites have a tendency to tuck the lower lip behind the top lip. This causes the airstream to flow downward when passing between the lips, resulting in a “stuffy” tone quality and greatly diminished sound projection. Also, the vibrating surface is on the soft, inner portion of the upper lip which is not conducive to producing clear and high pitches. Lastly, the instrument is angled severely downward which also diminishes the projection of sound in the room.

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lower lip behind upper lip (incorrect) Bending the mouthpiece improves horizontal horn position if the student is not capable of extending the lower jaw to achieve correct vertical alignment of the front teeth. This is only a temporary solution until dental appliances can correct the dental bite or the student develops sufficient strength to set the jaw forward when playing. (See “Bending the Mouthpiece” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

student with overbite (bell pointed downward)

student with overbite (playing on bent mouthpiece)

The lateral alignment of the jaws is not critical. It is not uncommon to find successful players that slightly shift the lower jaw to one side in order to provide a comfortable mouthpiece position against teeth that are not completely straight. This shift is evidenced when the mouthpiece is removed after playing because the red outline of the mouthpiece rim on the lips is not positioned symmetrically when the lips and jaw are relaxed.

12 The front teeth should not be clenched when playing because this blocks much of the air needed to vibrate the lips. The amount of space between the upper and lower teeth varies with each player and is also adjusted when playing different ranges of pitches. FORMING THE EMBOUCHURE Assuming correct jaw alignment, a basic trumpet embouchure is formed by placing both lips against the teeth and slightly curling the red area of the lips inward. The lips should be comfortable and the curling action should be done without any strain. The student must allow a slight space between the upper and lower front teeth. By placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth, the student should be able to feel both lips, ensuring that the lip aperture is positioned between the teeth. After the lower jaw and lips are correctly positioned, the player should gently firm the corners (sides) of the mouth, being careful to keep them in their normal positions. Stretching the corners back or up should be avoided. This tendency can be countered by gently firming the muscles just below the corners of the mouth.

lips relaxed

lip corners pulled back (incorrect)

forming correct embouchure

lip corners pulled upward (incorrect)

13 MOIST VS. DRY LIPS The amount of moisture on the lips when playing is a personal choice. Because this important issue varies with each player, it is seldom discussed in method books. In general, the lips must be moist enough to allow easy flexibility of lip movements, but dry enough to maintain a secure grip on the mouthpiece. Here are some comments by various authors: Roger Sherman: Moistening the embouchure is a necessity for all students throughout their training. If both lips and the mouthpiece are dry on contact, the mouthpiece invariably will stick to the spot it touches first, rather than find the established position. (Sherman, Roger. The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1979, p 13.) Keith Johnson: Since the lips do, in fact, touch and vibrate against one another, a small amount of moisture is required for lubrication. This very slight wetness reduces friction and allows the lips to be more responsive to the air column. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 62.) Claude Gordon: Always moisten your mouthpiece before playing. The lip must be moist, NOT DRY. (Gordon, Claude. Physical Approach to Elementary Brass Playing. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1977, p 11.) Philip Farkas: I have concluded that the large majority of brass players—I would estimate seventy-five percent—prefer to keep their lips moist while playing. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 35.)

TONE PRODUCTION

NOTE: Many thanks to R. Dale Olson for providing empirical data and information concerning the Equilibrium Concept of Trumpet Performance found later in this section.

Four basic and equally important factors govern tone production: the “4Ps”— 1. 2. 3. 4.

Pucker (of the embouchure) Pressure (of the mouthpiece against the lips) Placement (of the tongue inside the mouth) Push (of the air)

Adjusting these factors varies dynamics, tone color, and pitches that are produced on the trumpet. Students should be taught to recognize how each factor affects aspects of playing so that proper control of tone production can be maintained under all conditions. PUCKER: “Pucker” of the embouchure refers to the firming of the lips and their surrounding facial muscles in a manner that gently “bunches” the lips towards the mouthpiece. When done properly,

14 the lips thicken slightly to provide a firm cushion for the mouthpiece rim yet remain pliable so that flexibility through the ranges is smooth and easy. Correct trumpet pucker is not like whistling, as some methods describe. Although the facial muscles work in a similar manner to whistling, the trumpet embouchure requires that the lips be somewhat flat against the front teeth and slightly curled inward, whereas whistling normally causes the center of the lips to purse excessively outward from the teeth. PRESSURE: Mouthpiece pressure against the lips should be strong enough to maintain a complete air seal between the lips and rim. Although pressure should always be comfortable, the amount varies depending on the tessituras and dynamics played. In general, higher pitches and louder volumes necessitate more pressure than lower, softer pitches. As mouthpiece pressure increases, it is vital that the pucker of the embouchure increase proportionally. A professional player is likely to maintain a puckered embouchure at all times, making changes in pressure almost unnoticeable even though pressures can easily reach 35 pounds of force per square inch. (See “EmbouchureMouthpiece Force” graph later in this chapter.) Excessive mouthpiece pressure (over 35 pounds) is a symptom of the 4Ps being out of balance. Reducing pressure may not, by itself, correct difficulties of playing in the upper register. PLACEMENT: The placement of the tongue in the mouth has a huge effect on the color of sound. It is also a critical factor in the relative ease of producing notes in various registers. Arching the tongue helps direct the airstream to the lip aperture and is an important key to the shape and angle of the airstream when entering the mouthpiece. Generally, the tongue arches higher as the range extends upward. This is like singing “ a h ” for low notes and “ee” for high notes. However, upon reaching approximately high C, the tongue arch should move forward so that the back portion of the tongue can relax and lower. This prevents the back of the tongue from arching high enough to trigger a gag reflex in the throat, a condition that chokes the air and severely interrupts tone production. Thus, the high register tongue arch is very forward in the mouth—up to the front teeth! Tongue arch motion can be described as an ocean wave cresting as it reaches the shore. (It should be noted that some players utilize a “closed embouchure” lip formation and do not use a noticeable tongue arch to achieve air compression. This type of embouchure is described in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) The following illustrations depict the gradual sequence of tongue arch. The vertical lines and numbers represent “focal points” of vowels formed in the oral cavity. Focal points in the back of the mouth form deep-sounding vowels (“haa”), whereas focal points in the front of the mouth are very bright-sounding (“hee”).

15 SEQUENCE OF TONGUE ARCH AND PLACEMENT OF “FOCAL POINTS”

pedal C

low C

low G

third-space C

16

fourth-space E

high C

top-space G

high E (e’’’)

17

high F (f’’’)

high G (g’’’)

PUSH: The “push” of the air creates air flow. The majority of the push results from the relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles of the ribcage, creating an effortless flow of air. The torso of the body should be in good posture and relatively relaxed so that air flow is maximized and travels in and out of the lungs freely. Soft playing requires nearly as much air as loud playing, but with less air pressure. It is a mistake for the player to think of using less air when playing softly. Reducing the air quantity invariably results in poor response, lack of support, and a weak tone. High notes require a stronger push of air due to increased resistance by the tongue and lips. This resistance should be as far forward in the mouth as possible—even at the front teeth. The student must not create air resistance in the throat by tensing chest muscles as though lifting a barbell. (Refer to the neck puffing topic within “Hernias” in Chapter X: Medical Conditions That May Adversely Affect Trumpet Playing.) The body must be as relaxed as possible when exhaling. The body regulates the amount of muscular tension automatically according to the volume and range of notes played. The author believes that it is important to develop a feeling of the air moving beyond the lips, similar to blowing out a candle at arm’s length. If the air feels “bottled up” anywhere inside the body, excess tension is blocking the flow of air. When playing the instrument, a strong mental concept of the air moving beyond the lips helps center the tone by causing the body to move the air without any noticeable internal restriction. The “4Ps” always work together and in the same direction. It is a false notion to think that by increasing one playing factor, other factors can decrease. For instance, telling a student to “blow more air” is not a panacea for a lazy embouchure. It is only when all factors increase or decrease together that proper pitch, tone quality, and dynamics sound correct and feel controlled and relatively effortless. Scientific proof that the 4Ps work in harmony is evidenced by work done by John Haynie, Jody Hall, A. Keith Amstutz, David Dolfi, Joe Barbenel, John Booth Davies, Patrick Kenny, Elmer

18 White, R. Dale Olson, C. L. Isley, J. V. Basmajian, Matthias Bertsch, Daryl Gibson, Fay Hanson, and others. Studies of hundreds of players, including leading professionals (Maurice André, Bud Brisbois, and Gerard Schwarz) indicate conclusively that when ascending in register and increasing dynamics, there is an increase in embouchure tension, mouthpiece pressure, and interoral air compression. Evidence through x-rays, videofluorographics, photographs, and other techniques, also indicates that these players adjust the size and shape of their oral cavities when playing different registers on the trumpet. On the basis of empirical data from these studies, the Equilibrium Concept of trumpet performance is a conceptual framework established by R. Dale Olson that describes the manner in which the various physical elements of playing work together. Olson states: Interoral air pressure, facial muscle potentials, and embouchure-mouthpiece force are all positively correlated with both pitch and intensity. Elements such as activity within the oral cavity and the aperture between the lips are essentially passive, reacting to the action of the other entities. According to the Equilibrium Concept, trumpet performance represents a cooperative, not compensatory, relationship between the physical elements. The ability of one entity to compensate for excessive or insufficient levels of other elements exists only within an extremely narrow range. This contradicts theoretical methods that suggest, as one example, that high levels of interoral air pressure may act as a substitute for embouchure-mouthpiece force. A cornerstone of the Equilibrium Concept holds, “when one element changes, all must change.” Minute examination of the different elements in pitch and/or intensity should theoretically be accompanied by appropriate changes in interoral air pressure, facial tension, and embouchure-mouthpiece force. If all elements do not change together, “disequilibria” result. It is this disequalibria, or imbalance, that may explain poor performance among young or inexperienced players and musical errors among highly professional performers. Analysis of quantitatively derived data discloses statistically significant differences between “novices” and “experts” in the use of the different physical entities. A study of these differences has the potential for development of new directions of pedagogy. (Olson, R. Dale. Letter to author. June 20, 2006.) Developed prior to 1970 when Mr. Olson was Director of Research for the firm F. E. Olds and Sons, Inc., the Equilibrium Concept matured over the next thirty-five years as a result of his continued research in the fields of interoral air pressure and embouchure-mouthpiece force. Details of the Equilibrium Concept were first presented in a lecture by Olson at the Conference of the International Trumpet Guild at Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, on June 9, 2006. However, many of his findings were also presented in his lecture during the 1970 National Trumpet Symposium held at the University of Denver. (Both lectures attended by the present author.) The following charts, provided by Olson, show the correlation of interoral air pressure, mouthpiece pressure, and facial muscle tension in trumpet playing.

19

Note the relatively high interoral air pressures used by the beginning player. High pressures in the low and middle registers suggest a gross inefficiency, or “imbalance,” in playing technique. Also, the sporadic pressures (sometimes decreasing when ascending in range) suggest further evidence of imbalance. (NOTE: Pressure is measured by placing a long air needle, such as used to fill a basketball, between the lips at the corners of the mouth. Air pressure is transferred to a gauge through a length of tubing connected to the needle.)

This graph reflects the interoral air pressures employed by R. Dale Olson, a professional trumpet player with many years of experience, when playing a diminished-seventh scale (chord) at 95 dB. The pressure begins at only six ounces (low F-sharp) and gradually increases to 16 ounces at high C.

20

This graph demonstrates that interoral air pressures are highly positively correlated with both pitch and intensity. As seen here, Austin Dean “Bud” Brisbois (1937-1978), a famous high register player and lead trumpeter with Stan Kenton and Henry Mancini, played with extreme air pressures when producing the loudest notes above high C.

This graph depicts embouchure-mouthpiece axial force as a function of pitch and intensity—averages of professional trumpet players. The top line demonstrates increasing embouchure-mouthpiece force as pitch increases at 95 decibels, and the bottom line shows the same at 87 decibels.

21

This chart shows facial muscle activity among five professional trumpeters, demonstrating increased muscle potentials as a function of pitch.

This last chart depicts facial muscle activity among the same five professional trumpeters, showing muscle potential as a function of intensity (loudness).

22 For further reading on scientific data and testing procedures, refer to: Amstutz, A. Keith. A Videofluorographic Study of the Teeth Aperture, Instrument Pivot and Tongue Arch and Their Influence on Trumpet Performance. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, published doctoral dissertation, 1970. Barbenel, Joe C., John Booth Davies and Patrick Kenny. “Mouthpiece Forces Produced while Playing the Trumpet.” Journal of Biomechanics. 21, No. 5, 1988, pp 417-424. ________, et al. “Science Proves Musical Myths Wrong.” ITG Journal. May 1998, p 12-15. Basmajian, J. V. Muscles Alive: Their Functions Revealed by Electromyography. Second edition, Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1967. Gibson, Daryl R. A Photographic Study of Twelve Professional Trumpet Embouchures while Playing the Low to Extreme Upper Register. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1973. Hall, Jody C. A Radiographic, Spectrographic, and Photographic Study of the Non-labial Physical Changes which Occur in the Transition from Middle to Low and Middle to High Registers During Trumpet Performance. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1954. Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968. Haynie, John J. A Cinefluorographic Presentation of the Physiological Phenomena Influencing Trumpet Performance. Denton, TX: North Texas State University, unpublished research paper, 1967. Isley, C. L. and J. V. Basmajian. “EMG Study of Facial Muscles at the Emory University Regional Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, Atlanta, Georgia.” Atlanta, GA: unpublished research data, 1970-1971. White, Elmer Russell. Electromyographic Potentials of Selected Facial Muscles and Labial Mouthpiece Pressure Measurements in the Embouchures of Trumpet Players. NY: Columbia University, unpublished dissertation, 1972. ________ and J. V. Basmajian. “Electromyographic Analysis of Embouchure Muscle Function in Trumpet Playing.” Journal of Research in Music Education. 22, No. 4, 1974, pp 292304.

HOLDING THE INSTRUMENT Many poor playing habits stem from holding the instrument improperly. The arms, hands, and fingers affect nearly all aspects of tone, range, flexibility, technique, and intonation. Beginning players should learn to hold and operate the trumpet or cornet in a correct way so that full progress can be attained. Children need to re-adjust how they hold their instruments as they grow.

23 ARMS: The forearms should form a ninety-degree angle to each other. Elbows must be several inches away from the body so that breathing is not hampered.

arms in correct posture LEFT HAND: The fingers of the left hand should grip the valve casing so that the thumb and first finger fully support the weight of the trumpet. If the player’s hand is large enough, one or more fingers can be placed below the third valve slide. (The two middle fingers operate the third valve slide: one pushes the slide out, and the other pulls it back in.) The thumb is to be placed in the first valve “saddle” (if equipped) or against the first valve. The left edge of the palm should be placed firmly against the lower part of the valve casing, but the palm area between the thumb and index finger should be away from the valve casing. This gap should be approximately one-half to one inch.

correct left hand grip (international jazz artist, Arturo Sandoval)

correct left hand grip (Michael Sachs, Cleveland Orchestra)

24

proper left hand grip (all fingers above third valve slide)

proper left hand grip (one finger below third valve slide)

The palm of the left hand must grip the trumpet in such a way that the fingers and thumb can operate the valve slides easily. This ensures that the left wrist is not “broken,” forming a “duck’s head” position that places unnecessary tension on the wrist.

proper gap between upper palm and valves

improper left hand grip (“broken” wrist forming “duck’s head”)

The left wrist must always be in proper alignment with the hand and forearm, allowing the weight of the instrument to be supported by the entire arm. Improper wrist alignment may contribute to carpal tunnel syndrome. (See Chapter X: Medical Conditions That May Adversely Affect Trumpet Playing.) A “broken” wrist also allows mouthpiece pressure to be transferred to the upper lip, hampering upper range. (See “Left Hand Grip” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

25

improper left hand grip (wrist too high)

improper left hand grip (wrist broken)

THE RIGHT HAND: The main function of the right hand is to operate the valves. The tip of the thumb is to be placed under the leadpipe and either between the first and second valve casings, or just above the first valve slide saddle, depending on the size and shape of the hand. The fingers should be curved as though holding a tennis ball, and the tips of the fingers should contact the valve buttons.

correct right hand position (thumb between valves)

correct right hand position (thumb above first valve “saddle”)

The palm of the right hand should not touch the instrument. Otherwise, the fingers will not be in good alignment with the valve buttons.

26

improper right hand grip (palm against leadpipe; fingers flat)

improper right hand grip (palm against leadpipe; fingers curled tightly)

The little finger may be placed in the leadpipe hook, but care must be taken not to pull the instrument toward the face, creating too much pressure on the upper lip. During fast passages, the valve fingers operate best if the little finger is kept out of the hook and allowed to “float” comfortably. This is because the little finger and the third-valve finger tend to move together and should not be tied to the finger hook. INSTRUMENT ANGLE: The trumpet or cornet should be held in a horizontal manner so that the bell is at chin or chest height. Jaw adjustment and teeth formation determine each player’s correct instrument angle. (Please refer to photographs in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

American trumpet soloist, Rafael Méndez courtesy of the Rafael Méndez Library, Arizona State University

27 BREATHING AND POSTURE Correct posture is essential for full, efficient breathing. The spine must be straight and relaxed so that the chest and abdomen can work without restriction. The following photographs depict correct posture.

correct sitting posture

correct standing posture

Yawning is perhaps the most efficient method of inhalation. With practice, inhalation can become very full and quick—less than one-half second. When inhaling, the chest raises naturally and should remain high even during exhalation. This allows the adominal muscles and diaphram to move quickly and prevents having to raise the ribcage with each breath, making breathing very fast and easy. Keeping the chest high requires the player to inhale frequently because the intercostal muscles must remain firm while playing. The player should only drop the chest when it is necessary to play extended phrases in one breath. Exhaling should be relatively relaxed, although loud or high playing requires greater air compression and abdominal support than softer, lower playing. The performer must feel that all airflow occurs outside the body—just beyond the lips. If air movement or restriction is felt inside the body (other than at the lips), the tone usually sounds “swallowed,” “stuffy,” or “bottled-up” and does not project as efficiently as possible. Closure of the throat, either by the larynx or tongue, constricts airflow and reduces air compression at the lips. This creates excessive tension in the throat and abdominal area, causing the player to “bear down” as if performing a Valsalva maneuver. This is wasted effort because it reduces airflow to the lips, tires the performer, and produces a tense and unmusical tone quality. (Refer to Chapter VII: Efficient Breathing Techniques.)

28 A simple but effective exercise that demonstrates correct exhalation is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Extend the right arm in front of the body, pointing the index finger straight up. Imagine that the pointed finger is a lit candle. Blow a steady stream of air as if blowing out the candle. Notice that all air movement feels like it is outside the body. There should not be any tension or restriction within the body. Hold the trumpet with the left hand and place it near the mouth. Keep the right arm extended. Alternate blowing out the candle and playing a middle-range note. Strive to make each exhalation feel identical.

FINGERING CHART The following chart provides the usual range and fingerings of the B-flat trumpet or cornet. Commonly-used alternate fingerings are given within parentheses. Valve “1” is closest to the player’s face.

29 SINGLE-TONGUING The student must understand that the tongue, by itself, does not control tone production. Beginning trumpeters should be taught that proper tone production is acquired by correctly forming the embouchure and allowing the air to flow through the lips in a relaxed manner. Tonguing is merely the way in which trumpet players begin the first notes of passages or articulation of a series of notes. Beginners often have a tendency to place the tip of the tongue between the lips and “snap” the tongue backwards, creating an explosive attack. This is to be avoided because the tongue can easily protrude the lips enough to distort the size of the proper aperture. It also allows the student to rely too heavily on the tongue to start notes, resulting in an inability to articulate cleanly and softly. Lightly touching the tip of the tongue on the upper lip and releasing it in a quick but gentle manner is a good method for beginning tonguing. However, the tongue must not protrude between the lips. As the student gains speed and control of articulation within a few weeks, learning to release the tongue from various places within the mouth, a variety of musical attacks can be developed. With proper guidance, the student can find his or her most efficient manner of tonguing. (Please refer to Chapter IV: Developing Articulations.) While the majority of students are capable of releasing the air from a variety of contact points inside the mouth, some players find it difficult or impossible to utilize the tip of the tongue. This is usually due to a short frenulum, a web-like membrane that attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth. (Please refer to “Single-Tonguing” in Chapter IV: Developing Articulations.) A short frenulum restricts the range of movement of the tip of the tongue, making flutter-tonguing or tonguing on the roof of the mouth difficult or even impossible. In such cases, students can articulate by keeping the tip of the tongue lightly pressed against the back of the lower, front teeth and articulating with the dorsum (middle) of the tongue—approximately one inch from the tongue’s tip. This manner of tonguing, although less common than “tip-tonguing,” is termed “dorsal-” or “anchor-” tonguing and can be completely successful. Many top professionals prefer dorsal-tonguing. From the beginning, students must be taught to use the tongue for articulating. After the teacher determines the student’s type of natural tongue movement (tip or dorsal), a program of single-tonguing exercises should be developed to ensure that the attacks are precise, instant, and musical. If air flow and embouchure are correct, beautiful articulation is easy.

SLURS, GLISSES, AND RIPS Notes within a phrase can be connected in a variety of ways. Musical effects range from very smooth slurs to aggressive rips, providing the trumpeter with many stylistic expressions. The following are the most commonly-used methods of connecting notes to form musical phrases. SLURS: Only the first note of a slur should be tongued. There are two main types of slurs—valve and lip. Valve slurs occur when the fingering is changed from one note to the next. They are generally easy to execute, provided that the interval between the notes is not large. The action of the

30 valves should be very quick so that the air column and sound waves within the instrument are not noticeably interrupted. Lip slurs maintain the same fingering and are executed by simultaneously changing embouchure tension, tongue position, and air compression.

The player must make small adjustments of embouchure, tongue, and airflow so that each note is perfectly “centered,” or focused. Simply changing valve combinations is not adequate for playing all notes in-tune and in a relaxed, beautiful manner. Many adjustments are very small and difficult to feel. The player must learn how to make these imperceptible adjustments by listening carefully and making the tone of each note as beautiful as possible. Repeated pitches under a slur mark are to be played by lightly tonguing each note while connecting the notes together. This is called “legato-tonguing.” (Please refer to the articulation examples of music in Chapter IV: Developing Articulations.)

GLISSES: A gliss is marked by a straight line between notes, such as in the following passage:

The effect is a “slide” between notes, usually accomplished by slightly depressing one or more valves and blowing strongly between notes. Glisses can be very slow or rather quick, but the effect is always very smooth. A variation on the gliss is often marked portamento. This style of playing is often indicated in the works of Gustav Mahler, such as the posthorn solo from his Symphony No. III.

31 This style of playing does not utilize slightly depressed valves as in glissing, but does require the player to connect notes in a smooth and unhurried manner. Some performers prefer to move the valves more slowly. This style of playing requires great skill and diligent practice. RIPS: A rip is usually symbolized by a wavy line in front of a note. This effect is very exciting and brilliant. Depending on the amount of time available, a scale or chromatic run is quickly added between notes, such as in the following examples.

ADJUSTING INTONATION Not all notes on the trumpet are in-tune. Some notes are more out-of-tune than others, and, for this reason, certain notes must be adjusted through “lipping” or extending valve slides. Typically, third-space C serves as the best tuning note for the B-flat trumpet or cornet. Overall intonation is set by extending the main tuning slide to lower the pitch or pushing it in to raise the pitch. Many trumpets are equipped with “triggers” on the first and third valve slides that are used to correct notes that are sharp. (See “Adjusting the Pitch” in Chapter XII: Trumpet Intonation and Acoustics.) Generally, the third valve slide trigger is used for correcting out-of-tune notes that use the third valve, such as the following:

The first valve slide trigger is used for correcting the following slightly sharp notes:

32 Depending on the brand and model of instrument, mouthpiece size and backbore shape, and size of the player’s oral cavity, each of the notes shown above must be triggered by various amounts ranging from one-eighth to one full inch.

triggers not extended

triggers extended

Some notes, particularly fourth-line D, fourth-space E-flat and E, are flat on most trumpets and cornets. This is due to the natural flatness of the fifth partial in the harmonic series. These notes must be “lipped” up to proper pitch by slightly firming the embouchure.

SELECTING A MOUTHPIECE AND INSTRUMENT Many manufactures produce mouthpieces and trumpets suited to young players. Studentline trumpets and cornets sometimes have smaller bore sizes than professional models and have third valve slide rings that can be adjusted to fit any size of hands. Prices for a name brand student trumpet (with case and mouthpiece) vary from a few hundred dollars to one thousand dollars. Some of the leading makes and models of student trumpets are (in no particular order): B-flat trumpet:

C. G. Conn “USA” Holton T602 Blessing “Scholastic B127” Amati ATR213 Yamaha YTR-2335 Getzen “Student 390”

B-flat cornet:

Blessing “Scholastic” Blessing XL Short “Intermediate” Amati AFH201

Pocket B-flat trumpet:

Amati Holton T650 Jupiter 416

Numerous beginning model trumpets and cornets manufactured in China, India, and other countries are priced far below the major US and European brands. In some cases, these

33 instruments retail for one hundred dollars or less. Although the quality of the major brands is higher, an inexpensive instrument of this type may prove to be a good option for students that have not developed a keen interest in playing. Manufacturers of inexpensive trumpets and cornets include BandNow, Barrington, Brasswind, and First Act. A common question is which instrument is better for young players—trumpet or cornet? The answer depends mainly on the physical size and strength of the student. Very young players may find that the pocket trumpet is easiest to hold due to its short length. Students between the ages of eight and fourteen may find the regular cornet the easiest to hold. The trumpet is typically better suited to larger students, usually teens and adults.

young student holding pocket trumpet

young student holding cornet

young student holding trumpet The sound of the cornet often has long-term benefits to players as they advance because of the mellow tone it produces. Many of the world’s leading trumpet players, including Adolph

34 Herseth, Philip Smith, Armando Ghitalla, and Maurice Murphy, credit their cornet roots as a major factor in their development of proper aural concepts for playing lyrical passages and certain romantic-style compositions. Standard mouthpieces manufactured by name-brand companies are readily available at most music dealers. Generally, younger students find it easiest to play smaller mouthpieces due to their relatively small lips and teeth. Recommended brands and sizes for beginning trumpet and cornet players are (in no particular order): Trumpet

Cornet

Ages 5 - 8:

Bach 10 1/2 C Schilke 5A4 Giardinelli 12 C

Bach 10 1/2 C Schilke 5C4

Ages 9 - 12:

Bach 7 C Schilke 9 B4 Yamaha 9 B4 Giardinelli 7 M

Bach 7 C Schilke 9 B4 Yamaha 9 B4

Ages 13 - 16:

Bach 6 C Schilke 11 C4 Yamaha 11 C4

Bach 7 B Schilke 11 C4 Yamaha 11 C4

A recent device called the ShulmanSystem has several practical applications for beginning and advanced trumpet players. Based on principles of Alexander Technique and the acoustics of wave impedance, the ShulmanSystem suspends from a neck strap and rests on your sternum, from which an adjustment arm extends outward to balance, stabilize, and resonate with your instrument. (www.shulmansystem.com) For young players, the device can help hold and balance the trumpet while reducing body tension and mouthpiece pressure. It can also improve playing posture. The ShulmanSystem can be worn in practice and in concert.

jazz artist, Matt Shulman demonstrating the ShulmanSystem

35 DAILY WARM-UP AND PRACTICE Reasons for warming up are discussed in Chapter V: Efficient Practice. The beginning student should refer to the excellent advice and warm-up exercises provided in that chapter. Beginning practice routines provided in Chapter V indicate a proper balance of fundamentals, musical study, and rest periods.

STUDY MATERIALS A recommended list of selected study and practice materials for the beginning trumpeter is provided in Appendix 2: Recommended Practice Materials. Private lessons with a qualified trumpet teacher are of great importance to the beginning student and help establish a solid foundation for developing the skills needed to play easily and musically.

36 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—ITALIAN MODEL TRUMPET WITH BELL ON THE RIGHT SIDE

HH 338: Italian model trumpet with bell on the right side of the player; Italy 1910s; "FLLI MAJORANO / NAPOLI"; push rods for the left and right hand; heavily engraved with floral ornaments; nickel plated. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

37

CHAPTER II

Dental Considerations LENGTH PROPORTIONS OF TEETH AND LIPS An important factor in determining mouthpiece placement is the proportions of the size of the lips to the size of the teeth. In order for a large range of pitches to be produced on the trumpet, the lip aperture must be positioned within the opening of the teeth. Upper register problems often occur when the upper lip is much shorter than the upper front teeth. In order for the lip aperture to be below the edge of the top teeth, the player must “iron,” or stretch, the upper lip downward, usually causing the mouthpiece to be positioned very low on the upper lip and allowing additional mouthpiece pressure to be applied. If severe, the rim of the mouthpiece dampens upper lip vibrations, reducing range and response in soft playing. The following photos depict such a case.

short upper lip

mouthpiece placement too low

Players with moderately short upper lips, such as the person below, may also position the mouthpiece more on the lower lip. This is of no concern. This embouchure can work well and is used by numerous professionals. (See photos in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

moderately short upper lip

mouthpiece placement acceptable

38 Players with extremely short upper lips usually have great difficulty playing in the upper register due to the rim of the mouthpiece pressing on the red, vibrating portion of the upper lip. Although extreme, the only remedy for this unfortunate situation is to shorten the two central incisor teeth by one-eighth inch or more. Such drastic measures have been successful, allowing full range to develop easily. However, the student should seek consultation with his or her dentist or orthodontist before following through with this possible solution. Factors including facial appearance, speech, and chewing must be considered. A different scenario is when the upper lip is quite a bit longer than the upper front teeth. In this case, the lips are usually pushed up so that the lip aperture is placed within the teeth aperture. This causes the upper lip to bow outwards as seen in the following photo of the famous French trumpet soloist, Maurice André.

Courtesy of International Music (Philips). Used by permission.

This lip position seldom causes problems. However, the bow of the upper lip tends to push the mouthpiece downward. In some cases, a small air pocket is formed behind the upper lip, causing the bow to become larger. A lip bow is of no concern unless it pushes the mouthpiece rim too low on the embouchure and dampens the vibration of the lips. Possible solutions include using a mouthpiece with a flat rim, wide rim, wood or Delrin (acetal resin) rim, or a combination of these rims. CROOKED TEETH A good set of teeth is invaluable to a trumpet player. If the front teeth are crooked or loose, the relationship between the lips and mouthpiece is compromised, as well as the trumpeter’s chances of success. With brass instrument playing, small irregularities of the teeth in a vertical direction (such as an elongated tooth) do not seem to matter much. But projection of, say, a single tooth in a forward direction can interfere a great deal with blowing. In this case, the rim of the mouthpiece compresses the lip against the offending tooth. (Porter, Maurice M. The Embouchure. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1967, p 24.)

39 In order to find the most comfortable position of the mouthpiece on the lips, the player instinctively moves the lower jaw position, mouthpiece placement, and mouthpiece angle. While this may lead to a comfortable setting, it does not always center the mouthpiece over the optimal vibrating part of the lips or allow the mouthpiece to tilt or pivot (track) in the best direction. Not all front teeth need to be even and strong to play successfully. However, the teeth that support the rim of the mouthpiece must provide a secure and somewhat flat surface to allow the embouchure to function properly. The player should avoid placing the mouthpiece rim on sharp teeth edges or large dental gaps. Front teeth that are slanted inward or outward provide an uneven surface for the mouthpiece, usually resulting in discomfort and a pinching or cutting of the lip tissue. Proper embouchure pucker (cushioning) helps alleviate discomfort and fatigue, but proper orthodontic adjustments through the use of braces should be given full consideration if advanced trumpet playing is to be achieved. A tooth that projects outward may pinch the lip against the mouthpiece rim. It is possible to alter the rim of the mouthpiece so that the embouchure has a comfortable setting.

rim modified to accommodate crooked tooth

LOOSE TEETH According to the American Academy of Periodontology, loose teeth are usually the result of periodontal (gum) diseases such as gingivitis or periodontitis, bacterial infections that cause swelling, bleeding, and soreness of the gums. Left untreated, teeth may become weakened, loose, or detached. (Refer to: www.perio.org/consumer/2a.html) Contributing factors to gum disease include: • • • • • • • • • •

Smoking/tobacco use Genetics Pregnancy and puberty Stress Certain medications Clenching or grinding the teeth Diabetes Poor nutrition Diseases that interfere with the body’s immune system Chronic dehydration or dry mouth (Ibid.)

40 Good oral hygiene including brushing, flossing, and professional cleaning can help prevent gum disease. Loose front teeth can be bonded together to lessen or eliminate tooth movement so that mouthpiece pressure is absorbed over a wider area. As an alternative, a dental mold of the teeth can be made so that a firm (but not brittle) plastic or metal covering can be constructed and placed over several teeth, distributing mouthpiece pressure over a large area. This removable appliance can also be formed to correct irregularities of teeth alignment and gaps. Several professional brass players use such devices, including trumpet artists Allan Dean and Susan Slaughter.

BRACES The use of orthodontic appliances such as braces has grown considerably during the past twenty-five years. Subsequently, braces have become an important issue in trumpet pedagogy. According to research by John Colson and Ron Stoneback, one in thirty students wore braces in the early 1970s. Today, nearly one-third of all students are fitted with braces. Although the design and materials used in braces have improved, trumpet players still often experience sore and tender lips after prolonged playing. Colson’s and Stoneback’s book, Braces and Brass, provides musical material to assist trumpet and horn players in regaining playing proficiency and control after the application or removal of braces. (Refer to: Colson, John and Ron Stoneback. Braces and Brass. San Antonio, TX: RBC Publications, 1998.) Commercial devices are available to address the problem of soreness caused by braces. Popular items include: Jet-Tone Lip Protector

—

A flexible plastic shield that clips to the front side of the teeth. It can be trimmed to any length. (www.jet-tone.com)

Braceguard

—

A reusable putty-like shield made by mixing two soft agents together and fitted to the teeth. Each kit contains enough material to last for several months. (www.braceguard.com)

The Morgan Bumper

—

A “C-shaped” shield made of pliable medical-grade polyvinylchloride that clamps on to the front side of the teeth. (www.morganbumper.com)

Ezo Denture Cushion

—

A non-adhesive cloth impregnated with silicone dental wax normally used to adhere dentures to gums. This may be used to cover braces temporarily. (www.prestigebrandsinc.com/ezo.htm)

Silicone Wax

—

Medical-grade silicone that can be applied to braces to cover sharp edges and fill-in spaces. (www.infalab.com/relief.htm)

Braces often cause the position and tilt of the mouthpiece to change slightly, making the player feel as though he or she is starting over. This is to be expected. However, patience and

41 proper exercises help regain previous abilities within a few weeks. This also applies to the removal of braces. General advice for practicing after the transition to or from braces is as follows: • • • •

Play softly in the middle and low registers only, allowing as much time to rest as to play. Practice gentle flexibility exercises such as Herbert Clarke’s Technical Studies, series 1, 2, 3, and 4. Articulate wherever necessary inside the mouth to maintain clean and quick attacks, yet avoiding the tongue touching the wires or sharp edges of dental appliances. Avoid long practice sessions. It is best to divide the daily practice into several sessions of 15-20 minutes.

Mouthpieces possessing wide rims and rounded rim bites provide some comfort to the player with braces. The “BP Mouthpiece,” designed by Greg Black and Rich Szabo, is specifically made for players who wear braces. According to Black, the BP Mouthpiece reduces lip cuts and improves sound and range. It has a cushioned rim and a V-shaped cup to reduce back pressure. (See: http://gregblackmouthpieces.com/personal.htm) One final option for trumpeters needing braces is Linguals—braces that are affixed to the backside of the teeth. Although they reduce embouchure adjustments and lip discomfort, Linguals are many times more expensive than regular braces and are more difficult to adjust. They are also reported to cause severe tongue soreness, even when silicone wax is applied, because of the contact of the tongue when articulating. (Refer to: www.lingualbraces.org)

DENTAL IMPLANTS AND DENTURES Trumpeters who have been unfortunate enough to lose some or all of their natural teeth must learn to support their lips against the mouthpiece by means of dental implants (“peg” teeth), the gums, false teeth, or an “embouchure denture.” Dental implants are copies of teeth made of porcelain, precious metals, or titanium. They are securely screwed into the jawbone and usually offer many years of reliable function in eating, talking, and appearance. Professional trumpeters including Adolph Herseth and Frank Baird sustained successful careers after receiving dental implants. In some cases when all teeth have been removed, the gums are firm enough to support the lips and mouthpiece during playing. While low brass players have a higher success rate, some trumpet players have been successful in performing professionally. Large-diameter mouthpieces and mouthpieces with wide rims provide a larger than normal area of contact and may help the gums in supporting the embouchure. Players with small or soft gums may find that an “embouchure denture” is needed. Maurice Porter describes this appliance: This is a special form of appliance made for players who have lost all of their natural teeth. It is designed solely to resist movement during playing and is not meant for any other purpose, such as eating. During playing, contact is maintained between the upper denture and lower denture on each side so that the top one does not drop and the lower one cannot be dislodged from the gum. (Porter, Maurice M. The Embouchure. London: Boosey & Hawkes,

42 1967, pp 123-4.)

The success of this one-piece appliance, according to Porter, depends on the ability of the dentist to construct it properly, as well as the depth and strength of the player’s gums. (Ibid.) Regular dentures (false teeth) offer varying degrees of embouchure support and are dependent on the depth and strength of the player’s gums. Many trumpet performers have played successfully with false teeth including the great cornetists Alessandro Liberati and Herbert Clarke, and jazz artists Willie “Bunk” Johnson, Chet Baker, and Harry James.

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CONCERNING BRASS PLAYING AND ORTHODONTICS Agrell, Jeffrey. “Overlays and Bonding: New Dental Aids for Brass Players.” Brass Bulletin. No. 49, 1985, pp 80-86. Amstutz, A. Keith. A Videofluorographic Study of the Teeth Aperture, Instrument Pivot and Tongue Arch and their Influence on Trumpet Performance. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, published doctoral dissertation, 1970. ________. and B. H. Keene. “Orthodontics and the Trumpeter’s Embouchure—A Practical Solution.” ITG Journal. Vol. 7, No. 4, 1983, pp 18-20. Bjurstrom, Neil Albert. “Orthodontic Treatment as a Factor in the Selection and Performance of Brass Musical Instruments.” Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education.Vol. 3, No. 2, 1973, pp 37-57. Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962. Giangiulio, Richard C. “The Role of Orthodontics in Correcting Selected Embouchure Problems.” ITG Journal. Vol. 4, 1979, pp 20-21. Gualtieri, Paul A., DDS. “May Johnny or Janie Play the Clarinet?” American Journal of Orthodontics. Vol. 76, No. 3, Sept. 1979, pp 260-276. Hunt, Norman J. “The Cup Mouthpiece with Special Reference to Dentofacial Irregularities.” The School Musician. No. 21, Jan. 1950, p 18; (Feb. 1950): pp 23-24; (Mar. 1950): pp 10-11. Lamp, C. J. and F. W. Epley. “Relation of Tooth Evenness to Performance on Brass and Woodwind Musical Instruments.” Journal of the American Dental Association. 1935, pp 12 and 1232. Morehead, T. “Dentures, Braces, Overlays, and Brass.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 36, Mar. 1982, p 38. Porter, Maurice M. “Dental Factors Adversely Influencing the Playing of Wind Instruments.” British Dental Journal. Vol. XCV, No. 7, pp 152-160. ________. The Embouchure. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1967.

43

CHAPTER III

Embouchure Formation and Control Embouchure is the most discussed aspect of brass playing. The word “embouchure” is derived from the French word “bouche,” meaning mouth. A good definition of the brass player’s embouchure might be this: the mouth, lip, chin and cheek muscles, tensed and shaped in a precise and cooperative manner, and then blown through for the purpose of setting the air column into vibration when the lips are placed upon the mouthpiece of a brass instrument. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 5.) The embouchure governs the ability to control lip vibrations that are focused into the mouthpiece and projected through the instrument. If the embouchure is weak or does not control the lip aperture properly, trumpet playing is severely limited and inconsistent. It is vitally important to understand that the embouchure works directly with the tongue, teeth, lower jaw, mouthpiece, and airstream to form a complete unit. If one component is inappropriately adjusted, the overall process becomes inefficient. An analogy might be the drive-train of an automobile—the engine, transmission, driveshaft, axles, wheels, and tires. No one part propels the car by itself. Likewise, no single component of “embouchure” works alone.

trumpet soloist Jens Lindemann (correct embouchure) it can:

trumpet soloist Allen Vizzutti (correct embouchure)

The embouchure controls tone production. The player must adjust the embouchure so that 1. Produce vibrations when the airstream passes through the lips’ aperture 2. Adjust the size, shape, and tension of the aperture to correspond to the compression of the airstream in order to change pitch, tone color, and volume 3. Form a cushion that the mouthpiece presses against when playing Tone production is of primary importance to the trumpet player. If tone production is not correct and reliable, all other aspects of playing fail. The central muscle of the embouchure is the orbicularis oris, an oval-shaped muscle that is divided into two segments: orbicularis oris superior (upper lip), and orbicularis oris inferior (lower lip). At each corner of the mouth, many independent muscles of the cheeks and chin connect. (See: www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/ladefage/manual%20files/chapter2.pdf)

44

1. Orbicularis oris 2. Depressor labii inferioris 3. Depressor anguli oris 4. Risorius

5. Zygomatic major 6. Levator anguli oris 7. Levator labii superioris 8. Masseter

(names taken from www.britannica.com)

45 Nearly all of the muscles of the face and neck work together to control the trumpeter’s embouchure. The coordination of these muscles must be synchronized with the tongue, airstream, and mouthpiece contact in order to produce desired pitches and tone colors. When the muscles function together properly, trumpet playing is fairly relaxed and easy. The manner in which the embouchure is formed and manipulated varies from player to player due to individual physical differences. These differences have caused some pedagogues to catalog several common types of embouchure. In simplest terms, trumpet embouchures fall into two main categories — “fixed-jaw” and “floating-jaw”— and are primarily governed by the position of the lower jaw. Each category type is aimed at vertically aligning the front incisor teeth so that the lips are not permitted to “wedge” behind each other, causing the airstream to be overly restricted. It is of vital importance that teachers understand the two types of embouchures and recognize which type a student has. Even though each type can be completely successful, the manner in which embouchure strengthening exercises should be approached vary greatly from one type to the other. (See Chapter VIII: Advanced Range, Power, and Endurance.)

correct teeth and lips alignment

incorrect alignment of the lips

The following are a few comments from well-known brass pedagogues that stress the importance of proper lip alignment: Philip Farkas: The foundation or support of the lips is the responsibility of the upper and lower front teeth. Therefore, if the lips are to line up so that they abut together without sliding one under the other, the upper and lower front teeth must be exactly in line. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 7.)

46 Fay Hanson: When the lower lip rolls over the bottom teeth [due to poor teeth alignment], the tone is impeded. Air is forced back into the throat. Flexibility is impaired, and high range is difficult. This particular lip [formation] also shows poor vibrating texture. (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 5.) Robert Weast: A desirable type of embouchure formation is that which aligns the upper and lower lip through alignment of the teeth. (McLaughlin, Clint. The Pros Talk Embouchure. TX: Clint Pops McLaughlin, 2002, p 185.) Delbert Dale: Students with severe retrusion or protrusion of the lower jaw can expect most of their embouchure difficulties to originate from this [non-alignment]. . . [Embouchure] is usually corrected by learning to “position the jaw.” (Dale, Delbert. Trumpet Technique. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1977, p 16.) It should be noted that many players perform successfully even though the teeth and lips do not align vertically. (Please see photographs of famous players later in this chapter.) In addition, certain upper register methods are based on high air resistance created by the overlapping of the lips. (Refer to “The Tongue Controlled Embouchure” later in this chapter.)

“FIXED-JAW” EMBOUCHURE The most easily controlled embouchure is of the “fixed-jaw” type. This embouchure begins with a reasonably good vertical front teeth alignment while the lower jaw is in its natural, hinged position—that is, the jaw is not unhinged and brought forward when playing. Because the lower jaw is connected to the skull at the temporomandibular joints (TMJ) just in front of the ears, the muscles of the face and neck are relatively relaxed when controlling the movements of the jaw and embouchure. In addition, mouthpiece pressure (sometimes up to 35 pounds or more) is absorbed somewhat by the bones of the jaw and skull, relieving facial muscles of the full brunt of this somewhat constant force.

47 A fixed-jaw embouchure allows the corners of the mouth to be firm. “Puckering,” or cushioning, the lips against the mouthpiece is achieved through a slight forward and centered push of the lips toward the mouthpiece. This type of pucker is described in Carlton MacBeth’s The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass: [The lips] should be: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Wet [moist] Together In a forward position Corners of mouth in to the “eye teeth” [cuspids] (as if to whistle) (MacBeth, Carlton. The Original Louis Maggio S ystem for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1975, p 8.)

Other authors describe the fixed-jaw embouchure by emphasizing the firmness of the mouth corners. Barbara Butler: [A good embouchure] is strong in the corners and “bunches” rather than “thins” or “smiles” when playing in the upper register. (McLaughlin, op. cit., p 53.) Jay Zorn: The main control points [of the embouchure] are the corners of the mouth. . . When moving to the upper register, the corners of the mouth contract and become more firm. (Zorn, Jay. Exploring the Trumpet’s Upper Register. Delevan, NY: Kendor Music, Inc., 1975, p 3.) James Grafmeyer: To buzz properly, close the lip structure by forming the silent [word] “dim,” with lower lip slightly over the lower teeth and the mouth corners firm and a little forward. (Grafmeyer, James Boyd. Trumpet. Denver, CO: James Grafmeyer, 1975, p 11.) Many trumpeters are blessed with near-perfect vertical teeth alignment (dental occlusions) that make the fixed-jaw embouchure possible. However, it is possible for persons with large overbites to play successfully with a fixed-jaw setting. In such cases, players must be careful not to allow the lower lip to tuck behind the upper lip. Players of this type also tend to angle the instrument downward. (See photos of Raymond Mase later in this chapter.) Trumpet players with an underbite occlusion usually play with a fixed-jaw embouchure because the jaw is already in its sockets. Although many performers with this bite are successful, an extreme underbite is likely to be detrimental to tone production. (See “Physical Attributes” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview.) The illustration on the next page depicts the fixed-jaw embouchure. In viewing it, please observe the following characteristics: 1. Firmness of the corners of the mouth 2. Slight “forward” pucker of the corners towards the center of the lips

48

illustration of “fixed-jaw” embouchure (firm corners)

49 PHOTOGRAPHS OF FAMOUS PERFORMERS UTILIZING “FIXED-JAW” EMBOUCHURES The following gallery of photographs depicts players with fixed-jaw settings. The author analyzed each person’s embouchure briefly through physical exercises, interviews, and visual inspections.

Carl “Doc” Severinsen International Soloist

playing posture

playing third-space C

50

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

51

Eric Aubier

International Soloist

playing posture

playing third-space C

52

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

53

Arturo Sandoval International Soloist

playing posture

playing third-space C

54

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

55

Michael Sachs

Principal, The Cleveland Orchestra

playing posture

playing third-space C

56

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

57

Mario Guarneri

Jazz and Classical Artist

playing posture

playing third-space C

58

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

59

Terry Everson

Soloist and Professor, Boston University

playing posture

playing third-space C

60

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

61

Mike Vax

Jazz and Lead Artist

playing posture

playing third-space C

62

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

63

David Bilger

Principal, The Philadelphia Orchestra

playing posture

playing third-space C

64

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

65

Raymond Mase

Professor, The Juilliard School Member, American Brass Quintet

playing posture

playing third-space C

66

buzzing high C

buzzing low C It should be noted that Mr. Mase has a large overbite occlusion, but uses a fixed-jaw embouchure.

67

Matthias Höfs

Soloist and Member, German Brass

playing posture

playing third-space C

68

buzzing high C

buzzing low C It should be noted that Mr. Höfs uses a floating-jaw embouchure below low C.

69

Allen Vizzutti

International Soloist

playing posture

playing third-space C

70

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

71

Michael Tunnell

Soloist and Professor, University of Louisville

playing posture

playing third-space C

72

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

73

Dennis Najoom

Co-Principal, Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra

playing posture

playing third-space C

74

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

75

Robert Earley

Second, The Philadelphia Orchestra

playing posture

playing third-space C

76

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

77

Kevin Cobb

Member, American Brass Quintet Faculty, The Juilliard School

playing posture

playing third-space C

78

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

79

Chris Gekker

Soloist and Professor, University of Maryland

playing posture

80

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

81

Leonard Candelaria

Soloist and Professor, University of Alabama-Birmingham

playing posture

playing third-space C

82

buzzing high C

buzzing low C It should be noted that Dr. Candelaria uses a floating-jaw embouchure below low C.

83

Friedemann Immer

Historical Trumpet Artist and Soloist

playing posture

84

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

85 Other famous trumpeters appearing to have fixed-jaw embouchures include Timofei Dokshitzer, Herb Alpert, Edward Tarr, Harry James, Marvin Stamm, Jens Lindemann, Vincent DiMartino, Rolf Quinque, Raymond Crisara, Rafael Méndez, Ronald Romm, Frank Kaderabek, Louis Armstrong, and Wynton Marsalis.

“FLOATING-JAW” EMBOUCHURE Because many people do not possess a near-perfect dental occlusion, a large number of trumpeters use a “floating-jaw” embouchure—that is, the lower jaw is brought forward to better align the front teeth. This embouchure can work very well but requires the muscles of the face and neck to support the weight of the jaw and forces from the mouthpiece. Because of this added burden on the facial muscles, the large chewing muscles (masseters) at the back of the jaw, and the muscles immediately under the corners of the mouth (depressor anguli oris) become very firm, giving the performer the appearance of a slight frown when playing. The floating-jaw embouchure pucker is somewhat different than it is for a fixed-jaw embouchure because the center of firmness is slightly below the corners of the mouth. This usually causes the lower lip to become very firm and pushed forward. It also makes the chin muscles very firm and flat. The illustration on the following page depicts the floating-jaw embouchure. In viewing it, please observe the following characteristics: 1. Firmness below the corners of the mouth, forming a slight frown or “bulldog” expression 2. Somewhat horizontal angle of the mouthpiece in the low register 3. Slight forward pucker of the lower lip 4. Firmness of the masseter (chewing) muscles at the back of the lower jaw 5. Flatness of the chin muscles

86

illustration of “floating-jaw” embouchure (firmness mostly below the corners)

87

PHOTOGRAPHS OF FAMOUS PERFORMERS UTILIZING “FLOATING-JAW” EMBOUCHURES The following gallery of photographs depicts players with floating-jaw embouchures. The author analyzed each person’s embouchure briefly through physical exercises, interviews, and visual inspection.

Eric Berlin

Soloist and Professor, University of Massachussetts

playing posture

playing third-space C

88

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

89

James Ackley

Soloist and Professor, University of Connecticut

playing posture

playing third-space C

90

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

91

Luis Engelke

Soloist and Professor, Towson University

playing posture

playing third-space C

92

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

93

Amanda Pepping

Soloist and Recording Artist

playing posture

playing third-space C

94

buzzing high C

buzzing low C

95 Other famous trumpeters appearing to have floating-jaw embouchures include Maynard Ferguson, Claude Gordon, Armando Ghitalla, Rolf Smedvig, Charles Colin, Don Jacoby, Claudio Roditi, Mel Broiles, Paul Merkelo, David Hickman, and Stephen Burns.

MOUTHPIECE PLACEMENT Perhaps the most discussed aspect of the embouchure is where the mouthpiece is to be positioned on the lips. Many teachers consider this of prime importance. Placement varies from player to player depending on the following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Teeth structure (straightness) Lower jaw position Upper lip shape (roundness) Lower lip shape Thickness of upper lip Length of upper lip proportional to the length of the upper front teeth 7. Tongue length and shape 8. Diameter of mouthpiece cup 9. Width of mouthpiece rim Because of these factors, determining a student’s best mouthpiece placement is extremely difficult. Many pedagogues recognize that mouthpiece position varies with individual differences and provide general advice rather than specific placement instructions. Rafael Méndez: The placement of the mouthpiece on the lips depends on the “vibrating center” normally found in the center of the lips. Exceptions do exist, depending on mouth, jaw, and teeth formation. Not everyone can play with the mouthpiece exactly in the middle of the lips. If the vibrating center is off to one side, the student should place the mouthpiece off to that side. Vertical mouthpiece placement on the lips should be determined by each student on an individual basis, taking into account the shape of the mouth and teeth. . . the most important point is to keep the outer rim of the mouthpiece from contacting the red of the lips, and never moving, regardless of the required register. (paraphrased) (Hickman, Jane and Del Lyren. Magnificent Méndez, Second edition. Tempe, AZ: Summit Records, Inc., 2005, p 133.)

Jules Levy: Now, my pupil, take your cornet firmly in your left hand, and be careful to place the mouthpiece right in the center of the lips, which you must have closed. Above all things, be careful not to put the mouth-piece on the side of the mouth. (Levy, Jules. Levy’s Instruction Book. Elkhart, IN: C. G. Conn & Co., 1895, p 2.) Dennis Najoom: Embouchure, or mouthpiece placement, is somewhat determined for you primarily by your dental structure and, secondly, by your lips. Given perfect, symmetrical teeth, one can play directly in the center of one’s mouth. This is probably the best case scenario, but also very rare. (McLaughlin, Clint. The Pros Talk Embouchure. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 2002, p 132.) Many trumpet method books provide their author’s suggested vertical mouthpiece placements on the lips. In some cases, the “ideal” proportions of top and bottom lip under the mouthpiece are given without any reasons why these positions are preferred by the author, nor are any statements provided that qualify variances for certain players unable to play as recommended.

96

Joseph Jean-Baptiste Laurent Arban: The mouthpiece should be placed in the middle of the lips, two-thirds on the lower lip, and one-third on the upper lip; at any rate, this is the position which I, myself, have adopted and which I believe to be the best. (Arban, J. J. B. L. Complete Conservatory Method for Cornet, Urtext edition. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1982, p V.) Louis Maggio: Place the mouthpiece under the nose. Move it down until the lower lip fills about the bottom one-third of the cup, leaving two-thirds on the top lip. (MacBeth, Carlton. The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1975, p 8.) Harry James: Generally, the best results are obtained by placing the mouthpiece in the center of the lips using, if possible, two-thirds on the upper lip and one-third on the lower lip. (James, Harry. Harry James Trumpet Method. NY: Robbins Music Corp., 1941, p 8.) Claude Gordon: The mouthpiece should be placed more on the upper lip. (Gordon, Claude. Systematic Approach To Daily Practice. Los Angeles, CA: Claude Gordon, 1965, p 5.) Herbert Clarke: Place the mouthpiece in the middle of the lips in the easiest and most natural position. (Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 10.) Scott Whitener: Modern trumpet playing favors an equal proportion of upper and lower lip in the mouthpiece, although some players prefer a slightly higher placement. (Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990, p 109.) Roger Sherman: The one-third [upper] and two-thirds [lower] distribution seems to be more universally accepted. (Sherman, Roger. The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1979, p 13.) Mic Gillette: All brass mouthpieces should be centered on the lips, with 50% upper and 50% lower lip. (McLaughlin, Clint. The Pros Talk Embouchure. TX: Clint Pops McLaughlin, 2002, p 84.) As one can gather from these few trumpet professionals, no single mouthpiece placement is best for everyone. Each player must adjust the mouthpiece position so that it is comfortable and provides good tone production, sound quality, flexibility, and range.

THE REINHARDT EMBOUCHURE CLASSIFICATIONS Donald S. Reinhardt (1908-1989) made a careful study of hundreds of students’ embouchures and authored the book Encyclopedia of the Pivot System that classifies different embouchures into four types and five sub-types. Regardless of mouthpiece placement or jaw position, Reinhardt believed that all brass players’ airstreams are directed at either the bottom half of the mouthpiece cup, or the top half of the mouthpiece cup. He coined the terms “downstream” and “upstream” for the two types, respectively. Downstream embouchures typically have a larger proportion of upper lip in the mouthpiece, whereas upstream embouchures have a larger proportion of lower lip in the mouthpiece. (Refer to: Reinhardt, Donald S. Encyclopedia of the Pivot System. NY: Charles Colin Publications, [n. d.] p 191.)

97

“upstream” embouchure (as classified by Reinhardt)

“downstream” embouchure (as classified by Reinhardt)

In addition to Reinhardt’s nine types/sub-types of embouchures, two “pivot” classifications are to be determined for each embouchure. Pivoting, in Reinhardt’s terminology, is the pushing or pulling of the performer’s lips into the path of the air column so that the air column will cause the lips to vibrate over the entire range of the instrument. (Ibid., p 193.) The two classifications of pivot are: One:

Pushing the lips up to a slightly higher position on the teeth with the rim of the mouthpiece (towards the nose) when ascending in register

Two: Pulling the lips to a slightly lower position on the teeth with the rim of the mouthpiece (toward the chin) when ascending in register Reinhardt adamantly maintains that all brass players’ lips pivot higher or lower, sometimes with a horizontal pivot as well, as the embouchure and mouthpiece work together over the full range of the instrument. This pivoting, or “tracking,” may not always be obvious to the performer, even when viewing the lips through a clear plastic mouthpiece or a cut-away mouthpiece visualizer because the position of the rim on the lips may not change. Therefore, what appears to be a steady lip and mouthpiece setting is, in fact, pivoting against the invisible teeth. As summarized by the author, Reinhardt’s embouchure types and sub-types are: TYPE I — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction:

Perfect (rare) High on upper lip Slightly retracted Downstream

98 Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Either upward or downward when ascending in register More on the upper lip Lower lip presses upward

TYPE IA — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Perfect (rare) Low on lower lip Slightly protruded Upstream Either upward or downward when ascending in register More on the lower lip Upper lip presses downward

TYPE II — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Underbite (uncommon) More on upper lip Protruded past upper teeth Upstream Downward when ascending in register More on upper lip Upper lip presses downward

TYPE IIA — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Underbite (uncommon) Low on lower lip Retracted when playing Upstream Downward when ascending in register More on lower lip Upper lip presses downward

TYPE III — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Slight overbite (common) Slightly more on upper lip Retracted or extended to perfect occlusion Downstream Downward when ascending in register More on upper lip Lower lip presses upward

TYPE IIIA — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position:

Slight overbite (common) Very high on upper lip (75-85%) Slightly protruded or extended to perfect occlusion

99 Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Downstream Upward when ascending in register More on upper lip Lower lip presses upward

TYPE IIIB — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Slight overbite (common) More on upper lip Slightly retracted Downstream Downward when ascending in register More on upper lip Lower lip presses upward

TYPE IV — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Overbite Very low on lower lip Protruded beyond upper teeth Upstream Downward when ascending in register More on lower lip Upper lip presses downward

TYPE IVA — Characteristics: Dental Occlusion: Mouthpiece Placement: Lower Jaw Position: Airstream Direction: Pivot Direction: Mouthpiece Pressure: Lip Compression:

Overbite More on lower lip Retracted when playing Upstream Downward when ascending in register More on lower lip Upper lip presses downward

By looking at the physical characteristics of a student’s lips, teeth and jaw, and watching while listening to the student slur third-space C up to G, and down to low C, a skilled teacher can determine if the student is playing with the correct pivot. If necessary, changes in pivoting may be recommended to improve the student’s tone, range, and endurance. Intonation is another guide in determining correct pivot. Incorrect pivot often sounds the higher pitch (G) as flat. (See: Wilken, David M. “An Introduction to Donald S. Reinhardt’s Pivot System.” Online Trombone Journal. www.trombone.org/ articles/library/viewarticles.asp?ArtlD=240)

Reinhardt cites three important playing factors: 1. 2.

Embouchure formation (the lips, the mouth corners, the cheeks, and the entire facial area involved while playing) Tongue and its manipulation (the tongue-arch, the tongue-level, and the length of the tongue backstroke)

100 3.

Breathing (the diaphragm and abdominal region, the ribs, the shoulder blades, the lungs, and the throat (Reinhardt, op. cit., p 5.)

Beginning students tend to have an exaggerated pivot that lessens over time. The eventual goal of the pivot is to develop the appropriate pucker. When this stage is reached by a Pivot System student, the pivot is typically quite unnoticeable to the eye. (Ibid. p 5.) Selected books and articles concerning the Reinhardt classification system include: Dudgeon, Ralph. “Credit Where Credit is Due: The Life and Brass Teaching of Donald S. Reinhardt.” ITG Journal. June 2000, pp 27-39. Everett, Tom. “An Interview with Dr. Donald S. Reinhardt.” The Brass World. Vol. 9, No. 2, 1974, pp 93-97. Reinhardt, Donald S. A Complete, Practical, Time-saving School of Technique Designed to Meet the Ever-increasing Instrumental Demands of Modern Music. NY: Gornston, 1945. (Assigned to Leeds Music Corp., 1946.) ________. Enclyclopedia of the Pivot System. NY: Charles Colin Publications, [n. d.]. ________. Pivot System for Trumpet: A Complete Manual with Studies. Bryn Mawr, PA: ElkanVogel, Inc., 1942. Turnbull, David R. An Analysis, Classification, and Revaluation of Donald Reinhardt’s Pivot System for Brass Instruments. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, unpublished DMA dissertation, 2001. Wilken, David M. “An Introduction to Donald S. Reinhardt’s Pivot System.” Online Trombone Journal (www.trombone.org/article/library/viewarticles.asp?ArtlD=240).

TONGUE POSITION In addition to the lips, the tongue plays a vital role in the control and development of the trumpet embouchure. Without the tongue, changing pitches and colors of tone are severely limited. The tongue arches in various ways affecting: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Blowing resistance, which allows the player to compress the air to various degrees Broadening or narrowing the airstream to regulate the point of most compression Forming the appropriate vowel-sound shape Changing the angle of the airstream as it passes through the lips

It should be noted that by itself, the position of the tongue does not change the pitch, volume, or tone color. Rather, it works in harmony with the embouchure, mouthpiece, and airstream to produce each note. Methods of teaching tongue arch vary greatly. Perhaps this is because it is difficult to see or feel what the tongue is actually doing while playing. Several x-ray and ultra-sonic studies have been done, each providing clues to the movements of the tongue. Some of these studies are discussed in the following texts and articles.

101 Amstutz, A. Keith. A Videofluorographic Study of the Teeth Aperture, Instrument Pivot and Tongue Arch and Their Influence on Trumpet Performance. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, published doctoral dissertation, 1970. Gibson, Daryl R. A Photographic Study of Twelve Professional Trumpet Embouchures While Playing the Low to Extreme Upper Register. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1973. Hall, Jody C. A Radiographic, Spectrographic, and Photographic Study of the Non-Labial Physical Changes Which Occur in the Transition from Middle to Low and Middle to High Registers During Trumpet Performance. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1954. Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968. Haynie, John J. A Cinefluorographic Presentation of the Physiological Phenomena Influencing Trumpet Performance. Denton, TX: North Texas State University, unpublished research report, 1967. Despite these and other research studies concerning tongue arch, many players argue whether or not a large enough body of evidence exists to support theories about how the tongue arches, why tongue arch is necessary, or if tongue arch is required for all performers. It is generally agreed, however, that nearly all players use tongue arch. According to many teachers, tongue arch is essential. Chase Sanborn: The tongue level is a critical factor in the execution of a large interval slur. Exaggerate the “AAA-EEE” syllable change to rapidly increase the air speed for the upper note. (Sanborn, Chase. The Brass Tactics Companion. Toronto: Chase Sanborn, 1999, p 176.) Roger Spaulding: The center portion of the tongue must be trained to be flexible, arching high on the screamer notes and lying flat on the low notes. (Spaulding, Roger. Double High C in 37 Weeks. Hollywood, CA: High Note Studios, 1963, p 8.) Louis Maggio: The pronouncing of the syllable, by formation of the tongue, is the heart of the Maggio system. . . The syllables create the correct airstream for different registers. (MacBeth, Carlton. The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1975, p 11.) Claude Gordon: The tongue creates the resistance that enables one to play higher, to lip-trill, and control the instrument. . . The tongue creates resistance with the air in the mouth in the same manner as the nozzle of a garden hose creates resistance with water pressure. . . Get this fact well-established in your mind, and when ascending think “EEE,” and when descending think “AHH.” (Gordon, Claude. Systematic Approach to Daily Practice. Los Angeles, Claude Gordon, 1965, p 6.) Philip Farkas: There is a natural tendency to form the inside of the mouth for the vowel “oh,” while holding low notes; “ah” or “oo” for middle register; “ee” for high register. These vowel sounds do not change from one to another at any certain point in the range, but rather change imperceptibly and gradually as the range ascends or descends. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 52.) Although an overwhelming majority of pedagogues advocate the use of syllables and tongue arch, some authorities believe that the tongue should remain stationary during lip-slurs.

102 Keith Johnson: The tongue arch as a deliberate means of changing pitch often proves more harmful than helpful because it may so easily be overdone. . . This approach seems inconsistent and unsatisfactory for a number of reasons. First, the same type of sound is desirable throughout the entire playing range. . Changing syllables for different registers forces the shape of both the embouchure and oral cavity to change, resulting in different tone colors. Furthermore, the tongue arch may easily be overdone, causing a decrease rather than an increase in air pressure behind the embouchure. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 77.) Jerome Callet: You should never use the arched tongue for range or for lip-slurs. No syllable playing, ahh-eeh, because this will cause more strain and make higher tones too thin. (Callet, Jerome. Superchops. NY: Jerome Callet, 1987, p 3.) Joseph Bellamah: Up to this point in the survey, the only phase of brass pyrotechnics which the brass specialists have unanimously agreed upon has been the syllable tee for all brass instruments in their high register. I must, however, mention again that Mr. Haynie and Mr. Falcone do not advocate different syllables for various registers. (Bellamah, Joseph L. Brass Facts. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1960, p 15.) The present author’s preferred method of tongue arch utilizes “ah-ee” syllables produced by the middle of the tongue until reaching high C. Playing higher requires the front of the tongue to arch as high and as forward as possible while allowing the middle of the tongue to drop slightly. The uppermost notes are produced easiest when the “focal point” of the airstream feels like it is extremely forward—at the upper front teeth and lip. The focal point is the place where a vowel is sounded by the airstream without the use of the vocal cords. Slurs from the pedal register to as high as possible can be produced when the compression focal point begins in the back of the throat and gradually moves forward toward front teeth. For demonstration purposes, numbers can be assigned to focal point positions in oral cavity as shown in the diagrams below. Musical notes below the diagrams indicate approximate pitches for the focal points. SEQUENCE OF TONGUE ARCH AND PLACEMENT OF “FOCAL POINTS”

pedal C

low G

low C

air the the the

103

third-space C

fourth-space E

top-space G

high C

high E (e’’’)

high F (f’’’)

high G (g’’’)

104 For a full understanding of how the focal point shifts forward when ascending, the student should blow air without playing the trumpet, shaping the oral cavity for these syllables but without vocalizing the notes and corresponding syllables. The “pitches” of the airstream should correspond to the pitches designated in the previous illustrations. Players should note several important features of this type of tongue arch: During focal points 1 through 7 — 1. The front of the tongue must be placed very low in the front of the mouth, without any pressure being exerted against the walls of the mouth. This allows the “ah-ee” syllables to sound very open and resonant. 2. The back of the tongue must be allowed to move to ensure perfectlycentered pitches. 3. The volume level can vary as desired, but the tone must always have a natural “ring” to it. If the notes are not perfectly centered, the tone will not sound free and effortless. During focal points 8 through 10 — 1. Bring the tip of the tongue up to the lower teeth and push the front area of the tongue up and forward. It is exactly like whistling in the highest possible register. 2. The middle and back of the tongue should be relatively relaxed and lower, allowing the throat to be open. If the middle or back of the tongue continues to rise, reflex “gag” muscles in the throat are triggered by excessive tension and swelling at the back of the tongue. This is the cause of many players’ downfalls with the upper register. Choking-off high notes can be prevented if the tongue-arch is shifted mainly to the front of the tongue—like an ocean wave cresting when reaching shore.

THE TONGUE-CONTROLLED EMBOUCHURE (TCE) Jerome Callet’s latest system of playing is detailed in his book, Trumpet Secrets , Vol. 1, in which he describes “The Secrets of the Tongue-Controlled Embouchure.” The system is primarily based on a method reportedly used by the great cornetists Ernst Albert Couturier (1869-1950) and Jules Levy (1838-1903). (See: Callet, Jerome. Trumpet Secrets, Vol. 1. Staten Island, NY: Jerome Callet, 2002, p 1 and 27.) This technique is also described by Herbert L. Clarke in a letter to Fred Elias, dated October 11, 1940 that reads: Dear Fred — Up to your old tricks again with your betting on high tones. I wrote you last Monday from my country home in the Garden Grove, posted in Santa Ana, where we had dinner, and found yours of the 4th when I returned Tuesday at Long Beach. So you still want to increase your range of the cornet: Especially at your age. Well, there is a trick I used to practice when traveling with Sousa, when my lips did not

105 seem to respond after being up all night with local bands, and playing my usual solos the next day. You know the condition, eh? Well, by practicing this “stunt” carefully, knowing just how to get each interval, correctly from high “C” up, I have often reached two octaves above “G” in the top space of the scale. . . Sometimes higher. This takes no strength, power nor strain. It is so simple that one is astounded at the results. Of course, one must have a good embouchure and control of the lip muscles. It is difficult to explain, but easy to demonstrate, and is scientific. When you form your lips to produce the above “G,” just touch your tongue, very slightly, to your bottom lip, the tip, which throws the tip of the lower lip up towards the top of the upper lip, using much power. The tone is produced at an angle of 45 degrees, instead of blowing straight into the throat of the mouthpiece as one does in playing the cornet. Try it, after you have gotten the idea. I can do it without any embouchure any time. But it must be practiced to get results. [letter quoted as verbatim] (Pugh, Paul. Fred Elias - Omaha Trumpeter and Teacher: The Three Trumpet Method Books. Greeley, CO: University of Northern Colorado, unpublished doctoral dissertation, 2003, p 76.)

Callet’s book provides details on numerous aspects of the tongue-controlled embouchure (which Callet also calls the “Tri-labial Embouchure” because the two lips and tongue are always in contact with each other) including correct starting position of the tongue, proper use of air, increasing the upper register, and super air compression. Diagrams are included as well as exercises.

THE AIRSTREAM The airstream causes the lips to vibrate. The amount of air (flow rate) moving through a given lip aperture determines the volume level, whereas the air pressure determines the pitch. This can be demonstrated by placing a tea kettle on a hot stove and listening to the gradually-rising pitch of the kettle’s whistle as the pressure of water vapor increases inside the kettle. The pitch rises as pressure builds, and becomes louder as more air passes through the mouth of the kettle. Concerning the flow rate to the amount of volume produced, Arnold Jacobs, a great former tuba player with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, states: The embouchure for the tuba requires low pressure air but large in quantities. For soft playing, the flow rate can be as low as 7 liters per minute. In a work involving low, loud playing. . . the flow rate can be as high as 140 liters a minute. (Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press Ltd., 1996, p 120.) Jacobs also discusses air pressure, stating that the trumpet utilizes the highest pressure of all of the brass instruments because of its higher playing range. (Ibid.) Robert Weast conducted studies on air pressure in trumpet playing that are explained in his book, Brass Performance: An Analytical Text (1961). Setting up an artificial embouchure device with a trumpet, Weast was able to control air pressure and embouchure resistance through an electrical air compressor and tension on a rubber membrane clamped to a trumpet. When only four ounces of air compression are used, eight ounces of embouchure tension are required to produce a high C. By increasing the air pressure by one-ounce increments, the tension of the embouchure needed to maintain the high C is reduced by one-ounce increments. Thus, when nine ounces of air

106 pressure are used, a high C is produced with only one ounce of embouchure tension. (See: Weast, Robert D. Brass Performance: An Analytical Text. NY: McGinnis & Marx, Publishers, 1961, pp 68-69.) The highest pitch documented in Weast’s study is a high E, a major third above high C. This note is produced with eleven ounces of air pressure and eight ounces of embouchure tension. (See: Ibid.) Therefore, in basic terms, the more the air is compressed, the faster it will flow. If the air is moving very quickly at the point of lip vibration (aperture), a higher pitch sounds. By reducing the size of the aperture (by adding tension to the embouchure), the pitch is raised even more. Weast’s experiment does not take into account several important factors affecting musical quality and bodily reactions. Similar studies with human subjects conclude that as interoral air compression increases, embouchure tension also increases. (See “Tone Production” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners –A Basic Overview.) According to Jacobs, Going up an octave almost doubles the amount of intra-thoracic pressure [air pressure within the lungs, throat, and oral cavity]. On the trumpet, if you use ten ounces of pressure while you are playing, for the next octave you may go to approximately twenty ounces of pressure. (Frederiksen, op. cit., p 121.) Naturally, the embouchure becomes firmer when higher thoracic pressures are used, assuming that there is no blockage or excessive resistance at the lips.

LIP COMPRESSION Methods of pressurizing the air column inside the mouth vary but involve one or more of the following elements: 1. Abdominal tension 2. Tongue-arch 3. Lip resistance Common methods rely on tongue-arch to provide resistance for the abdominal muscles to work against to compress the air. However, other methods create resistance by the formation of the lips. “Lip compression” involves pressing the lips together inside the mouthpiece in order to increase air resistance. The manners and degrees in which the lips compress against each other can vary greatly. Clint McLaughlin explains basic lip compression mechanics: “Lip compression” involves pressing the lips together inside the mouthpiece in order to increase the amount of lip tissue and resistance the airstream must pass through. By forming a longer “aperture tunnel,” resistance is increased, yet facial and lip corner tension is decreased. (McLaughlin, Clint. How the Chops Work. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 2002, p 7.)

107

typical embouchure formation and airstream direction (lips not compressed)

lips compressed and thickened at aperture

Lip compression is discussed in Jerome Callet’s book, Superchops, published in 1987. The main principles are: 1. Both lips are drawn inward and thickened by the bunching up and moving inwards of the chin muscles while relaxing the mouth corners. 2. When ascending, both lips slide up, covering the top teeth (even up to the gum line). 3. Upon reaching the highest notes, the top lip assists by pushing downwards against the upward push of the chin and lower mouth muscles. 4. No tongue arch is used, but the front of the tongue helps direct the airstream to the top lip. 5. All tonguing is to be done with the tip of the tongue through the lips. 6. Very little mouthpiece pressure is used. (Callet, Jerome. Superchops. NY: Jerome Callet, 1987.)

“Superchops” embouchure (chin muscles bunched upward, moving aperture to upper teeth)

108 Placing the lip aperture above the edges of the upper teeth adds a great deal of resistance to the airstream. Callet states: This is exactly what gives the greatest resistance to the air column, eventually giving much greater results than any other method of playing, even though your mind says this is not logical. . . the air is very powerful. (Ibid., p 6.) Another method of lip compression is authored by Jeff Smiley and is thoroughly detailed in his book, The Balanced Embouchure. Smiley’s method focuses primarily on the range of motion of the lips to assist in improving range, stamina, and sound production. Smiley teaches students to utilize a “Roll-In” and “Roll-Out” lip technique which “unlocks” the tension in the mouth corners and allows the corners to move forward, surrounding the mouthpiece. The creation of air pockets around the lips often results when the corners are unlocked. They are not to be discouraged. Unlike the Superchops method, Smiley believes that tongue arch is needed but that the lips serve as the primary source of air resistance. The tongue serves as a secondary source of resistance. When asked to provide insights into the Balanced Embouchure (BE) method, Mr. Smiley responded: I think that much of teaching, regarding embouchure, is backwards. I believe that mainstream educational methods discourage the ability for any widespread success on trumpet. I say these words because that is my experience. So many teaching methods seem backwards, with backwards results. There is more failure than success. When I observe a typical middle school or high school trumpet section, I see the same pattern manifesting itself. There are a few “naturally gifted” players—two or three out of ten—that can meet the musical demands of range, sound and stamina, but the others struggle. This is considered normal. Band directors, using the same old backwards methods, will say that some kids just have more musical desire than others. Or, they say that some are more physically gifted than others. These teachers feel that this type of teaching and success rate are fine. Desire is an important factor in success, yet I’ve seen many cases where students worked hard to succeed but were blocked by seemingly physical limitations and ended up becoming so frustrated that they quit the trumpet. My goal was not to develop more professional trumpet players, but rather to improve the experience for those other seventy percent that struggle needlessly. After many years, I discovered an approach that I believe has nearly leveled the playing field for trumpeters, giving each player the opportunity to meet typical real world chops challenges of musical literature. (Email to author on December 22, 2005.) Smiley’s book provides specific embouchure routines by utilizing exaggerated range of lip motion exercises. As the lips become accustomed to these exaggerated movements, the player’s unconscious mind eventually perfects these motions into useful shapes. Lip motions are gradually fine-tuned and coordinated, resulting in a higher state of embouchure balance. Smiley feels that some aspects of trumpet embouchure are universal, stating: At the foundation of BE are universal principles that we all commonly experience. For example, rolling in the lips tends to raise the pitch, while rolling out the lips lowers the pitch. Such principles are general rather than specific, so they apply to every player in varying degrees. However, lip movement in BE is not left to chance. Specific exercises are designed to help narrow the possibilities of beneficial lip movement, while leaving players plenty of room to tweak individual differences. By going through the exercises step by step, the player builds an

109 experiential frame of reference, replicating the experience of others who have previously followed the approach. BE works for everyone because it is a relatively indirect approach, avoiding the wellknown pitfalls of direct embouchure manipulation. You simply add BE to whatever you are currently doing. The exercises are not musical, but rather are treated as calisthenics. In BE, specific targets force the player into using exaggerated ranges of lip motion in order to moreeasily feel the lips move. Over time, these increased lip movements become apparent as they begin to be positively felt and heard in musical performance. (Ibid.) Smiley’s Roll-Out exercises fall into the double pedal tone range, approximately two octaves below low C. He describes the embouchure setting for these notes as being “Callet-style” and provides the following steps in forming the embouchure: 1. Pucker your lips forward, rolled out, corners inwards. 2. Place the mouthpiece almost entirely on the top lip, with the top lip rolled out and pointed deeply within the cup. 3. Roll out the bottom lip so that it protrudes under the bottom rim of the mouthpiece. 4. Tilt the horn up slightly so that mouthpiece pressure feels somewhat equal on both lips. 5. Close the lips, feeling the soft inner lips touch. 6. Blow. Keep pressure to a minimum. (Smiley, Jeff. The Balanced Embouchure. Garland, TX: Jeff Smiley, 2001, pp 62-63.) Smiley teaches Roll-In exercises by starting with what he calls a “lip clamp.” It is first practiced without the instrument and involves rolling in the lips and bunching-up the chin muscles so that the lip aperture is slightly above the teeth aperture. (The lips should not be sucked in between the teeth.) All facial muscles go towards the mouthpiece. When the lips are fully rolled in, the red part of the lips is not visible. (Ibid., p 80.) After the lip clamp is formed properly, the student should blow air, creating a “lip clamp squeak.” This teaches the student what it feels like to compress the air against the “closed” lipcompression embouchure. The instrument is then applied to the lips while maintaining a similar lip position. An adjustment of the mouthpiece may be needed to find the “sweet spot” that enables notes above the staff to emerge most easily. Some students find it helpful to create air pockets in the lips or cheeks. (Ibid., pp 83-84.) Smiley summarizes by listing three basic stages of development: 1. Each exercise (Roll-In and Roll-Out) is learned independently. The player must experience the exact sound and feel associated with each. Together, they provide stable reference points from which the full range of motion emerges. 2. The lip feeling developed in each exercise is then dragged into the normal playing range. For example, the Roll-Out exercise starts with a double pedal C and climbs upwards, all the while attempting to maintain the original exaggerated feel of the pedal. Roll-Out drags notes upwards. Roll-In drags notes downwards. 3. After the new, complex lip motion begins to take hold in the normal playing range, the embouchure can now begin to execute a continuous flex from rolled out pedal tones ascending upwards to rolled in upper register notes. Specially designed lip slurs are then performed to help smooth-over gaps in the continuous flex, and minimize lip movement. (Ibid.)

110 (NOTE: Many thanks is to Mr. Smiley for providing the previous information on the BE method.) LIP CURL A large number of trumpet pedagogues agree that the best vibrating surface of the embouchure is the outer red tissue of the lips. The main reasons are: 1. The outer tissue is smoother than the inner tissue of the lips and can more easily produce clear, “clean” vibrations. 2. The outer tissue of the upper lip is firm and is capable of vibrating more frequently per second, thus improving the upper register. The concept of “curling,” or “tucking” the top lip (especially) and/or bottom lip has been widely practiced and taught. The amount of curl varies from a slight flattening of the outside of the lips that makes most or all of the red tissue disappear, to a tucking-in of the lips so that they cover the edges of the front teeth. When curled considerably, a modified type of lip compression is used, requiring the teeth aperture to be quite large. Pedagogues explain lip curl in different ways: Walt Johnson: Draw the bottom lip in so that the “red” of the bottom lip practically disappears. . . . This new lip position will enable you to produce high pitched vibrations. (Johnson, Walt. Double High C in Ten Minutes. Burbank, CA: Madajo Music Co., 1981, p 3.) Chase Sanborn: A better technique is to loosely-form the embouchure with vibrating points touching (think of the letter “M”), place the mouthpiece, then inhale through the mouth corners or the nose, keeping the points together. (Sanborn, Chase. The Brass Tactics Companion. Canada: Chase Sanborn, 1999, p 47.). Walter Myers: The act of rolling one or both lips inward or outward is both significant and controversial to trumpet tone production. (Myers, Walter J. A Photographic, Air Flow Direction, and Sound Spectrum Analysis of Two Trumpet Embouchure Techniques. Kansas City, MO: University of Missouri-Kansas City, unpublished DMA dissertation, 1979, p 26.)

Clint McLaughlin: [With the Roy Stevens embouchure method] push the lips together. The lips will have a more natural tendency to slightly curl in. . . A slight curl can fight the air without help from muscle support. (McLaughlin, Clint. How The Chops Work. TX: Clint Pops McLaughlin, 2003, pp 26-27.) Jeff Smiley: All things being equal and consistent, rolling the lips inwards tends to raise the pitch. (Smiley, Jeff. The Balanced Embouchure. Garland, TX: Jeff Smiley, 2001, p 75.) Jerome Callet: Both lips are drawn inward and thickened by the bunching upwards of the chin and relaxing the mouth corners. . . The lips must be brought inwards gradually as you go higher and louder in volume. (Callet, Jerome. Superchops. NY: Jerome Callet, 1987, pp 4-6.) Generally, extreme lip curl and/or lip compression settings are referred to as “closed” embouchures because the airstream is greatly resisted at the lips. In contrast, embouchures formed with lips barely touching are termed “open” because the air passes between the lips relatively easily, assisting with soft dynamic response.

111 Although closed and open embouchures have distinct advantages and disadvantages, and although both types can work well if properly trained, it is the author’s opinion that open embouchures are much more prevalent among professional symphony orchestra players, whereas closed embouchures are favored by top commercial and lead trumpet players.

UNWANTED NECK AND CHEST TENSION Excessive muscle tension in the neck and chest areas is usually associated with arching the back of the tongue too high, causing the airstream to be choked. Many teachers feel that the [tongue] arch is desirable and necessary, but if it is overdone—especially at the extreme rear portion of the tongue—the throat opening will become partially closed. (Malak, Vincent. “The Closed Throat Shuts the Door on Musical Performance.” The Instrumentalist, May 1957, pp 34-36.) Poor body posture is another cause of unwanted tension. When sitting or standing, the upper body must have reasonably straight back alignment with the head in a balanced position. Tilting the head in any direction causes unwanted neck tension and may impede the movement of the tongue and natural flow of the airstream. The development of full, relaxed breathing can assist the wind player with posture and relaxation. Musicians offer excellent advice on this subject: Calvin Price: The first step to proper breathing is correct posture. This cannot be overstated. (Price, Calvin. Breathing—Your Way to Greater Artistry. San Diego, CA: 1st Call Entertainment, 2004, p 12.) Fay Hanson: The head must be up, the horn held high, and the chest and rib cage must be high at all times—both during inhalation and exhalation—to permit free and unhampered use of the breathing apparatus. Whenever the rib cage is dropped, tension is transferred to the throat, causing the constriction of tone. (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 68.) Harold Rusch: You cannot execute any phase of talent properly when your body is leaning in a bent or stooped position. General slouchiness, caving in at the waistline and dropping the shoulders will cramp the breathing structure and make proper breathing and control almost impossible. (Rusch, Harold. Breath Control. Cincinnati: Fillmore Bros. Co., 1949, p 6.) Keith Johnson: The chest must be high, and the abdominal area, neck, throat, and shoulders relaxed if the maximum exchange of air is to take place. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 110.) In most cases, excessive neck and chest tension can be greatly reduced by correcting faulty posture, arching the tongue in the correct manner, and developing full, relaxed breathing skills. The author believes that flutter-tonguing, if possible, while slurring ascending scales and arpeggios is an effective exercise in reducing tongue and throat tension because the entire tongue must remain somewhat relaxed when fluttering. NECK PUFFING In a relatively small number of trumpet players, the throat of the neck expands significantly when playing, especially during high and loud passages. “Neck puffing” does not necessarily

112 cause any playing difficulties, but excessive puffing may be a sign of herniation that is developing in the hypopharynx and neck muscles. (See “Hernias” in Chapter X: Medical Conditions That May Adversely Affect Trumpet Playing.) Air bulges may occur on one or both sides of the neck. Small bulges, up to the size of a chicken egg, seldom do any harm or are the result of a herniated neck.

neck relaxed

small neck bulge (neck not herniated) Large neck bulges can be as large as a grapefruit, encompassing the entire throat area. Bulges of this size are usually developed over time as a small hypopharynx or muscle hernia expands. Because hernias do not heal, care must be taken to prevent a sudden expansion or rupture of the pharynx.

113

legendary jazz trumpeter, John Birkes “Dizzy” Gillespie (herniated cheek and neck muscles) Neck puffing is more common in trumpet players that employ “closed” embouchures and maintain extraordinary upper registers without the use of tongue arch. Jerome Callet, an internationally recognized upper register specialist states: Open your throat, this will show on the trumpet because of its smaller mouthpiece and bore the very high register will cause the frontal area of the neck above the collar bone will expand up to several inches larger in size. [sic] This expansion is due to the use of extreme air compression with relaxed lips. (Callet, Jerome. Brass Power and Endurance. NY: Harold Branch Publishing Co., 1974, p 81.) Callet goes on to say: The action of neck expansion is done without any conscious effort on my part. The inside throat and neck muscles are very relaxed. (Callet, Jerome. Trumpet Yoga. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1973, p 11.) Players with herniated necks sometimes find it helpful to place a specifically designed cloth band gently around the neck before playing to help contain any neck bulges that may form when playing an instrument. Neckbands are usually about 1.5 to 2.0 inches in width and are fastened with Velcro.

MOUTHPIECE PRESSURE Excessive pressure of the mouthpiece against the lips is generally considered to be the main reason for most trumpeters’ upper range limitations and decline in stamina. Logic dictates that tender lip tissue mashed between a metal mouthpiece and hard bone-like teeth is a no-win situation.

114 Sore lips resulting from excessive mouthpiece pressure confirm this logic in the player’s mind. Thus, mouthpiece pressure is usually thought of as a dreaded nemesis to the trumpet player. Some teachers subscribe to the so-called “no pressure” system—that is, using only enough pressure to form an air seal between the lips and mouthpiece. A trumpet method based on this system was written by Pedro Lozano in his book The No Pressure Method, published in 1920. In addition, “no pressure mouthpieces” and other devices have been manufactured to help train players to use minimal pressure. If too much pressure is applied to the rim of the mouthpiece (approximately five ounces), the inner part of the mouthpiece moves forward inside the mouthpiece shank and allows air to escape from the side, reducing the trumpet’s normal tone to a weak buzz.

“no pressure” mouthpiece with floating rim and cup The correct amount of mouthpiece pressure one should use depends on his or her embouchure type, the tessitura of the music, and the dynamic played. Playing with absolutely no pressure in all registers and dynamics is nearly impossible to achieve if a full, robust tone is produced. Descriptions of correct mouthpiece pressure are often quite general, making it difficult to conceptualize how the lips feel when the mouthpiece is pressed appropriately in a given musical passage. The amount of pressure advised by authors varies greatly as can be read in the following recommendations.

115 Hayden Shepard: A certain amount of pressure is needed and essential in order that the mouthpiece sit firmly upon the lips. Naturally, the least amount of pressure possible to produce a clear, firm, round tone, the better for the lip muscles. (Shepard, Hayden. How To Build Up Endurance In Trumpet Playing. NY: Charles Colin Publications, [n.d.], p 5.) Philip Farkas: “Normal” pressure is never so heavy as to cause deep indentations in the lips. Certainly, it never cuts them or loosens the front teeth, as does undue pressure. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 61.) Mark Curry: Minimize mouthpiece pressure! (McLaughlin, Clint. The Pros Talk Embouchure. TX: Clint Pops McLaughlin, 2002, p 61.) Jay Zorn: An increase in mouthpiece pressure is normal when moving to the upper register. Most players, however, have a habit of using too much pressure in the low and middle registers. They find that when they move to the upper register the added pressure becomes intolerable. (Zorn, Jay. Exploring the Trumpet’s Upper Register. Delevan, NY: Kendor Music, Inc., 1975, p 3.) A study on mouthpiece pressure was conducted by three Scottish scientists and reported in the May, 1998 issue of the ITG Journal. Evidence suggests that a higher degree of mouthpiece pressure is commonly used than traditionally thought to exist, but that these pressures are less noticeable among professional performers who correctly balance pressure with lip pucker, tongue arch, and air compression. Sixty subjects were tested—thirty professional trumpeters and thirty amateur players. Forces as great as 6 kilograms [13.2 pounds] were not uncommon, and in one instance we recorded a force of 10 kilograms [22 pounds]. This is an astonishing force for the lips to support—equivalent to resting something like a full sack of potatoes on the lips,over an area of about 4 square centimeters [0.62 square inches]. At the outset, therefore, it became clear that some players used extreme forces, and that all players used considerable amounts of force in normal playing. The lowest level regularly recorded for top C’’’ [high C], for example, was 3 kilograms [6.6 pounds]. (Barbenel, Joe; John Booth Davies; Patrick Kenny. “Science Proves Musical Myths Wrong.” ITG Journal. May 1998, p 12.) This may explain why so many professionals appear at times to be using a great deal of mouthpiece pressure, yet it does not interfere with any physical or musical endeavors. When asked if they use pressure, the reply is usually “no,” or “minimal,” even though more pressure is being used than realized. Another way to understand this is to clasp both hands together and squeeze equally, but strongly. If the grip is secure and the muscles of each hand are contracting equally, the intense pressure does not cause any discomfort. However, if one hand is loose, the opposing hand causes the loose hand a great deal of pain. Similarly, if a player correctly balances mouthpiece pressure, embouchure firmness and pucker, tongue arch, and air compression, he or she will perceive the pressure to be comfortable and minimal. The pressure and pucker must always balance correctly to produce a full and resonant tone. (For scientific data associated with the relations of mouthpiece pressure, embouchure tension, tongue manipulation, and air compression, see “Tone Production” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners – A Basic Overview.)

116 LEFT HAND GRIP It is generally agreed among trumpet teachers that the upper lip must vibrate freely to produce a beautiful tone. Studies by Robert Weast show that the upper lip is the main source of vibration in the trumpet embouchure, especially in the production of higher pitches. (Refer to: Weast, Robert. Brass Performance: An Analytical Text. NY: McGinnis & Marx, 1961, pp 5-6. ) This evidence supports the concept that mouthpiece pressure must not be too great on the upper lip. The left hand grip on the trumpet determines the angle of pressure from the mouthpiece to the lips. The valve cluster, in effect, is a handle that is gently pulled toward the player as more pressure is needed. By gripping the trumpet below the “center-force line” of the mouthpiece and leadpipe, a larger percentage of pressure is applied to the lower lip, thus reducing some of the pressure against the upper lip. To test the converse of this statement, try playing the trumpet upsidedown so that the left hand is above the center-force line. Chances are good that the production of high notes suffers significantly with this setting.

relatively low center-line force (angle of mouthpiece more against the lower lip)

relatively high center-line force (angle of mouthpiece pressure against both lips equally)

117 Left hand grip may be adjusted higher or lower by the placement of fingers above or below the third-valve slide.

118 It is imperative that the little finger of the right hand not pull directly into the center force line via the finger hook on the leadpipe. This results in excessive pressure on the upper lip. If the player does allow the little finger to be placed in the finger hook, any significant pulling towards the mouthpiece should be countered by a pushing forward of the right thumb against the second valve. (See “Hand Position,” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview.) With the use of a high-speed camera, strobe light and clear plastic mouthpiece, Weast observed that the lower lip vibrates actively in the low register, somewhat actively in the middle register, and almost inactively in the high register. (Ibid., p 80.) He states: Tissue paper or a sheet of plastic film can alternately be placed on either lip. When the lower lip is thus covered, a tone can still be produced. But when the upper is covered, no sound emanates unless the player holds the lips in a rather distorted, protruded manner. (Ibid.) For most performers, the addition of mouthpiece pressure onto the lower lip has very little effect on tone production in the upper register, whereas pressure on the upper lip may have disastrous results. Therefore, many professional players utilize a low left hand grip and a noticeable lower lip pucker.

famous high note artist, Maynard Ferguson (low left hand grip) Jay Zorn states: For most embouchures, the increase of pressure used in ascending is added mainly to the lower lip and not to both lips equally. Added pressure on the lower lip tends to aid in closing the lip aperture while allowing the upper lip to keep on vibrating. (Zorn, Jay. Exploring the Trumpet’s Upper Register. Delevan, NY: Kendor Music, Inc., 1975, p 3.) The photographs on the following page are provided to help study the relationship between left hand grip and embouchure pucker. Each performer is a leading professional trumpet artist.

119

Arturo Sandoval

Michael Sachs

Mario Guarneri

Rafael Méndez

SPECIAL MOUTHPIECES Mouthpieces are sometimes designed or modified to better suit a particular player’s embouchure. Mouthpieces of this type are not uncommon and are a legitimate means of aiding horn angle, mouthpiece pressure distribution, lip support, and dental anomalies. Bending a mouthpiece at the neck of the shank helps compensate a receding lower jaw (overbite) should it be too uncomfortable for the player to extend the jaw forward for proper vertical teeth alignment. Although care must be taken that the player’s lower lip not be accidentally tucked behind the upper lip, the bent mouthpiece provides a solid grip on both lips and allows the embouchure to function normally. It also allows the player to develop correct lower lip pucker and proper bell direction.

120 Bending a mouthpiece correctly is a tricky operation and is best accomplished by a skilled repairman or mouthpiece technician. The mouthpiece shank is carefully placed inside a piece of rubber tubing and placed in a vice, applying just enough tension to hold the shank firmly. The top of the vice should align with the lower part of the neck. Then, numerous taps against the side of the cup are applied with a small rubber, plastic, or rawhide mallet until the rim surface is tilted to the desired angle. Normally, six to fifteen degrees of bend is all that is needed. In her book, Brass Playing, Fay Hanson states: Years ago, when this writer was studying with Herbert L. Clarke, he advocated I have a special Harry Jacobs mouthpiece made to compensate for my overbite. I did this and it was a tedious and expensive process. Later, I discovered that bending a Bach mouthpiece to about a fifteen degree angle worked better and cost much less. This is a tremendous aid to a player having this occlusion. Bending the mouthpiece is not a substitute for strengthening the lower jaw and bringing it forward, but, by supplying support to the lower teeth, this is gradually accomplished. Jaw adjustment is attained so gradually that the player never experiences a radical change in playing sensation. (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 8.)

bent mouthpiece

Harry Jacobs mouthpiece

121

downward instrument angle with normal mouthpiece

improved instrument angle with bent mouthpiece

122 Wide-rim mouthpieces provide more comfort to the lips than standard-rim mouthpieces and are often preferred by players with large lips. This is because mouthpiece pressure is distributed over a larger contact surface. Current makers of wide-rimmed mouthpieces include The Vincent Bach Corporation and Rudy Muck.

normal rim and wide rim (both mouthpieces have same cup diameter) Mouthpiece rims can be shaped to allow space for a crooked tooth. Modifications of this type usually have no effect on sound quality, but may limit flexibility. (See discussion on custom rim shape in “Crooked Teeth” in Chapter II: Dental Considerations.)

rim altered to accommodate crooked tooth

123 The Asymmetric mouthpiece is designed by NASA engineer John Lynch and can be used successfully by certain players to extend the upper register. It utilizes a convex lower cup portion that pushes the bottom lip upwards when pressed against the firm lower lip. Lynch advises that range increases are only possible if the player’s lip aperture is within the upper part of the mouthpiece. (See: www.asymmetric-mouthpiece.com/who_should_play.htm)

“Asymmetric” mouthpiece An interesting piece of history is an advertisement for a mouthpiece made during the early twentieth century that stated: “positively no embouchure required to play a cornet.” Fowler’s Artificial-Lip Mouthpieces possessed rubber “lips” inside the cup and did not require the performer’s lips to be utilized. The advertisement on the following page describes Fowler’s mouthpiece.

124 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—ARTIFICIAL LIP MOUTHPIECE

125 LIP TRILLS AND SHAKES Another aspect of embouchure control is the ability to play lip trills and shakes. Although executed in slightly different manners, lip trills and shakes are essentially very fast lip slurs. Because of the speed of these slurs, the embouchure must remain firm and nearly steady. “Lip” trills are a misnomer because the lips play a very minor role in the trilling action. Generally, lip trills are accomplished by: 1. Puckering the embouchure to a setting that is exactly halfway between the two notes to be trilled 2. Keeping the puckered embouchure firm and steady 3. Compressing the airstream a little more than normally needed for the notes to be played 4. “Warbling” the tongue as if whistling fast bird calls 5. Allowing the lower jaw to move in a very slight vertical motion (like shivering) that synchronizes with the motion of the tongue (optional) In addition, Dr. Charles Colin advises: We must be careful that our air column is not obstructed by the tips of our tongues [sic]. Once the breath has been released, the tongue tip must be lowered so that it is positioned below the path of the airstream. (Colin, Charles. The Brass Player. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1972, p 26.) Lip trills are employed where valve trills are awkward or sometimes accidentally cause tremolos to occur. This is usually in the middle-high and high registers of the trumpet, such as on the following notes:

When played properly, lip trills sound as smooth and clean as well-executed valve trills. If played aggressively, lip trills sound similar to shakes commonly used in jazz music. The following passages from the trumpet repertoire contain trills usually executed as lip trills. Alternate fingerings are added where appropriate.

126

Shakes are produced by adding a slight right hand motion to a lip trill. The right thumb must be firmly touching the trumpet as the hand rocks in a reciprocating motion towards the mouthpiece and bell. The trumpet movement slightly changes the amount of mouthpiece pressure on the lips, resulting in an almost effortless trilling between two notes utilizing the same fingering. The speed and aggressiveness of the trill are determined by the speed and distance of the hand motion. The great New York studio trumpeter, Jimmy Maxwell, gives the following description and advice on the shake: The shake, the lip trill, you name it, has as many names as it has interpretations, but the production is basically the same. . . lip up between the notes to be played, hold the lip fixed, trill using the up and down movement of the jaw or the flapping of the tongue as in whistling, then go to the hand shake. (Maxwell, Jimmy. The First Trumpeter. NY: Charles Colin, 1982, p 15.) James Grafmyer advises: The shake is produced by combining lip trilling and bouncing the mouthpiece (gently) on the lips by moving the [right] wrist back and forth. (Grafmyer, James Boyd. Trumpet. Denver, CO: James Grafmyer, 1975, p 35.) The author notices that students using a “fixed-jaw” setting tend to find shakes easier to produce than do players using a “floating-jaw” embouchure set. (See information earlier in this chapter on fixed-jaw and floating-jaw embouchures.) Conversely, floating-jaw players tend to find lip trills easier to produce than do fixed-jaw players. Listening to lip trills and shakes through recordings and concerts is an excellent way to formulate mental concepts of sound to be emulated when practicing. Trumpet artists such as Friedemann Immer, Edward Tarr, Niklas Eklund, Crispian Steele-Perkins, and Paul Plunkett perform on the natural (valveless) trumpets and provide wonderful examples of lip trills. Fine examples of shakes may be heard from Maynard Ferguson, Arturo Sandoval, Louis Armstrong, and Al Hirt.

VIBRATO An essential element in trumpet playing is the appropriate use of vibrato for musical expression. Vibrato is a slight variance in sound, either in pitch or intensity, that generally provides emotional character to music, and is controlled by the embouchure.

127 Vibrato is difficult to teach through words alone because it varies with different styles of music. It should be governed by the player’s emotions, changing as needed for personal expression. Physical techniques for producing vibrato on the trumpet usually fall into three main categories: 1. “Lip” vibrato — Lip vibrato is typically the most natural type for trumpeters because it is produced by the same parts of the body that control the embouchure—lips, tongue, and lower jaw. Slow or rapid variations in pitch and/or pulsations of tone are created by slight movements, as though saying “yaw-yaw” repeatedly. 2. Hand vibrato — Hand vibrato is commonly used when slow pulsations are desired, such as in a slow blues melody. Hand vibrato is produced by the gentle rocking motion of the right hand in a back and forth manner towards the mouthpiece and bell. It is perhaps the easiest to teach when introducing vibrato to a student. 3. Throat vibrato — Vocalists use throat vibrato because the vocal cords control tone production when singing. Although trumpeters do not generally allow the vocal cords to vibrate when playing, a pleasing vibrato can be produced by changing the size of the glottis (opening between the vocal cords) in the same manner as a vocalist when singing. Vibrato of this type does not generally change pitch, but provides a slight tremolo that can add intensity to the music. Students would be well-advised to learn all three types of vibrato, as different types are needed to express various musical emotions. It would be rather difficult, if not nearly impossible, to communicate all moods required in music through the use of any one type of vibrato. For example, throat vibrato might be appropriate for the intensity needed in the opening lines of the Concerto by Alexander Arutunian, lip vibrato for the warm and lyrical sound of the trumpet solos in Aaron Copland’s Outdoor Overture, and hand vibrato for the slow blues solo in George Gershwin’s Piano Concerto in F. Several trumpet artists provide excellent recordings that can be used to study various types of vibrato. For a relaxed blues vibrato, recordings by Wynton Marsalis, Doc Severinsen, Jens Lindemann, and Chris Botti are recommended by the author. Recordings by Ronald Romm, Adolph Herseth, Armando Ghitalla, Doc Severinsen, Arturo Sandoval, Harry James, and Timothy Morrison are recommended for a soaring and singing vibrato. Lastly, for an exciting “bravura” style of vibrato, recordings by Rafael Méndez, Doc Severinsen, Timofei Dokshitzer, Maurice André, and Allen Vizzutti are excellent listening examples. The following tips on vibrato are provided by leading trumpet artists and teachers: Rafael Méndez: To learn vibrato, the student should begin by moving the chin up and down, producing undulations in the sound at the rate of one per second. When the vibrato sounds even and controlled at this speed, the student should attempt to double the undulations (eighth notes) per second, moving progressively through triplets, sixteenths, and sextuplets, but only after each is thoroughly under control. (Hickman, Jane and Del Lyren. Magnificent Méndez, Second edition. Tempe, AZ: Summit Records, Inc., 2005, p 136.) Harry James: I recommend very strongly against the use of lip vibrato. The movement should come from the [right] wrist and serves to move the instrument very slightly forwards and backwards. (James, Harry. Harry James Trumpet Method. NY: Robbins Music Corp., 1941, p 15.)

128 Louis Davidson: An imperceptible movement of the right thumb on the mouthpipe adjacent to the first valve is all that is necessary to achieve this pulsation [vibrato]. (Davidson, Louis. Trumpet Techniques. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1970, p 15.) Robert Nagel: Since vibrato seems to be a fairly natural and intimate part of the human voice, great vocal artistry can teach us much about the use of vibrato to good effect. (Nagel, Robert. “Vibrato and Style.” The Instrumentalist, Mar. 1961, pp 80-82.)

CHANGING TONE COLOR An important aspect of embouchure control is the ability to produce a variety of tone colors for musical expression. However, many factors contribute to the perceived tone color of an unmuted and unamplified trumpet sound. They include (in no particular order of importance): 1. The Instrument — A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M.

Diameter of bell Shape of bell flair Internal bore size Materials of construction Internal bore shape Internal bore irregularities Key of instrument (overall length) Radius of bend in tuning slide Radius of bends in valve slides Thickness (weight) of tubing and bell Position of braces and size of brace flanges Tempering (heating and cooling) methods of bell (and leadpipe) construction Plated or lacquered finish

2. The Mouthpiece — A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I.

Overall volume of cup Shape of cup Shape of throat (second cup) Size of bore (throat) Length of bore (throat) Size and shape of backbore Material of construction Weight Shape of rim

3. The Player — A. B. C. D. E. F.

Firmness of embouchure Mouthpiece placement Shape and size of oral cavity Tongue position Firmness of lip tissue Smoothness of lip tissue at vibrating area

1299 G. H. I. J.

Size and shape of lip aperture Embouchure resistance to airstream Amount of air compression at lip aperture Angle of airstream at lip aperture

4. Type of Articulation — A. B.

Percussive attacks tend to be perceived as making the tone brighter. Soft (legato) attacks tend to be perceived as making the tone darker.

5. Acoustics of Room — A. B.

Hard wall surfaces reflect sound waves better and allow higher overtones to be heard more easily, making the tone sound bright. Soft surfaces such as carpeting and seat cushions reflect sound waves poorly and allow overtones to be heard less easily, making the tone sound dark.

6. Orchestration with Other Instruments — A. B.

Instruments that “blend” well with the trumpet mask higher overtones in the trumpet sound, making the trumpet sound dark. Instruments that do not blend well with the trumpet do not mask higher overtones in the trumpet sound, making the trumpet sound bright.

7. Vibrato — A. B.

A tone with vibrato not matching other sounds draws the attention of the listener and causes the tone to be perceived as being bright because it does not blend in. A total lack of vibrato is often perceived by the listener as being dark, dead, or lifeless.

8. Direction of Bell — A. B.

Sounds heard directly from the bell have great brilliance, or “presence” of tone and articulation. Sound waves reflected off walls, floors, music stands, chairs, or other obstacles travel further distances to the listener and lose “carrying power,” or strength of overtones. Additionally, reflecting surfaces absorb some of the overtones in the sound, thus reducing brilliance.

Through experience, a skilled trumpeter learns to color the sound in various ways so that he or she can either blend in or stand out in the musical context. Seemingly minor things like bell direction, vibrato, and size and shape of concert space have as much or more affect on color perception to the audience than the key and brand of instrument, size of mouthpiece, or weight of bell being used. In order to understand fully how changes in playing and equipment impact the listener’s perception of sound, the performer must listen to many concerts and recordings. Watching and listening to great artists are essential to the development of the student’s conceptions of tone colors and the musical effects they achieve.

13030 Because versatility requires the ability to change tone color, the performer should select an instrument that can easily produce brighter and darker tones. If the equipment is excessively “dark” or “bright,” the range of colors is limited. Therefore, it is generally advised that students possessing only one instrument select a make and model that can satisfactorily serve all of their playing needs. If possible, acquiring several types of instruments, mouthpieces, and mutes is advantageous to broadening the styles of music performed. In addition to changing equipment, players can alter basic tone color through manipulation of the breath and embouchure. A somewhat darker tone quality is produced by playing slightly below the center of pitch, thus “spreading” the tone and reducing the amplitude of the higher harmonics. Conversely, a somewhat brighter sound is produced by playing firmly on the upper side of the pitch. In either case, the player must adjust tuning while darkening or brightening the tone. This method of changing tone color should be used only during short passages because it reduces the player’s sound projection, accuracy, and endurance.

MULTIPHONICS Another technique requiring embouchure control and development—multiphonics— involves humming, or “singing,” (not growling), when playing. Multiphonics are sometimes required in contemporary works and are usually notated in the following manners:

The use of multiphonics in trumpet playing has become somewhat common in music by contemporary composers. The technique is discussed in Alfred Blatter’s book, Instrumentation (and) Orchestration. (Blatter, Alfred. Instrumentation/Orchestration. NY: Longman, Inc., 1980, pp 130-131.) Multiphonics are written in trumpet works such as: Morgan Powell: Alone for unaccompanied trumpet (Powell, Morgan. Alone. Nashville, TN: Brass Music, Ltd., 1974.), recorded by Ray Sasaki (Morgan Powell: Music for Brass, UBRES (LP), EN-203.). Robert Erickson: Kryl for unaccompanied trumpet (Erickson, Robert. Kryl. Baltimore, MD: Smith Publications, 1984.), recorded by Edwin Harkins (Robert Erickson, Composers Alliance Recordings, [CD], CRI 616.) and Anthony Plog (Twentieth Century Settings for Trumpet, Crystal Records, [CD], CD663.). Robert Erickson: Night Music for trumpet and nine-piece chamber ensemble (Erickson, Robert. Night Music. Baltimore, MD: Smith Publications, 1978.).

131 Alfred Blatter and Paul Zonn: Contemporary Trumpet Studies (Blatter, Alfred, and Paul Zonn, with Editing and Annotations by David Hickman. Contemporary Trumpet Studies. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1976, p 4.). Normally, the musical line to be hummed (sung) can sound in any octave comfortable for the performer. However, Robert Erickson notates his sung pitches in the octave desired, requiring male trumpeters to sometimes sing in the falsetto register.

132

HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—TRUMPET IN B-FLAT

HH 300: Trumpet in B-flat; "KEY / 20 CHARING CROSS / LONDON"; ca. 1853-56; original wooden case with terminal crooks for G, F, E-flat, D, D-flat. The crooks in the case originate from a different instrument. Clapper key; Herbert Heyde calls the instrument "more a trumpet than a cornet" because of its "large bore and [...] the equipment with terminal crooks for keys which were not common for cornets." (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

133

CHAPTER IV

Developing Articulations Precision and speed of articulation are paramount to accuracy, rhythm, and musical style, and a beautiful tone depends on a clear and quick attack. Therefore, fast and effortless articulation is a vital component in trumpet playing. The following quotes from well-known trumpet performers and teachers emphasize their views on articulation: Fay Hanson: Proper use and control of the tongue muscle has a tremendous bearing on one’s ability to execute passages in a musical fashion. The tongue can “make or break” a player. In short, it is impossible to overstate the importance of tongue control. (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 13.) Keith Johnson: Articulation occupies the same role for the trumpet player as enunciation does for the singer. The function of articulation is to define the sound in order to enhance and clarify the meaning of notes within a passage. Both consistency and variety in articulation are required if musical interest is to be sustained. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 68.) Rafael Méndez: The tongue might be likened to the violinist’s bow in that we use it to start our notes and, by using various degrees of force, to express different moods in the music we play. (Méndez, Rafael [and Edward Gibney]. Prelude to Brass Playing. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1961, p 29.) Norman D’Ath: The possession of a fast, clear single tongue is one of the greatest assets to any brass player. (D’Ath, Norman. Cornet Playing. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1960, p 34.) Louis Davidson: All aspects of playing are inextricably bound to the attack. The importance of a good attack cannot be emphasized enough. . . It is the one technique above all others that must be as natural, as uncomplicated, and as much a reflex action to the player as breathing or walking. (Davidson, Louis. Trumpet Techniques. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1970, p 1.)

SINGLE-TONGUING Trumpet students must master single-tonguing before they begin double- or triple-tonguing. Without quick and effortless single-tongue attacks, faster passages cannot develop correctly. The word “attack,” although generally used in brass pedagogy, is actually a misnomer because it implies that the note commences in an explosive manner. The attack is actually a release of the air to begin a note. Depending on the performer’s intent, the release can be gentle or percussive. Single-tonguing applies a syllable such as “tu,” “ta,” “da,” “la,” or anything similar, to each note that is not slurred or tied. The number of syllables is infinite and varies according to range, duration, and musical character. For instance, a bugler might prefer the syllable “doo” when playing Taps, but might use “ta” when playing Reveille.

134 The physical manner in which trumpeters execute a specific syllable varies greatly because of the differences in dental structure, lower jaw position, embouchure setting, mouthpiece placement, length and shape of tongue, range of motion of the tongue, mouthpiece angle, and size and shape of the oral cavity. Therefore, no single method of tonguing can be applied to all trumpeters. Each performer must experiment with different syllables and methods of tonguing so that a wide variety of articulations can be used. As mentioned earlier, the tongue articulates by releasing the air. It does not “strike” the surface of contact in the same way a percussionist strikes a drum. Rather, the tongue pulls away from the teeth, hard palate, or lips. Depending on the type of attack desired and the tessitura of the notes to be played, the tongue presses either gently or firmly against the contact surface, allowing air pressure to build in the oral cavity to the needed level. As a general rule, the greater the air compression before the release and the closer the contact surface is to the aperture of the lips, the more percussive the attack will be. There are four pairs of extrinsic muscles which act to move the tongue. These are attached to various bones of the head and neck. In addition, there are four pairs of muscles inside the tongue that run parallel down its length. Altogether, these eight pairs of muscles allow an incredible diversity of motion and speed which enables the trumpeter to develop a large “vocabulary” of attacks. (Refer to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue) A condition known as ankyloglossia may limit the range of motion of the front of the tongue. Ankyloglossia, commonly referred to as “tongue-tie,” results when the frenulum, a band of tissue that connects the bottom of the tongue to the floor of the mouth, is too short and tight. This condition occurs relatively often—approximately 1.5% of babies are born with tight frenulums. (Refer to: www.storknet.com/cubbies/breast/AS-tonguetied.htm)

short frenulum (“tongue-tie”)

135 A short frenulum rarely interferes with normal speech or eating. However, it can sometimes restrict tongue movement, making it impossible for the front of the tongue to touch the roof of the mouth or protrude past the lips. If deemed appropriate by a physician, a frenulectomy (tongue clipping) is performed at or within a few weeks of birth. ( See: www.drhull.com/EncyMaster/T/ tongue_tie.html) Regardless of whether or not this procedure is performed, even if an individual can speak normally, the degree of frontal tongue motion affects how the performer will naturally articulate. There are two main methods of tonguing—“tip-tonguing” and “dorsal-tonguing.” By far, the most common type is tip-tonguing. According to trumpeter Roger Sherman, Tip-tonguing is the most commonly taught articulation technique. In fact, many teachers are not aware that any other type exists. . . The tip of the tongue is placed behind the top teeth at the junction with the hard palate. The stroke of the tongue is downward and backward. . . A clean articulation is produced by pronouncing the syllables Ta, Tu, Te, or Ti. (Sherman, Roger. The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1979, p 24.)

tip- tonguing before release

tip- tonguing after release

Dorsal-tonguing, sometimes called “anchor-tonguing,” is accomplished by consistently pressing the tip of the tongue lightly against the back of the lower front teeth and articulating with the dorsum (top surface) of the tongue. Players naturally adopt this method when this tongue

136 motion is limited because of a short frenulum or a severe jaw underbite. It is also preferred by some players who specialize in the upper register because the front of the tongue is arched in the upper register, making it easier to articulate with the dorsum.

dorsal-tonguing before release

dorsal-tonguing after release

Many performers utilize a combination of tip-tonguing and dorsal-tonguing, depending on the tessitura and musical style being played. For instance, a player might use tip-tonguing between the teeth in the low register, tip-tonguing at the juncture of the upper teeth and hard palate in the middle register, and dorsal-tonguing in the high register. With trial-and-error practice, each performer develops his or her best articulation methods that work most efficiently with his or her unique physical make-up and musical needs. The following are suggested methods of tonguing from a few well-known trumpet pedagogues: Gerald Endsley: When the tongue is prepared to enunciate the syllable “Tu,” the tip [of the tongue] is at the roof of the mouth, at or behind the line dividing the gums and upper teeth. With the execution of the syllable, the tongue darts downward toward the bottom of the mouth, thus opening the passageway to the lips. (Endsley, Gerald. Volume I. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1972, p 12.)

137 Claude Gordon: Do not worry about what the tongue is doing. Just think “Tee,” and blow strongly. (Gordon, Claude. Physical Approach to Elementary Brass Playing. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1977, p 12.) Delbert Dale: The actual role the tongue plays in making an attack is a source of contention among trumpet teachers. Some insist that the tip of the tongue strikes the lower inside edge of the upper teeth; others say that it hits higher up on the teeth at the gum line or even the roof of the mouth directly behind the teeth. Still others favor that method by which the tip of the tongue lightly touches the lower teeth, the attack actually being done with the center of the tongue striking against the roof of the mouth. . . I will not advocate any one of the above methods at the expense of the other, for I feel that I personally will in one instance use a certain method of tonguing and in another a different method. (Dale, Delbert. Trumpet Technique. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1965, p 54.) Fay Hanson: One should place the tongue exactly in the same place he or she would if they were saying the word “too.” (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 12.) Scott Whitener: The placement of the tip of the tongue varies with individual players. The most common location is the upper front corner of the mouth at the gum line of the front teeth. Some players prefer a lower placement, at the middle or bottom of the upper teeth. . . The motion should be limited to the tip of the tongue, and its direction must be more vertical than forward and back. (Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990, pp 112-113.) Rolf Quinque: In tonguing a note, the tongue strikes behind the top teeth in the angle between palate and teeth. (Quinque, Rolf. Atmung Stütze Ansatz Methode. Bulle, Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1980, p 15.) Louis Maggio: The [dorsal part of the] tongue rests at the base of the top teeth. [It ] drops to release the air to the floor of the mouth, and the tip rests at the base of the bottom teeth. [sic] (MacBeth, Carlton. Original Louis Maggio System for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1975, p 11.) Herbert L. Clarke: The tongue should be placed at the base of the upper teeth, naturally, and the syllable “tu” is pronounced with a backward movement resembling the action of a valve. . . Never allow the tongue to come between the teeth because it is impossible to articulate distinctly or rapidly in this manner. (Clarke, Herbert L. “Elementary Studies” from Clarke Studies, Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 11.) My own manner of tonguing is rather unique. . . My tongue is never rigid when playing and rests at the bottom of my mouth, the end pressed lightly against the lower teeth. I then produce the staccato by the center of the tongue striking against the roof of the mouth. (Clarke, Herbert L. “Characteristic Studies” from Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 118.) Herbert Clarke seemed to understand that the majority of trumpeters are more successful with tip-tonguing, although his own extraordinary technique was accomplished through dorsaltonguing. Other famous trumpet and cornet players known to employ dorsal-tonguing include Jules Levy, Armando Ghitalla, Charles Schlueter, Raymond Mase, Claude Gordon, Timothy Morrison, and Rolf Smedvig.

138 Trumpeters capable of tip-tonguing may find flutter-tonguing to be an excellent guide to their most efficient and fast tongue stroke. If done with the front of the tongue and without struggle, flutter-tonguing provides a guide for where the tongue should touch when single-tonguing because its incredible speed is based on the body’s most efficient and natural tongue stroke. By alternating flutter-tongue and single-tongue phrases, the performer can match the actions of the single-tongue to that of the flutter-tongue, ensuring that the motion and release point of the tongue are at their best. The following exercises, modified from Arban’s Complete Conservatory Method, are excellent practice materials for alternating flutter-tonguing with single-tonguing. (Arban, J. J. B. L.; Goldman and Smith, Ed. Complete Conservatory Method for Cornet. NY: Carl Fischer, 1982, pp 28-29.)

139

Although less common, other methods of tonguing require the tongue to touch the top lip when articulating. Such methods are similar to dorsal-tonguing except that the dorsum of the tongue contacts the upper lip rather than the roof of the mouth. This method is preferred by numerous performers that often play in the extreme upper register because the tongue arch needed for this tessitura positions the dorsum of the tongue very high and forward in the mouth, bringing the point of air compression to the upper lip. The physical feeling is very similar to whistling “tweet-tweet” bird calls as high as possible, anchoring the tip of the tongue to the back of the lower front teeth and lightly touching the upper lip with the area of the tongue approximately one inch from the tip. Articulating cleanly in the middle and low registers in this manner is difficult. Another method of tonguing on the lip is advocated by Jerome Callet in his book, Superchops. This method utilizes tip-tonguing but directs the point of contact to the lips. The tip of the tongue must strike the inner part of the lips through the open teeth. The action is exactly like spitting. . . Never tongue behind the top teeth or higher on the inside palate above the top of the teeth. [sic] Tonguing behind the top teeth builds resistance and strains the throat area. (Callet, Jerome. Superchops. NY: Jerome Callet, 1987, p 8.) Callet goes on to state that: Most of the world’s greatest trumpet soloists, both classical and jazz, tongue through their teeth, striking their lips. (Ibid.)

140 This manner of tonguing is not new. Several older cornet and trumpet methods advocate this method of articulation. Edna White (1892-1992), a well-known trumpet soloist and once president of the H. N. White Corporation, advocated that tonguing was to be done as a ...sharp snap of the tongue between the teeth, as though one were viciously biting off a thread and trying to spit it across the room. (White, Edna. On Taming The Devil’s Tongue. Greenfield, MA: Trumpet Publications, 1982, p 2.) Another method, Preparatory Instructor for Cornet, Book One by E. C. Moore states: There are two common methods of tonguing. The first method: the tip of the tongue protrudes slightly between the lips. The second method: tonguing entirely back of the (top) teeth as in saying “too.” Both methods are correct and both should be learned and used. (Moore, E. C. Preparatory Instructor for Cornet, Book One. Appleton, WI: Appleton Music Publications, 1937, p 5.) Similarly, an unauthored series of cornet instruction lessons published in 1910 by the C. G. Conn Corporation states that: The tip of the tongue is placed on the upper lip just barely above the line where the lips meet. . . By attack of the tongue, we refer to the manner in which the tongue is jerked back into the lower part of the mouth. . . Place the cornet to your properly closed lips, having the rim cover the tip of the upper lip, and with full breath try repeatedly to make the tone pop like the pop made by jerking a cork out of a bottle. [sic] (anonymous. The Virtuoso Course of Cornet Instruction, Lesson V—How to Use the Tongue. Kansas City, MO: C. G. Conn Corp., 1910, pp 1-2.) A more recent trumpet method, The Balanced Embouchure by Jeff Smiley, also advocates tonguing on the top lip. Touching the top lip with the tongue while playing is a basic trumpet skill. . . Never play a single note without squarely striking the top lip. Tonguing on the lips is like spitting out a seed. (Smiley, Jeff. The Balanced Embouchure. Garland, TX: Jeff Smiley, 2001, p 123.) In addition to articulation, Smiley believes that tonguing on the lips helps monitor the position of the lips. “Tonguing on the lips” is considered a no-no by much of the trumpet community. It is associated with a splatty, or too harsh, attack. Instead of hitting the lips, students are taught to say “tee-tee,” “do-do,” or any number of syllables which place the tongue on the roof of the mouth, just behind the teeth. What teachers don’t understand is that the lips are weak. Very often, students’ lips are not strong enough to maintain a centered position on the mouthpiece. The tongue provides a way for the student to feel the lip position while playing. (Ibid., p 17.) Trumpeters are required to produce many different types of attack when playing various musical styles. It is not uncommon to have a mixture of types of attack within a phrase, especially in jazz music, although symphonic music tends to be more consistent within each section or movement of a composition. It is vital for the performer to possess a huge variety of articulations and attacks if great versatility is to be achieved. The following musical examples provide a number of common types of single-tongue attacks. Syllables are placed under the notes to provide a general guide to diction, length of notes, and musical expressions indicated by staccato, legato, or accent markings.

141

142 Regardless of the type of attack and length of note, tone should begin with the attack, which needs to be instantaneous. One very efficient tool to develop precise attacks is the practice of “pop tones.” An added benefit of pop tones, even a few minutes daily, is greatly improved response when playing softly. Pop tones sound similar to lightly hitting the palm of the hand on the rim of the mouthpiece. When played correctly, the pitch of each note sounds for an instant, creating a pitch with no real “trumpet” tone. Embouchure and articulation are to be exactly the same as usual, but the dynamic level should be ppppp. Middle-range pop tones are the easiest to produce and are the best notes to start with. Pop tones are extremely short and do not rely on lip vibrations. The pitch of each note should be clear. The benefits of pop tone practice are many because: 1. The embouchure must be set perfectly for each pitch desired. 2. The action of the tongue must be extremely quick—like a spark. 3. The lip aperture must be small. Spreading the lips apart, even slightly, prevents the pitch from speaking at soft dynamics. 4. The mouthpiece pressure against the lips must be relatively light. Pop tones can be played on all keys and types of trumpets and cornets. They are effective in the development of immediate response in single-, double-, and triple-tonguing and are helpful in perfecting passages with difficult intervals. The following exercises and musical excerpts are good practice materials for pop tone practice.

143 MULTIPLE-TONGUING The ability to tongue rapid passages is a requirement in today’s professional trumpet world. Beginning with the great Joseph Jean-Baptiste Laurent Arban (1825-1889), cornet virtuosos such as Jack Mackintosh, George Swift, Matthew Arbuckle, Jules Levy, Herbert Clarke, Del Staigers, James Burke, Bohumir Kryl, Oskar Böhme, Vasily Brandt, Frank Simon, Theodore Hoch, Walter M. Smith, and Leonard B. Smith popularized and perfected the art of double- and triple-tonguing. More recently, trumpet soloists such as Maurice André, Rafael Méndez, Harry James, Timofei Dokshitzer, Sergei Nakarjakov, Wynton Marsalis, and Allen Vizzutti have set the ultimate standard for technical virtuosity. Once students have acquired quick and precise single-tonguing, they can begin to develop their multiple-tonguing skills. Trumpeters generally use multiple-tonguing in passages that are too fast to single-tongue. Dr. Keith Johnson advises: Before attempting to play double- or triple-tonguing, the player should speak or sing the syllables slowly and resonantly, giving full length to vowel sounds and using very steady rhythm. Only after these sounds can be properly verbalized should any attempt be made to produce them on the trumpet. . . The articulations are more satisfactory when made in the very front of the mouth. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 74.) Double-Tonguing: Double-tonguing is the alternation of articulated syllables “ta-ka” rather than the normal single-tonguing “ta-ta” on two successive notes. With practice, players can double-tongue more quickly than it is physically possible to single-tongue. The student should attempt to make the “ta-ka” syllables every bit as precise and articulate as the “ta-ta” syllables used in single-tonguing. This is accomplished by forming the syllables in the front of the mouth. Ultimate speed of double-tonguing requires a continuous flow of air and a light articulation. Many performers prefer the syllables “da-ga” or “di-gi” when playing as rapidly as possible because they are less percussive and allow the tone to “sing” easily. By practicing the syllables in the following exercises, one should make certain that the percussiveness of attack is very similar when single- and double-tonguing. After the syllables are mastered, they should be played on the trumpet. At first, the “ka” syllable may sound less distinct than the “ta” syllable. Moving the “ka” syllable forward in the mouth makes its attack clearer than when it is pronounced in the back of the mouth.

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Speed of articulation improves naturally and automatically once the syllables are played evenly and in a consistent manner. When longer notes are desired, the syllables “tu-ku” work best. Semi-staccato notes are produced most easily when the syllables “ta-ka” are used. Finally, rapid staccato notes are attained using the syllables “ti-ki.” Students often learn the concept of double-tonguing by saying aloud the “ti-ki” syllables as if they were immatating the rattling sound of a rattlesnake. Another idea is to repeatedly say the word “kitty” as fast as possible. Triple-Tonguing: The most common syllables used in triple-tonguing are “ta-ta-ka” or “tu-tu-ku.” The syllables “ta-ka-ta” may also be used. When using the latter in a series of fast triplets, care must be taken to ensure that each triplet is not segmented from the others, creating a choppy rhythmic flow. The following examples of alternating single- and triple-tonguing should be pronounced aloud until all syllables are equal in length and clarity. After acquiring consistent vocal pronounciations, the exercises should be played on the trumpet.

145 Another method of triple-tonguing is described by Col. Earl Irons in his book, TwentySeven Groups of Exercises. Irons advocates that the syllables “tu-ku-tu—ku-tu-ku” be used when extended patterns of triplets are played. A slight accent should be placed on the first note of each triplet so that this double-tonguing pattern sounds like triplets rather than duplets. (See: Irons, Earl. Twenty-Seven Groups of Exercises. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1966.) The main advantage of Irons’ triple-tongue method is that no two “ts” occur together, making ultimate speed faster than conventional triple-tonguing. Another advantage is that doubleand triple-tonguing are learned simultaneously, assisting the student in the early development of multiple-tonguing. This method is not only the easiest to learn, but has the best potential for velocity. It is advocated by the author and James Burke. (See: Hickman, David. “Articulations and Finger Dexterity,” Trumpet Lessons with David Hickman, Vol. 4. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1991; Burke, James. New Directions in Tonguing. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1956.)

The following are some general tips on multiple-tonguing from leading trumpet and cornet players: Herbert L. Clarke: It is advisable to control the “Ke,” “Ka,” or “Ku” attack. This form of articulation is usually overlooked by a majority of cornet players whose doubletonguing, as a result, is never correct. (Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, p 121.) Louis Davidson: When performed correctly, double and triple-tonguing should sound as sharp, clear, and rhythmically even as very fast single-tonguing. (Davidson, Louis. Trumpet Techniques. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1970, p 10.) Leonard B. Smith: Double-tonguing can be brought into focus for any player if he will experiment by saying the word “Giddy.” (Bellamah, Joseph L. A Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Philosophies. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1976, p 30.)

146 Fay Hanson: The factor that spells success or failure in either double or triple-tonguing is the manner in which the “ku” sound is produced. . . Most players try to use the back portion of their tongues for this sound and, as a result never acquire a uniform sound between the “T” and the “K.” (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 15.) Roger Sherman: It makes no difference whether double or triple-tonguing is introduced first. In fact, some teachers introduce and teach both simultaneously. (Sherman, Roger. The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1979, p 82.) Mixed-Tonguing: Sometimes, passages do not follow rhythmic patterns conducive to regular double- or tripletonguing, yet are too fast to be played with single-tonguing. Such passages require a mixture of “ts” and “ks” that must be practiced in their own unique ways. The following passages from the standard repertoire require mixed-tonguing. Suggested articulations are provided with each example.

147 In an attempt to make rapid articulations easier, a “tremolo mouthpiece” was patented by Charles Meister in 1888. A lever, operated by a finger of the left hand, moves a tiny piston-valve that temporarily interrupts the sound waves passing through the mouthpiece. The following is a copy of the patent drawings. HISTORICAL ARTIFACT – TREMOLO MOUTHPIECE

148 FLUTTER-TONGUING AND GROWLING Composers sometimes call for flutter-tonguing or growling. Although flutter-tonguing and growling are separate techniques with somewhat different sounds, they can be used interchangeably if necessary. Today, flutter-tonguing is more commonly required in symphonic music, whereas growling is much more frequent in jazz music. Just as not all people can “roll their Rs,” not all people can flutter-tongue. The reason for this may be strictly genetic or may be the result of a short frenulum as discussed earlier in this chapter. If flutter-tonguing is not possible, growling should be substituted. Musical indications for flutter-tonguing are usually notated as follows:

A few works that indicate flutter-tonguing are: Shostakovich Gershwin Jolivet Jolivet Milhaud Ravel

— — — — — —

Symphony No. 7 Rhapsody in Blue Heptade Concertino La Création du Monde Piano Concerto in G

Growling utilizes the player’s vocal cords rather than the tongue to produce a raspy, grinding sound. It takes practice to develop this technique because the vocal cords are not normally engaged when playing. Indications of growling are not usually notated in jazz music and are left to the performer’s discretion. When indicated in symphonic music, they appear as follows:

SELECTED MATERIALS WITH MULTIPLE-TONGUING EXERCISE STUDY BOOKS: Arban (Goldman; Smith) Bing Clarke (Hickman) Irons Saint-Jacome Schlossberg Shubruck

Complete Conservatory Method The Bing Book Clarke Studies (4 Clarke books) Twenty-Seven Groups of Exercises Complete Grand Method Daily Drills and Technical Studies Graded Tongue Trainers

Carl Fischer, Inc. Whipple Music Hickman Music Editions Southern Music Company Carl Fischer, Inc. Baron Carl Fischer, Inc.

149 SOLOS: Abreu (Méndez) Arban Arutunian Bellstedt Bellstedt Böhme Brandt Brandt Chance Clarke Clarke Clarke Clarke Enesco Gödicke Goldman Hartmann Honegger Höhne Méndez Méndez Méndez Monti (Méndez) Paganini (Méndez) Peeters Riisager Staigers Tomasi

Tico-Tico Carnival of Venice Concerto La Mandolinata Napoli La Napolitaine First Concert Piece, op. 11 Second Concert Piece, op. 12 Credo The Débutante The Maid of the Mist Showers of Gold Stars in a Velvety Sky Legend Concert Etude Scherzo Facilita Intrada Slavische Fantasie Jota #1 Jota #2 Scherzo in D Minor Czardas Moto Perpetuo Sonata Concertino Carnival of Venice Concerto

Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions International Music Co. Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Boosey & Hawkes Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Hickman Music Editions Shawnee Press Tromba Publications Salabert Hickman Music Editions Carl Fischer, Inc. Carl Fischer, Inc. Carl Fischer, Inc. Carl Fischer, Inc. Hickman Music Editions C. F. Peters C. F. Peters Carl Fischer, Inc. Leduc

SELECTED RECORDINGS DEMONSTRATING MULTIPLE-TONGUING André Antonsen Aubier Clarke Dokshitzer Hickman Hickman Mackintosh Marsalis Marsalis Méndez Méndez Méndez Nakarjakov Schwarz Smith, L. Smith, P. Vizzutti

Trumpette Hors-Série Ole Edvard Antonsen Four French Trumpet Concertos Soloist Herbert L. Clarke Concertpieces Golden Age of Brass, vol. 1 Golden Age of Brass, vol. 2 The Cornet King Carnival Tomasi and Jolivet Concertos The Legendary Trumpet Virtuosity Magnificent Méndez Presenting Rafael Méndez Carmen Fantasy Cornet Favorites Leonard B. Smith Escapades Carnival of Venus

CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD LP CD LP LP CD LP CD CD CD

RyM Musique Simax Adda Crystal Marcophon Summit Summit Choice CBS CBS Summit MCA/Decca MCA/Decca Teldec Nonesuch Walking Frog Heavyweight Summit

191 634-2 PSC 1041 590027 CD 450 CD 904 DCD 114 DCD 121 CD1-BM1 MK 42137 42096 DCD 177 DL 74932 DL 8624 4509-94554-2 H-71298 WFR 312 HR 601/D DCD 188

150 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—SCHREIBER CORNET

HH 647: Top-side acting rotary valve cornet in B-flat; "SCHREIBER CORNET MFG CO." Schreiber's portrait on a plaque with "PATENT BY / L. SCHREIBER / N .Y. / U. S. A. / Sept. 12 1865". Probably after 1867; Nickel silver; The additional "valve" on the right side is actually a water key. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

151

CHAPTER V

Efficient Practice LOOSENING-UP Loosening-up is an important “pre-warm-up” routine designed to increase blood circulation in the embouchure without taxing the muscles. It reduces swelling in the lips caused by the previous day’s playing and removes lactate, which causes stiffness. It also prepares the nerves in the facial area for the onset of the mouthpiece and the muscle exertion used in vigorous playing. Trumpet playing is a physically demanding activity, requiring strength and endurance that can be gained only through structured practice. In order for the muscles to have peak strength, responsiveness, and flexibility, each day’s practice should begin with a thorough loosening-up routine. In rare occurrences when the lips feel extremely swollen and sore due to an extraordinarily punishing amount of playing during the previous day, a hot shower, with the shower nozzle aimed at the embouchure, can be very helpful. The hot and messaging water stream increases blood flow in the embouchure, allowing the loosening-up session to progress more easily. Players can better appreciate the importance of a loosening-up routine through understanding how muscles work. When muscles contract to become active, they convert oxygen and nutrients (delivered by the bloodstream) into energy. The bi-products of this process include heat, carbon dioxide, and acids. Generally, the body easily removes these bi-products over time. However, when the body feels a sudden, large stress on the muscles, the quantity of waste increases faster than the body can remove it. The build-up of lactate, a bi-product of lactic acid, decreases a muscle fiber’s calcium-binding capacity and limits motion. This limited contraction-ability is felt as “stiffness.” Stiffness makes the physical aspects of trumpet playing more difficult. Without removing this stiffness from the facial muscles, it is impossible to play with peak physical ability. (Refer to: “All About Muscle Fatigue.” ISSA. www.BodyBuilding.com/fun/issa77.htm) Recently, several biologists and exercise physiologists have argued that some of the traditional theories concerning the build-up of lactate as a destroyer of muscle endurance are incorrect. They contend that lactate is actually fuel for the muscles. Thomas Fahey states: When your body makes lactic acid, it splits into lactate ion (lactate) and hydrogen ion. Hydrogen ion is the acid in lactic acid. It interferes with electrical signals in your muscles and nerves, slows energy reactions, and impairs muscle contractions. The burn you feel in intense exercise is caused by hydrogen ion build-up. So, when you fatigue, don't blame it on lactic acid. Rather, place the blame where it belongs—on hydrogen ion. (Fahey, Thomas. "Ten Things You Should Know About Lactic Acid: Old Myths And New Realities." www.cytosport.com/science/lacticacid.html) In a recent article in the New York Times by Gina Kolata, a quote by Dr. George A. Brooks, the pioneer of this new theory, states: The lactic acid is taken up and used as a fuel by mitochondria , the energy factories in muscle cells. Mitochondria even have a special transporter protein to move the substance into them. Intense training makes a difference because it can make double the mitochondrial mass. (Kolata, Gina. "Lactate Acid Is Not Muscles' Foe, It's Fuel." NY: New York Times [Health section], May 16, 2006.)

152 An important concept of Dr. Brooks' theory is that intense exercise trains the body to "shuttle" lactic acid to all regions of the body rather than allowing it to accumulate profusely within the working muscles. When broken down in organs and other muscles, the lactate provides extra energy that gives the performer a "second wind." Dr. Brooks states: Lactate is the friend of triathletes, distance runners, swimmers, and cyclists. When you learn the facts about lactic acid, you will think of it in a whole new light. Harness the power of lactic acid and you will increase your energy level and stave off fatigue. (Ibid.) Perhaps this is an important key in understanding how leading trumpet artists sometimes have amazing endurance. Trumpeters, like long distance runners, can develop high levels of endurance through hours of intense daily practice. Before playing begins, players should take care to be well-hydrated, as hydration improves blood circulation. Drinking a large glass of water first thing in the morning helps playing later in the day. The length of time needed for the loosening-up session varies each day, depending on how stiff and swollen the lips and facial muscles are at the beginning of practicing. Generally, this session takes between five and fifteen minutes. Approximately fifty percent of this time is comprised of short rest periods, allowing blood circulation to remove excess fluids and acid wastes. Buzzing on the mouthpiece alone is a good way to begin the loosening-up session. The range of these buzzed notes should be mainly in the pedal register and be played at a medium volume. Slow glissandi or arpeggios should be done with very light mouthpiece pressure against the lips. Some players find that “horse flapping” (extremely low buzzing without the mouthpiece) also helps the loosening-up process. Other players find that playing soft low notes on the instrument or giving the lips a light finger massage helps loosen the muscles and enhances blood circulation in the embouchure. After playing a low phrase in one breath, the player should rest for a period of equal length. Players should continue alternating low phrases with rest periods, gradually expanding the range−both higher and lower−keeping in mind that stiffness and soreness are reduced during the rest periods because of increased blood circulation. Constant playing only adds to the swelling problem. Each player must follow his or her own instincts as to how much rest is needed and how quickly he or she can expand the range and volume of the notes. The player should avoid any tingling in the lips by resting often. Tingling that becomes prevalent is an indication that the nerves are over-excited. This sometimes causes the brain to sense that a minor injury has occurred, triggering additional swelling of the lips. When the lips feel responsive, flexible, and ready to play the trumpet, the player should expand the range to the middle of the treble staff. Playing the mouthpiece above the staff requires more physical energy than playing lower notes and should be avoided during the loosening-up routine. When all notes in the middle and low ranges feel and sound as good as possible, a rest period of ten to thirty minutes should follow. A brief period of body stretching is a good way to end the loosening-up routine. In the book, The Breathing Gym, stretching exercises are suggested by leading tubists Sam Pilafian and Patrick Sheridan and include (see next page):

153 1. Trunk Twists (upper body twisting right and left) 2. Flop Overs (bending forward at the waist) 3. Two-Way Stretches (upper body and arms reaching as high as possible while the legs push downward) 4. Wrist Grabs (clasping wrists together behind the back and leaning to each side as far as possible) 5. Elbow Grabs (one hand on opposite elbow and leaning to left and right) 6. Whole Body Stretches (fingers clasped behind back while breathing deeply and flopping the upper body forward at the waist) Pilafian and Sheridan have produced an excellent book and DVD that provides details and full routines of these exercises. (See: Pilafian, Samuel and Patrick Sheridan. The Breathing Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Excellence, 2002, pp 25-29.) Their other book, The Brass Gym, contains excellent daily workouts for all brass players and includes playing exercises on the instrument. ( See: Pilafian, Samuel and Patrick Sheridan. The Brass Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Music, 2005.)

WARMING-UP To play at full strength, blood circulation in the embouchure must be optimal, and the facial nerves must be gradually sensitized to embouchure stress and normal mouthpiece pressure. If a warm-up is inadequate, the physical exertion of playing throughout all registers of the instrument and with a full range of dynamics quickly causes the lips to swell. This swelling creates severe response problems, range difficulties (low and high), as well as a noticeable loss of embouchure control. Swelling restricts blood circulation, creating a sudden loss of strength. After a proper loosening-up session on the mouthpiece or trumpet followed by a ten to thirty minute rest period, players should warm up. The physical purpose of the warm-up is to expand the range and volume gradually to full potential as well as prepare the tongue and breathing muscles for full capacity usage. Trumpet players seem to have an almost universal need for a warm-up routine each day. Philip Cansler states: The first ingredient for developing consistency for the trumpet player is a good warm-up. (Cansler, Philip T. Cansler’s Proven Routine. Portland, OR: Pro-Motion Music, 1986, p 6.) According to Allen Vizzutti: In order to ensure consistent improvement through practice, it is absolutely essential to warm up. (Vizzutti, Allen. The Allen Vizzutti Trumpet Method, Bk. 1. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 1990, p 4.) In addition, Rafael Méndez recommends: Warm up first. Just as a baseball pitcher must have his warm-up session in the bull pen to get his arm ready for peak performance, so must you prepare your lips. . . . A few minutes of the “loosening buzz” will start the lips vibrating naturally. Then, start blowing in the low register—softly. (Méndez, Rafael [and Edward Gibney]. Prelude to Brass Playing. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1961, p 61.) Another benefit to a complete warm-up is the release of endorphins, a natural chemical controlled by the thalamus in the brain, which provides a slight numbing of the pain from muscle fatigue and mouthpiece pressure. The release of endorphins makes exercise activities pleasurable by providing a euphoric feeling, or natural high, and reducing nervousness. (See: Smith, Joseph F. “Pain Management.” www.chcliibrary.org/micromed/00059590.html, 2005.)

154 The length of the warm-up varies from person to person. Some performers play the exact same warm-up materials each day, feeling that a set warm-up provides consistency. Louis Davidson, former principal trumpeter of The Cleveland Orchestra writes: To the intelligent, analytical player, “warming up” is synonymous with careful, meticulous practicing. To such a player, warming up (or practicing) means the daily process of painstakingly, methodically, and intelligently polishing and securing all the techniques involved in playing, giving absolute attention to the ultimate refinement of these techniques. (Davidson, Louis. Trumpet Techniques. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1970, p. 13.)

Others vary the length and materials of the warm-up depending on how they feel when they begin and how they want to feel when finished warming up. For this group, the warm-up is the “equalizer” that adjusts according to the daily needs of the player. Players need to experiment with different lengths and types of warm-ups to find the routine that provides the best results for them. Dr. Keith Johnson, professor of trumpet at the University of North Texas states: Some routines last only a few moments, and some extend to about an hour. A moderate amount of fifteen to thirty minutes seems best for most people. . . .What is crucial is not the exact length or even the specific content of the routine, but its overall effectiveness. Developing a beneficial warmup requires experimentation, and each player should be willing to expand, condense, add, or delete as best suits his own needs. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: The Iowa State University Press, 1981, p. 90.)

The present author feels that a warm-up routine typically averages fifteen to thirty minutes in length. It generally begins in the middle register and gradually expands in range (higher and lower) and dynamics. Tonguing, fingering, and breath control exercises are mixed in so that each aspect of technique is incorporated. Here are some additional views on warming-up: Anthony Plog: It is important to remember that there are a great many different ideas regarding the warm-up. A number of players think of the warm-up as a sort of extended practice session in which a number of different techniques are practiced. This type of warm-up can take anywhere from thirty minutes to two hours. I personally prefer a shorter warm-up period of approximately fifteen to thirty minutes, principally to prepare the embouchure for the day ahead. (Plog, Anthony. Method For Trumpet, Bk. 1. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 2003, p. 5.)

Timofei Dokshitzer: What is “warming-up?” It is trumpeter’s gymnastics: it consists of very simple preparatory exercises that the trumpeter plays with very little effort at the start of his practice session. (Dokshitzer, Timofei. Trans. Wendy Thompson. Trumpet Method. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1994, p 15.)

Trumpet soloist Allen Vizzutti warns of playing strenuous exercises during the warm-up routine: In my opinion, lip slurs (except in the lowest seven partials) are not a particularly good warm-up. They are physically demanding and, therefore, useful later in your practice session. Lip strength (more accurately, the strength of the muscle structure around the lips) as a goal is greatly overemphasized. Although strength is important to a degree, range, endurance, a beautiful sound and advanced technique as a complete package are based on efficiency of breath control, not brute strength. (Vizzutti, Allen. The Allen Vizzutti Trumpet Method, Bk. I. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 1990, p 5.) Because of time restrictions, there may be occasions when a complete warm-up routine is not possible. Each player should develop a quick warm-up routine that provides adequate embouchure response and flexibility in only a few minutes.

155 The following beginners’ warm-up routine is provided by James R. West, Professor of Trumpet at Louisiana State University. (Used by permission.)

Getting Started A beginning warm-up by James R. West, Professor of Trumpet, Louisiana State University Embouchure is the formation of the lips and teeth that make a sound possible when blowing air into a brass instrument. Form the lips as if saying the letter “M.” Imagine sipping on the flattened end of a soda straw, but the air goes out rather than in. BUZZING THE LEADPIPE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Carefully remove the tuning slide and set it aside. Place the mouthpiece on the lips; take a breath; gently blow as if playing normally. Use a breath attack (no tongue). Make no attempt to buzz the lips. The buzz should happen automatically without any effort. When the buzz sounds, it will probably be a bottom-line E or something close to it. If the buzz does not sound easily, place a finger over the end of the leadpipe. Blow air normally, then suddenly remove the finger. This should get the buzz to happen.

The following exercise demonstrates how easy it is to play the trumpet. Play it without the tuning slide.

CENTERING THE SOUND With the tuning slide placed in the trumpet, play the notes at the top of the next page. Hold each note and move it around until the best tone possible sounds. Experiment by slightly moving the trumpet up and down, side to side, and by adjusting the inside of the mouth. The wavy line indicates moving the note around to find the best sound. Once the tone is good, play the notes that follow using the first note as a model. Relax during the rests and breathe in where indicated by commas. Breathe in slowly, using all of the rest time.

156

TONGUING The goal is to work for an efficient tongue stroke. To maintain a good tone, only move the tongue as much as needed to play with clean, crisp attacks. There are different ways to tongue the notes. Experiment by placing the tip of the tongue in various places in the mouth and releasing the air as if saying “too” or “tee.” Consult a teacher if needed. Regardless of where the tip is placed before the release (attack), the movement should be as effortless as possible so that fast, repeated notes can be played.

SLURS The following exercises use a variety of dynamics. Practice each one until the slurs are easy. The first exercise is done mainly by changing the position of the tongue, like singing “AhEe-Ah-Ee.” The second exercise requires a sudden burst of air on the forte notes. The third exercise requires the lips to firm slightly on the piano notes. For variation, practice each exercise beginning on the higher note. Do each exercise in all seven valve combinations. As skills increase, add higher notes to the exercises. Always use minimal mouthpiece pressure against the lips.

157 SCALES Play each scale as fast as possible. Vary the articulations by adding slurs. Strive to play each line in one breath.

158 Two octaves scales to expand range:

Two octave scale:

Advanced players might prefer a warm-up similar to the following routine provided by the author. (See next page.)

159

160

161

162 In summary, the following outline provides a general loosening up and warming up guide that should help trumpet players achieve their best consistency of tone, range, flexibility, articulation, power, endurance, and accuracy. 1. Be well-hydrated and remove tension in the body through stretching exercises. 2. Buzz extremely low notes on mouthpiece (or instrument) with numerous rest periods (5-15 mins.). 3. Rest 10-30 minutes. 4. Play warm-up routine with numerous rest periods.

DAILY FUNDAMENTALS It is important that trumpet players practice fundamentals each day in order to ensure a consistent level of ability. Practice materials should include exercises to improve one’s ability to develop tone, articulations, finger dexterity, lip flexibility, range, endurance, power, and breath control. While the warm-up routine touches on many fundamentals of playing, some players prefer to include a separate and comprehensive practice session on fundamentals. This routine should include exercises from various sources and be designed by each player to fit his or her own needs. The length of the routine varies from person to person depending on performance capabilities, general strength, and the amount of time available. Daryl Gibson states: The daily routine is an attempt to individualize a set of exercises for each student’s particular needs. (Gibson, Daryl J. A Textbook for Trumpet. Minneapolis: Schmitt, Hall & McCreary Co., 1962, p. 35.)

Developing a daily fundamentals routine of soft long tones, crescendos and decrescendos, full range scales and arpeggios, tonguing exercises, and lip slurs should begin as soon as the player is able to easily practice for an hour without becoming excessively fatigued. A beginning player’s routine might last ten or fifteen minutes, whereas an advanced player might need an hour or more. Regardless of the length, proper rest periods within the routine should be included so that the lips and embouchure muscles are always fresh. These rest periods, although brief, can be useful for practicing without the instrument—fingering the valves without playing, ear training by playing the piano while singing, or other musical skills. The following outline provides a basic daily routine of fundamentals. It can be altered in any manner and should be tailored to the needs of the individual player. The amount of time indicated for each type of exercise can also be adjusted for each person’s needs. This routine should be done only after adequate loosening-up and warm-up sessions. (Please see the listing of exercise books for each type of exercise in the “Selected Reference Materials” section at the end of this chapter.) I. Breath Control Exercise & Tone Development (3 - 10 mins.) A. Slow scales and arpeggios B. Long tones C. Soft playing (see “pop” tones and “whisper” tones in Index) II. Finger Dexterity (3 - 10 mins.) A. Fast scales and arpeggios B. Fast modes and exercises in all keys III. Articulations (3 - 15 mins.) A. Single-tonguing B. Multiple-tonguing

163 C. Mixed articulations with increasing intervals IV. Range, Power, and Endurance (3 - 15 mins.) A. Expanding range exercises B. Lip bends C. Pedal tones D. Extended exercises and etudes for endurance

MULTIPLE PRACTICE SESSIONS FOR MULTIPLE GOALS The best practice happens when the mind and body are fresh and well-rested. For this reason, lengthy practice sessions of an hour or more may not net as much improvement as several short sessions. Another benefit of practicing in numerous short sessions over an entire day is that players can learn to focus their minds despite distractions and adjust for physical changes that occur such as feeling sleepy after a meal or being exhausted at the end of the day. Ideally, several practice sessions of fifteen to thirty minutes each should be scheduled to allow for adequate rest between sessions. If possible, the player should plan the daily practice to cover numerous areas of concentration such as scales, transposition, sight reading, solos, etudes, and other materials needed. An example of a well-planned day of practice for a relatively-advanced player might look something like this: SESSION 1: SESSION 2: SESSION 3: SESSION 4: SESSION 5: SESSION 6:

(early morning) (mid-morning) (late morning) (early afternoon) (late afternoon) (evening)

-

Loosening-up (10 mins.) Warm-up (15 mins.) Fundamentals routine (30 mins.) Etudes (30 mins.) Solos (30 mins.) Sight reading, transpositions, strength exercises (30 - 45 mins.)

It may not be practical for daily practice to be broken up into six sessions as outlined. However, the player should try to have at least two or three sessions throughout the day. If only one lengthy session can be scheduled, the player needs to organize the session carefully so that each of the materials to be practiced can be appropriately covered. Organization plays an important role in the efficiency of daily practice. Dennis Schneider, Professor of Trumpet Emeritus at the University of Nebraska, writes: A well-organized practice session is as important as the blueprints for a well-constructed building. The length of the session is not as important as its regularity and organization. (Schneider, Dennis L. “Organize Your Practice Session.” Notes. Denver: Kolacny Music, Mar. 1969.)

Likewise, attitude is an important factor. Bobby Shew states: If practicing has a feeling of drudgery and frustration while doing it, the emotions will affect your attitude in a negative sense and surely won’t be advantageous to the learning process nor to the enjoyment of music. (Shew, Bobby. “A Positive Approach To Your Practice Session.” [clinic handout], 1979, p. 1.)

164 WOODSHEDDING DIFFICULT PASSAGES Once a passage is learned well, many players find it helpful to play the passage several times left-handed. This forces the player to concentrate in different ways. Then, when played again with the right hand, the passage will be easier. Likewise, practicing the notes in reverse order forces the player to concentrate differently than usual so that the player can better comprehend and ingrain the passage. Once he or she identifies the difficult passages, the player should isolate them and practice in various and creative ways. Practicing each passage slowly and gradually increasing speed is a proven way to learn a difficult phrase, but it is not the only way. In fact, there are many practice techniques that can help the player learn them even better and in less time. In most cases, lack of physical coordination is what makes a passage difficult. Slow practice may work very well at first, especially if the notes are visually confusing because of numerous accidentals, complex rhythms, or difficult intervals. However, slow practice may not prove to be efficient in obtaining lightening-quick muscle coordination. Therefore, a different method of practice is worth developing. The following measures from Rimsky-Korsakov’s Flight of the Bumblebee shows several alternate ways to practice. Although the metronome speed can be slow, these alternate versions require nano-second-fast speed of coordination during the fast notes. The longer notes provide an opportunity for the player to “feel” the next group of notes mentally. Thus, even though the tempo is relatively slow, the root of the problem (coordination) is being practiced faster than the final performance tempo. Once the alternate versions are mastered, performing the work at the original tempo feels like slow motion, making it very comfortable and consistent.

165 Another method of practicing is to begin with only the first two notes played as quickly as possible. This is repeated several times until perfected. Then, a third notes is added, then a fourth, and so on. After completing a phrase in this manner, the last two notes can be played, then the last three notes, etc. Example:

The next passage is a difficult phrase from An Alpine Symphony by Richard Strauss. Several alternate practice versions are provided.

166 The final example of practicing in various rhythms is taken from Johann Nepomuk Hummel’s trumpet concerto (third movement). Here, segmenting each difficult grouping can isolate any imprecise notes.

LISTENING TO MUSIC An important part of any musician’s daily practice should be listening to good music. The pure enjoyment of listening to performances by leading artists is inspiring and leads to a greater motivation to practice while providing a broadened musical appreciation. Listening to various interpretations helps the player understand stylistic and creative ideas to incorporate into his or her own performances. Many of the sections within this book refer to recordings that are fine examples of the music or exercises discussed. Because music is a listening art, the importance of hearing and studying recordings cannot be overstated. For instance, hearing Armando Ghitalla’s recording of Molter’s Concerto No. 2 in D not only provides an excellent style to emulate, but also provides a beautiful aural concept of light piccolo trumpet sound and articulation. (Ghitalla, Armando. Armando Ghitalla, Trumpet. Camas, WA: Crystal Records #CD760 ). Likewise, Philip Smith’s OrchestraPro: Trumpet CD gives the listener excellent examples of orchestral audition passages while providing an ideal orchestral tonal quality to strive for. (Smith, Philip. OrchestraPro: Trumpet. Tempe, AZ: Summit Records #DCD 144) (For a large listing of recordings for trumpet, please refer to Appendix 1: List of Recordings.) Playing along with recordings is an excellent way to acquire a keen sense of tuning, balance, blend, rhythm, and style. It can also make the practice more musically rewarding and emotional, ultimately building a more musical (as opposed to mechanical) approach to playing music. Once the player develops a strong emotional connection with the printed notes, the feeling of selfexpression and enjoyment soon becomes addictive. This often leads to an insatiable need for music as a part of everyday life.

167 STUDYING MUSIC A gratifying musical performance can best be achieved if the performer has a thorough understanding of the composition as well as the composer’s intellectual and emotional ideas in the work. Many works are so complex that generations of musicians continue to study and uncover new compositional techniques or influential events that affected the composer’s creative processes and intentions. On the other hand, some works are relatively simple and straightforward and can be easily interpreted. As an example, The Hollow Men for trumpet and strings (or piano) by Vincent Persichetti takes on a new interpretation after the performer reads and studies T. S. Eliot’s poem of the same title, on which Persichetti based his work. Likewise, an understanding of the sociological philosophies embraced by André Jolivet greatly assists the performer in interpreting Jolivet’s two concertos for trumpet. Even Joseph Haydn’s famous trumpet concerto can be better interpreted once a person studies and understands the events and influences on Haydn in 1796. A portion of the player’s day should be devoted to research on the composer and the study of musical form, style, and compositional techniques used in the work being prepared. Looking at the full score helps determine how the trumpet part interacts with other musical voices so that proper balance, color, and phrasing can be determined. This type of study is as important as playing the instrument and contributes greatly to overall musical performance.

SELECTED MATERIALS FOR EFFICIENT PRACTICE

Arban, J. B. L. Complete Conservatory Method. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1982. Bing, William. Fundamentals for Brass, Bk. I. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 1998. Cichowicz, Vincent. “Flow Studies” Contained in Orchestral Excerpts for Trumpet with Piano Reduction Accompaniments. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 2005. Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. (Contains Elementary Studies, Technical Studies, Characteristic Studies, and Setting-Up Drills). Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005. Colin, Charles. Advanced Lip Flexibilities. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1972. Hickman, David. “Embouchure Formation and Warming-Up.” Trumpet Lessons with David Hickman, Vol. II. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1992. Lillya, Clifford. Method for Trumpet or Cornet. Montrose, CA: Balquihidder Music, 2000. ________. Trumpet Technic. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 1995. Lin, Bai. Lip Flexibilities. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 1996. McGregor, Rob Roy. Audition and Performance Preparation for Trumpet: Orchestral Literature, Vols. I-IV. Montrose, CA: Balquihidder Music, 1992-1996.

168 ________. Daily Scale Builder. Montrose, CA: Balquihidder Music, 2001. Nagel, Robert. Speed Studies. Brookfield, CT: Mentor Music, Inc., 1965. Pilafian, Samuel and Patrick Sheridan. The Brass Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Music, 2005. ________. The Breathing Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Excellence, 2002. Rosenfeld, Seymour. A Daily Routine for the Busy Trumpeter. Westmont, NJ: Schaffner Publishing. Co., 1991. Sachs, Michael. Daily Fundamentals for the Trumpet. NY: International Music Co., 2002. Saint-Jacome. Grand Method for the Trumpet or Cornet. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., [n. d.]. Sandoval, Arturo. Playing Techniques & Performance Studies, Bk. 3. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing Co., 1995. Schlossberg, Max. Daily Drills and Technical Studies for Trumpet. NY: M. Baron, Inc., 1965. Shubruk, Richard. Flexibility Studies and Technical Drills. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1973. Staigers, Del. Daily Exercises. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1960. Stamp, James. Warm-Ups + Studies. Bulle, Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1982. Thrower, Daniel. Ten Stinkin’ Fun Performance Etudes. Markham, Ont., Canada: Eight Note Publications, 2004. Vizzutti, Allen. The Allen Vizzutti Trumpet Method, Bk. 1. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 1990. Voisin, Roger. Daily Exercises. NY: International Music Co., 1963. Zauder, David. Embouchure and Technique Studies. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1974.

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CHAPTER VI

Psychology NOTE: Many thanks to Dr. Richard H. Cox, PhD, MD, one of the world’s leading psychologists and clinicians on performance anxiety, for his help in editing and proofreading this chapter. STUDENT—TEACHER RELATIONSHIP For a functional and successful relationship, a student and his or her teacher must have a mutual trust. The student needs to feel that the teacher wants to help him or her and that the teacher provides consistent expertise and encouragement, even when performances are less than desired. Similarly, the teacher needs to feel that the student values the advice offered and that all recommendations are fully considered and practiced. This mutual trust forms a bond that has unlimited strength and enables the student’s full potential to be realized. Honesty is an integral part of trust. Without it, the relationship is superficial, patronizing, and cannot withstand successes or disappointments. The student and teacher must find a common ground where honesty can be maintained without hurting egos. For this reason, a teacher’s approach to guiding students should vary according to the intelligence, maturity, personality, ego, sense of humor, and confidence of each individual.

POSITIVE VS. NEGATIVE TEACHING The teacher must offer advice in a positive, useful manner so that the student feels encouraged and respected. Negative comments often lead the student to become defensive and resistant to new ideas and musical concepts. Negative phrases such as “don’t do this” and “don’t do that” are generally less effective than “let’s try this” and “let’s make it even better, like this.” By telling the student not to do something, the teacher’s comment is perceived immediately as a negative remark, the reaction to which is almost always less confidence or even mild anger. It also enforces a mental image of the incorrect phrasing or action. The following scenario is an example of negative teaching and learning. Although the student and teacher both want the lesson to go well, the end result is more harmful than helpful. Teacher:

OK, let’s begin with etude number nine.

Student:

OK.

Teacher:

Have you been working on it? How is it coming along?

Student:

I have most of it pretty well, but there are a few spots that still drive me crazy.

Teacher:

Uh, huh, . . I see. Did you practice those spots like we discussed last week? You mean you are still having problems?

170 Student:

Yeah, but it’s getting better . . . I think.

Teacher:

I see. Well, go ahead and give it a try.

The student plays two or three measures. Teacher:

Wait! Stop! You missed the F-sharp there! Do it again.

The student starts over, playing a bit more nervously. Teacher:

Whoa! Right there! Did you hear how out-of-tune that low D-flat was? Be sure to trigger. Don’t let it be sharp.

The student starts over, playing even more nervously. Teacher:

OK, stop! . . . Stop! You still aren’t getting it! Why don’t you listen to what I say? I said to trigger that D-flat!

Student:

Sorry. I’ll try again.

Teacher:

OK. From the top.

The student now plays mechanically but manages to trigger the D-flat. Teacher:

Hey! Stop! Why aren’t you getting a full tone? Aren’t you breathing correctly?

Student:

I don’t know. I thought I was.

Teacher:

Well, you obviously weren’t. Don’t you remember our lesson a few weeks ago when we talked about breathing? Come on . . . get with it. Try it again. This time, take a big breath and remember to trigger the D-flat.

The student plays with great trepidation, playing extremely mechanically for about ten measures, and then misses a high note. Teacher:

Yikes! Ouch! Don’t miss that note. Of all of the notes on the page, that is the most important one. Now, do it again.

The student seems to not want to try to play now because there are too many things to remember, and too much emotional pressure. The student begins to give up. A feeble attempt to play ensues, but the student stops just before the high note. Teacher:

What’s the matter? Are you afraid of the high note? Is this etude too difficult for you? I’ve had many students your age play this without any difficulty. What’s going on?

Student:

I don’t know. It went much better in the practice room.

The negative teaching example above turned the lesson into a negative experience for the student. It is likely that the next lesson will be even more disastrous because the respect between the student and teacher is eroded. Continued negative criticism will eventually break the bond of trust, causing the teacher to think that the student is not working hard enough, and the student to feel that the teacher does not respect the talent and hard work the student provides. A positive teaching approach would turn out differently, such as in the following scenario.

171

Teacher:

OK. I’ve had etude number nine in my head all day. I love that etude. Please play it for me.

Student:

OK.

The student plays the first large section of about thirty-two measures. Teacher:

Very nice. Let’s take a look at this first section for now. I like your musicianship, and I can tell that you enjoy playing this etude.

Student:

Yeah, but it’s difficult in places.

Teacher:

True, but you made it sound easy. Let’s do it again. Sing out even more this time.

The student plays it slightly better, but still has an intonation problem on the low D-flat. Teacher:

Great . . even better that time! What do you think about that low D-flat?

Student:

Oh. I forgot to trigger.

Teacher:

That’s OK. You’ll get it this time. Please play it all again and sing through that D-flat, placing it exactly where you want it to be.

The student plays again and with much improved intonation. Teacher:

Very nice. That time, all of the notes sang beautifully. Now, let’s go on.

The student plays the next section but has difficulties with breath control. Teacher:

It really takes some deep, relaxed breathing to get through all of that. Do you think that you could sing the ends of phases as well as you do the beginnings?

Student:

Well, maybe I should mark an extra breath here (pointing to a place on the page).

Teacher:

Sure. That would work. Personally, I take a big breath here (pointing) and also a catch-breath here (pointing). Let me demonstrate.

The teacher plays the passage. Teacher:

Do you like that? Let’s play it together that way.

The teacher and student play the passage in unison. Teacher:

Good. You sound just like me. Now play it by yourself.

This positive teaching approach incorporated the following elements: • Suggestions were not in the form of criticisms. • The student was asked to identify what the problems were. • The student was allowed to play large sections at a time, making musicality the priority over little mistakes. It also shows that the teacher respects the student’s musicality and efforts to learn the piece.

172 • When the student had a problem with breath support, the teacher encouraged the student, making the student focus subconsciously on taking fuller breaths and singing through the phrases. • The teacher suggested breathing places rather than stating where they should be. • The teacher made the student think about different ways to phrase the music. • The teacher demonstrated the passage, showing a high level of personal involvement. • The teacher and student played together, making the student feel more confident, and providing a clear tonal image to emulate. • The teacher complimented the student by saying that the student sounded just like the teacher. This gave the student even more confidence and a higher standard to attain. • The teacher did not mentally reinforce negative aspects of the performance. Positive comments provide positive mental images that create worthwhile goals. On the other hand, negative comments place undesirable images in the mind of the student. As an example, if a teacher tells a student not to miss a certain high note, the student cannot help but form a mental image of the note being missed. This is the exact opposite of the image the teacher wants to instill in the mind of the student. Here are some common phrases that can be changed easily from negative to positive: Negative Comment

Positive Comment

Don’t miss that note.

Play that note beautifully.

Don’t run out of breath.

Fill your lungs and keep that beautiful tone all the way through the phrase.

This is difficult.

You can do it. Make it sound effortless.

You always have trouble here.

It’s getting better.

Try it again.

Play it even better.

This is too difficult for you.

It’s challenging, but you can do it.

You can’t do it.

It will take time, but you can do it.

In some instances, minor problems can be corrected through indirect criticism. Drawing attention to a problem is sometimes necessary, but many corrections can be made through comments that help the student listen more carefully. For instance, telling a student that it is fun to play with him or her because he or she adjusts intonation well is likely to help the student focus on intonation. On the other hand, telling a student that he or she plays out-of-tune will only cause the student to worry about intonation. This draws the student’s focus away from the act of listening to the music. The teacher’s role is to guide the student by instilling positive mental images of how the trumpet is to be played and how the music is to sound. Problems should be addressed through brief analysis followed by clear and positive images of new goals. Pointing out mistakes is much less effective than offering inspiring and positive musical concepts or creative and systematic technical solutions to difficult passages. Mistakes should only be pointed out if the teacher suspects that the student does not realize errors are occurring.

173 SUBLIMINAL SUGGESTIONS Incorporating a new habit requires many repetitions, especially if it replaces an old habit. The student needs to be constantly reminded of a new habit until it is ingrained. Because the teacher is not always with the student, a mechanism needs to be in place to help remind the student of the new habit. The student can place key words or phrases written on small neon-colored cardboard signs on the music stand when practicing. The signs provide a subconscious suggestion that the student’s brain perceives even when it is not read consciously. A black marker can be used to write key words or phrases that trigger a mental reminder to incorporate the new habit. Signs may read “Trigger,” “Breathe,” “Air Support,” “Sing the Notes,” or many other phrases. Signs are usually about three by eight inches in size and can be kept in the student’s trumpet case until it is placed on the music stand during practice. With consistent use of the signs, the author has found that new habits are usually formed within one week.

DEVELOPING MUSICAL CONCEPTS Studying musical scores and reading information about composers and musical styles are very helpful for appreciating and understanding how music is to be properly interpreted. However, it is only through the listening process that full musical concepts of timbre, vibrato, articulation, rhythm, melody, and harmony are learned on an emotional level. It is this emotional sense that subconsciously guides the performer when translating written notes to musical sounds. Playing music is the best means of developing musical concepts. Listening to live performances and recordings is also important for acquiring various interpretations of a given piece of music. Through the process of listening, studying, and playing music, a student gradually develops a keen sense of musical awareness and personal expression. This process should begin as soon as the student is capable of playing a few notes. Listening involves considerably more than just hearing pitches. Keith Johnson states: Pitch is merely one of the many characteristics of a given sound, and the more of these qualities the player can hear, the greater the number of musical ideas he or she will have in their mental repertory. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univ. Press, 1981, p 27.) Recordings provide the opportunity for repeated hearings and can, therefore, assist the student in learning how to listen carefully to changes of timbre, articulation, release, volume, intensity, and tone quality. Playing along with recordings is an excellent means of ingraining musical concepts. (Refer to Appendix 1: List of Recordings.)

THINKING MUSIC WHILE PLAYING Performers of all types, whether they are musicians, athletes, acrobats, or race car drivers, refer to being in the “zone” during peak performance. The zone is a state of consciousness that allows the performer to focus and visualize the task at hand. Regardless of the amount of time a musician has practiced to do a specific task, consistent accuracy can be achieved only when the performer mentally hears the sounds and feels the actions before they are performed.

174 Several terms are used to describe the mental focus that places the performer in the zone. A person is sometimes said to be “hot,” “on fire,” “out of his head,” or “in the flow.” These phrases mean that the person is in an “alpha” state, a state of consciousness that has 9-14 brain waves per second. Brain waves are measured by the number of electrical cycles per second emitted from the brain. At this level the mind is relaxed, allowing image recall to be vivid. (Refer to: http:// brain.web-us.com/brainwavesfunction.htm.) When the adult mind is fully conscious, the brain is said to be in the “beta” state, meaning that the brain waves are at the rate of 15-40 per second. (Ibid.) While the beta state allows the brain to reason and function with alertness, it is not in the best mode for recall. Persons needing to perform difficult physical tasks with precision must learn to quiet the brain so that the alpha state can be utilized. This process is rather difficult to do quickly but it can be achieved through training. Musicians that wish to perform difficult technical passages while feeling specific emotions must master this ability. A fourth state of consciousness is the “theta” state, a dream-like condition where 5-8 brain waves are produced each second. (Ibid.) During this state, a person is apt to make remarkable decisions, create new ideas or inventions, or clearly understand complicated issues. This occurs most often when day-dreaming. The theta state may well be the state in which genius is manifested. (See: Severson, Paul and McDunn, Mark. Brass Wind Artistry. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1983, p 12.) It is during this state that musicians become inspired with new and creative ideas for composing, arranging, and improvising. When performing in concert, the musician must be able to fall in and out of the alpha state at will—being fully conscious at times, and being in the zone when the instrument is being played. A good musician will be in the alpha state throughout the entire musical selection, even when not actually playing the instrument. By quieting the mind, the musician focuses on the sounds being produced by other players, instinctively reacting to these sounds, and allowing creative thoughts to be played. Too many conscious thoughts entering the mind during performance block the performer’s ability to control the precision of execution and the emotional character desired. (See: Cox, Richard H., PhD, MD. You Can Become A Good Musician. Colorado Springs, CO: Cox & Cox Consultants, Inc., 2006.)

It should be noted that practice sessions sometimes require the mind to be in the beta state when playing the instrument, such as when woodshedding passages. However, after the mechanics are ingrained, the performer must utilize the alpha state when practicing musical renditions. A person with normal physical and mental health can learn to play any musical instrument, but playing with expression and extreme technical facility requires much more than just the mechanics of playing. Mentally focusing on the sound and feel of the music is needed to communicate to an audience. Dr. Richard H. Cox states: Music is notes. Black marks on paper. Even when played, notes are just noise unless controlled. Music can sound empty even when it is played technically correct. It has a ‘hollow ring’ to it unless it communicates a message with feeling. Transcendence allows us to lift the music to a height of spiritual quality which is discernible by the audience. It is also observable to the performer. When performing, the performer can see the transcendence in the audience, and the audience can see it in the performer. You may not be able to define it or to identify exactly what you are experiencing, but you know it is there. (Cox, Richard H. PhD, MD. You Can Become A Good Musician. Colorado Springs, CO: Cox & Cox Consultants, Inc., 2006, p 30.) Before outlining several exercises that develop a musician’s ability to go quickly in and out of the alpha state, the next page offers a few interesting ideas, thoughts, and concepts.

175 Stuart Dunkel: Conscious self-criticism makes one do worse. This has been proven by Dr. G. Collon Cherry of London, England. Writing in the British scientific journal, Nature, Dr. Cherry stated his belief that stuttering is caused by “excessive monitoring.” To test his theory, he equipped twenty-five severe stutterers with earphones through which a loud tone drowned out the sound of their own voices. When asked to read aloud from a prepared text under these conditions, which eliminated self-criticism, the improvement was “remarkable.” (Dunkel, Stuart Edward. The Audition Process: Anxiety Management and Coping Strategies. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1989, p 88.) Timothy Gallwey: Images are better than words, showing better than telling, too much instruction worse than none, and conscious trying often produces negative results. (Gallwey, W. Timothy. The Inner Game of Tennis. NY: Random House, 1974, p 19.) William Glasser: Self-criticism and low confidence block us from our minds. (Glasser, William, MD. Positive Addiction. NY: Harper & Row Publications, 1976, p 64.) Keith Johnson: The skills most critical to the success of any performer are the ability to accurately and artistically conceive the sound before it is played and the ability to listen and judge objectively whether that goal was achieved during performance. Unfortunately, the seemingly abstract idea of hearing and thinking entirely in terms of sound rather than verbal self-instruction is often difficult for musicians whose playing has been technically and mechanically oriented. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet P laying. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 52.) Richard Cox: It is absolutely necessary to “hear” the note before it is produced. (Cox, Richard H., PhD, MD. You Can Become A Good Musician. Colorado Springs, CO: Cox & Cox Consultants, Inc., 2006, p 58.)

David Hickman: Develop a “ritual” [triggering action which is used to shift the mind from alertness to focusing on a specific mental image] before playing. In general, try to relax, clear all thoughts, and “hear” your entrance (or entire passage) before playing. (Hickman, David. “Psychology.” Trumpet Lessons with David Hickman. Vol. 5. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1991, p 8.)

Richard Flaste: Flow is a state of concentration that amounts to absolute absorption in the activity. In this state, action flows effortlessly from thought and you feel strong, alert and unself-conscious. Flow is that marvelous feeling that you are in command of the present and performing at the peak of your ability. (Flaste, Richard. “The Power of Concentration.” The Good Health Magazine. Oct. 1989, pp 26-27; 94; 99-100.) Terry Orlick: The best, most consistent, and most confident performers are able to control or channel their emotions, to focus their concentration, and to bounce back from setbacks in an emotionally mature or constructive way. (Orlick, Terry. In Pursuit of Excellence. United Kingdom: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1975, p 26.) Richard Cox: Two kinds of imagery are available. Internal imagery allows oneself to kinesthetically experience the correct execution of a skill, while external imagery allows a person to see themself performing the skill. [Musicians] should develop skill in internal and external imagery. (Cox, Richard H., PhD, MD. Sports Psychology, Third edition. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark Publications, 1994, p 180.) Some musicians avoid learning about the mechanics of their bodies, fearing that “analysis leads to paralysis.” It is true that conscious thought concerning the mechanics of playing during a musical performance may cause undesired results, but a well-trained performer is able to separate

176 analytical practice from emotional and creative performance. Depending on the natural ability of the musician, the speed and degree in which this is accomplished varies. Trumpet playing is not an innate skill with which a person is born. It must be learned through conscious instruction and analytical trial-and-error. Even the most natural performers admit to lengthy periods in their careers where they had to learn the mechanics of embouchure, articulation, finger technique, and many other skills before they were able to begin performing artistically. Successful performers have thke ability to switch mental focus from mechanics to hearing and feeling the desired sounds before they are produced. The ability to switch quickly from the beta state of consciousness to the alpha state of mental imagery is a critical key in being able to perform at a highly artistic and technical level. The largest portion of the brain is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere is believed to be analytical and rational, while the right hemisphere is believed to control the artistic, creative, and emotional thoughts. (See: Cox, Richard. H. PhD, MD. You Can Become A Good Musician. Colorado Springs, CO: Cox & Cox Consultants, Inc., 2006, p 36.) Musicians depend on both hemispheres to practice and perform successfully. With proper training, a musician can flow effortlessly between analytical thought and emotional imagery, thus allowing conscious decisions and creative musical ideas to be made at will. Mental practice training techniques have been used in sports for many years. Hundreds of studies involving three control groups utilizing physical practice only, fifty-percent physical and fifty-percent mental practice, and mental practice only, have documented the high degree of effectiveness that mental practice contributes to improvement, especially in more-advanced performers. (Refer to: Cox, Richard H. PhD, MD. Sports Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Third edition. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark Publishers, 1994, p 180.) Like athletes, musicians can benefit from mental practice. Young musicians are seldom taught to practice mental imagery. Subsequently, the stress of performing in front of an audience or panel of judges causes their conscious brains to work exceedingly hard in order to cope with the new situation. High beta wave output stimulates the “fight or flight” response and triggers adrenaline glands, often causing dry mouth, shaking, sweating, and lack of mental focus. If early performances are poor, the novice musician will find it even more difficult to be successful in the future. For a musician to perform at peak ability, regardless of age or experience, the following steps must occur: 1. The mechanics of the body must be thoroughly trained through countless repetitions and analytical judgments to determine if the mechanics used are correct. 2. The performer must feel organized and ready to perform. This includes having the instrument in good working condition, organizing sheet music and mutes, dressing for the concert and arriving at the concert site with adequate time for warming up, relaxing, and preparing mentally. 3. The performer must take a moment to envision the entire performance—entrance, standing or sitting position, music, bows, exit, etc. Although not always possible, knowing how the performance space looks and sounds can calm the mind. 4. The performer must be able to clear the mind of all unnecessary thoughts just before playing. Sometimes, hearing the musical introduction before an entrance helps the performer focus on the character of the music. 5. The performer must vividly conceptualize the sounds and action of the body before they occur.

177 The last step is the most difficult and critical. This is where most people’s hard work breaks down because they are not able to relax and focus on the most important thing—what they want to sound like. Rather, their bodies merely go through the motions of playing, allowing the notes to be played without fine control or musical direction. The result is often less than desired or expected, both in accuracy and in communication with the audience. Performance anxiety, or stage fright, is a subject that has been discussed at great length by performers, teachers, and authors. As in sports psychology, it has become a huge topic for musicians that almost overshadows all other aspects of performance. Books, articles, lectures, and videos provide assistance to performers that have developed serious anxiety through a series of less-than-successful performances. Most often, these unsatisfying performances are the result of the player’s lack of ability to switch focus to the alpha state of imagery. Simply stated, performance anxiety can be eliminated through the mastery of mental imagery. Some pedagogues describe performing in the zone as being “mindless.” While it is true that the conscious part of the brain is much less active while a performer is in the zone, the subconscious part of the brain is much more active. The performer is never mindless but merely shifts focus from conscious to subconscious, keeping mental concentration at full capacity. A simple example of shifting focus from the beta (conscious) to the alpha (sub-conscious) is as follows. First, count aloud the number sequence “1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 9, 6, 3, 1.” This places the mind in the beta state of consciousness because it requires a somewhat high degree of analytical thought. Then, immediately shift the mind to a visual image of a delicious, juicy orange coming towards the mouth and about to be eaten. This shifts the mind to the alpha state. Practice shifting by saying the number sequence aloud, followed by the vivid image of the orange, followed by the number sequence, etc. If the number sequence was correct and the saliva glands are stimulated, the shifting was done properly. To apply the shifting exercise to music, change the imagery from the orange to hearing and feeling the trumpet being played during a brief but very familiar passage. The mental focus of imagery should be so intense that the difference between mentally playing the passage and actually playing it on the instrument is perceived to be incredibly small. Next, with trumpet in hand, count aloud a number sequence such as “1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1” and then play the familiar passage on the trumpet, allowing no more than two seconds to make the mental shift from the number sequence to a clear visualization of the musical passage. If the mental image of sound and feel preceded the actual playing of the notes continually by a second or so, the focusing was done correctly. On the other hand, if the mental focus inadvertently shifted to the body or instrument during the passage, the focus was poor. Do not attempt to shift focus gradually during the last few numbers of the sequence. The objective is to be fully alert during the number count, and then to shift focus quickly to the imagery needed for the musical passage. Because a person is only able to focus well on one thing at a time, the performer must select the aspect of the music that is most important. This does not always need to be a conscious decision. Depending on the phrase and type of music to be played, the performer might choose rhythm, articulation, tone quality, intonation, dynamics, phrasing, or emotional feeling as the primary musical quality to communicate to the audience. By focusing on this one all-important aspect, other aspects automatically follow correctly, provided that the music has been ingrained through adequate practice. Performing exactly as mentally envisioned is extremely satisfying to the performer. Musical results are immediately apparent to the audience because the notes communicate emotion or a strong cohesiveness of the composition. Accuracy is greatly improved, barring human error, which is present in every performance. Music-making and practicing are pleasurable, and confidence is gained. Stage fright, which occurs to some degree in all performers, is greatly reduced.

178 VISUALIZING SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCES Nothing breeds success like success. The performer’s attitude must be positive and confident, stemming from successful practice, mental performances, and concerts. Just as the alpha state is used in performing notes, phrases, or entire compositions, the musician must use the alpha state to visualize the overall concert performance in a manner that creates a life-like image to emulate. Each act, such as entering the stage, bowing, performing, speaking, and exiting the stage must be precisely envisioned before it occurs. You must get a picture in your “mind’s eye” of the entire situation. You can close your eyes and “visualize” the music on the entire page, you with your instrument, the group or accompanist with whom you are playing, and the audience. It is like creating a small picture show in the front of your brain. Think of your forehead as the picture screen on a television set. (Cox, Richard H. PhD, MD. You Can Become A Good Musician. Colorado Springs, CO: Cox & Cox Consultants, Inc., 2006, p 65.)

If practice and mental preparedness have not been successful, the task is too difficult. If the challenge is too great you will be anxious, and anxiety kills flow. (Flaste, Richard. “The Power of Concentration.” The Good Health Magazine. Oct. 1989, p 27. ) For this reason, teachers must carefully select musical works for their students that are challenging but attainable. Otherwise, anxiety may lead to unsuccessful performances that will undermine the student’s enthusiasm and confidence.

RECITAL AND AUDITION PREPARATION Performing a full recital or important audition presents many challenges. In addition to learning each work, the performer must develop maximum endurance, confidence, and mental stamina. Through experience, each player develops a workable preparation routine that begins weeks or months before the performance. To develop physical endurance, the author suggests increasing daily amounts of playing by fifteen minutes each day until a typical daily workload is equal to three or four times the length of the performance. Then, about a month before the performance, the entire program must be played straight through once, twice, or even three times each day so that the pacing can be adjusted and conditioned as necessary. Some performers test their ability to meet the physical demands of a recital by playing each work twice in the order of the program. This more-closely approximates the endurance needed when playing the recital under the pressures of a live concert. The present author also suggests that full endurance be maintained for two weeks, neither increasing nor decreasing the workload, until the day before the concert. This allows the muscles to level off the strength cycles that occur from day to day as muscles build, making embouchure strength predictable and consistent. Confidence is built through a series of successful run-throughs of the program. Mock recitals and auditions for small audiences are an excellent way to become accustomed to the physical and mental rigors of the performance. Performing some or all of the program at retirement homes, churches, daycares, and elementary schools is invaluable in this regard.

179 Visualizing the performance is extremely important. Developing an organized mental picture of the concert or audition as it unfolds is as important as developing the physical and musical aspects of it. Although each professional player has his or her own list of “dos and don’ts” to follow on the day before and the day of a performance, the following lists provide some general considerations that are common among most performers. Day Before Recital or Audition: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Play much less than usual so that the lips can eliminate stiffness and soreness. Avoid drinking alcohol because it dehydrates the body for 24-36 hours after consumption. Get a good night’s sleep. Organize instruments, mutes, music, and anything else needed for the recital or audition. Keep fully hydrated by drinking plenty of water. Visualize the entire performance in detail. Do this several times. If possible, spend time playing in the auditorium where the performance is to take place.

Day of Recital or Audition: 1. Keep fully hydrated by drinking plenty of water. 2. Do stretching exercises and a light physical exercise program to relieve muscle tension. 3. Warm up on the trumpet several hours before the performance. Do not allow the embouchure to become fatigued. 4. Keep physical activities to a minimum so that strength is not reduced. 5. Eat light foods with protein and moderate carbohydrates. Baked fish and chicken are excellent choices. Avoid foods with high sugar content, as they may cause an increase in metabolism that can lead to hyper-activity and sweating. 6. Avoid heavy starches such as potatoes, pasta, or squash, as they may cause excessive thirst. 7. Avoid greasy or fried foods because they are difficult to digest. 8. Avoid drinking alcohol. 9. Avoid eating highly salted foods that can dry the lips, such as potato chips or salted popcorn . 10. Avoid spicy foods that may irritate lip tissue and cause swelling. 11. Avoid milk, cheese, and other dairy products because they increase mucous and cause the mouth to be sticky. 12. Arrive at the performance location an hour early so that there is ample time to “settle in” and feel organized. Warm up carefully, making sure not to warm up excessively. 13. Set the stage (for a recital) and become comfortable with the surroundings, both visually and acoustically. 14. Avoid excessive talking, yelling, or coughing which can tire the muscles of the throat. 15. Do not brush teeth or use mouthwash immediately prior to the recital. Many products contain drying agents that may cause temporary mouth dryness. 16. If the facial muscles feel sore, take a regular dose of ibuprofen. 17. Visualize the performance in detail. Do this several times. 18. Make sure that the instrument is well-oiled and polished. However, do not clean the inside of the instrument within one week before the performance, as it slightly changes the blowing characteristics of the instrument. 19. Avoid practicing difficult passages immediately prior to the performance. Any mistakes may disturb confidence. However, mental practice is fine. 20. Avoid taking weight loss pills or antihistamines within two days of the performance so that the body does not become dehydrated. 21. Avoid foods and beverages with high caffeine content (coffee, chocolate, certain soft drinks) because they may over-stimulate the nervous system of the body.

180 22. To allow full-capacity breathing, do not eat or drink large amounts within three hours before the performance. 23. Think confidently. Visualize the emotions and music to be played. 24. HAVE FUN! BETA-BLOCKERS Beta-blocking drugs such as propranolol, oxprenolol, and atenolol block nerve receptors that stimulate adrenaline glands. Common brand names of propranolol are Inderal, Monitan, and Sectral. These drugs can reduce some of the physical affects of anxiety such as shaking, sweating, dry mouth, and general tension. However, they do not have the ability to help anxiety of a purely psychological nature. (See: www.journalism.ubc/thunderbird/2005/features/betablocker) Beta-blocking drugs have been common in the professional music scene for over thirty years. Some musicians benefit from these drugs because their physical responses to adrenaline are severe enough to limit their ability to play their instruments at a highly artistic level. Many other musicians take these drugs under the false notion that the drugs can reduce their fear, or stage fright. Traditionally, physicians prescribe beta-blockers to treat high blood pressure, certain heart conditions, angina, and migraines. Beta-blockers should not be taken by persons suffering from chronic lung disease, asthma, diabetes, or certain heart conditions. (See: Dunkel, Stuart Edward. The Audition Process. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1989, p 122.) Beta-blocking drugs can be obtained legally only through a physician’s prescription. Persons interested in using beta-blocking drugs should consult their physicians about possibly serious side effects. Although beta-blockers are not physically addictive, many performers become mentally dependent on them through frequent usage. Beta-blockers have been banned recently from the Olympic games because of possible side effects. Musicians considering the use of these drugs should discuss the benefits and risks with their physicians. It is not a good idea to substitute betablockers with alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, or to combine any of these drugs.

SUGGESTED READINGS BOOKS: Aaron, Stephen. Stage Fright. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986. Anthony, Robert. Total Self-Confidence. San Diego: Berkley Publishing Corp., 1979. Ayers, A. Jean. Sensory Integration and the Child. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services, 1979. Baxter, Marty. Over-Come Stage Fright. NY: Bradley Publications, 1982. Campbell, Don G. Introduction to the Musical Brain. Second edition. St. Louis: MMB Music, 1992.

181 Cox, Richard H. PhD, MD. You Can Become A Good Musician. Colorado Springs, CO: Cox & Cox Consultants, Inc., 2006. ________. Sports Psychology. Third edition. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark Publications, 1994. Dunkel, Edward Stuart. The Audition Process. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1989. Fosse, B. Audition. NY: Bantam Books, 1980. Gallwey, W. Timothy. The Inner Game of Tennis. NY: Random House, 1974. Gardner, Howard. The Arts and Human Development: A Psychological Study of the Artistic Process. NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1973. Glasser, William. Positive Addiction. NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1976. Green, Barry. The Inner Game of Music. NY: Anchor Press, 1986. Harris, Thomas. I’m OK—You’re OK. NY: Avon Books, 1969. Hickman, David. “Psychology.” Trumpet Lessons with David Hickman. Vol. 5. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1991. Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981. Lorayne, Harry. Secrets of Mind Power. NY: Signet, 1975. Maltz, Maxwell. Psycho-Cybernetics. NY: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1960. Orlick, Terry. In Pursuit of Excellence. United Kingdom: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1975. Ristad, Eloise. A Soprano On Her Head. Utah: Real People Press, 1982. Schneiderman, Barbara. Confident Music Performance. St. Louis: MMB Music, 1992. Severson, Paul and Mark McDunn. Brass Wind Artistry. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1983. Tarr-Kruger, I. Performance Power. Tempe, AZ: Summit Records, 1996. Triplett, Robert. Stage-fright: Letting It Work For You. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1983.

ARTICLES: Brantigan, T. A. MD. and C. O. Brantigan. “Beta Blockage and Stage Fright—Looking Back.” ITG Journal. Vol. 8, No. 4, May 1984, pp 20-22. Cox, Richard H. PhD, MD. “The Teacher and Performance Anxiety.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 2, Mar. 2004, pp 64-65. Flaste, Richard. “The Power of Concentration.” The Good Health Magazine. Oct. 1989, pp 26-27, 94, 99-100.

182 Gabbard, Glen. “Stage Fright: Symptoms and Causes.” The American Organist. Mar. 1983, pp 11-15. Golan, J. “The Art of Auditioning.” The Instrumentalist. May 1976, pp 22-27. Steptoe, Andrew. “Performance Anxiety.” The Musical Times. Aug. 1982, pp 537-541. Tuck, Marilyn. “Stress Management and Musical Performance.” The American Organist. Mar. 1983, pp 54-56. West, James. “The Three Stages of Nervousness.” ITG Journal. Vol. 15, No. 2, Mar. 2004, pp 65-66.

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CHAPTER VII

Efficient Breathing Techniques Trumpet playing at a high professional level requires the ability to move large amounts of air through the embouchure. Sadly, proper breathing techniques and muscle conditioning are not often stressed enough when teaching high school and college trumpet students. When Maynard Ferguson was asked what he felt was the single biggest weakness in present-day players, his reply was, “Breathing.” (Bellamah, Joseph L. A Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Philosophies. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1976, p 48.) The importance of efficient breathing and air control cannot be stressed enough. The following authors note the importance of correct breathing: Philip Farkas: The breath is to brass playing what the bow is to string playing. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 57.) A. A. “Sandy” Adam: Great lip is only part of the answer to super high range and tremendous volume, the rest of the answer is super lung power and breath control. (Adam, A. A. “Sandy.” Super Lung Power & Breath Control in Five Minutes a Day. Vancouver, BC: Bold Brass Studios, 1978, p 5.)

Fay Hanson: One’s success depends to a large degree upon the manner of breathing and the control exerted over the muscles involved. (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 67.) Natural, full inhalation requires the intercostal muscles to contract, lifting the ribcage and expanding its diameter. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts downward to draw air in and allow room for vertical lung expansion. The following illustrations depict the actions of these muscular movements. (To view an excellent animation of the breathing process, refer to: www.yorku.ca/earmstro/journey/intercostals.html and click on “diaphragm.”)

ribs, chest, and diaphragm positions when breathing

184

ribs and intercostal muscles in exhaled position (low)

ribs and intercostal muscles in inhaled position (high)

Exhalation is achieved by merely relaxing the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, allowing the muscles to return to their normal positions. This is like “sighing,” moving more than half of the air from the lungs effortlessly. If very loud or high passages are to be played, the abdominal muscles must be used to compress the air.

185 Many “systems” of breathing have been devised to instruct wind players on how to breathe efficiently. Some of these systems present step-by-step procedures for inhalation and exhalation. Unfortunately, many of these methods confuse students by complicating processes the students use naturally. Therefore, it might be prudent to quote some of the most valuable points given by expert pedagogues. Posture — Arnold Jacobs provides the following advice concerning posture: Posture is very important. We are structured so that the maximal use of air comes in the standing position. Standing offers the greatest ability to move large volumes of air in and out of the lungs. The closer you get to the supine [lying flat on the back], the poorer it becomes. If you think of the respiratory system, it should be thought of not as one bellows, but a series of segmented bellows, depending on your posture. When lying on your back on the floor, you will find there is little ability to use chest breathing, but you will have a marvelous use of diaphragmatic breathing, which is more than enough to sustain life. However, the diaphragm isolated from the rest of the rib cage provides a rather small breath. There is no such thing as a full breath without the use of the sternum (the breast bone and cartilage that supports the ribs). If I lean back on the chair and reach over my head, the motion pulls the rib cage up, which is already in the expanded position. That means I cannot use it for breathing in or out. If I bend forward, pressure in the abdominal region under the diaphragm is such that I have great difficulty using diaphragmatic function. When sitting, Jacobs tells students to “stand while seated.” [Think that] there is a string pulling you up—like a puppet on a string. (Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press, Ltd., 1996, p 130.) There is a curvature of the spine in the lower lumbar region just above the belt. When the student sits, the curvature is retained so that the lower back does not touch the chair. The upper body position when sitting is exactly like it is when standing. (paraphrased) (Ibid., p 131.)

correct standing posture

correct sitting posture

186 Inhalation — Philip Farkas states: Humans have two fundamental ways of expanding the chest cavity: the diaphragm can contract downward, effectively lowering the bottom of this cavity, and the ribs can expand outward increasing the diameter of the cavity. Both processes are important and both are used simultaneously. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 57.) Calvin Price provides three sequential actions that constitute proper inhalation: 1. 2. 3.

Take a deep breath starting from the hips. Allow your inhalation to continue traveling up through the rib cage, just like inflating a balloon. Complete the inhalation by allowing the shoulders to raise slightly only as a natural consequence. (Price, Calvin. Breathing Your Way to Greater Artistry. San Diego, CA: 1st Call Entertainment, 2005, p 9.)

Chest Position — Nearly all authors agree with the following advice from Fay Hanson: The head must be up, the horn held high and the chest, or rib cage, must be high at all times—both during inhalation and exhalation—to permit free and unhampered use of the breathing apparatus. Whenever the rib cage is dropped, tension or support is transferred to the throat, causing the constriction of the tone. (Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968, p 68.) The great cornet soloist Herbert L. Clarke states: When inhaling for a full breath, the player’s chest must be expanded, and this position kept throughout the exercise, and all the time, while the practicing is kept up. (Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 164.)

Exhalation — A paradox exists when playing a wind instrument. Normal, relaxed exhalation is achieved by relaxing the abdominal muscles and chest area—allowing the diaphragm to move upwards to its neutral dome shape, and the intercostal muscles controlling the ribs to release tension so that the chest becomes smaller in diameter. However, when playing high or loudly on an instrument such as the trumpet, forced exhalation requires the lungs to be pressurized by executing a slight Valsalva maneuver—slightly closing the throat (larynx) and tightening of the abdominal muscles. This slight bearing down increases internal air pressure but resists air flow. (See: Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press, Ltd., 1996, p 107.) Two schools of exhalation seem to prevail. The “symphonic” approach is based on keeping the body as relaxed as possible so that tone quality is pure and effortless-sounding. With this approach, exhaling into the trumpet is like yawning—the lungs collapse like a round balloon deflating. The other approach, which may be termed “lead player,” is to pressurize the airstream to capacity so that higher pitches and brighter sounds are produced. The advice on the next page is given by professional players and teachers of each school.

187 “Symphonic” approach — Rafael Méndez: The air in trumpet playing is no different than is used in normal conversation. (Méndez, Rafael. “Concerts on Film: The Trumpet.” Mills Picture Corp., 1956.) Herbert L. Clarke: Be careful to breathe regularly, inhale with freedom and exhale carefully, never forcing the tone, but producing it naturally. (Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 11.) Roger Sherman: It is also important to note that the thoracic [chest] cavity does not compress and push the air out. Thinking compression only results in a forced tone. (Sherman, Roger W. The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1979, p 10.) Samuel Pilafian: Keep the air in constant motion. Air is either moving in or out of your body. (Pilafian, Samuel and Patrick Sheridan. The Brass Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Music, 2005, p 18.) “Lead player” approach — Jerome Callet: Your air stream must be graduated from a gentle breeze to a tornado. (Callet, Jerome. Trumpet Yoga. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1973, p 9.) A. A. “Sandy” Adam: To get extra diaphragm tension while blowing out the air feel as though you are pushing out your belly button from the inside out. . . To get even more extra diaphragm tension while blowing you can bear down as if you were lifting a heavy weight above your head. To get even more diaphragm tension than this while blowing out, arch your back backwards. This raises your diaphragm further into your lungs for extra support. (Adam, A. A. “Sandy”. Super Lung Power & Breath Control in Five Minutes a Day. Vancouver, BC: Bold Brass Studios, 1977, p 20.) Roger W. Spaulding: Give support to your over-filled lungs, and more power to your tone, by compressing the air out of your lungs with a strongly flexed diaphragm, gradually lifting your diaphragm clear up into your chest, especially in high register playing. (Spaulding, Roger W. Double High C in 37 Weeks. Hollywood, CA: High Note Studios, 1963, p 10.) These sometimes contradictory comments are found in various breathing methods used by trumpeters. Each player must select his or her exhalation method through trial-and-error practice, adjusting as needed for the music to be played. Philip Farkas addresses both schools of exhalation by stating, For big passages, inhale a basketball and exhale a rope; for soft passages, inhale a tennis ball and exhale a thread. Regardless of how we phrase it, the fact remains that we inhale as quickly as possible through a wide-open, unrestricted throat and exhale against optional or unavoidable points of resistance. (Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962, p 61.) A general misunderstanding of air flow and support exists about playing softly. While it is true that soft playing utilizes slightly less air flow than loud playing, many players reduce air flow proportionally to the reduction of dynamics. This makes the tone weak, thin, and fuzzy because the movement of air through the lip aperture is insufficient to create proper lip vibrations. It is the present author’s opinion that soft playing on a given pitch requires less air compression in the oral cavity than does loud playing on the same pitch. When playing softly, the air flow maintains its full level by spreading the flow over a wider area at the lips.

188 As an analogy, consider a wide river that appears to have gentle waves. The river might be flowing at one thousand gallons per second. However, as the river enters a narrow canyon, the flow remains constant but the speed of the water increases. The flow rate stays at one thousand gallons per second but the speed increases. Playing loudly and softly require maximum air flow. Soft playing requires a broader, but less intense, airstream. As the embouchure relaxes during soft low notes, air sometimes leaks quietly from the sides of the mouth. This ensures that the air flow is full and wide, making tone production easy and consistent. Another analogy can be made by observing a violinist playing loudly and softly. Much of the volume is produced by the downward pressure on the strings by the bow. As volume is decreased, the pressure is lessened, but the speed of the bow remains the same. In trumpet playing, air flow equals the speed of the bow. Loudness or softness equals the relative compression of the airstream. To ensure that breathing and musical phrasing work together, the following statements by respected authors are of great value to the trumpeter: Samuel Pilafian: The air should be moving at all times (in or out—never holding). (Pilafian, Samuel and Patrick Sheridan. The Breathing Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Excellence, 2002, p 20.) Calvin Price: Taking into consideration the speed of the work to be played, try to breathe two or three beats before your entrance with a barely audible, round “ah” sound. (Price, Calvin. Breathing Your Way to Greater Artistry. San Diego, CA: 1st Call Entertainment, 2004, p 19.) Jacobs, Arnold: Emptying the lungs in a normal person may take only four seconds. Eighty percent of the air should be discharged within one second, and the remainder in the next three seconds. . . The best advice is to take in a full breath [after 50% is exhaled]. (Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press, Ltd. 1996, p 108.)

189 ESTIMATED VITAL CAPACITIES The following charts provide estimated vital capacities (in liters) for adults with normal respiration and lungs, and with average weights and heights. (Calculated by using a formula from “Lung Function Testing: Selection of Reference Values and Interpretative Strategies,” American Thoracic Society, 1991.) Age (in years): MALES 20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

3.3 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.5

3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.2 6.4

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.2

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.9 6.0

3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.8

2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.5 5.6

2.8 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.4

2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.2

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Height 5’ 5’ 1” 5’ 2” 5’ 3” 5’ 4” 5’ 5” 5’ 6” 5’ 7” 5’ 8” 5’ 9” 5’ 10” 5’ 11” 6’ 6’ 1” 6’ 2” 6’ 3” 6’ 4” 6’ 5” 6’ 6” 6’ 7” 6’ 8” 6’ 9” 6’ 10” 6’ 11” 7’

190 Age (in years): FEMALE 20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.6

2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.4

2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.3

2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.0 5.1

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.9

2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.7

2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

2.1 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2

2.0 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.9

1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

Height 5’ 5’ 1” 5’ 2” 5’ 3” 5’ 4” 5’ 5” 5’ 6” 5’ 7” 5’ 8” 5’ 9” 5’ 10” 5’ 11” 6’ 6’ 1” 6’ 2” 6’ 3” 6’ 4” 6’ 5” 6’ 6” 6’ 7” 6’ 8” 6’ 9” 6’ 10” 6’ 11” 7’

BREATHING AIDS AND DEVICES

During the 1995 International Brassfest at Indiana University, the great tubist of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra—Arnold Jacobs—commented: When you are starving the embouchure for air volume, giving it all sorts of air pressure but not quantity, it cannot work. Very quickly you will be struggling to produce your tone. Just increase your volume of air not by blowing hard, but by blowing a much thicker quality of air. Very frequently the air column is just too thin. (Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press, Ltd., 1996, p 122.)

191 Understanding the relationship of air flow quantity and air pressure is essential for successful brass teaching. Many times, students grasp proper breathing concepts and ways to control the airstream through graphic demonstrations utilizing specialized breathing aids and devices. The following are some of the more commonly used tools. AIR BAGS: Air bags of various sizes can be used to determine the approximate lung capacity of an individual. They also serve as a visual aid in repeating inhalation and exhalation exercises. Since the same air is being transferred, hyperventilation is avoided.

POWERLUNG: This device is available in different degrees of resistance and is used to exercise the muscles used during inhalation by restricting the air. Each of the available resistance devices can be adjusted to vary the degree of exercise needed to operate it. For more information on PowerLung devices, consult www.powerlung.com.

Powerlung breathing aid

192 BREATH BUILDER: Used for breath control, this device requires constant air pressure when inhaling or exhaling to keep the ping-pong ball at the top of the plastic tube. The air resistance can be adjusted. This device was first developed by the late bassoonist Harold Hansen of Las Vegas and introduced to the brass world by Arnold Jacobs in 1982.

INSPIRON: The Inspiron is a type of spirometer that provides a visual demonstration of how much air can be inhaled or exhaled. Resistance can be adjusted. The device may be used with a mouthpiece by removing the long tube and replacing it with a short tube of a few inches in length. When exhaling, the device must be upside-down so that the ball is kept at the top. As various dynamics are played, the air flow must remain constant.

193 TRIFLO: The Triflo is a type of spirometer with three chambers, each containing a ball that is to be lifted from inhalation pressure. When turned upside-down, the device can be used for exhalation. This device creates a visual example of the relationship between air flow and air pressure.

VOLDYNE: The Voldyne is used to measure the amount of air inhaled (up to five liters). There are two chambers: the larger (right) measures air volume, and the smaller (left) measures air pressure. By comparing the amount of air inhaled with the estimated vital capacity based on age and height (see Estimated Vital Capacity charts earlier in this chapter), a person’s breathing efficiency ratio can be determined. For example, a person with a vital capacity of two liters and an estimated capacity of four liters would have an efficiency of fifty percent.

NOTE: These and other breathing devices may be purchased through WindSong Press, Limited at P. O. Box 146, Gurnee, Illinois 60031 (www.windsongpress.com).

194 CIRCULAR BREATHING Circular breathing in trumpet playing was made famous by Rafael Méndez. Méndez learned circular breathing from a snake charmer. [In 1934,] Rafael spent a good deal of time writing and arranging music. He also accepted many solo engagements including one at the Chicago World’s Fair with the Chicago Symphony. While visiting the displays at the fair, he learned about circular breathing. In the Indian Pavilion he saw a Hindu snake charmer playing a wooden Hindu flute to mesmerize a snake. Rafael was intrigued by the charmer’s ability to breathe in through the nose at the same time he blew out through his mouth. Immediately convinced that this was a concept that he could apply to his own playing, he had the snake charmer teach him the unusual technique. (Hickman, Jane, and Del Lyren. Magnificent Méndez, Second edition. Tempe, AZ: Summit Records, Inc., 2005, p 29.) The art of circular breathing is quite old. Players of the Australian didgeridoo have utilized circular breathing for centuries, as have glass blowers. In recent times, many musicians have become well known for incorporating circular breathing into their performances. In addition to Méndez, trumpet players Wynton Marsalis, Clark Terry, Maynard Ferguson, Sergei Nakarjakov, and Joe Burgstaller use it frequently. Other instrumentalists including Urbie Green, Bill Watrous, Grover Washington Jr., Sonny Rollins, Don Menza, James Moody, Robert Spring, and Kenny G are skilled performers of circular breathing. The following steps can be used to learn the basics of circular breathing: 1. 2. 3.

Fill the cheeks with air and breathe in and out through the nose. While the cheeks are still filled, slowly squeeze out the air by pushing the cheeks with the fingers [while breathing in]. In a similar fashion, try to slowly squeeze out the air without the fingers, using the cheek muscles only [while breathing in]. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Circular_breathing)

It is possible to sustain a tone for several minutes. Pop musician Kenny G holds the world record for holding a single note for 45 minutes and 47 seconds on his soprano saxophone. (Ibid.) The most difficult part of circular breathing while playing an instrument is connecting one breath to another. Clarinetist Robert Spring states: The process of “switching” from air in the lungs to air in the cheeks and back again is the single factor that keeps many individuals from succeeding at circular breathing. ( Spring, Robert. “Circular Breathing.” www.woodwind.org/clarinet/ Study/Circular Breathing.html) With practice, the player learns to breathe in through the nose quickly so that the cheeks do not need to be fully inflated. This makes the transfer process much easier. After mastering circular breathing in the middle register, the player should expand the range of notes that can be held during circular breaths. Puffing the cheeks usually disturbs the firmness of the mouth’s corners and causes inaccurate pitches and intonation. Nonetheless, the player must develop as much range as possible so that all phrases of music allow comfortable places to inhale. When a reasonable range of pitches can be played with circular breathing—usually low C to G on the top space of the staff—flexibility exercises such as scales, Clarke’s Technical Studies, and arpeggios can be played during circular breaths. Melodic etudes and solos should be practiced once the player is adept at circular breathing while playing successive pitches. The use of vibrato while circular breathing is of little concern if breaths are taken quickly. If vibrato must be used, hand vibrato is usually best because it does not interfere with the diaphragm, throat, jaw, tongue, or embouchure setting.

195

The most difficult aspect of playing during circular breaths is articulation. Trent Kynaston suggests: Working on tonguing during the [circular breathing] cycle should begin slowly. Use legato-tongued quarter notes [M.M.=60] and attempt to achieve consistency of attack and sound into, during, and out of the cycle. Once this is accomplished, increase the speed and attempt different articulations. (Kynaston, Trent P. Circular Breathing for Wind Players. Lebanon, IN: Studio 224, 1978, p 19.) An excellent method book for circular breathing is Circular Breathing by Dr. Robert S. Spring. This method has short chapters concerning each brass and woodwind instrument. The trumpet chapter is written by Josef Burgstaller. ( See: Spring, Robert. Circular Breathing—A Method. Malibu, CA: Windplayer Publications, 2006.)

196 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—NAGPHANI SHIVA TRUMPET

RD 907: Nagphani Shiva trumpet; India 20th century; E harmonic series. Serpent in eight sections with tête de dragon and integral mouhpiece. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

197

CHAPTER VIII

Advanced Range, Power, and Endurance Before a trumpeter can achieve a professional level of range, power, and endurance, his or her embouchure must be well-formed and controlled. (See Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) Generally, only after a student can comfortably play from low F-sharp to high C at a moderately loud volume, even after playing for ninety minutes, can a student practice advanced embouchure exercises and techniques vigorously enough to build muscle bulk. Attempting to play high, loud, and long on a weak or improper embouchure almost always makes playing worse rather than better. It also often forms bad playing habits and causes physical injuries. Trumpet playing requires muscle strength and endurance. These two qualities differ from each other and require separate training activities. Strength is gained through increased muscle bulk, whereas endurance is enhanced by better blood circulation. The physical differences between muscle bulk and endurance are seen easily by observing bodies of athletes such as weight lifters and long distance runners. Trainers of athletes have debated whether developing power concurrently with endurance training is possible or beneficial. The physiological stimuli directed to skeletal muscle as a result of strength training and endurance training are divergent in nature. Actually, it has been suggested that they even be antagonist to gains in strength. (Häkkinen, K., et al. “Neuromuscular Adaptations During Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training Versus Strength Training.” Applied Physiology. [2003], 89: pp 42-52.) Häkkinen points out that several recent studies indicate that both methods of development can occur simultaneously without either quality being diminished. ( Ibid.) Increases in strength are based on the overload system—aggressively contracting muscles to work well beyond normal needs. This type of exercise usually lasts for only a few seconds, followed by several minutes of rest. This sequence is repeated until the load becomes unbearable. It is during the final repetition that the “no pain—no gain” overload theory is applied, stimulating the satellite cells on the outer surface of the muscle fibers to become activated, causing muscles to multiply and add girth to the muscle fibers during the next day. This process is called hypertrophy. (See: Kravitz, Len, PhD. “The Mystery of Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy.” www.unm.edu/~lkravitz /Article%20 folder/hypertrophy.html) Endurance is developed by repeated under-load exercises that require small muscular contractions over a long period of time. Within muscle cells, the transformation of oxygen and glucose into carbon-dioxide and acid wastes is facilitated by the body’s ability to circulate blood efficiently to and from muscle fibers. Prolonged low-level exercise increases blood pressure and forces arteries, veins, and capillaries to widen, increasing the blood flow in muscle and lung tissues. (See: www.elitetrack.com/articles/neuromuscularadaptations.pdf) As circulation increases over a period of weeks or months, endurance improves. A good trumpet practice routine consists of exercises aimed at building strength as well as endurance. The act of playing in general provides some endurance training, but one should not assume that playing, by itself, provides an increase in strength. For most players, specific strength training systems and endurance building routines are needed to maximize benefits of practice. Types of exercises discussed in this chapter are excellent for building strength or endurance in well-formed and controlled trumpet embouchures. In some instances, training methods or

198 systems are formulated by various authors and are published as books. Exercises and books are discussed briefly. ISOMETRIC EXERCISE Certain exercises can be used to strengthen the embouchure muscles isometrically. The benefits of isometric exercise (static contraction without movement, such as pushing against an immovable object) are usually less than those received from isotonic (moving contraction) exercise. However, since much of the muscle activity in the trumpet embouchure requires relatively small movements, isometric training is a valuable method of building strength. The most common isometric exercise for trumpeters is long tones. Long tones require muscles to remain firm over long periods without changes in contraction. The following comments by leading authors promote the use of long tones as an embouchure strengthening exercise. Timofei Dokshitzer: Long notes, sustained at a constant dynamic level, allows you to develop a technique of breathing out which is free and even, and teach you to control the process of prolonging the sound. They also encourage greater tolerance of strain, which is very great for a “forte” and less for a “piano.” (Dokshitzer, Timofei. Trans. Wendy Thompson. Trumpet Method. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1994, p 70.) Hayden Shepard: Long tones, if practiced correctly, that is, by starting “pianissimo” and working gradually to a “fortissimo” and down again to “pianissimo, “ promotes breath control and sureness, promoting strength. [sic] (Shepard, Hayden. How to Build Up Endurance in Trumpet Playing. NY: Charles Colin Publications, [n. d.], p 4.) Trumpet players don’t always agree about the benefits of long tones. For some, long tones cause stiffness in the lips. Louis Davidson states: Practicing long tones, one note at a time, for prolonged periods is not a panacea for all playing ills. In moderation, long tones are beneficial—overdone, they can be harmful in that they tend to induce a stiffness and rigidity of the embouchure. (Davidson, Louis. Trumpet Techniques. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1970, p 16.) The great cornetist Herbert L. Clarke believed in the benefits of long tones but felt that embouchure stiffness could be avoided if small contractions and relaxations of the muscles took place during long tones. Never hold the lips rigid, but keep them soft and pliable. (Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 10.) Most of Clarke’s exercises incorporate some degree of flexibility. These types of exercises are sometimes referred to as “moving long tones.” In recommending long tone practice, David Bilger states: Play sustained notes for at least twelve beats of quarter notes (MM.=60), making sure tone is full and pitch stable. Continue on to Clarke #1-5 using the same feeling of air-flow as long tones. These are referred to as “moving long tones.” (Bilger, David. “Sound (Tone Production).” www. petrouska.com/bilger.htm) One popular method based on long tones is Carmine Caruso’s Musical Calisthenics for Brass. Caruso states: Nearly two hundred muscles come into play when a wind musician produces a sound. And it’s the coordination of these muscles that I want to direct through this book. (Caruso, Carmine. Musical Calisthenics for Brass. Miami, FL: Almo Publications, 1979, p 4.) He also states that the exercises contained in his method should be played in addition to other musical materials needed. (Ibid.)

199 Caruso lists five movements that occur in the embouchure when playing: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Putting the mouthpiece in contact with the lips Putting tension on the lips for the note to be played Positioning the jaw properly Angling the instrument properly Blowing of air (Ibid., p 7.)

By leaving the mouthpiece on the lips and retaining embouchure tension during rests, the movements are reduced to one—the “blow.” ( Ibid.) Caruso states that the player should tap his or her foot during the exercises to help coordinate the muscles involved in playing and to take breaths only through the nose so that the embouchure is not disturbed. Initial attacks of phrases are to be done without the use of the tongue. Although Caruso’s calisthenics are designed to coordinate muscle movements and develop control, many players have discovered that they build a great deal of strength in the embouchure. Famous players including Herb Alpert, Dennis Schneider, Donald Benedetti, Art Farmer, Jimmy Owens, Victor Paz, Al Porcino, Alan Rubin, Lew Soloff, Chuck Winfield, Marvin Stamm, Joe Shepley, and Laurie Frink have studied with Caruso and benefited from his method. A band method utilizing Caruso’s ideas and exercises was published in 1969. (See: Graham, Hal, and Shelton Booth. Caruso Band Method. NY: Hugo & Luigi-Samuel French Publications, Inc., 1969.) Certain devices have been used to exercise embouchure muscles isometrically without the aid of the trumpet or mouthpiece. A pencil can be placed between the lips (not teeth) at the usual vibrating center, held straight out, and squeezed by the lips for as long as possible to build strength. Clint McLaughlin describes this exercise: Put a pencil between your lips. Push your bottom lip up toward the top lip until the pencil is at about 10-20 degrees up from being horizontal to the ground. At first you’ll probably be able to do this for about 30 seconds. The lead players who can really hit the upper register all night long can do it for four minutes. The muscles that get sore are the ones you will need to work on for range. . . This is an EXERCISE; it rarely has the same feel that we use to play (in the mid and low registers). So don’t worry about that. (McLaughlin, Clint. Chop Builder. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 2003, p 2.) McLaughlin’s book outlines a ten-week pencil exercise routine for building embouchure strength. Rest periods, number of repetitions, and pencil movement exercises are provided. McLaughlin warns readers several times that holding the pencil for more than four minutes at a time can cause stiffness and problems.

“pencil exercise” for building embouchure strength

200 Another device, Chop-Sticks are stainless steel “pencils” of various weights that systematically build embouchure strength by increasing the weights placed between the center of the lips. According to Liemar Technologies, makers of Chop-Sticks, the benefits are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Increased endurance Increased range Increased control Reduced playing pressure Ability to increase strength without damaging the lips Reduced air leakage Improved embouchure formation and pucker (www.liemartech. com)

A printed ten-week training program is included with a purchase of Chop-Sticks. A similar device, “Die Lippen-hantel,” is made in Germany. It is comprised of a metal post with small metal weights that can be added to increase the load sustained against the lips. (Refer to: www.brass-innovations.de)

Die Lippen-hantel (embouchure strengthening device)

added weights for additional workload

201 While these and similar devices may build embouchure strength, trumpeters need to understand that pushing of the lips against each other may not always be appropriate for a relaxed and beautiful tone quality, especially at soft dynamics. (Please refer to the section on “Lip Compression” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) LIP BUZZING Vibrating the lips in the normal playing range of the trumpet without the mouthpiece is commonly referred to as “free-buzzing.” Traditionally, free-buzzing exercises have been recommended only in moderation because of the extraordinary strength and control needed to perform them without embouchure contrivances or undue fatigue. Many teachers warn that lip buzzing does not use the muscles in the same manner as playing on the trumpet—that the embouchure is much more firm than when playing with a mouthpiece. While this may or may not be true, numerous teachers advocate the use of free-buzzing. Lip buzzing exercises are good for working on embouchure strength because you can concentrate on developing fast [frequent] vibrations (i.e. high pitches) without relying on the mouthpiece to maintain proper lip formation. ( Goff, Bryan. “Lip Buzzing.” Trumpet Topics. http://mailer.fsu.edu/~bgoff/tpt-tip31.htm) Clint McLaughlin writes: The mouthpiece is a crutch it cuts the vibrating surface of the lip in half [sic]. . . when buzzing we want to really work the chops and strengthen the corners. Also, the mouthpiece adds some back pressure from the backbore and throat bore. This helps to increase resistance so you can play higher. (McLaughlin, Clint. Trumpet FAQ’s. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 1998, p 13.) He also states that free-buzzing is four times harder than playing the trumpet. ( Ibid.) According to Michael Sachs: The mouthpiece buzzing is the fundamental starting point of your tone. It must be compact and centered, yet flexible. Buzzing on the lips alone or with a mouthpiece strips the production concepts to their basic core. However, if overdone or incorrectly applied, buzzing has the potential to produce stiffness and become counter-productive. When done properly, a little goes a long way. (Sachs, Michael. Daily Fundamentals for the Trumpet. NY: International Music Co., 2002, p 2.) James Stamp was one of the first people to make lip buzzing an acceptable method of embouchure building. He advocated free-buzzing and buzzing on the mouthpiece as a means of improving embouchure setting and control, as well as strengthening the embouchure. His main points are: Buzzing the lips — 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Always keep the corners together. Use only as much lip tension as is needed to produce the desired notes. Learn to buzz on the lips without using the tongue to start the first note. Always work towards ease of production. Never “force” the sound. Sometimes a player will find the lips buzz easier if he or she puckers the lower lip slightly. Stay as loose as possible in the center of the lips while playing.

202 Buzzing the mouthpiece — 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Always keep the corners together. Loosen the center of the lip when buzzing the mouthpiece. We want less lip tension when buzzing a low B-flat (concert) on the mouthpiece than we have when we buzzed the same note on the lips alone. Begin the sound at first without using the tongue. Close the lips to go higher: DO NOT stretch them back or “smile.” This is very important. Sometimes a slight “pucker” of the lower lip is helpful. Stay as loose as possible in the center of the lip while buzzing. The lip must follow the air, not lead the air. (Poper, Roy. Roy Poper’s Guide to the Brasswind Methods of James Stamp. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 1995, p 6.)

Stamp’s exercises for building range and power are published in his James Stamp WarmUps + Studies (Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1978, 1981.) and include free-buzzing and mouthpiece exercises, lip trills, pedal tones, lip bends, and scales.

MOUTHPIECE BUZZING Like free-buzzing, mouthpiece buzzing can be controversial. A survey among thirty-three respected brass players and teachers conducted by Joseph Bellamah is reported in his book, A Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Philosophies. In the survey, a question about mouthpiece buzzing was asked. Bellamah states: This question was found to be quite controversial in that the proponents of buzzing were very adamant about the importance of this device, and those who did not favor it were, by and large, either opposed to it or reasoned that there was no use for it. (Bellamah, Joseph. A Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Philosophies. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1976, p 19.) He went on to state that seventy-two percent of the trumpet artists questioned felt that there was no need for mouthpiece buzzing. ( Ibid.) A recent book by James Thompson, The Buzzing Book, has received some popularity as a strength building method. Thompson states why mouthpiece buzzing is advantageous: Buzzing on the mouthpiece has many benefits if done with a systematic and observant approach. Because the mouthpiece offers less resistance than does the instrument, buzzing helps accustom the player to using more air. This greater airflow helps let the lips relax and vibrate more freely, producing a more resonant sound. It also makes the player more reliant on his ears to place pitches, just as a singer does. Further, it aids in developing the most efficient and consistent mouthpiece placement. Finally, perhaps most importantly, mouthpiece buzzing allows the player to develop new and more refined aural/physical habits more easily. (Switzerland: Editions BIM, 2001 p 3.) Thompson points out that: many players stretch open the embouchure for low notes and stuff a bit more lip into the mouthpiece for the high notes. (Ibid., p 8.) He further states that this causes “breaks,” usually around bottom-line E and top-space E. Thompson’s exercises are aimed at utilizing one middle-range setting and extending it as high and as low as possible. Another important point Thompson makes is to breathe only through the nose during rests in each exercise. The reason for this is not to maintain an isometric tension, but rather to make

203 sure the mouthpiece doesn’t change settings. (Ibid., p 18.) “Thompson sums up, saying: The high register is more a result of precision and control than of effort. (Ibid.)

LIP BENDS Lip bending exercises require notes to be “lipped” down a half-step, whole-step, step-anda-half, or more, without changing fingerings. It is imperative that lip bends be executed by increasing embouchure firmness rather than by allowing the embouchure to become loose. When executed correctly, “bent” notes sound very similar to regular notes. Lip bend exercises should be played as loudly as possible without forcing the tone. Roy Poper states: The correct bend is produced by bending the air column one half-step with the lip while being sure to give good air support. When one returns to the original pitch the sound should have improved and the air speed should appear to have increased. The result should be a more colorful sound with a better focus. (Poper, Roy. Roy Poper’s Guide to the Brasswind Methods of James Stamp. Montrose, CA: Balquhidder Music, 1995, p 19.) Lip bends require extreme lip pucker and help develop embouchure strength. The following exercises outline a daily practice routine. (Taken in part from: Hickman, David. “Embouchure Development.” Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vol. III. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1992.)

204 Lip bend exercises train the player’s embouchure and air support to work efficiently together. The following exercises are for advanced players, and can extend the normal playing range.

Lip bends aid in the development of pedal tones by forming a comfortable bridge from the low register to the pedal register.

PEDAL TONES Pedal tones became quite popular when Rafael Méndez used them to recover from a devastating lip accident in 1932. Pedal tones are the notes below the normal playing range of the trumpet or cornet—below low F-sharp. Although not often used in concert music, pedal tones have become very popular in methods designed to increase range and power. Some of the widely-used methods are: Callet, Jerome. Brass Power and Endurance. Long Island, NY: Harold Branch Publishing Co., 1974. Callet, Jerome. Trumpet Yoga. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1973. Gordon, Claude. Daily Trumpet Routines. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1972. Gordon, Claude. Systematic Approach to Daily Practice. Los Angeles, CA: Claude Gordon, 1965; now assigned to Carl Fischer, Inc.

205 MacBeth, Carlton. The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1968, 1969, 1971, 1975. Smiley, Jeff. The Balanced Embouchure. Garland, TX: Jeff Smiley, 2001. Spaulding, Roger W. Double High C in 37 Weeks. Hollywood, CA: High Note Studios, 1963. Stamp, James. Warm Ups + Studies. Editions BIM, 1978. The approach to developing the embouchure varies with each author. However, many pedagogues endorse the general use of pedal tones. Joseph Bellamah: In the final analysis, I must say that on the question of practicing low notes [pedals], our authorities were more in agreement than on any other question up to this point. . . Our trumpet artist-teachers predominately feel [82%] that practicing pedal tones is important and helpful. (Bellamah, Joseph. A Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Philosophies. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1976, p 21.) James Grafmyer: They [pedal tones] are indispensable in the development of range. (Grafmyer, James Boyd. Trumpet. Denver, CO: James Grafmyer, 1975, p 29.) Arturo Sandoval: I have always dedicated a great deal of attention to, and highly regard the benefits derived from, playing pedal tones. (Sandoval, Arturo. Playing Techniques & Performance Studies, Vol. III. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corp., 1995, p 8.) Claude Gordon: The value of consistent practice in this [pedal] register is well-known to all fine trumpet players, soloists and artists. (Gordon, Claude. Systematic Approach to Daily Practice. Los Angeles: Claude Gordon, 1965, p 8. [now assigned to Carl Fischer, Inc.]) Some teachers, on the other hand, do not feel that pedal tones are useful, or they advocate a limited practice of them. Clint McLaughlin: I realize that there are some teachers and books that advocate the use of pedal tones to aid in range extension. I am not one of them. . . Pedals will not build the needed muscles to play high. They require much less tension than high notes. (McLaughlin, Clint. The No Nonsense Trumpet From A-Z. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 1999, p 84.) Keith Johnson: Pedal tones are, unfortunately, only exercises. Their musical value is virtually zero, and, lacking any musical interest, they can quickly become boring and lead to thoughtless playing, always a dangerous situation. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 88.) Pedal tones are not useful to certain players because they are not always developed appropriately to coincide with the type of jaw position used by the player. (See discussions on “Floating-Jaw” and “Fixed-Jaw” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) Because most teachers and authors fail to take into account the two main types of embouchure pucker, a hitor-miss situation occurs. “Fixed-jaw” players place great importance on having firm mouth corners and relaxed lips under the mouthpiece. This type of embouchure is described by Louis Maggio: The lips are like reeds. Their only function is to vibrate. They should be wet, together, in a forward position, corners of mouth in to the “I” teeth (as if to whistle), and relaxed and supple. (MacBeth, Carlton. The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1975, p 8.)

206 This type of embouchure works well for players with a perfect or nearly perfect dental bite. For these players, pedal tones are produced by firming the mouth corners, relaxing the center of the embouchure, and slightly lowering the bell when descending. The other type is also common and is termed the “floating-jaw” embouchure. In this type, the lower jaw is brought forward to align the front teeth vertically so that the lips are well-supported against the mouthpiece. When this type of embouchure is formed, the muscles just below the mouth corners (depressor anguli oris—see illustration of facial muscles in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control) become very firm as they help support the jaw and mouthpiece pressure. This induces a slight frown or “bulldog” appearance in the player’s face. Pedal tones are then produced most solidly by tilting the bell up slightly and puckering the lower lip when descending. Rather than relaxing the embouchure, as is normally done with the fixed-jaw type, the player must add firmness to the area below the mouth corners, lower lip, and chin area. It is easy to understand how instructions from a particular pedal tone method could lead to great frustration if the player is not of the same embouchure type as the author. Learned properly, each embouchure can be completely successful in the development of pedal tone exercises. After learning to play pedal tones with a loud and brilliant tone, the full range of the instrument should be developed by playing scales and arpeggios from pedal tones upward, making sure that the extreme pucker used on pedal tones is continued through all notes. This is awkward at first because the lower jaw and tongue positions change with each note. However, with daily practice, embouchure movements become smooth and easy over a range of three or more octaves. The following photographs of famous trumpet players were taken while loud pedal Cs were being played. The reader should study these embouchures and note the points of firmness of each and the angle of the instrument as compared to photographs in which they are playing third-space Cs.

Eric Aubier

French Trumpet Soloist

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

207

Eric Berlin

Soloist and Professor, University of Massachussetts

playing third-space C with floating-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with floating-jaw embouchure

Michael Sachs

Principal, The Cleveland Orchestra

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

208

James Ackley

Soloist and Professor, University of Connecticut

playing third-space C with floating-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with floating-jaw embouchure

Carl “Doc” Severinsen

International Trumpet Soloist

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

209

Luis Engelke

Soloist and Professor, Towson University

playing third-space C with floating-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with floating-jaw embouchure

David Bilger

Principal, The Philadelphia Orchestra

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

210

Amanda Pepping

Soloist and Recording Artist

playing third-space C with floating-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with floating-jaw embouchure

Matthias Höfs

Soloist and Member, German Brass

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

211

Leonard Candelaria

Soloist and Professor, University of Alabama-Birmingham

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with floating-jaw embouchure

Mike Vax

Jazz Soloist and Lead Player

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

212

Robert Earley

Second, The Philadelphia Orchestra

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

Raymond Mase

Professor, The Juilliard School Member, American Brass Quintet

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

213

Kevin Cobb

Faculty, The Juilliard School Member, American Brass Quintet

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

Dennis Najoom

Co-Principal, Milwaukee Symphony

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

214

Michael Tunnell

Soloist and Professor, University of Louisville

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

Mario Guarneri

Jazz and Classical Artist

playing third-space C with fixed-jaw embouchure

playing pedal C with fixed-jaw embouchure

215 It is interesting to note that Dr. Candelaria plays with a fixed-jaw embouchure above low C (middle C on the piano), but uses a floating-jaw embouchure in the low register. This is not uncommon. Also of interest is that Mr. Mase plays with a fixed-jaw embouchure despite a pronounced overbite occlusion. Lastly, please note that Dr. Ackley performs with a floating-jaw embouchure and a bent mouthpiece. The present author finds his dental occlusion to be very similar to that of Mr. Mase. The following outlines present many of the main ideas of several popular methods that incorporate the use of pedal tones. (Publishers are listed earlier in this section.) Systematic Approach to Daily Practice by Claude Gordon • • • • • • •

• •

All pedal tones are practiced from the F below the staff down to as low as possible. When ascending in register, the lips contract toward the mouthpiece. When descending, the lips relax. Tongue arch is used to facilitate changes in register. Always fill the lungs to capacity. Blow lots of air—do not hold back. Rest as much as you play. One week on each of the fifty-two lessons. Supplementary exercise books used: Herbert Clarke — Technical Studies Herbert Clarke — Characteristic Studies Walter Smith — Lip Flexibility Saint-Jacome — Grand Method Charles Colin — Lip Flexibilities J. B. L. Arban — Complete Conservatory Method Play exercises as high as possible until missing top note three times. Play lessons daily.

The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass by Carlton MacBeth • • • • • •

Place mouthpiece two-thirds on top lip and one-third on lower lip. Take a breath like “a drowning man going down for the third time.” Embouchure should be wet, together, in a forward position, corners of mouth in to the “I” teeth [canine]. [sic] Center of lips relaxed and supple. Retain pedal tone embouchure in all registers. Tongue arch is used, but syllable “Ah” should always be in the throat. Studies require 1.5 to 2 hours each day. Five week program.

Double High C in 37 Weeks by Roger W. Spaulding • • • • •

All pedal tones are practiced from F below the staff down two octaves. Pucker the lips as if to whistle. “Overfill” the lungs with each breath (“clear down to your toes”). Play exercises every-other day only. Do not play at all on days between. After completing the book in eleven weeks (playing every other day), repeat the book from the beginning but play lessons each day. Repeat the entire book three more times in this manner. After completing the book a total of four times, go to the “Finale” section and play this daily.

216 The Balanced Embouchure by Jeff Smiley • • • • • •

Exercises are used to learn “Roll-In” and “Roll-Out” lip settings and gain a wide range of lip motion. Double pedal tones used in “Roll-Out” exercises. Mouthpiece placed almost entirely on upper lip. Bottom lip rolled out so that the bottom of the rim sits in the red area of the lower lip. “Roll-In” exercises accomplished through “lip clamp” setting—lips curled in until red tissue of lips disappears when ascending. “Lip clamp squeak” sounds when air is blown through the lip clamp embouchure (lips compressed). Exercises develop roll-in and roll-out techniques so that motion of lips becomes easy and less noticeable. Air pockets in lips and cheeks may develop.

Trumpet Yoga by Jerome Callet • • • • • • • •

All pedal tones are two octaves below the normal playing range of the trumpet (“double” pedals). Mouthpiece is placed very high on the lips so that the bottom of the rim is in the red of the lower lip (90% top lip). Mouth corners should be stretched up as if smiling. Mouthpiece pressure should be applied mainly to the lower lip. Articulate by tip-tonguing on the upper lip—like “spitting the tobacco particle from the tip of the lip.” Do not arch the tongue when changing registers. When ascending, the mouth corners pull upwards (smile) which causes the mouthpiece to center on the embouchure (50% top lip). For extreme high notes, the mouth corners pull upwards (causing extreme squinting in the player’s eyes) until the lip aperture is at the gum line of the upper teeth.

Regardless of the method or system used, most trumpeters benefit from the practicing of pedal tones. Done properly, pedal tones can: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Help align the lower jaw to the upper jaw, Help determine correct mouthpiece placement, Help develop correct pucker, Help open the throat, Help determine correct mouthpiece angle and pivot, Help strengthen embouchure muscles, Help develop full breathing.

217

CHAPTER IX

Common Problems and Suggested Remedies Learning to play the trumpet is a lifelong endeavor. With proper teaching and practice, a student’s development constantly improves without any major stumbling blocks. However, all trumpeters encounter occasional problems that are common to many players of the instrument. In most cases, these problems are temporary and caused by unavoidable factors such as illness, lip sores, faulty equipment, or bad practice habits. This chapter discusses many of the common problems encountered by all teachers from time to time. Solutions vary for each student. Details and remedies for each problem are provided. AIR IN TONE An airy or “fuzzy” tone is usually caused by the lip aperture being too open. This is remedied by practicing extremely softly, striving for a pure, “clean” tone. “Whisper” tones are extremely soft notes that sound very much like sub-tones on a clarinet. Whisper tones require the lip aperture to be as flat as possible and are excellent for acquiring an effortless and pure tonal quality. The following steps are useful in producing whisper tones on the trumpet: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Begin on second-line G. Without using the tongue to articulate the start of the note, blow very gently until the G is heard as a faint pitch. Barely bring the lips together until the whisper tone is heard clearly and all air noise is eliminated. The whisper tone should not sound full and “trumpet-like;” rather, it should sound like a flute being played in the next room. Gradually crescendo to a normal “mf” dynamic. Practice control of dynamics by playing a series of crescendos and decrescendos from whisper tones to mf. Practice one-octave scales as whisper tones. Practice simple lyrical passages as whisper tones.

Fuzzy tone is also caused by dry, chapped lips. Chopsaver is an excellent lip balm that helps moisten and repair dry, chapped lip tissue. Chopsaver (www.chopsaver.com) is produced by trumpeter Dan Gosling. Another fine product is Burt’s Bees (www.burtsbees.com.) These do not contain petroleum-based ingredients that cause lip tissue to swell. Lastly, embouchures that vibrate on the soft inner tissue of the top lip often produce an airy tone after playing for thirty minutes or so because the soft tissue becomes rough in texture due to being pressed against the lower edge of the upper front teeth. The inner lip tissue vibrates when the lips are pursed outward, “buckled” (folded), or when the lower lip is tucked behind the top lip.

218

top lip pursed outward (vibration on soft, inner surface of top lip)

bottom lip tucked behind upper lip (vibration on soft, inner surface of top lip)

219

lips buckled (vibration on soft, inner surface of top lip) For reasons stated previously, most teachers advocate that the lips be kept in good vertical alignment and that the upper lip be slightly curled inward so that the vibrating surface is on the firm, smooth, outer red area of the lip.

correct position of the teeth and lips

220

lips in correct embouchure formation (lips slightly curled inward) Slight tone production problems also occur because of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Water forming inside the cup or backbore of the mouthpiece Inside of instrument or mouthpiece dirty due to lack of cleaning Pitted metal surfaces within the mouthpiece or instrument due to corrosion Air leakage due to faulty water-key corks or solder joints Excessive moisture in instrument Excessive moisture on lips Embouchure not firm enough to form a complete seal against the mouthpiece

DOUBLE BUZZ Occasionally, trumpet players produce an unintended double buzz, or extra pitch, in the sound that distorts normal tone quality. This extra pitch, usually an octave lower than the note played, is often caused by one of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Embouchure fatigue, especially if the performer plays to excess several consecutive days A bruised or swollen lip A repositioning or change in mouthpiece angle due to a small cut, abrasion, or pimple on the lip A recent change in mouthpiece rim size or shape Dried lips due to sunburn, nasal congestion, cold weather, or low humidity Ulcerated lips due to illness or mouth sores

221 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Raw lip tissue due to excessive licking or wiping with handkerchief Body dehydration Over-hydration, or “bloating” Extreme lack of sleep Excessive or uneven mouthpiece pressure Burned lips from hot soup, coffee, or other foods Uneven skin texture

In most cases, double buzzes occur because of sore or bruised lips caused by excessive playing. This causes the player to tilt the mouthpiece unconsciously at an abnormal angle to relieve pressure on the sore area. In these cases, rest over several days is the best remedy. However, if forced to play with sore lips, the author suggests puckering the embouchure more than normally needed and pressing the mouthpiece firmly against the lips. This may seem like ill advice because it causes the player to “work” as if playing higher than written, but it is an effective method for many players to eliminate double buzzes during concerts when sufficient rest is unavailable. Chronic double buzzes are usually due to improper lower jaw position, improper mouthpiece pivot, or excessive mouthpiece pressure. (Please refer to Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

UPPER REGISTER INCONSISTENCY A person’s strength varies from day to day. Factors including amount of sleep, foods eaten, previous day’s fatigue, and general health contribute to the relative difficulty one experiences when playing in the upper register. Professional trumpeters are subject to the same strength inconsistencies as less experienced players. However, the professional performer is more likely to be efficient in the following areas: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Full and relaxed breathing Proper embouchure pucker Maximum air support from the abdominal area Correct tongue arch Mental confidence

Each student, regardless of age or ability, should strive to master these items by developing a consistent daily warm-up and upper range routine. Gradually ascending exercises, such as chromatic scales, can be used to expand the upper register in a smooth manner, avoiding sudden muscle contractions and haphazard shifts in tongue position and mouthpiece pressure. The author recommends the following materials for developing consistency in the upper register: Irving Bush — Advanced Range, Technique & Interval Studies (Western International Music) Herbert L. Clarke — Clarke Studies (includes “Elementary Studies,” “ Technical Studies,” “Characteristic Studies,” “Setting Up Drills”) (Hickman Music Editions) Charles Colin — Advanced Lip Flexibilities (Charles Colin Publications)

222 Max Schlossberg — Daily Drills and Technical Studies (M. Baron Company) Walter M. Smith — Top Tones (Carl Fischer, Inc.)

LIP SWELLING Swollen lips are a detrimental to a trumpeter’s range and endurance. Lip swelling causes many negative things to occur including: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Loss of muscular control in the embouchure Lack of feeling in the lips Deformation of the lip aperture Stiffening of the lip tissue Lack of blood circulation in the lips

A proper warm-up is necessary to reduce lip swelling. (See “Warm-Up” in Chapter V: Efficient Practice.) Swelling can be prevented by puckering the lips correctly so that mouthpiece pressure does not cut off blood flow to the lips or cause pain in the lips. (See “Types of Pucker” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) Things other than trumpet playing can cause the lips to swell. Common causes are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Allergies, especially to raw brass Spicy foods such as hot peppers Petroleum-based lip balms and sun-blocks Viral infections such as colds and flu Certain medications causing fluid retention Acid Reflux Disease Sunburn Excessive rubbing, such as from tissues when blowing the nose Excessive licking of the lips

The performer should incorporate many short rest periods during practice and performance. This is perhaps the best advice to help prevent the lips from swelling.

“CHATTER” ON MIDDLE-HIGH NOTE ATTACKS Some trumpets and mouthpieces cause notes at the top of the treble staff to have distorted attacks when notes are played loudly in a staccato manner. This “chatter” most often sounds on fourth-space E-flat and E, top-line F and F-sharp, and top-space G and G-sharp. Trumpets pitched in C are perhaps the worst culprits of this annoying anomaly. Reasons for chatter are not fully understood. In most cases, attacks are distorted because of faulty mouthpiece fit, or improper gap, between the end of the mouthpiece shank and the leadpipe. Most manufacturers recommend a gap of about one-eighth inch but this can vary depending on the thickness of the exit wall of the shank. (See “Shank” in Chapter XI: Mouthpiece Design and Function.) Experimenting with various gaps can be done by adding small pieces of paper or

223 masking tape to the outside of the shank. However, chatter may not always be improved in this manner. Chatter may also be caused by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Flat-bottomed mouthpiece cups that direct sound waves or air back towards the aperture of the lip Backbores that are too small or too large Tuning slides with sharp bends Improper valve alignment A large gap in bore where the bell is connected to the first valve casing

The author has found that chatter can be reduced by using alternate fingerings on the offending pitches. Also, triggering notes more than normal and lipping up reduces chatter significantly.

STUTTER ATTACKS A psychological condition occurs in certain players that makes initial notes of phrases difficult to produce. This occurs for no apparent reason, even with players normally possessing beautiful articulation and tonal response. In most cases, stuttering is a problem only on first notes of phrases following lengthy rests. Stutter attacks, like stuttering words, are usually caused by self-conscious attention to the mechanics of articulating. (Please refer to “Thinking Music When Playing” in Chapter VI: Psychology.) One of the interesting things about stutter attacks is that the player can eliminate them when initial phrases are conducted by another person. This is because the player’s mental focus is directed to something other than the movement of the tongue. Performers must learn creative ways to think of something other than the tongue when beginning musical phrases. A few examples are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

“Hearing” the first note respond perfectly in the mind just at the instant of playing the note Nodding the bell as a visual cue Using breath attacks on first notes of passages during practice Tapping a toe or heel at the exact instant of playing the first notes of passage during practice Keeping the air constantly moving during inhalation and exhalation so that the larynx does not “lock” the air Blowing air as if extinguishing a candle held at arm’s length. The student should sense all air movement OUTSIDE his or her body. When air flow is visualized in this way, mechanics of playing are automatic. Mentally counting off tempo and entrance

Stuttering occurs most frequently in players that have recently changed embouchure positions, mouthpieces, or learned to articulate in a different manner. This is to be expected until new brain signals are mastered. The teacher must be patient with the student and should inform him or her that the stutter will disappear on its own in time—usually within a couple of weeks.

224 GRUNTING NOISES Nearly all players experience slight grunting noises from the throat when playing, especially during fast single-tonguing. These faint noises are seldom heard more than twenty feet from the player and are not to be considered a major problem. Grunting noises occur when the glottis, the opening between the vocal cords, is too small and allows the cords to vibrate. Reasons for this include: 1. 2. 3.

Excessive muscle tension in the upper chest and neck Fatigued muscles controlling the larynx “Articulating” in the throat by allowing the “T” or “K” syllables to be too far back in the oral cavity

Grunting is common in most players regardless of ability, and is usually a sign that the throat muscles are tired from excessive playing (especially loud playing), coughing, or talking. It is similar to having a hoarse voice. If grunting occurs when the player’s tongue and throat are not fatigued, the following remedies should be tried: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Connect rapid notes by lengthening them as much as possible. This keeps the throat open and does not allow the vocal cords to open and close with each note. Articulate “Ts” and “Ks” in the front of the mouth near the teeth. Keep the head and neck in good posture so that the neck muscles are as relaxed as possible. Relax the upper chest and shoulders. (Refer to the “candle exercise” in item 6 of the section on “Stutter Attacks.” Connect inhalations with exhalations to avoid “locking” the air with the larynx.

AIR LEAKAGE THROUGH NOSE Relatively high intraoral air pressures are needed to play the trumpet, especially at loud volumes in the high register. According to tests conducted by Dr. David Dibbell, former Chair of the Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Department at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, mouth pressures in trumpet playing at a fortissimo can reach 130 mm Hg (millimeters of mercury), whereas normal speech rarely exceeds 5 to 6 mm Hg. (Refer to: Dibbell, David, MD., Stan Ewanowski, PhD., and William Carter, MD. “Successful Correction of Velopharyngeal Stress Incompetence in Musicians Playing Wind Instruments.” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Vol. 64, No. 5, Nov. 1979, pp 662-664.)

If the velopharyngeal valve in the back of the mouth is weak or does not seal completely, air is involuntarily allowed to enter the nasal passages. This leakage reduces intraoral pressure, causing difficulties in playing high or loud, and preventing the player from controlling the instrument. (See “Incompetent Palate” in Chapter X: Medical Conditions That May Adversely Affect Trumpet Playing.) Nasal air leakage usually occurs after long periods away from the trumpet. For instance, a person who plays only once or twice each month may experience this problem more frequently than

225 someone that plays regularly. Practicing exercises that gradually extend into the upper register may sufficiently strengthen the velopharyngeal valve. However, if leakage persists after weeks of vigorous daily practice, the student is advised to seek the advice of an Ear Nose Throat physician to determine if the valve can be corrected through minor surgery.

DULL, DEAD TONE A dull, dead tone is often said to be “spread,” or “out of focus.” This is caused by an imbalance in the “4Ps.” The 4Ps are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Pucker (of the embouchure) Pressure (of the mouthpiece) Push (of the air) Placement (of the tongue)

The correct synchronization of these four basic factors is critical in producing a tone that is perfectly “centered,” or “focused.” If the tone is not centered, problems concerning intonation, blend, projection, and endurance occur. Generally, all four factors change together. For example, as a player ascends to higher pitches, the embouchure becomes more firm, the air is pushed out more vigorously, the tongue is arched higher, and the mouthpiece pressure is increased proportionally. Obviously, no single factor should be overdone or underdone. When all four “Ps” are synchronized correctly, overall adjustments are very subtle and easy to control. For instance, many skilled performers claim to use very little mouthpiece pressure. Tests by R. Dale Olson, Joe Barbenel, et al., contradict this notion by showing that professionals and amateurs generally use equal amounts of mouthpiece pressure. The reason professional players feel less pressure is likely because the embouchure, air support, and tongue level are correctly balanced with mouthpiece pressure. (Refer to: Barbenel, Joe; John Booth Davies; Patrick Kenny. “Science Proves Musical Myths Wrong.” ITG Journal. May 1998, p 12.) Likewise, some professional players believe that they do not arch the tongue higher when ascending in register on the trumpet. While this may be true in rare instances, hundreds of subjects tested through scientific studies by R. Dale Olson, John Haynie, Keith Amstutz, Jody Hall, Fay Hanson, and Daryl Gibson prove otherwise. (See “Tongue Position” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control. Also, see “Tone Production” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners – A Basic Overview.) It is imperative that the teacher work with the student to develop a full sound and wellfocused tone in the middle register. As he or she expands range higher and lower through chromatic scales and lip slurs, the teacher should train the student to maintain a clear and focused tone. With practice, the student learns to recognize how certain imbalances affect various aspects of playing, and how these imbalances can be corrected. “QUACKY” LOW REGISTER Many people enjoy the humorous recordings by Spike Jones and his City Slickers made during the 1940s and ‘50s. The talented trumpet player (George Rock) and trombone player

226 (Kingsley Jackson) in the band were masters at producing “quacky,” duck-like low notes that always guaranteed laughs from their audiences. However, unintended sounds of this nature are not always so humorous. These extremely nasal-sounding low notes are produced when the teeth are clenched tightly or the middle of the tongue is arched very high. They are eliminated by dropping the lower jaw onequarter to one-half inch and relaxing the tongue. In some cases, adjusting the lower jaw forward or backward helps improve tone in the low register. TRICKY TRILLS Certain trills on the trumpet are more difficult than others. In many cases, lip trilling is the best solution. (See “Lip Trills and Shakes” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) Other trills are simplified by using alternate fingerings.

Difficult trills can be simplified by using alternate fingerings or lip trilling. Two trills in particular can be improved by changing the position of a valve slide in such a way that the interval is decreased without any noticeable change in intonation. These trills are from third-space C to D, and from top-space G to A. Beginning each trill with the valve slide all the way in, correct tuning is established. As the trill develops, the valve slide is gradually extended to lower the upper note a little bit. If coordinated properly, no change in intonation is heard. The following trills provide fingerings and approximations of valve slide movements:

C to D trill is simplified by gradually extending the first valve slide.

G to A trill is simplified by gradually extending the third valve slide.

227 A four-valve piccolo trumpet is capable of several trilling advantages through the use of alternate fingerings employing the fourth valve. The most common trills involving the fourth valve are as follows:

Piccolo trumpet trills made easier with fourth valve. DRY MOUTH Dry, or “cotton,” mouth is the result of an adrenaline rush in the bloodstream caused by nervousness. It is one of the “fight or flight” stress symptoms known to many performers. Through performing experiences, nervousness gradually decreases to the point where adrenaline amounts increase alertness and physical reactions but do not cause dry mouth, shaking, or clammy hands. Temporary aids for dry mouth include occasionally sipping from a glass of water, chewing sugarless gum, gently biting or scraping the tongue with the teeth, or using a saliva substitute for wetting the mouth. Saliva substitutes include brand names such as Salivart, OraLube, and Glandodane, and are sold as over-the-counter products at most pharmacies. Another aid is applying concentrated lemon juice to the back of a hand and occasionally licking it during a performance. The use of beta-blocking drugs such as propranolol are effective in reducing the amount of adrenaline released into the bloodstream. These drugs are available by a physician’s prescription and may be of benefit to performers who become very nervous even in situations where stress is minimal. (See “Beta-Blockers” in Chapter XII: Psychology.) Dry mouth is also caused by factors other than nervousness. Some causes include: •

• • • • •

• • •

Certain drugs or medications such as: — decongestants — diuretics — antihypertensives — antidepressants — antihistamines Radiation therapy Biological aging Toothpastes and mouthwashes containing drying agents Drinking alcohol Systemic diseases such as: — rheumatoid conditions (e.g. Sjogren’s Syndrome) — dysfunctional immune system (e.g. AIDS) — hormonal disorders (e.g. Diabetes) — neurologic disorders (e.g. Parkinson’s Disease) Decreased chewing ability Salty foods Surgical removal of salivary glands

228 INABILITY TO PLAY SOFTLY The inability to play extremely soft dynamics with an effortless, pure tone is usually caused by one of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Lip aperture too open Dry, chapped lips Sore, swollen lips Too much mouthpiece pressure against the lips Lips pressed together

As discussed earlier, “whisper tones” are an excellent exercise for improving one’s lip response and clarity of tone by reducing the openness of the lip aperture. Damaged lips, such as described above in numbers 2 and 3, can usually be improved with rest and proper skin care. Excessive mouthpiece pressure can easily be reduced by simple physical changes. However, item number 5—lips pressed together—is often difficult to correct because the pressing of the lips is often very slight and unnoticed. Soft, effortless playing requires the lips to touch each other very slightly. The lips should not press against one another. When the air passes between the lips during soft dynamics, the opening between the lips should be almost invisible. It should feel as though the airstream is a very smooth and thin silk ribbon being pulled between the lips. An interesting experiment is as follows: 1. Play a very soft third-space C on the trumpet. 2. Remove the mouthpiece and play the same note at the same dynamic on the mouthpiece only, being careful to form the embouchure in exactly the same way as when using the trumpet. Keep the airstream exactly as before. 3. Insert the mouthpiece into the trumpet very lightly so that it can be removed while playing. Holding the mouthpiece with the right hand, play a very soft middle-range note. While sustaining the note, gradually remove the mouthpiece from the instrument. Chances are, the note does not sound when the mouthpiece is played by itself. If it does sound, it is likely that the firmness of the embouchure and airflow increased in order to make a buzzing sound on the mouthpiece. By blowing on the mouthpiece EXACTLY in the same manner as when playing softly on the trumpet, and gradually inserting the mouthpiece into the receiver, the note (third-space C) sounds. This is due to an acoustic phenomenon created by reflected soundwaves within the trumpet which provide the proper resistance inside the mouthpiece. This is proof that the lips and air do not act exactly in the same manner when playing the trumpet, mouthpiece alone, or buzzing the lips by themselves (“free-buzzing”). Buzzing the lips and mouthpiece are excellent strength building exercises. However, care must be taken to relax the center of the lips when playing the trumpet. Otherwise, soft playing is difficult and the tone can easily become somewhat “pinched-sounding.”

229 PLAYING LOW F On occasion, players must play low F-natural, a half-step below the normal range of the trumpet. This is especially common when using the C trumpet. Although the low F can be played as a pedal tone, the sound quality of the pedal is not always similar to the sound produced on higher notes. This makes the passage less musical than desired. Fortunately, most professional model instruments are designed to allow the third valve slide to be extended far enough to lower the normal playing range a half-step. Thus, low F is played as a normal note when all three valves are depressed and the third valve slide is extended as far as possible.

third valve slide extended to reach low F (NOTE: Bach B-flat trumpets also require the “knuckle” of the third slide to be extended.) In order for a low F to be played in-tune and accurately, the execution of extending the third valve slide takes practice. Some performers are capable of extending it quickly, but others prefer to “pre-set” the slide before playing a passage containing a low F. Positioning the slide beforehand often requires the use of different fingerings for notes that use the third valve. As an example, the passage on the next page from the tutti solo in Bizet’s Prelude to the opera Carmen indicates fingerings needed to play the passage with the extension of the third valve slide. The fingerings above the staff are used when the third slide is extended only for the low F. Fingerings below the staff are used on notes affected by positioning the third slide before beginning the passage.

230

(Note: Another way to execute this passage is to extend the main tuning slide so that the Bflat trumpet is in A. All notes can then be played “as written” in the non-transposed Cornet in A part.) Another example of playing low F on a B-flat trumpet is Richard Strauss’ Ein Heldenleben. The “Battle Scene” contains solos for the two trumpets from (alto) E-flat which are often performed today on B-flat trumpets. As in the previous example, fingerings are provided above and below the staff.

A fast passage in Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloé, Suite No. 2 is written for and usually performed on C trumpet. Most performers pre-set the third valve slide for this third trumpet part.

231

Extending the third valve slide may also facilitate fingerings, such as in the following passage from Stravinsky’s Histoire du Soldat.

232

HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—SCHMIDT POSTHORN IN E-FLAT

HH 120: Posthorn in E-flat; "F. H. SCHMIDT IN WIEN. ROTHETHURMSTRASSE No. 641"; One Vienna valve (lowering a fourth) following the Uhlmann model of 1830; Ex Frishmuth collection. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

233

CHAPTER X

Medical Conditions That May Adversely Affect Trumpet Playing NOTE: Many thanks to Dr. Grady L. Hallman, MD, FACS, FACC, FCCP, of the Texas Heart Institute in Houston for assisting in the editing and proofreading of this chapter. Thanks also to Jeff Smiley for information concerning Alphabiotics.

Trumpet playing, like so many other activities, can contribute to good physical and mental health. The act of playing can help the cardiovascular system and should develop deep breathing skills, breath control, muscle strength, and coordination. Additionally, good playing develops concentration, auditory recognition, creative skills, and a sense of confidence. Many performers feel satisfaction from being able to express themselves musically. Despite the benefits of playing the trumpet, excessive tension and over-exertion can lead to medical problems. Generally, these problems are not caused by playing the trumpet, but can be aggravated by playing excessively. Similarly, some conditions and diseases occur for reasons unrelated to trumpet playing and can inhibit performance. Trumpet teachers should be aware of medical conditions that may adversely affect trumpet performance. The medical conditions discussed in this chapter are relatively rare. Students should not focus on possible negative affects from trumpet playing.

HERNIAS A hernia is a rupture or tear in the thin, clear tissue that connects groups of muscle fibers together. It is not a tear in the muscle itself. Hernias are caused by outward pressure, usually from organs being compressed by the muscles of the torso, that create a weakened area usually accompanied by a bulge. Hernias occur most often in the abdominal wall between the breastplate and the groin area. However, hernias can develop in the cheeks and throat due to excessive air compression inside the oral cavity. Unfortunately, the opening of a hernia cannot cure itself, neither can any medicine be used to cure the condition . . . Surgery is the only cure. (www.hernia.org/whatsport.html) One of the most common types of hernias in trumpet players is an umbilical hernia. Umbilical hernias develop in and around the area of the umbilicus (“belly-button,” or navel). A congenital weakness (meaning present at birth) exists in the navel area in the region where vessels of the fetal and infant umbilical cord exited through the muscle of the abdominal wall. After birth, although the umbilical cord disappears (leaving just the dimpled belly-button scar,) the weakness [can manifest] at any time from birth through late adulthood. (http://hernia.tripod.com/umbilical.html) Playing the trumpet loudly in the upper register can place great strain on the abdominal wall. To prevent abdominal-wall hernias, players should develop a consistent daily exercise routine. Situps are especially effective in strengthening the abdominal wall.

234 The beginning of a hernia is not always accompanied by pain and may not be felt at all. If the hernia continues to grow, a painful bulge may occur. A large bulge should be examined by a physician because it is possible that part of the intestine may protrude through the hernia and be pinched closed. The former principal trumpeter of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Armando Ghitalla, sometimes wore a wide leather belt when playing the trumpet. He cinched the belt as tightly as possible and exerted great outward abdominal pressure against the belt while playing in the upper register. The outward pressure caused abdominal muscles to move in the opposite direction than they should normally move during exhalation. This eventually caused several diaphragmatic and abdominal hernias to occur, and he underwent numerous surgeries to repair the herniated areas. He eventually abandoned this method of “support” and learned to play correctly by allowing the abdominal wall to move inward gradually as he exhaled. Cheek puffing is fairly common in trumpet players and is not problematic if kept under control by preventing the cheek muscles from stretching larger and larger over time. For some players, cheek or lip puffing allows the oral cavity to build in volume, producing a large, full sound. With others, it provides a means of allowing the lips to roll in under the rim of the mouthpiece, assisting in the production of higher notes. (See Jeff Smiley’s comments on “The Balanced Embouchure” system in Chapter III.) Puffing should never be done uncontrollably due to weak or over-tired cheek or lip muscles, or because the embouchure is formed incorrectly. Students should not puff their cheeks or lips merely to emulate great players. Excessive puffing may cause over-stretching of the facial muscles and can lead to hernias between the muscle groups. These become permanent and sometimes excessively large bulges continue to grow over time.

famed jazz artist, John Birkes “Dizzy” Gillespie (herniated cheeks and neck)

235 Neck puffing is less common and is likely to be a sign of muscle herniation due to excessive air pressure created in the hypopharynx. The hypopharynx is located just above the larynx, or "voice box," and below the normally visable oral cavity. It consists of soft, flexible tissue that allows food to be swallowed easily. Like a balloon being filled and collapsed many times, the walls of the hypopharynx weaken and stretch, especially in young children whose pharyngeal tissues have not developed fully. (Refer to: Stasney, C. Richard MD., et al. "Hypopharyngeal Pressure in Brass Musicians." Medical Problems of Performing Artists. Narberth, PA: Science & Medicine, Inc., p 153.) In extreme cases, laryngoceles, or "blowouts" of the larynx, may occur. Laryngoceles may bulge inward resulting in hoarseness and airway obstruction, or outward, producing a visible lump in the neck. Laryngoceles are filled with air when exhaling and can be expanded when high intraoral pressures are created when playing a musical instrument such as the trumpet or oboe. (See: www.merck.com/mmhe/sec19/ch222h.html) Hernias of the hypopharynx and neck do not pose any serious threats to trumpet playing. However, large bulges may create tissue folds in the pharyngeal and laryngeal areas, trapping food or water that may become infected. Hernias can be prevented by proper tongue arch and posture. (Refer to "Tone Production" and "Breathing and Posture" in Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview.) Several successful performers have suffered neck muscle hernias. A few of them maintain fantastic upper registers. Others have chosen to perform only in the low and middle registers, often specializing in jazz flugelhorn playing. One person fashioned a wide silk strap to be worn around the neck and secured by Velcro. This strap helps prevent the hernia from expanding and gives support to the throat area when the player is playing in the upper register. The head should not be tilted forward (touching the chin to the chest) as a means of inhibiting neck puffing. This posture creates other problems because of added muscle tension and air blockage. One only needs to sing the syllable “ahhh” at full volume with proper head alignment, and with the head tilted forward, to notice the difference in sound quality and ease of sound production.

TORN, OR “PULLED,” MUSCLES Muscles may become torn, or “pulled,” due to a sudden injury or from being overworked. There are three levels of tears (Refer to: www.sportsdoctor.com/articles/muscles.html): Size of Tear

Pain Factor

Effect on Trumpet Playing

Small: 1-10%

Mild

Range of motion and strength slightly reduced.

Large: 10-90%

Great

Range of motion and strength greatly reduced, usually causing severe limits of range and accuracy.

Complete

Severe

Muscle becomes dysfuctional and often “balls-up.” Internal bleeding causes swelling.

236 For the trumpeter, pulled muscles in the face and neck are usually small, although excessive loud and high playing may cause large tears in the abdominal wall if the muscles are not strong or working together properly. A torn muscle may cause a hernia. Since most muscle tears in the embouchure are small, puffing of the cheeks or neck is not usually a symptom of a pulled muscle. Overworking the muscles of the embouchure, especially around the lips, can lead to tiny tears that the player recognizes as “needle jabs.” This small pain begins as a slight nuisance but can develop into a serious problem if the muscles continue to tear. Rest is the best remedy. This type of problem is common with high school and college students who do little playing during the summer and then begin playing beyond their capacity in marching band when schools resume in the fall. Commonsense rest periods and a full warm-up usually prevents muscles from being overextended. If tearing makes any sort of playing difficult, a period of several days away from the instrument are advised. Muscle tears in the abdominal wall or intercostal muscles between the ribs are usually very noticeable because of the higher stress levels generated by the torso. Excessive coughing, sneezing, or exercising can cause muscle tears, making trumpet playing difficult. The best treatment for sudden muscle tears are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rest Ice (reduces bleeding and subsequent swelling) Compression (gently mashing the muscle area to limit bleeding) Elevation Medical attention (See: www.thestretchinghandbook.com/archieves/sports-injuries.htm)

SKIN IRRITATIONS AND SORES Lips often become irritated from rubbing against the mouthpiece and tongue. In particular, raw brass mouthpieces can corrode, causing minor skin rashes and sores. An allergic reaction to raw brass is common. However, certain people may be allergic to plated mouthpieces. Trumpet players with nickel allergies have had hypersensitivity reactions to their instruments. Eczema in the lip area has been described in trumpet players with positive patch tests to nickel sulfate. These nickel-related conditions have resolved after the musicians switched to gold, [silver], or plastic mouthpieces. (Refer to: www.boomspeed.com/joseph2/index25.htm) Cold sores (also termed as fever blisters or recurrent herpes libialis) may form as single blisters or in bunches and usually appear on the outer lip area. They are caused by the herpes simplex virus type 1, a very common viral infection. Cold sores usually last from one to two weeks, crust over to form a scab, and disappear without any special treatment. They are usually brought on by stress, upset stomach, or too much exposure to sunlight. ( See: http://kidshealth.org/kid/health _problems/teeth/cold_sores.html) Cold sores can be prevented or aided by the following: • • • • •

Avoid kissing and skin contact with people while blisters are present. Avoid sharing items such as drinking glasses, utensils and towels. Keep hands clean. Avoid over-exposure to sunlight. Use sun block on lips and face before prolonged exposure to the sun.

(See: www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?objectid=C612A144-1638-4662-A60047FFD9B06&dsection=6)

237 Cold sores are contagious and can pass from one person to another through skin-to-skin contact. This virus can be transmitted even when blisters are not present, but the greatest risk of infection is from the time the blisters appear until they have completely dried and crusted over. A physician may prescribe medicine to fight the herpes virus, but the most aid comes from the body’s natural healing process. However, the virus stays in the body and may reappear at any time. Canker sores generally occur inside the mouth and usually go away without treatment. For pain relief, ibuprofen or acetaminophen may be taken. Other medicines such as Anbesol, Oragel, Orabase, and Zilactin-B might keep the sores from becoming irritated when eating, drinking, or brushing the teeth. Also, taking small amounts of vitamin C or vitamin B-complex can help canker sores heal faster. (Ibid.) Quick relief can sometimes by obtained by applying a silver nitrate pencil directly to the sore in order to burn the infected area. Silver nitrate pencils can be purchased over-the-counter at many pharmacies. Care should be taken to apply the pencil tip only to the canker sore so that unaffected tissues are not burned or irritated. (See: Gordon, Jerry MD. “Relief from Pesky Canker Sores.” www.dentalcomfortzone.com/archive/PeskyCankerSores.html) Unfortunately, doctors know of no way to prevent canker sores completely from appearing. The following may be helpful in reducing irritations which sometimes cause canker sores: • • • • •

Avoid using a toothpaste that contains SLS (sodium lauryl sulfate). Avoid hard, crunchy foods. Avoid spicy foods and chewing gum. Brush and floss teeth after each meal to remove food debris. Be careful not to bump or injure the gums with a toothbrush.

According to Dr. Gary Null, another dietary consideration is recommended. Chocolate, peanuts and other nuts, grains, peas, seeds, oatmeal, and whole-grain products contain the amino acid arginine, which can trigger a herpes outbreak. (Null, Gary. The Complete Encyclopedia to Natural Healing. NY: Kensington Publishing Corp., 1998, p 169.) Pimples on the skin of the lips occur when germs in sweat or dirt become trapped within a sweat pore or hair follicle. Germs multiply and cause small infections, or bumps. Most infections are combated by the body’s immune system and eventually form tiny white pustules that eventually go away. One can apply antibiotic ointment locally. In rare cases, germs trapped inside sweat glands continue to multiply because the bloodstream is unable to infiltrate the infected area. A sac called a sebaceous cyst is formed. A keratin protein is secreted into the walls of the sac and may spread to nearby skin if the cyst ruptures, causing inflammation and soreness. Sebaceous cysts usually last for months or years and are of no real concern unless they rupture and cause inflammation in the surrounding tissue. (See: www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtlH/WSIHW00/9339/9779.html) Sebaceous cysts in the embouchure area may be a huge detriment to the trumpet player. Since there is no cure for these cysts, surgical removal is the only means of quickly eliminating them. The internationally famous French trumpet soloist, Maurice André, developed several sebaceous cysts in his lips during the mid-1980s. After consulting several doctors, surgery was deemed the only way to remove the cysts. Opting not to undergo surgery, the player had a custom mouthpiece built that had a rim shaped something like a piece of a jig-saw puzzle. When positioned correctly, light playing was possible. After several years, the cysts dissolved naturally and the player was able to play normally again.

238 Symptoms of a sebaceous cyst are a movable, dome-shaped lump under the skin, which is non-tender. Size can vary from one-eighth inch to two inches in diameter. They are not dangerous and can usually be ignored. (See: www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000842.htm#Definition) While there is no practical way to prevent sebaceous cysts, the trumpet player is advised to avoid touching the lips, especially with unwashed hands. INCOMPETENT PALATE Excessive and involuntary air leakage through the nose during trumpet playing may be caused by a defective velopharyneal valve, or “incompetent palate,” in the back of the oral cavity. An incompetent palate is not uncommon. Many people are unable to whistle or blow up a balloon because they are unable to produce high intraoral air pressure. The velophrarynageal valve is located in the back of the mouth where the soft palate begins. This valve opens and closes at will, allowing air to be passed through either the mouth or nasal passages. In rare cases, persons requiring continued high intraoral pressures can develop velopharyngeal incompetence over time. This phenomenon has been noted in glass blowers and more recently in wind musicians. Such pressures can sometimes cause syncopal attacks [fainting], headache, disturbances of vision, reflux parotitis, and pharyngeal wall herniations. It seems reasonable that an occasional palate, even if normally functional, just quits functioning under certain abuse. It also seems reasonable that the musicians blame their lips (so-called “dead chops”) and that in some cases rest alone will improve the situation. (Dibbell, David, MD., Stan Ewanowski, PhD., and William Carter, MD. “Successful Correction of Velopharyngeal Stress Incompetence in Musicians Playing Wind Instruments.” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Vol. 64, No. 5, Nov. 1979, pp 662664.)

Dr. David G. Dibbell, MD., introduced the trumpet community to the problems resulting from a defective velopharyngeal valve during the 1977 International Trumpet Guild Conference held at the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign. Dr. Dibbell presented a lecture describing case studies he conducted at the University of Wisconsin-Madison where he surgically corrected these defective valves in oboists and trumpeters. After the surgery, these musicians, who were previously unable to play in the high register because of the excessive involuntary air leakage through their noses could, for the first time, play in the upper registers of their respective instruments. In Dibbell’s article for the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons, he states: The ability to generate extremely high intra-oral pressures is a necessity for professional musicians who play wind instruments. This pressure can reach as high as 130 mm Hg (millimeters of mercury) whereas normal speech pressure rarely exceeds 5 to 6 mm Hg. The musician who plays a wind instrument must direct this highly pressurized flow of air through his mouth; any leakage of air through the nose impairs his ability to play “high and long.” To achieve the desired effect, a strong soft palate must seal off the nasal passages from the oral one upon command. Inability of the palate to “perform” makes the musician unable to perform. ( Ibid.) Dibbell lists average mouth pressures of instrumentalists playing fortissimo on different instruments ( Ibid., p 664): Woodwinds: bassoon alto saxophone B-flat clarinet

(mm Hg) 89.7 56.2 86.4

239

Brass:

English horn oboe alto flute flute alto recorder piccolo

54.7 80.8 31.7 77.8 11.6 58.3

bass tuba tenor tuba trombone French horn A trumpet C trumpet D trumpet

77.6 64.7 126.0 115.9 107.8 125.8 132.4

In extreme cases of nasal air leaking, the velopharyngeal valve may require surgery to prevent it from leaking under high pressure. Testing is conducted with the use of fiber-optic pressure tubes placed in the mouth and nasal areas while the player plays his or her instrument. A computer monitors sensitive pressure changes to determine if the valve is leaking air involuntarily. Surgery involves placing the patient under anesthesia, removing a thin sliver of skin from the roof of the mouth and grafting it to the edge of the velopharyngeal valve so that it forms a complete air seal. The procedure takes approximately two hours and usually does not require hospitalization. Recovery is similar to having tonsils removed—patients can only eat soft foods for a couple of days and must allow two to three weeks of healing time before playing the instrument. (See: Dibbell, David G., “The Incompetent Palate: A Trumpeting Disaster.” ITG Journal. Oct. 1977, p 37.) Two of the author’s university students underwent velopharyngeal surgery—a trumpeter and a trombonist. In each case, a full and beautiful tone was produced in the low and middle ranges. However, attempts to play in the middle-high or high registers resulted in the top notes failing miserably and noticeable “grunting” or “snorting” noises emanating from the player’s nose. After the operations, each player acquired a normal upper register within a couple of days after they started playing again. Both musicians have had successful performing careers during the twenty-five years since the operations took place. Velopharynageal surgery should not be considered unless symptoms persist for months. In most cases, minor nasal air leakage can be eliminated by consistent daily practice of two hours or longer.

BLACKING OUT (SYNCOPE) Many trumpeters have experienced light-headedness or even black-outs from playing loud, high passages. This is sometimes a result of the neck muscles tightening and partially cutting off the blood supply to the brain. Another contributing factor may be increased pressure in the chest, producing a Valsalva maneuver resulting in reduced output from the heart. A Valsalva maneuver is an expiratory effort against a closed glottis (open space between the vocal cords) which increases pressure within the thoracic (chest) cavity and thereby impedes venous return of blood to the heart. (Refer to: www.bartleby.com/61/55/V0015575.html) In an article by William Whitworth in The New Yorker magazine, Whitworth tells of trumpeters blacking out: At a dance several years ago in the Midwest, Stan Kenton gave his band

240 the downbeat for the final chord of a tune, then turned to smile at the audience, with both his arms dramatically outstretched. He held the smile and the chord a little longer than usual—for maybe eight or ten seconds. Just as he turned toward the band and brought his right arm down to signal the cutoff, his first-trumpet player at the time, a gifted musician named Al Porcino, passed out, slumped in his chair, and fell over backward. Another Kenton trumpet player, Buddy Childers, had a similar experience one night in a small New Jersey town. “It was at the beginning of the job, during the band’s theme, ‘Artistry in Rhythm,’” Childers recalled recently. “I was playing a high D, which isn’t that high, as trumpet parts go, but I had to hold it for four incredibly slow bars. Suddenly, I blacked out, and the next thing I knew I was on the floor on my back, with my horn still at my mouth, and Stan was leaning over the sax section, staring at me.” (Whitworth, William. “Profiles.” The New Yorker , Dec. 20, 1969, pp 43-50.) Playing high and loud, in itself, is generally not a problem. But, holding loud, long high notes until the air is depleted can cause black-outs to occur. A solid sitting or standing posture is important in the event that a temporary dizziness or black-out happens. The head should not be tilted when playing. Correctly balanced head posture and normal position of the shoulders are vital in maintaining a relatively relaxed neck.

TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT (TMJ) The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is the joint between the mandible, or jaw bone, and the temporal bone of the skull. The TMJ Association describes TMJ disease as follows: Temporomandibular joint disease and disorders, commonly called “TMJ,” refer to a complex and poorly understood set of conditions that can cause pain in the area of the jaw and associated muscles and/or problems using the jaw. Both or just one of the temporomandibular joints may be affected. TMJ diseases and disorders can affect a person’s ability to speak, eat, chew, swallow, and even breathe. (www.tmj.org/basics.asp) Temporomandibular joints are located just in front of the ears. A small disc of cartilage separates the jaw from the skull, much like a knee joint, so that the mandible may slide easily when chewing, talking, or swallowing. It is the most frequently-used joint in the body.

Temporomandibular joint in socket (lower jaw hinge)

241 Problems occur when the TMJ is injured by sudden trauma such as being struck in the jaw by a fist, automobile airbag, or from falling. Contributing factors may also include various forms of arthritis, dental procedures, genetics, hormones, low-level infections, auto-immune diseases, stretching of the jaw as when biting apples, and clenching or grinding of the teeth. Chronic pain may occur at the joint because the bones or cartilage are damaged. Some types of damage can cause a persistent clicking at the joint when the jaw moves. It is possible for trumpet playing to contribute to TMJ disorders because of the sometimessignificant amount of pressure applied against the teeth by the mouthpiece. Additionally, not all players keep the jaw in its TMJ sockets when playing. (See “Floating-Jaw” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) Even so, it is doubtful that trumpet playing could actually be the cause of a TMJ disorder. TMJ pain is often described as a dull aching in the jaw joints and nearby areas. Other symptoms include being unable to open the mouth comfortably, clicking in the jaw joint, locking of the jaw, headaches, neck or shoulder pain, and swelling on the side of the face. People that clench or grind their teeth, especially in their sleep, often experience soreness in the chewing muscles and TMJ at the back of the jaw and just in front of the ears. For many players, the chewing muscles are used to support the jaw as it is brought forward to align the front teeth properly. Exercising these muscles during normal playing may contribute to the fatigue and soreness already existing from grinding or clenching the teeth. This makes playing uncomfortable and limits the strength and endurance of the player. The Ear, Nose, and Throat Network’s website recommends the following remedies, should TMJ problems be detected early on: • • • • • •

Rest the muscles and joints by eating soft foods. Do not chew gum. Avoid clenching or grinding the teeth. Relax muscles with moist heat. Employ relaxation techniques for stress reduction. Take non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, muscle relaxants, or other medications as prescribed by a physician. (www.entnet.org/healthinfo/topics/tmj.cfm) Pressure point therapy may provide temporary pain relief. By learning to apply gentle but firm pressure with the fingers to a key pressure point, the patient will be able to remedy imbalances and restore health and harmony. (Forem, Jack, and Steve Shimer. Healing with Pressure Point Therapy. NY: Prentice Hall Press, 1999.) In addition, tension-releasing activities such as massages, hot whirlpool baths, and stretching can relieve unwanted body stress that sometimes manifests itself in the jaw muscles, especially while sleeping. According to the TMJ Association website: The majority, as high as ninety percent, of TMJ patients are women in their childbearing years. (www.ctds.info/tmj.html) Various theories exist as to why this is so. Some of the theories are: • Magnesium deficiency (due to menstruation) • Hormonal changes during menstruation • Musculoskeletal changes due to pregnancy and childbirth For additional reading on TMJ disorders, please refer to the following:

242 Selya, H. The Stress of Life. NY: McGraw Hill, 1956. Simons, D. G. “Myofascial Pain Syndrome Due to Trigger Points.” International Rehabilitation Medicine Association, Monograph Series. Cleveland: Rademaker Printing, 1987. Travell, J. “Temporomandibular Joint Referred Pain from the Muscles of the Head and Neck.” Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 10(4), 1960, pp 745-763. Uppguard, Robert O., DDS. Taking Control of TMJ. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1998. Witzig, J. How to Treat TMJ Patients. Minneapolis: TMJ Institute of America, 1994.

RUPTURE OF THE ORBICULARIS ORIS A rupture of the orbicularis oris, the “drawstring” muscle surrounding the mouth, may occur if excessive pressure of the mouthpiece is exerted onto the lips. This injury, sometimes known as “Satchmo’s syndrome,” is named for the famous jazz trumpeter Louis Armstrong who experienced this injury in 1935. This caused him to stop playing the trumpet for a year. (See: Liu, Steven MD. and Gregory Hayden MD. “Maladies in Musicians.” www.boomspeed.com/joseph2/index25.htm)

jazz great, Louis Armstrong (“Satchmo”) (lip scar after rupturing obicularis oris)

243 Ruptures of this nature usually heal without surgery but may require months of rest before playing can resume. Even then, the lip tissue may feel lumpy and the injury may cause a shift in mouthpiece placement. To prevent this type of injury, caution should be taken that mouthpiece pressure is not excessive. A correct lip pucker and normal amount of mouthpiece pressure is the best way to ensure that such a problem is avoided. (See Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.) DYSTONIAS According to the Dystonia Medical Research Foundation, Dystonia is a neurological movement disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions, which force certain parts of the body into abnormal, sometimes painful, movements or postures. Dystonia can effect any part of the body including the arms and legs, trunk, neck, face, or vocal cords. (www.dystoniafoundation.org) There are several types of dystonias. The most common types are: (Refer to: www.dystonia.org.uk/about_dystonia-page.html) Focal Dystonia — Focal dystonias are the most common form of dystonias and each dystonia affects only one part of the body. They include: • Cervical dystonia (dystonia of the neck muscles which cause the head to twist, pull in one direction, or shake) • Blepharospasm (dystonia of the muscles around the eyes leading to excessive blinking or closure of one eye or both eyes) • Oromandibular dystonia (dystonia affecting the muscles of the jaw, tongue, and mouth) • Laryngeal dystona (dystonia effecting the speech muscles) • Writer’s cramp (dystonia of the hand, effecting the ability to write) • Cranial dystonia (dystonia effecting the muscles around the eyes in addition to those of the jaw, tongue, and mouth) Segmental Dystonia — This affects an area of the body such as the neck or an arm. Hemidystonia — This affects an arm and a leg on one side of the body. Multifocal Dystonia — This affects many different parts of the body. Generalized Dystonia — This affects most of the body, frequently involving the legs and back. Researchers believe that dystonia are caused by a malfunction of the central nervous system, probably in the part of the brain called the basal ganglia. Damage to the basal ganglia can be caused by reduced oxygen around the time of childbirth, trauma to the brain, or by small strokes or tumors. (See: Ibid.) Dystonia that develop in childhood are often inherited through an affected gene. However, not everyone who inherits this gene develops dystonia. (Ibid.) Symptoms of dystonia in a trumpeter’s embouchure may include: • Air leaks at the corners of the mouth, sometimes worse in higher registers and accompanied by a noticeable tremor. • Involuntary, abnormal contractions of the muscles in the face. • Involuntary puckering.

244 • Excessive elevation of the corners of the mouth. • Involuntary closing of the mouth. (See: www.dystonia.ie/page.asp? Page=44&Menu=33) Focal dystonia are difficult to test physically. Most physicians rely mainly on information provided by the patient. Therefore, it is hard to determine if the problem is actually physical, psychological, or due to lack of embouchure control and strength. Emotional distress and depression can further aggravate the dystonia. ( See: “Embouchure Dystonia.” www.embouchure.com /index.htm) The progress of dystonia is unpredictable and the severity of symptoms can vary from day to day. In most cases, focal dystonia progress gradually over a five-year period, and then progress no further. Symptoms may go into partial or complete remission. The likelihood of a total remission is estimated to be between five and ten percent. (Refer to: www.dystonia.org.uk/about-dystoniapage.html) A variety of treatments is available for dystonia. These is determined upon diagnosing the type and severity of the particular condition. The main options include: Drugs — Certain drugs can be taken to interface with the neurotransmitters, the chemical substances that carry messages within the brain. Others are designed to relax the muscles, reduce shaking, and control spasms. Botulinum Toxin — Botulinum toxin [Botox] injections are generally the most effective treatment for dystonia that affects the muscles of the neck or around the eyes. In some cases, certain other dystonias can be helped by these injections. Injections are usually repeated every three months. Surgery — Surgery may be an option for patients who have not responded to other treatments. For severe cases of dystonia, surgical treatments include selective denervation for cervical dystonia, pallidotomy, and thalamotomy. (Ibid.) Although focal dystonias usually remain isolated, there is no medical cure for dystonia. The treatments outlined here are often effective in helping the symptoms of dystonia, but surgeries often involve destroying sections of the brain and are improbable options for musicians. (See the following section on “Bells Palsy,” with information on Alphabiotic Alignment.) Dr. Steven Frucht of New York’s Columbia Presbyterian Hospital has conducted studies on brass players with embouchure dystonia. His work was in consultation with neurologists Michael Charness and Chris Browning. (Refer to: www.embouchure.com/index.htm). Dr. Frucht and Glen Estrin (former horn player in the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and Lyric Opera of Chicago who became disabled with embouchure dystonia) created a support group. Board members include several internationally-known musicians including Dale Clevenger, Glenn Dicterow, Gary Graffman, Skitch Henderson, Alan Menken, Peter Nero, Peter Oundjian, Andre Previn, and Frank Sinatra Jr. (Phelps, Joseph F. “Dystonia: A Trumpeter’s Story.” ITG Journal. Vol. 26, No. 3, Mar. 2002, pp 4546.) In an article by Joseph F. Phelps, former professor of trumpet at Appalachian State University, Phelps states: • Dystonia is six times more prevalent than Huntington’s Disease, Lou Gehrig’s Disease (ALS), and Muscular Dystrophy. • Fewer than 5% of the 200,000 people afflicted with this disease are correctly diagnosed.

245 • Brass players are usually afflicted in the corners of the mouth and jaw. Playing [the trumpet] triggers the muscle spasms, which are not present at rest. (Ibid.) For further reading, refer to: Frucht, Steven MD. “Embouchure Dystonia, an under-recognized cause of performance impairment in brass players.” The Horn Call. Aug. 1999, pp 67-68. Altenmüller, Eckart. “Causes and Cures of Focal Limb-Dystonia in Musicians.” Dystonia Dialogue. May/June 2006, pp 13-14.

BELL’S PALSY Bell’s palsy (Bells palsey) is a weakness or paralysis of the muscles that controls expression on either side of the face. The disorder results from damage to a facial nerve. One nerve runs beneath each ear to the muscles on the same side of the face. Bell’s palsy, also called “facial palsy,” is named after Dr. Charles Bell of Edinburgh, Scotland, who first described the condition in 1882. (See: www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=DS00168&) Each year, about 40,000 people in the United States experience Bell’s palsy. Although the condition can occur in people of all ages, it most often affects pregnant women, people with diabetes or upper respiratory ailments, and people with immune system deficiencies. (Ibid.) Signs of Bell’s palsy may include: • Acute paralysis or weakness on one side of the face, making it difficult to close the eye on the affected side • Facial droop and difficulty with facial expressions • Facial stiffness or a feeling that the face is being pulled to one side • Pain behind or in front of the ear on the affected side • Sounds that seem louder on the affected side • Headaches • Loss of taste on the front portion of the tongue • Changes in the amount of tears or saliva produced ( Ibid.) Causes of Bell’s palsy are not fully understood, but the condition is known to develop from a damaged nerve, perhaps due to a viral infection contracted through the ear on the affected side. Evidence suggests that herpes simplex (common cold), Lyme disease, and sarcoidosis may also cause Bell’s palsy. (See: www.healthynj.org/dis-com/bells/links.htm). Bell’s palsy is sometimes referred to as “taxi driver’s ear” because it occurs commonly in people who drive automobiles with the driver-side window lowered. (Information taken from the author’s notes during a lecture given by Bernie Glow during the 1979 International Trumpet Guild Conference held at Arizona State University.) There is about an eighty percent chance that a person contracting Bell’s palsy will have a good recovery, usually within one or two months. Courses of treatment may include: • Anti-inflammatory medication (A short course of prescription corticosteriod medication such as prednisone may reduce inflammation and swelling.) • Antiviral medication (Prescription drugs such as acyclovir and famciclovir may limit or reduce damage to the nerve.)

246 • Massage (Facial massage may help prevent permanent contractures of the paralyzed muscles before recovery takes place.) (Ibid.) Doctors can distinguish Bell’s palsy from other disorders because of the time it takes the patient to lose control of the facial muscles. Strokes bring a sudden loss of muscle control, whereas brain tumors, skull fractures, and ear and sinus infections normally take one week or longer to show symptoms. Bell’s palsy, on the other hand, usually reaches its peak in forty-eight hours. (Refer to: www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000773.htm) Brass players who contract Bell’s palsy find it extremely difficult to play with good control and endurance. Until the facial nerve recovers, it may be best to discontinue playing. Frequent muscle massage and short-term prescription medicine are the best medical treatments. People suffering from Bell’s palsy and other physical disorders sometimes turn to alternative health approaches, especially when all medical therapies and medicines fail. The idea of self-healing through correct balance and alignment of “Life’s Energy” has been used for hundreds (and maybe thousands) of years. In China, this energy is called ch’i, and in India it is called prana. A Western approach to aligning the Life Energy is called Alphabiotics. It involves a physical process that triggers a profound state of body and mind balance, measurable on many different levels. A typical side benefit of experiencing this balance is that symptoms of varying types, including neurological issues like Bell’s palsy, have been shown to simply disappear. According to Virgil Crane, founder of Alphabiotics: The Alphabiotic process is not about treating or healing a particular condition, but about bringing you in alignment with a higher power, and showing that power to transform your life in a positive way. You experience this through a trained facilitator, as it involves a unique upwards movement of the head. The entire Alignment/Unification process is accomplished in less than thirty seconds, and can even be done on tiny babies—often while they are asleep—without waking them. (www.alphabiotics.biz) As with any profession, a thorough investigation into Alphabiotics should be done before considering if an Alphabiotic Alignment is to be arranged. Despite medical controversy, the power of self-healing is significant and should not be dismissed.

TRIGEMINAL NEURALGIA Trigerminal Neuralgia (TN), also known as tic douloureux, is a condition that affects the trigeminal nerve (the 5th cranial nerve), one of the largest nerves in the head. The trigeminal nerve is responsible for sending impulses of touch, pain, pressure, and temperature to the brain from the face, jaw, gums, forehead, and around the eyes. Trigeminal Neuralgia is characterized by a sudden, severe, electric shock-like or stabbing pain typically felt on one side of the jaw or cheek. The disorder is more common in women than in men and rarely affects anyone younger than fifty. The attacks of pain, which generally last several seconds and may be repeated one after the other, may be triggered by talking, brushing the teeth, touching the face, chewing, swallowing, or constant pressure against the face such as by a trumpet mouthpiece. (See: www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/trigeminal_neuralgal_trigeminal_neuralgia.htm) Attacks of pain may come and go and last for days, weeks, or months at a time. Treatment typically includes anticonvulsant medications such as carbamazepine or phenytoin. Baciofen,

247 clonazepam, gabapentin, and valporic acid may also be effective and can be used in combination to achieve pain relief. ( Ibid.)

The Trigeminal Nerve branches into three main areas of the face. The illustration depicts the three main branches of the trigeminal nerve. The upper (ophthalmic) branch is associated with the eyes, eyebrows, forehead, and frontal portion of the scalp. The middle (maxillary) branch is associated with the upper lip, upper teeth, upper gum, cheeks, lower eyelids, and sides of the nose. The lower (mandibular) branch is associated with the lower lip, lower teeth, lower gum, and sides of the tongue. It also covers the narrow area that extends from the lower jaw in front of the ear to the side of the head. (Refer to: www.tna-support.org) Should medication be ineffective, or if it produces undesirable side effects, neurosurgical procedures are available to relieve pressure on the nerve or to reduce nerve sensitivity. Some patients report having reduced or relieved pain by means of alternative medical therapies such as acupuncture, chiropractic adjustment, self-hypnosis, or meditation. ( Ibid.) Specialists trained in arts medicine are becoming increasingly aware of trigeminal neuralgia and ways of treating it. Organizations researching new treatments of pain include:

248 American Chronic Pain Association P. O. Box 850 Pocklin, California 95677 www.theacpa.org 916-632-0922

National Chronic Pain Outreach Association P. O. Box 274 Millboro, Virginia 24460 www.chronicpain.org 540-862-9437

Trigeminal Neuralgia Association 2801 SW Archer Road Gainesville, Florida 32608 www.tna-support.org 352-376-9955

National Foundation for Treatment of Pain P. O. Box 70045 Houston, Texas 77270 www.paincare.org 713-862-9332

International Radio Surgery Association P. O. Box 5186 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110 www.irsa.org 717-260-9808

Mayday Fund (for Pain Research) c/o SPG 136 West 21st Street, 6th Floor New York, New York 10011 www.painandhealth.org

Further readings on pain management and trigeminal neuralgia include: Sollars, David W. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Acupuncture and Acupressure. NY: Alpha Books (Penguin), 2000. Stamatos, John M. Painbuster: A Breakthrough Four-Step Program for Ending Pain. NY: Owl Books, 2002. Weiner, Richard S. Pain Management: A Practical Guide for Clinicians, Sixth edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001. Zakrzewska, J. M. (Editor). Assessment and Management of Orofacial Pain. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Services, 2002.

DIABETES Diabetes has grown to epidemic proportions in the United States during the past few decades. This disease affects the entire body and severely limits strength and endurance in trumpet players. It can occur in people of all ages, regardless of health. While older, overweight people comprise the largest segment of diabetics, young and athletic people can also develop this illness. Over sixteen million Americans have diabetes: one out of every seventeen people. It kills more than 193,000 Americans each year. Because symptoms of diabetes are often ignored, many of these deaths seemed unexplained. This has caused diabetes to be termed the “silent killer.” Diabetes refers to a set of several different diseases. The most common types are Type 1—immune-mediated diabetes mellitus, and Type 2—insulin-resistant diabetes mellitus. Another type—Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs during some pregnancies. ( See: American Diabetes Association. Complete Guide To Diabetes, Second edition. NY: Bantam Books, p 5.) People with Type 1 diabetes do not produce enough insulin, a small protein made by the pancreas that helps the body use and store glucose from food. Patients can be treated with inhalations of injections of insulin. Most diabetics of Type 1 are children.

249 People with Type 2 diabetes, as with women with gestational diabetes, do make insulin, but the cells in their bodies are resistant to insulin’s action, or they do not make enough. If insulin is not present, the cells are unable to absorb glucose (sugar) from the bloodstream. Glucose is the fuel that cells need in order to produce energy. ( Ibid.) Type 2 diabetes most often develops in adulthood and is sometimes called “adult-onset diabetes.” It develops slowly and is usually unnoticed for years. Like all types of diabetes, cells gradually lose their ability to absorb glucose either by a decrease in insulin, or by the cell’s resistance to insulin. “Insulin intolerance” occurs gradually as a normal part of aging, but the reasons for it are a mystery. Because cells within the diabetic body do not readily absorb glucose, the cells trigger hormones that the brain perceives as a sign of hunger. The diabetic craves carbohydrates even though an over-abundance of them are already in the bloodstream. When glucose levels become extremely high, the body attempts to flush out excess glucose by frequent urination accompanied by thirst. The blood becomes thick due to the high levels of glucose. This causes tiny blood vessels, such as those found in the eyes and toes, to clog. Thus, vision problems and numbness of the toes and feet are among the first symptoms of diabetes. Diabetics may have fifty to one hundred percent more glucose in their bloodstream than non-diabetic people. Symptoms of diabetes may go unnoticed until glucose levels reach dangerous levels—often five, ten, or fifteen times normal. Symptoms of diabetes may include: • • • • • • • •

Craving for sugars, starches, and other carbohydrates Frequent thirst Frequent urination Blurred vision Feeling tired much of the time for no apparent reason Leg pain Numbness in toes Unexplained weight loss ( Ibid.)

Testing for diabetes is the only way to know for sure if a person has the disease. Blood tests (while fasting) determine glucose levels and how much insulin is present. A physician can determine which type of diabetes a person may have based on these tests. About seventy percent of the people with diabetes are overweight and not physically active. High blood pressure, high cholesterol, and depression are also common with diabetics. Caucasians with diabetes are two times more likely, and Hispanics and African Americans four times more likely, than non-diabetics to have heart attacks or strokes. (See: American Heart Association. Getting to the Heart of Diabetes. Dallas: American Heart Association, 2001, pp 2-4.) Dangers of uncontrolled diabetes include: • • • • • • • • • •

Stroke Blindness Kidney disease Heart attack Low blood sugar due to too much insulin or other medications High blood pressure High cholesterol Diabetic coma due to sudden high blood sugar Increased risk of infection due to damaged immune system Loss of muscular strength and endurance

250 • Nerve damage (Refer to: Collazo-Clavell, Marin MD. Mayo Clinic on Managing Diabetes. Rochester, MN: Mayo Clinic, 2001, pp 21-35.) Although there is no cure for diabetes, it can be controlled. Regular doctor visits and daily blood glucose monitoring are needed. The following list provides common treatments for diabetes. • • • • • • • •

Frequent glucose testing (small monitor for home use) Regular exercise Avoid injuries such as cuts and bruises Lower carbohydrate intake Taking oral medications or insulin as prescribed by a physician Develop a properly balanced diet Reduce alcohol intake Achieve a healthy weight ( Ibid.)

Trumpet players with diabetes can maintain a normally consistent practice and performance schedule without loss of any technical skills. However, strength and endurance are reduced. In advanced cases of Type 2 diabetes, muscle cells become insulin intolerant to the point that strength and endurance fade quickly once the glucose in the cell is depleted. Rather than tiring gradually, the trumpeter experiences a sudden drop in strength, usually within seconds after fatigue begins. Recovery periods that normally require seconds now require minutes. The player’s ability to maintain power and endurance during a strenuous performance, even when in peak condition, is severely compromised. Building endurance to combat the cell’s inability to absorb glucose is somewhat futile. Muscle strength cannot be increased through exercises utilizing the “overload” principle—that is, working the muscles past their usual capacity in order to force a growth in girth of the muscle fibers. Because there is no known cure for diabetes, trumpet players with this disease must use common sense to avoid becoming extremely fatigued. Careful pacing of endurance is needed. Several useful websites concerning diabetes include: www.MayoClinic.com www.diabetes.org www.niddk.nih.gov/health/diabetes/diabetes.htm www.mendosa.com/diabetes.htm www.diabetes.com www.aadenet.org www.cdc.gov www.diabetes-exercise.org

RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS The trumpet is a wind instrument and requires efficient inhalation and exhalation. Medical doctors sometime recommend that patients with respiratory diseases learn to play an instrument such as the trumpet to help develop deep breathing and assist in exercising the breathing muscles of the chest, diaphragm, and abdominal wall. Being capable of taking quick, full breaths is essential to becoming a top-level trumpet performer. (See “Breathing and Posture” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview.)

251 A host of respiratory problems can occur which adversely affect trumpet playing. Some of the more common illnesses include: (Refer to: http://womenshealth.gov/faq/lung_disease.htm) Asthma — A disease in which the alveoli lining the lungs do not release air when exposed to triggers such as viruses, smoke, dust, mold, animal hair, roaches, or pollen, making it difficult and even impossible to breathe. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) — A term used to describe two closely related lung diseases, emphysema and chronic bronchitis. People often have these diseases together. Chronic bronchitis is an inflammation that ends up scarring the lining of the bronchial tubes. Women have higher rates of chronic bronchitis than men. Emphysema causes the walls between the air sacs within the lungs to become weak or break, making it hard to feel like there is enough air. Emphysema is most often caused by smoking. Pneumonia — A disease that affects the tissue of the lungs. One or a combination of many bacteria can be a cause. Tuberculosis (TB) — A disease that affects tissue of the lungs due to a germ, mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pleurisy (Pleuritis) — A disease that causes inflammation of the membrane that surrounds the lungs, the pleura. Pleural effusion — A condition where excess fluids seep into the space around the lungs, the pleural space, restricting movement of the chest and causing pain and shortness of breath. The fluid can sometimes become infected. Lung cancer — A condition where abnormal (malignant) cells divide within the tissues of the lung and sometimes invade nearby tissues or spread through the bloodstream to other parts of the body. The number one cause of lung cancer is smoking. Lung diseases can often be controlled by medications that are inhaled or taken orally. Some disorders may cause fluids to build up in the millions of tiny air sacs in the lung. Over time, the walls of the sacs may become stiff, trapping fluids and preventing air from entering the sacs. This greatly reduces lung capacity and restricts the lungs’ ability to oxygenate the bloodstream. It also provides a breeding ground for bacteria and viruses to multiply, leading to further scarring of the lung tissue. General advice for preventing lung diseases or improving existing disorders includes: • Avoid smoking. • Practice deep breathing exercises (if recommended by a physician). • Engage in regular exercise which elevates breathing frequency, such as running, jogging, or vigorous bicycling. • Avoid exposure to second-hand smoke, radon gas, asbestos, automobile exhausts, air pollution, dust, mold, animal hair, and pollen. The great trumpet soloist Arturo Sandoval states: Drinking and smoking are bad for anybody, but for a wind musician they represent a disaster. (Sandoval, Arturo. Playing Techniques & Performance Studies, Vol. 3. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corp., 1995, p 5.)

252 For further reading on breathing disorders and treatments, please consult the following: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (www.nhlbi.nih.gov/index.htm) American Lung Association (www.lungs.org) Medline Plus, Bronchiectasis (www.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000144.htm) Tucker, Alan, et al. “Electrocardiography and Lung Function in Brass Instrument Players.” ITG Journal. Oct. 1980, p 46.) Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press Limited, 1996. Null, Gary, PhD. The Complete Encyclopedia to Natural Healing. NY: Kensington Publishing Corp., 1998.

NERVE DISORDERS OF THE HANDS, SHOULDERS, AND NECK Nerve disorders of the hands, shoulders, and neck can make trumpet playing very painful and difficult. Joints naturally degenerate over time, and most people over the age of fifty show signs of inflammation and limited motion in the fingers and wrists. The most common disorders affecting trumpet players are arthritis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and thoracic outlet syndrome. According to DePuy Orthopaedics: Arthritis is one of the most pervasive diseases in the United States and is the leading cause of disability. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, one out of every three Americans (an estimated seventy million people) is affected by one of the more than one hundred types of arthritis. (www.allaboutarthritis.com) Arthritis is a term that includes a group of disorders that affect the joints and tendons. Symptoms include pain, inflammation, and limited movement of joints. This is usually due to the loss of cartilage in the joints. Cartilage is a smooth and flexible substance that cushions the bones from rubbing against the nerves. Arthritis pain and inflammation can be controlled with medication. However, arthritis is a chronic disease that may cause a gradual stiffening of the joints, especially those in the fingers. As arthritis progresses, trumpeters often begin to flatten the fingers in order to reduce pain in the finger joints. This type of finger action is not as smooth and fast as a curved finger position. Another type of arthritis is termed repetitive stress syndrome. It is caused by actions of the joint that occur frequently and rapidly. Carpal tunnel syndrome is a condition in which the median, ulnar, or radial nerves become compressed. These nerves travel down the arm into the hand. The radial nerve travels to the thumb; the ulnar nerve to the outside of the hand and little finger; and the median nerve travels through the center of the wrist. With carpal tunnel syndrome, a nerve is squeezed for lengthy durations, causing numbness or tingling in the hand. Most often, it is the median nerve that is compressed as it passes through the narrow path (or tunnel) of the wrist. (See: Lippincott, et al. Professional Guide to Diseases, Eighth edition. Ambler, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, p 611.) In the wrist, nerves pass between bones and a strong ligament that runs across the wrist. Bending the wrist while performing repeated motor skills, such as operating valves, may put the a

253 nerve in a bind. Sustained pressure on the nerve may lead to numbness in the hand, similar to having part of the body “go to sleep.” Carpal tunnel syndrome can occur in people of any age, but it most often occurs in people over the age of fifty. The condition also occurs more frequently in women than in men. Warning signs of carpal tunnel syndrome include: • Tingling or numbness in one or both hands (mainly in the fingers) • Pain from the hand to the arm, perhaps up to the elbow • Pain, tingling, and numbness is usually worse at night, or when the affected hand is warm • Hand becomes weak • Muscles at the base of the thumb become smaller ( Ibid.) Causes of carpal tunnel syndrome are not fully understood. Heavy use of the hands and fingers, especially if the wrist is held in a tilted position, may cause or aggravate the condition. (Refer to “Holding the Instrument” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview.) People that most commonly develop carpal tunnel syndrome include carpenters, needle workers or knitters, typists or computer operators, meat cutters, tennis players, and musicians. Aspirin or ibuprofen helps mild cases of carpal tunnel syndrome by reducing pain and swelling. Prescription medications may be needed for more severe cases. If medications are ineffective, doctors can inject a powerful anti-inflammatory drug, called corticosteriod, directly into the affected area. This treatment may provide immediate relief but cannot be repeated frequently due to the decreased effectiveness of corticosteriods when used repeatedly. Here are a few ideas to help prevent carpal tunnel syndrome: • Avoid putting heavy loads on the wrists (excessive weightlifting, handstands, arm wrestling, or walking on the hands and knees). • Maintain proper alignment of hand and wrist when playing the trumpet. • Take frequent rest periods so that the hands and fingers relax. • Avoid carrying heavy suitcases or trumpet cases by hand. • Avoid prolonged carpentry such as hammering or sawing by hand. • Maintain proper alignment of hand and wrist when typing and support the wrists with a pad or comfortable surface. A less frequent, but debilitating, disorder is thoracic outlet syndrome. This occurs when the neurovascular bundle, a collection of nerves in the armpit, becomes compressed. Compression occurs when the size and shape of the thoracic outlet is altered due to excessive exercise, trauma, pregnancy, poor posture, or by carrying heavy weight on the side of the shoulder such as a golf bag. (See: www.nismat.org/ptcor/thoracic_outlet) Static postures, such as those sustained by assembly line workers, cash register operators, or needle workers and knitters, often lead to neck and shoulder aches due to dropping the head for prolonged periods. Thoracic outlet syndrome is also common in people who work for long periods of time with their arms above their heads such as painters, wallpaper hangers, electricians, and plasterers. Certain types of athletes such as baseball pitchers, basketball players, volleyball players, and swimmers may experience muscle stretching or tearing in the shoulder, neck, or upper rib cage that can injure or compress the neurovascular bundle. Thoracic outlet syndrome can have devastating affects on trumpet playing. When one side of the body experiences chronic pain due to a compressed nerve in the armpit, holding the trumpet for extended periods often results in favoring one of the arms or shoulders, creating an unbalanced

254 posture which limits breathing and overall strength. Trumpet performers that play extremely heavy trumpets should be careful that the left arm is not held vertically. This causes the upper body to lean to the left, drop the left shoulder, and tilt the head—all of which create unwanted stress in the neck and shoulders. While this posture may not be caused by thoracic outlet syndrome, the negative affects on trumpet playing and the possibility of compression to the neurovascular bundle are, in themselves, aspects to avoid. The use of a device called the ShulmanSystem may benefit players suffering from thoracic outlet syndrome. (Refer to the end of Chapter I: Starting Beginners–A Basic Overview.) There are several types of thoracic outlet syndrome. A doctor must conduct a series of tests by having the patient move the arms, shoulders, neck, and upper body in specific ways to determine the exact type of disorder and the best method of treatment. Ways to avoid thoracic outlet syndrome are: • Use good posture when playing the trumpet. • Avoid carrying heavy suitcases, golf bags, trumpet cases, or backpacks that utilize neck or shoulder straps. • Avoid prolonged exercises or activities that require the arms to be held above the head. • Keep the head in proper alignment with the spinal column, and allow for rest periods. • If using crutches, do not allow full body weight to be carried at the armpits. • Develop a stretching routine when muscles feel tight or sore. ( Ibid.) Conservative treatment for thoracic outlet syndrome includes local heat and a program that addresses postural retraining, shoulder strengthening, and stretching exercises. Acupuncture and surgery are possible treatments for severe cases. (Ibid.)

CLINICAL HELP FOR MUSICIANS Performing artists suffering from physical or mental ailments and stress may need treatment by a qualified physician or professional therapist. Correct diagnosis and treatment are imperative for the working musician. Many medical programs specifically created for performing artists exist and are excellent resources for the education, preventative treatment, and emergency needs of musicians, dancers, and other artists. The following list provides names and addresses of several of the organizations, hospitals, clinics, and institutes designed to assist trumpeters and other performing artists. The Center for Performing Arts Medicine The Methodist Hospital Houston, Texas (832) 667-5838 www.methodisthealth.com/arts Performing Arts Medicine Program Indiana University Medical Center 541 Clinical Drive, CL 492

255 Indianapolis, IN 46223 http://medicine.iupui.edu/peart.html British Performing Arts Medicine Trust 196, Shaftesbury Avenue London, WC2H 8JE United Kingdom 020 7240 4500 (London) 0845 602 0235 (elsewhere) www.bpamt.co.uk/what.html Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians’ Medicine Hanover University of Music and Dance Hohenzollernstr. 47 D-30 161 Hanover +49-511-31 00 552 www.immm.hmt-hannover.de/index_en.html Performing Arts Medicine Clinic Loma Linda University Healthcare Loma Linda University Loma Linda, California (909) 558-6222 Medical Center for the Performing Arts Jewish Hospital 216 S. Kingshighway St. Louis, MO 63110 (314) 454-7827 Miller Institute for Performing Artists 172 Amsterdam Avenue Second Floor, Section F New York, NY 10023-5034 (212) 496-4700 www.millerinstitute.org Médecine des Arts 715 Chemin du Quart F - 82 000 Montauban France +33 (0) 5 63 20 08 09 www.arts-medicine.com/eng/contact.php Stouffville Musicians’ Injuries Clinic 1100 Davis Drive, Unit #22 Newmanket, Ontario Canada L3Y 7V1 (905) 898-6708 www.stouffvillemusiciansinjuriesclinic.ca

256 Health and Performance Institute for Musicians Ithaca College Ithaca, NY www.ithaca.edu/faculty/nquarrie SELECTED READINGS American Diabetes Association. Complete Guide to Diabetes. Second edition. NY: Bantam Books. ________. Getting to the Heart of Diabetes. Dallas: American Heart Association, 2001. Collazo-Clavell, Marin, MD. Mayo Clinic on Managing Diabetes. Rochester, MN: Mayo Clinic, 2001. Dibbell, David, MD. et al. “Successful Corrections of Velopharyngeal Stress in Musicians Playing Wind Instruments.” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Vol. 64, No. 5, Nov. 1979, pp 662-664. ________. “The Incompetent Palate: A Trumpeting Disaster.” ITG Journal. Oct. 1977. Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press, Ltd., 1996. Frucht, Steven, M. D. “Embouchure Dystonia, an Under-Rated Cause of Performance Impairment in Brass Players.” The Horn Call. Aug. 1999, pp 67-68. Lippincott, et al. Professional Guide to Diseases, Eighth edition. Ambler, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, 1997. Null, Gary. The Complete Encyclopedia to Natural Healing. NY: Kensington Publishing Corp., 1998. Phelps, Joseph F. “Dystonia: A Trumpeter’s Story.” ITG Journal. Vol. 26, No. 3, Mar. 2002, pp 45-46. Selya, H. The Stress of Life. NY: McGraw Hill, 1956. Simons, D. G. “Myofascial Pain Syndrome Due to Trigger Points.” International Rehabilitation Medicine Association, Monograph Series. Cleveland: Rademaker Printing, 1987. Travell, J. “Temporomandibular Joint Referred Pain from the Muscles of the Head and Neck.” Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 10(4), 1960, pp 745-763. Tucker, Alan, et al. “Electrocardiography and Lung Function in Brass Instrument Players.” ITG Journal. Oct. 1980, p 46. Uppguard, Robert O., DDS. Taking Control of TMJ. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1998. Whitworth, William. “Profiles.” The New Yorker. Dec. 20, 1969, pp 43-50. Witzig, J. How to Treat TMJ Patients. Minneapolis, MN: TMJ Institute of America, 1994.

257

CHAPTER XI

Mouthpiece Design and Function IMPORTANCE OF SELECTING A PROPER MOUTHPIECE In many ways, the mouthpiece is the most important part of the instrument. It is what the performer actually plays. Although the mouthpiece provides blow resistance and, along with the instrument, helps players feel the harmonics, (often termed as “slotting,”) the trumpet serves primarily as an amplifier. Custom mouthpiece maker Gerald Endsley states: [The mouthpiece] is the vital connection between the instrument and the player. The unique characteristics of the individual with regard to dental and jaw formation, thickness of lips, etc. must be accommodated to the trumpet in the best possible manner in order to achieve success. (Endsley, Gerald. Comparative Mouthpiece Guide for Trumpet. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1992, p 2.) Selecting the best mouthpiece requires a great deal of both patience and experimenting by trial-and-error. As their embouchures develop during the first few years of playing, beginning trumpeters should seek the advice of a qualified teacher to help guide them through their mouthpiece selections. Mouthpieces of a medium size (such as a Bach 7C or a Schilke 11C) generally serve as a good starting point. The mouthpiece must feel comfortable to the player and should provide a tone quality that is full and brilliant. Many teachers advise that novice players seek mouthpieces that are of a medium weight so that standard tonal concepts and embouchure set can be developed. Inexperienced players should avoid very deep or excessively shallow cup sizes. A deep cup may help in producing loud and full-sounding low notes but will be inefficient in the upper register. Likewise, a shallow cup may make high notes easier but will likely lead to a thin and weak low register. Here are recommendations from several professional players and teachers concerning mouthpiece selection: Daryl Gibson: The student should follow the advice of his teacher and use a recommended mouthpiece until he has reached maturity of judgment to be able to distinguish the desirable and undesirable elements of any mouthpiece. . . Avoid “mouthpiece-itis,” as there is no such thing as the “perfect” mouthpiece. (Gibson, Daryl J. A Textbook for Trumpet. Minneapolis: Schmitt, Hall and McCreary Co., 1962, p 26.) Dennis Schneider: Avoid excessive switching around to various mouthpieces. This usually leads to further confusion and frustration. (Schneider, Dennis L. “Brass Mouthpiece Selection.” Notes. Denver: Kolacny Music, Oct. 1969, p 1.) Delbert Dale: [For the beginning student,] preference should definitely be given to a good medium-sized mouthpiece—one that will be small enough to aid rapid development of the difficult high register in the early weeks, but large enough to allow the student’s lips to develop normally and produce a good tone. (Dale, Delbert A. Trumpet Technique. London: Oxford University Press, 1965, p 13.) Keith Johnson: Choosing a proper trumpet mouthpiece is a highly personal and critical decision for every player, regardless of his level of ability, and should be undertaken only after consideration of several important factors. In the case of young students, it is essential

258 that advice and guidance be sought from a qualified teacher. . . Probably the most frequent mistake made by young players is choosing too shallow a mouthpiece. While this may have the immediate effect of increasing the upper register, in the long run it will greatly retard the development of the embouchure muscles and will work to the detriment of the player’s progress. . . The Bach 7C mouthpiece is recommended for beginners or as an all around mouthpiece. (Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: The Iowa State University Press, 1981, p 121-123.)

DIFFERENT MOUTHPIECES FOR DIFFERENT NEEDS After a trumpeter has developed an efficient embouchure that can easily play from low Fsharp to high C at all dynamics, the player may begin experimenting with different types of mouthpiece cups, throats, and backbores in order to enhance range, endurance, articulation, and tonal colors. Each mouthpiece, because of its internal shape and overall volume, has a specific best tone quality, response, flexibility, and ease of playing in a general range. Although the player may be able to play above or below this range, it is accomplished only through sheer effort. Therefore, every individual mouthpiece is a compromise. Just as a golfer uses several different clubs, advanced trumpeters often utilize numerous mouthpieces in order to produce the absolute best results with various keys and types of trumpets, and musical styles. Concerning the mouthpiece, Daryl Gibson writes: Do not expect any one mouthpiece to possess all the good things and none of the bad. When you change mouthpieces, you only trade one attribute for another. (Gibson, Daryl J. A Textbook for Trumpet. Minneapolis: Schmitt, Hall and McCreary Co., 1962, p 26.) Professional trumpet players that perform as symphony orchestra musicians, brass ensemble members, or classical soloists generally use a variety of mouthpieces on a regular basis. Each mouthpiece possesses certain tone, resistance, and design characteristics that make it ideal for use with a particular instrument or style of music. Typically, players use one mouthpiece most of the time. However, deeper mouthpieces are used with the cornet and flugelhorn, and shallower mouthpieces are used for the smaller trumpets or when playing extensively in the upper register. As an example, a “family” of mouthpieces for a professional orchestra player might be something like the following: Schilke 14A4a (stock)

-

for piccolo trumpets or “lead” playing

Bach 3D (stock)

-

for D, E-flat, and E trumpets or for mediumhigh range works on larger trumpets

Bach 1B (#24 throat)

-

for most works with B-flat and C trumpets

Bach 1A (#22 throat)

-

for rotary-valved trumpets in B-flat and C

Curry 1VC (stock)

-

for cornet and a “vintage cornet” tone

Yamaha 11F4 (stock)

-

for flugelhorn

The mouthpieces listed above, while fairly standard, are not necessarily the sizes or brands each performer should use. Some players utilize as many as a dozen mouthpieces to achieve

259 specific colors of sound, types of attacks, ease of flexibility, and range desired. Others may use as few as three mouthpieces. Many jazz musicians use two or more mouthpieces. Again, this varies from player to player and depends largely on the types of music to be performed and the instruments used. While most mouthpieces can be used interchangeably with various keys of trumpets, the David G. Monette Corporation makes different-sized mouthpieces for each key of trumpet, stating that: Monette mouthpieces are to be used only on the key of trumpet for which the mouthpiece is designed, e.g. B-flat trumpet mouthpieces are for use on B-flat trumpets only. C trumpet mouthpieces for use on C trumpets only, etc. (Refer to: www.monette.net/newsite/mouthpieces_trumpet_intro.htm) The Monette Corporation also states that their mouthpieces are designed to be used primarily on Monette trumpets: . . . only the Monette STC-1 and LT mouthpieces are designed for use on non-Monette instruments. (Ibid.) Today, thousands of different mouthpieces are available. Some manufacturers list over seventy model sizes in their catalogs. In addition, they offer numerous customizations. Therefore, it is important that the advanced trumpeter and teacher understand how changes in dimension or design within a mouthpiece can affect playing characteristics and comfort.

MOUTHPIECE PARTS AND THEIR AFFECTS ON PLAYING The following diagram shows the various parts (areas) of a brass mouthpiece. Each part is discussed in detail.

260 CUP — According to mechanical engineer and mouthpiece design consultant Charles Macaluso: Both the depth and shape (and the resulting volume) of the cup collectively affect the performance of the mouthpiece. A shallow, small volume cup produces a very bright, responsive and percussive sound; and, it plays very easily in the upper registers. A deep, large volume cup produces a very dark, less responsive and less percussive sound; and it plays very easily in the low registers. (Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997, p 20.) Two basic types of cup shapes were used prior to the twentieth century—bowl and cone. The true trumpet or trombone cup was bowl-shaped, or rounded. This helped create a brilliant tone quality. Conical, or “V-shaped,” cups were used on horns and cornets to produce a more mellow tone. Today, brass mouthpieces possess cups that are a blend of the two types, although trumpet and trombone mouthpieces are still generally more bowl-shaped than cornet, horn, euphonium, and tuba mouthpieces. (See: Whitner, Scott. A Complete Guide To Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990, p 10.) The famous trumpeter, Harry James, played on a mouthpiece with a “double-cup.” This type of cup works well for certain players. Renold Schilke describes the function of the two cups by stating: The shallow first cup affords support in the top register and the widened second cup allows a full tone. (“Schilke Mouthpiece.” www.music123.com/Schilke-Silver-Trumpet-Mouthpiece-Seriesi52740.music) Noted trumpet teacher Clint “Pops” McGlaughlin further explains: The theory behind the double cup is that the higher the note is that you play, the further on the mouthpiece the air stream is deflected. On the extreme high tones the air stream is almost to the rim, so the cup is very shallow there. In the lower notes the air stream aims for the throat so the cup is deep there. You get two mouthpieces in one. (McGlaughlin, Clint. The No Nonsense Trumpet from A-Z. TX: Clint “Pops” McGlaughlin, 1999, p 25-26.)

diagram of double-cup mouthpiece

Parduba double-cup mouthpiece

261

diagram of standard mouthpiece cup

diagram of mouthpiece with true single-cup

Although nearly all modern trumpet mouthpieces have a slight double-cup design, few companies make a true double-cup mouthpiece. Because each player’s airstream enters the cup in different places and at different angles, only a small percentage of trumpeters benefit from the full double-cup mouthpiece. RIM — The width and contour of the mouthpiece rim not only affect the feel and comfort of the mouthpiece, but they also have an effect on flexibility, attack, and endurance. Scott Whitener writes: Wide rims provide more cushion to the lips but tend to deaden the resonance of the sound and inhibit flexibility. (Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990, p 8.) Macaluso states: Wide rims can provide comfort and increase endurance; however, they restrict lip flexibility and adversely affect: tonguing, attacks and crispness. (Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997, p 20.)

standard and wide rim mouthpieces (same cup diameter)

262 Many mouthpiece manufacturers offer several rim widths and contours. Rims or entire mouthpieces can be made of sterling silver, stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, plastic, Lexan, and various types of wood. In addition, a variety of plating options are available, such as gold, silver, platinum, nickel, and nickel-silver. All of these factors have an affect on embouchure grip, comfort, and tone.

stainless steel mouthpiece

mouthpiece with Delrin (acetal resin) rim

Mad Max (polycarbonate) mouthpiece

263 RIM SHOULDER — The rim shoulder is the outside edge of the rim. Its only affect is on the grip of the lips. RIM BITE — The inside edge of the rim is called the bite. The sharper the bite, the more defined the mouthpiece feels to the lips, and the quicker the notes respond. Delbert Dale writes: A sharp edge [bite] will aid greatly the precision of attacks and response of the tone. (Dale, Delbert A. Trumpet Techniques. London: Oxford University Press, 1965, p 12.) ALPHA ANGLE — The alpha angle defines the relationship of the rim to the first cup radius. This is the angle in which the cup wall first begins to slope inwards to form the cup of the mouthpiece. Since the player’s lips enter the cup a slight amount (usually no more that one-eighth inch) when the mouthpiece presses against the lips, the angle may help or hinder the vibration of the lips. Gary Radtke of GR Mouthpieces explains: A High Alpha Angle [sudden inward wall slope] may impinge on the chops. It can hold the chops and support them. It can assist in keeping the buzzing area small . . . All of this can be good if you do not have much lip engagement into the cup. If you do, or if the alpha angle is just too high for you, you could experience lack of control, high blow resistance, . . articulation and intonation may suffer. Your chops could feel like they are “thinning out,” and you could actually “bottom out,” stopping vibrations completely. . .A Low Alpha Angle will give you more chop room at the top of the cup . . . If it is too low, it may feel like you have no support or lack compression. (Radtke, Gary. “Alpha Angle,” www.grmouthpieces. com/alpha. htm) “Bottoming out” usually results in certain pitches losing vibration, sometimes for no apparent reason. This is often caused by high alpha angles that permit the vibrating lips to touch the upper wall of the cup, or allow the airstream to reflect directly back towards the lips, essentially canceling the vibrations. THROAT SHOULDER (Throat) — The throat shoulder (sometimes referred to as the “throat”) is a small secondary cup located at the entrance to the throat (bore) of the mouthpiece. The size and shape of the throat shoulder can vary greatly, depending on the brand and model of mouthpiece. The throat shoulder is usually very smooth and rounded. This improves flexibility and provides a “warm,” or mellow, tone. A sharp shoulder creates secure slotting of the harmonics that results in a “stiffer” feel to the player. THROAT (Bore) — The main consideration is the throat’s diameter, although how the opening is shaped and its overall length are contributing factors [to the sound and feel of the mouthpiece]. (Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990, p 10.)

264 Throat diameters are usually measured in standard drill bit sizes. For example, the standard bore of a Bach mouthpiece is 0.1440” (3.67 mm), or a #27 drill bit size. Schilke mouthpieces are drilled to a #26 which is 0.1470”. Larger sizes, such as a #24 or #22 are more commonly found in mouthpieces used by symphony orchestra players because they provide a larger and darker tonal quality. Smaller throat sizes, such as a #28 or #30, may assist with the production of higher notes but often restrict the loudness and quantity of air that can comfortably pass through the mouthpiece. Here are the actual widths (in inches) of most of the drill bits used in mouthpiece throats: (Taken from: “Mouthpiece Throat Size.” www.dallasmusic.org/gearhead/Mouthpiece%20throat%20size.html) #28 #27 #26 #25 #24 #23 #22 #21

= = = = = = = =

0.1405” 0.1440” 0.1470” 0.1495” 0.1520” 0.1540” 0.1570” 0.1590”

#20 #19 #18 #17 #16 #15 #14 #13

= = = = = = = =

0.1610” 0.1660” 0.1695” 0.1730” 0.1770” 0.1800” 0.1820” 0.1850”

Endsley Brass manufactures and sells a hard aluminum mouthpiece throat gauge that can be inserted into the throat to determine which drill bit size a mouthpiece possesses. It measures sizes #28 to #18. (Refer to: www.dmamusic.org/tromba/endsleybrass.html)

Ensdley throat guage (with leather case) Some manufacturers construct cylindrical throats which, depending on the maker, may vary in length from one-eighth to one-half inch. Generally, a longer throat allows the player to feel the slotting of the harmonics more strongly. A shorter throat reduces slotting but improves flexibility. However, many manufacturers begin the taper of the backbore at the precise location where the throat occurs—thus, eliminating any cylindrical portion.

standard Bach mouthpiece cross-section

265 Of interest is a patent issued in 1921 to Charles E. Stacy for the “Duplex-Aperture Mouthpiece.” This mouthpiece contains two throat (bore) sizes that are interchangeable at the will of the player. HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—DUPLEX-APERTURE MOUTHPIECE

“Dual-Aperture Mouthpiece” patent drawings from 1921

266 BACKBORE — Immediately following the throat (bore) of the mouthpiece, the backbore begins as a gradually-tapering interior section of the shank. Tight backbores taper at a set rate which form straight lines from the throat to the end of the shank. Open backbores taper at a faster rate and gradually become more cylindrical, forming a shape similar to the top of a Coke bottle.

“tight” trumpet mouthpiece backbore

“open” trumpet mouthpiece backbore Tight backbores (small taper angles) produce a small note center, resulting in a precise, edgy, penetrating sound and a high blow resistance. Open backbores (large taper angles) produce a large note center, resulting in a broad, mellow sound and a low blow resistance. (Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997, p 23.) Collectively, the backbore and the leadpipe dictate the overall “intonation curve” of the trumpet. An extremely tight backbore (or leadpipe) causes the total harmonic series to be compressed—that is, the low register becomes sharp, and the high register becomes flat. Conversely, a backbore (or leadpipe) that is too open causes a spread in the harmonic series. Mouthpiece maker Terry Warburton explains: Can a mouthpiece cause or cure pitch problems? Yes. Some that we often hear about include: Problem Cause

— —

Upper register goes sharp when chops are tired. Backbore too big; Inside walls of rim too angled [high alpha angle]; Not enough gap [between end of shank and start of leadpipe].

267 Problem Cause

— —

Flat upper register. Backbore too small.

Problem Cause

— —

Sharp low register. Bore (throat) size too small; Backbore too small, or cylindrical.

(Warburton, Terry and Ken Titmus. “Mouthpiece Selection Tips/Common Questions and Answers.” Warburton Music Products, www.warburton-usa.com/faq.htm) SHANK — The shank is the tapered outside portion of the mouthpiece that fits into the trumpet’s mouthpiece receiver. The taper of the shank and the inside taper of the receiver govern how well the end of the backbore meets the start, or venturi, of the leadpipe. A gap usually occurs between the mouthpiece and the leadpipe. Mouthpiece makers do not always agree on the positive or negative aspects of the gap. Therefore, some mouthpieces and trumpets are designed to have zero gap, while others are designed to have a gap of one-eighth to one-quarter inch.

no mouthpiece gap

large mouthpiece gap

Here are a few opinions on mouthpiece gap: Charles Macaluso: An approximation of the best gap length is given by 6.5 times the mouthpiece exit wall thickness . . . that the best gap varies considerably . . . However, the commonly recommended gap of .125” (one-eighth inch is nicely within the range . . .) When the gap

268 approaches zero, the trumpet does not “slot” (or lock-in to notes) as well as when a proper gap is used. (Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997, p 28.) Renold Schilke: The shank of every brass mouthpiece when in the instrument should touch the end of the mouthpipe to insure an even taper from the backbore of the mouthpiece to the inside of the mouthpipe. (Schilke, Renold. “Schilke Mouthpieces,” Music 123. www.music123.com/ Schilke-Silver-Trumpet-Mouthpiece-Series-i52740.music) Gary Radtke: The gap is not optimal if the horn does not slot or if it feels too resistant. I have a simple formula to use for setting the gap. This has never failed me. Measure the exit wall of the mouthpiece. It is usually about .020” to .030”. Then measure the step in the receiver and leadpipe (effective leadpipe wall). Multiply the exit wall of the mouthpiece by 5 and the leadpipe by 1.5. Example, .022” mouthpiece wall X 5 = .110”. Now, the leadpipe .020” leadpipe wall X 1.5 = .030”. Add the .110” and the .030” and you get .140”. If you are +/- .025” [from 0.140] things should still work fine. (“Interview With Master Mouthpiece Designer and Craftsman, Gary Radtke.” OJ’s Trumpet Page. http://abel.hive.no/oj/musikk/trompet/interview/grl) Phyllis Stork: The placement of the mouthpiece—or gap—is another variable that can have its affect on the performance of the instrument . . . I have seen adjusting the gap go from having no observable effect at all to a significant impact on overall performance. (Libs, Jean Morehead. “The Perfect Match: Trumpet Meets Mouthpiece.” ITG Journal. Vol. 19, No. 2, Dec. 1994, p 42.

Bob Reeves: It is our opinion that the correct gap is one that works. It can only be determined through experimentation as it varies from player to player, mouthpiece to mouthpiece, instrument to instrument . . . Remember, too much gap is bad, too little is worse. (www.bobreeves.com/products/mouthpieces/gap_adjustment/gap_content.htm) There are several ways to adjust the gap, should it be necessary. Increasing the gap can be done by simply applying a thin layer of tape around the shank of the mouthpiece. This is normally placed about one inch from the end of the shank. Although this method seems rather crude, it is better than cutting off the end of the shank because the exit wall needs to be as thin as possible. Shortening the gap is more difficult and usually requires the shank to be lightly sanded or slightly lathed down. This should be done with care, removing no more than the amount of material necessary.

LENGTH OF THE MOUTHPIECE Trumpet, cornet, and flugelhorn mouthpieces all have different lengths. The length is determined by the combined depth of the cup, length of the throat, and length of the backbore. Because trumpets possess a brilliant tone in comparison to the cornet and flugelhorn, the backbore of the trumpet mouthpiece is relatively long and tight in taper. The following diagrams depict the relative sizes of mouthpieces for trumpet, cornet, and flugelhorn. (See next page.)

269

trumpet

vintage cornet

flugelhorn

The actual lengths of mouthpieces vary to some degree from maker to maker. While American-made mouthpieces are fairly consistent in length, European mouthpieces are less standard in length due to the higher number of custom instrument makers. Therefore, one should not assume that a particular mouthpiece will fit various brands and models of trumpets properly. Mouthpieces made for rotary-valve trumpets are often longer than those made for piston-valve trumpets. According to an interview with mouthpiece maker Scott Laskey, Vincent Bach was one of the first to lengthen the backbore of the cornet mouthpiece in order to provide the cornet better versatility in concert bands, orchestras, dance bands, and marching bands. (Refer to: Hickman, David R. “The Authentic Cornet.” The Instrumentalist. May 1992, p 46-58.) By lengthening the backbore of the mouthpieces, the cornet produces greater volume and brilliance than the old-style cornet mouthpieces used before 1940. The Bach cornet mouthpiece cup also became more bowl-like in order to facilitate the upper register. The net result, essentially, was a trumpet mouthpiece made to fit a cornet receiver. By the middle of the twentieth century, nearly all American cornet manufacturers provided trumpet-like mouthpieces with each cornet produced. The diagrams on the next page show the modern (trumpet-like) cornet mouthpiece and the vintage cornet mouthpiece. The differences in overall length, backbore, and cup shape are apparent.

270

modern-style cornet mouthpiece

older-style cornet mouthpiece

modern Vincent Bach cornet mouthpiece (left) and Henry Distin cornet mouthpiece from 1880 (right) Recently, a renaissance of the true cornet sound has begun in America. Numerous manufacturers are again producing “vintage” cornet mouthpieces that have brought about a greater appreciation and popularity of the cornet and its repertoire. Also, the British-style brass bands have proliferated in the United States since around 1985 and have broadened the popularity of the cornet. In 1992, the author conducted a “blindfold” test with approximately one hundred brass music majors at Arizona State University. Modern cornets and mouthpieces, century-old cornets and mouthpieces, and modern trumpets and mouthpieces were played behind a screen. Students were asked to rank instruments according to brightness or darkness of tone, roundness or

271 percussiveness of attacks, and so on. It is interesting to note that an overwhelming majority of listeners felt that the brightest and most percussive instrument heard was a modern cornet with a modern cornet mouthpiece. (Ibid.)

HEAVY VS. LIGHT MOUTHPIECES Just as the weight and density of material of a trumpet affect the strength of overtones projected in the sound, the weight and density of the mouthpiece also have an impact on tone, response, and projection. Mouthpiece designer Gary Radtke states: Some players may experience a decrease in overtones with heavy mouthpiece blanks while others will benefit from a more solid feel to the note center . . . Mouthpiece mass is a personal choice. (www.grmouthpieces.com/mass.htm)

three weights of mouthpieces by Harrelson Trumpets The “skeletonizing” of a mouthpiece is the removal of material from the outside of the mouthpiece. An additional undesirable by-product is that the tone tends to project less successfully [than standard-weight mouthpieces]. (Endsley, Gerald. Comparative Mouthpiece Guide for Trumpet. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1992, p 45.)

“skeletonized” cornet mouthpiece

272 A manufacturer’s goal is to produce mouthpieces that are efficient in projecting overtones in the trumpet’s sound. If too little mass surrounds the vibrating area of the mouthpiece—such as skeletonizing—a great deal of energy is lost through the walls of the mouthpiece. This diminishes the projection and volume of the overtones in the sound. Conversely, adding too much mass may dampen certain internal vibrations of high frequency overtones, resulting in a tone that lacks brilliance and fullness. Skeletonized mouthpieces tend to have a quicker response than heavy mouthpieces. Mouthpiece “sleeves” are sometimes added to the exterior of the mouthpiece in order to darken the tone. A prevalent misconception is that sound sleeves actually intensify the tonal projection of the lip vibrations by strengthening the fundamental harmonic of the sound. Although the fundamental may seem stronger because the higher overtones are suppressed, there is no scientific evidence to support this claim. This is not to say that sound sleeves are bad. They are simply one way to alter the color of the sound by dampening higher overtones.

cornet mouthpiece with one type of sound sleeve

rosewood “Ultra-sleeve” by J. Landress Brass (www.jlandressbrass.com)

273 Conn-Selmer, Inc. has developed mouthpieces that add and subtract mass in different areas. The CKB “Acoustic-Balance” mouthpiece strategically balances weight and mass over the entire length of the mouthpiece. The mass of the CKB mouthpiece is distributed evenly between the rim, cup, throat and shank of the mouthpiece. This weight distribution balances the vibration control of the entire mouthpiece, a feature that is missing from most heavy-weight brass mouthpieces. The result is a mouthpiece that offers superb control and enhances the overall projection of the instrument. (“Acoustic-Balance Brasswind Mouthpieces.” C. G. Conn Co.: www.cgconn/content/ckb.php) The Marcinkiewicz Company also produces a similar mouthpiece—ProLine “Concert Hall.” (www.marcinkiewicz.com) Mass can also be varied by making all or part of the mouthpiece from materials other than brass. Stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, glass, plastic, Lexan, Plexiglass, and various types of wood have been used to brighten or darken the tone and to change the response of the instrument. Harder, but lightweight, materials such as titanium and aluminum provide a brighter tone and quicker response than traditional brass mouthpieces. Wooden mouthpieces darken the tone and reduce percussiveness in attacks. Players have a wide array of mouthpieces made from various materials to choose from. Mouthpieces or rims made of plastic, polymer, Lexan, Lucite, and ABS are a practical aid for marching band members who perform in cold regions. These materials are not very affected by cold or hot temperatures and provide a comfortable setting on the embouchure as well as a solid grip on the lips. Below is a listing of several companies that offer alternatives to mouthpieces made of brass. Kelly Mouthpieces

—

www.kellymouthpieces.com

Mad Max Mouthpieces

—

www.bestproducts.com

Jet-Tone

—

www.jet-tone.com

Maurice Benterfa Wooden Mouthpieces

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http://members.aol.com/benterfa

GW Mouthpieces

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www.gwmouthpieces.com

Houser Mouthpieces

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www.housermouthpiece.com

Breslmair Mouthpieces

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www.breslmair.at/index_e.htm

ADJUSTABLE-CUP MOUTHPIECES Some mouthpieces are made in such a way that the depth of the cup can be adjusted quickly to best accommodate desired changes in tone color or range. The upper portion of the cup is allowed to be screwed higher or lower on the main body of the mouthpiece, yet the cup wall remains smooth.

274

cross-section of an adjustable-cup mouthpiece

three brands of adjustable-cup mouthpieces

275 While adjustability has obvious advantages, the main drawback is that the cup wall becomes perfectly straight when the bottom portion is lowered. This makes the cup area somewhat box-like and causes the tone to become rather dull. Also, the resistance is more than that found with normal mouthpieces. If the cup adjustments are small, the advantages of this type of mouthpiece are worth exploring. Former principal of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Armando Ghitalla, is perhaps the best-known trumpeter to have used an adjustable-cup mouthpiece. Made by William Tottle, Ghitalla’s mouthpiece could be adjusted in small increments. Some of the current makers of adjustable cup mouthpieces are: Tottle Mouthpieces (www.tottlebrass.com) Endsley Brass Products (www.dmamusic.org/tromba/endsleybrass.html) The Jerwyn Mouthpiece (www.bill-lewington.com/jerwyn.htm) Sarad Adjustable Multi-Kup Mouthpiece

COMPONENT MOUTHPIECES Mouthpieces are often built in components, or parts, that fit together to form a complete unit. This allows each component to be interchangeable. For example, a player may wish to use the same rim and cup but vary the size of the throat. Or, perhaps the player may want to change cups but retain all other components. The ability to remove each threaded part quickly and easily means that a single mouthpiece can have great versatility. Components usually include rim, cup, and backbore, but sometimes also include the throat section.

mouthpiece components Most custom mouthpiece shops are able to modify a solid mouthpiece into component parts. Some manufactures sell component mouthpiece sets that include various rims, cups, throats, and backbores. A partial listing of component mouthpiece makers and custom shops include: Greg Black Mouthpieces (www.gregblackmouthpieces.com) Warburton Music Products (www.warburton-usa.com) GR Mouthpieces (www.grmouthpieces.com)

276 Bob Reeves Mouthpieces (www.bobreeves.com) Schilke Music Products (www.schilkemusic.com) Hammond Design (www.karlhammonddesign.com) Laskey Mouthpieces (www.laskey.com) Kanstul Musical Instruments (www.kanstul.net) Stork Custom Mouthpieces (www.storkcustom.com) Tottle Brass Mouthpieces (www.tottlebrass.com) Ted Sparx Mouthpieces (www.sparxmusic.com) Curry Mouthpieces (www.currympc.com) Endsley Brass (www.dmamusic.org/tromba/endsleybrass.html) Dillon Music (www.dillonmusic.com) Stomvi Mouthpieces (www.stomvi.co.uk) In addition, companies such as Kanstul Musical Instruments can make exact copies of all or any part of a mouthpiece by utilizing state-of-the-art 3-D computer scanning and tracing equipment that inputs digital measurements into a CNC metal lathe. This information can be stored for later use.

ALTERATIONS Stock mouthpieces may be custom-altered to suit each performer or instrument. Alterations should only be made after careful consideration or advice from a qualified teacher and should be done by a professional repairman or machinist. The most common alteration is drilling-out the throat to a larger size. In order to accommodate young or less-experienced players, most manufacturers place a medium-sized throat (drill bit size #27) in all mouthpieces, regardless of cup or backbore size. However, advanced performers often find that a slightly larger throat—drill sizes #26, #25, or #24—are better-suited for acquiring a larger and darker tone quality. A few trumpeters prefer even larger sizes such as a #23 or #22, especially for symphony orchestra playing. Monette mouthpieces generally possess even larger throats—#17 to #7. Other common alterations include opening the backbore, rounding the rim bite, chamfering (angling) the edge of the backbore exit wall, and sanding or lathing the outside of the shank to fit a particular mouthpiece receiver. Care must be taken to remove material properly and in small increments so that the player can test the mouthpiece after each small change. Certain brands of mouthpieces, such as those made by the David G. Monette Corporation, should only be altered (if needed) by the manufacturer. Each stock mouthpiece is “balanced” to a specific size and shape of throat and backbore to match the rim and cup used. Any alteration or

277 modification of a Monette mouthpiece, including opening the throat, will destroy the playing characteristics of the mouthpiece. (www.monette.net/newsite/mouthpieces_trumpet_intro.htm) An interesting mouthpiece alteration (not recommended by the author) was done by the famous jazz trumpeter, Louis Armstrong, during his early career. Small nicks were filed into the rim of his cornet mouthpiece. He twisted the instrument and mouthpiece slightly whenever ascending into the upper register, causing the lip aperture to change shape and size.

rim of Louis Armstrong’s early mouthpiece Photo courtesy of the Louisiana State Museum Jazz Collection.

Rims may be altered to accommodate a protruding tooth. Alterations of this type have been very successful.

278 A mouthpiece made by Caufmann is designed to fit the shape of the mouth.

The Harry Jacobs mouthpiece is custom-made for each owner. It is designed to provide equal support to both lips for performers with severe dental overbites or underbites.

Harry Jacobs mouthpiece (large overbite position) Bending a mouthpiece at the neck of the shank can also help players with severe overbite or underbite occlusions. It is used sometimes by young students that have not developed sufficient strength and control to adjust the lower jaw forward to achieve good vertical teeth alignment for the embouchure. It helps raise the bell for better appearance and sound projection. Although rare, some professional performers, including the famed lead trumpeter Patrick Hession, and soloist James Ackley perform regularly on bent mouthpieces. ( For photo of Hessions playing with bent mouthpiece, see: www.hessionssessions.com/bio.html. For photos of Ackley playing with a bent mouthpiece, see “Floating-Jaw Embouchure” in Chapter III: Embouchure Formation and Control.)

279 PLATING Mouthpieces made of brass are plated to avoid raw brass coming in contact with the lips, causing skin irritations or rashes. In addition, bacteria cause brass to corrode quickly. Corrosion is also harmful to the mouthpiece because it does not allow the airstream to flow smoothly over rough, pitted surfaces created. Materials such as gold, silver, platinum, nickel, and nickel-silver are often applied to a brass mouthpiece with a brush or by electro-plating. Because electro-plating adds an extremely thin layer of metal, it usually has no noticeable affect on sound or response of the instrument. However, the texture of the metal applied to the mouthpiece does have a noticeable change of grip on the player’s lips. Gold and platinum have the least grip. Terry Warburton states: Gold does not have as strong of a “friction grab” as silver. If you depend on the mouthpiece “sticking” to your lips, you may not be pleased with the results. Advantages [of gold plating a mouthpiece rim] are: • Warms up to skin temperature quickly • Allows lips to “roll” in and out of mouthpiece with ease—often preferred by players with a wet-lip set • More agreeable to those with allergy problems or sensitive skin (www.warburton-usa.com/faq.htm) SIZE COMPARISONS Because each mouthpiece manufacturer uses its own mouthpiece size numbering system, many mouthpiece companies provide size comparison charts that list specific measurements for ease of comparing their sizes to mouthpieces of other brands. These charts allow readers to determine which size would be a logical choice for them. The following is a list of sources that offer size comparison charts. Endsley, Gerald. Comparative Mouthpiece Guide for Trumpet. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1992. “Trumpet Mouthpiece Comparison Chart,” Edwards Trumpets. (www.edwards.instruments.co.uk/trumpet/mps02.shtml) “Trumpet, Cornet and Flugelhorn Mouthpiece Catalog,” Warburton Music Products. (www.warburton-usa.com/catalog-trumpet.htm) “Trumpet Mouthpiece Comparison Chart,” AMRO Music. (www.amromusic.com/Band_Instruments/Trumpet/mouthpieces3.htm) “Kanstul Mouthpiece Comparator,” Kanstul Musical Instruments. (www. kanstul.net/mpcJN/all_mouthpieces.shtml) “Mouthpieces: Choosing A Mouthpiece,” Bob Reeves Mouthpieces. (www.bobreeves.com/products/mouthpieces/howto.htm) “GR Trumpet Mouthpiece Chart,” The Trumpetpro. (www.trumpetpro.com/images/gr_page.htm)

280 “Bach/Schilke Mouthpiece Equivalency Chart,” The Schilke Loyalist. (www.dallasmusic.org/schilke/Bach-Schilke%20mpc%20chart.html) “Mouthpieces: Purviance,” Bob Reeves Mouthpieces. (www.bobreeves.com/products/mouthpieces/purviance/purviance_content.htm) “Mouthpiece Comparison Chart,” Diorio Custom Brass. (http://members.aol.com/LDdionio/doc/comp.htm)

MOUTHPIECE ADAPTERS A mouthpiece adapter is sometimes needed to fit a cornet mouthpiece into a trumpet because of the different tapers between the cornet shank and the trumpet receiver. Adapters are also available to fit a cornet mouthpiece to a flugelhorn, or a flugelhorn mouthpiece to a trumpet.

cornet-to-trumpet adapter

281 Despite the practicality of mouthpiece adapters, changes in bore shape and gap within the critical backbore/leadpipe area often create a noticeable increase in blow resistance and a deterioration of tone quality. It is recommended that each mouthpiece have the correct shank to fit each type of instrument properly. Most custom mouthpiece makers are able to provide any shank requested, regardless of the cup size. Mark Curry (of Curry Mouthpieces) has developed a complete line of deep, V-cup mouthpieces with a shortened trumpet shank known as the “Trumpet-Flugel” series. These mouthpieces are often used with trumpets to produce an authentic cornet sound and articulation.

Curry “trumpet-flugel” (TF) mouthpiece Very few companies produce adapters for general sale. However, most custom mouthpiece makers manufacture them if requested. The Vincent Bach Corporation makes various types of adapters that may be purchased through Woodwind and Brasswind of South Bend, Indiana. (Refer to: www.wwbw.com/Bach-Mouthpiece-Extensions-and-Adapters-181165.music). GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS ON MOUTHPIECES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Avoid dents in the mouthpiece shank. Even small dents may have a large affect on sound and response. Use a rim diameter that is as wide as the embouchure and airflow can support. Beginning players should use a medium-sized mouthpiece such as a Bach 7C or Schilke 11C. Advanced players should experiment with enlarged throat sizes in order to obtain the largest and fullest sound possible. Mouthpiece alterations should only be done by a qualified repairman or machinist. Make sure that the mouthpiece gap between the backbore exit wall and the leadpipe venturi (entrance) is correct.

282 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Avoid playing on raw brass mouthpieces. Do not sacrifice a full tone by playing on extremely shallow mouthpieces merely to gain a better upper register. After acquiring a solid range (low F-sharp through high C) with good tone and intonation on a primary mouthpiece, begin experimenting with additional mouthpieces that can assist with certain types of repertoire. If the low register tends to be sharp and the high register tends to be flat, the backbore of the mouthpiece is too small. If the low register tends to be flat and the upper register tends to be sharp, the backbore is too large. Avoid mouthpieces that are excessively heavy or excessively light—especially on a standard-weight instrument. Higher pitched trumpets usually play best with shallow mouthpieces. This is especially true for piccolo trumpets. There is no such thing as the “perfect” mouthpiece. Each mouthpiece is designed to sound and respond within a limited range of pitches and dynamics. Playing beyond the mouthpiece’s acoustically-designed ranges may be possible but will not produce optimal results.

SELECTED REFERENCES ON MOUTHPIECES Bach, Vincent. “How to Choose a Brass Instrument Mouthpiece.” The Instrumentalist. Jan. 1972, pp 32-34. Bach, Vincent, Renold Schilke, Traugott Rohner, and Ted Evans—contributors. “Brass Mouthpieces: Standardization of Measurements, Materials, Selections, Variations—A Symposium.” The Instrumentalist. 7, Nov./Dec. 1952, pp 28-41. Blackburn, Clifford. “Trumpet Modifications and Repair.” International Trumpet Guild Newsletter. Vol. 4, No. 2, 1978, pp 10-11. Endsley, Gerald. Comparative Mouthpiece Guide for Trumpet. Denver: Tromba Publications, 1992. GR Mouthpieces website: www.grmouthpieces.com. Hallquist, Robert Eugene. “A Comparative Study of the Effect of Various Mouthpieces on the Harmonic Content of Trumpet Tones.” Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1979. Hunt, Norman J. “The Cup Mouthpiece with Special Reference to Dentofacial Irregularities.” The School Musician. 21, Jan. 1950, p 18; Feb. 1950, pp 23-24; Mar. 1950, pp 10-11. Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: The Iowa State University Press, 1981. Kanstul Musical Instruments website: www.kanstul.net. Kent, Earle and R. P. Lazure. “Studies of Cup Mouthpiece Tone Quality.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 31, 1959, p 130.

283 Laskey, Scott and James Donaldson. “Should I Have the Throat of My Mouthpiece Enlarged?” (www.dallasmusic.org/gearhead/Mouthpiece%20throat%20size.html). Libs, Jean Morehead. “The Perfect Match: Trumpet Meets Mouthpiece.” ITG Journal. Vol. 19, No. 2, Dec. 1994. Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997. Marcinkiewicz, Joseph W. The Buzz-Zone, Part One. Canby, OR: J. W. Marcinkiewicz, 1999. Schilke, Renold. “How to Select a Brass Mouthpiece.” The Instrumentalist. 21, Dec. 1966, pp 5051. Stork, John and Phyliss Stork. “Trumpet Modifications and Repair: Basic Guidelines for Mouthpiece Selection.” ITG Journal. Vol. 11, No. 2, pp 34-37. Utnes, Ole J. “Interview With Master Mouthpiece Designer and Craftsman, Gary Radtke.” OJ’s Trumpet Page: http://abel.hive.no/oj/musikk/trompet/interview/grl. Warburton Music Products website: www.warburton-usa.com. Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1989.

284 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—PASK CORNOPEAN IN B-FLAT

HH 653: Cornopean in B-flat; England 1850s; "J. PASK / 8 LOUTHER ARCADE, / STRAND, / LONDON” ( Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

285

CHAPTER XII

Trumpet Intonation and Acoustics NOTE: Many thanks to R. Dale Olson, acoustics expert and former Director of Research at F. E. Olds & Sons, for his assistance in editing and proofreading this chapter. THE HARMONIC SERIES All brass instruments resonate at the natural harmonics that correspond with the length of their tubing. Brass players refer to these different frequencies as “partials” or “bugle tones.” Players can sound different tones in the harmonic series through the manipulation of their embouchures and airstreams. Another way players can produce different tones is by changing the length of the instrument, which creates a harmonic series based on a different fundamental. The length of the instrument’s tubing is changed when valves are depressed and also when slides are moved. By combining the sets of harmonics (shown below) of each valve combination, enough pitches are produced to encompass a fully chromatic scale for most of the range of the instrument. The following shows the natural harmonics within the usual range of each valve combination on a trumpet or cornet. Notice that many of the pitches can be produced with several fingerings. The most in tune fingerings are the ones normally used (see “Fingering Chart” in Chapter I: Starting Beginners—A Basic Overview,) but there are many instances where alternate fingerings are preferred for specific reasons such as tuning within chords, changing tone color, or facilitating coordination of technique.

286 INTONATION OF HARMONICS Unfortunately, trumpets do not produce all of the harmonic notes in tune with modern tuning systems. Each instrument manufacturer has to search for ways to correct certain notes without adversely affecting others. This has perhaps formed the largest differences in design and playing characteristics from one brand and model of trumpet to the next. On most trumpets and cornets, the third, fifth, seventh, ninth, and tenth harmonics tend to be flat. In the open valve position, these notes are:

Conversely, the fourth, sixth, and eighth harmonics tend to be sharp. In the open valve position, these notes are:

Thus, the general intonation of the open harmonics looks something like this:

The dotted vertical line represents the correct tuning center. The numbers at the top represent the number of cents flat or sharp. (One hundred cents equals a semitone, or half-step.)

LENGTH OF VALVE SLIDES Manufacturers must decide what length to make each valve slide. As a general rule, an increase of approximately 5.95% is needed to lower any pitch a semitone, or half-step. (See: Moore, Thomas. “Why Can’t We Make A Perfectly Tuned Trumpet?” ITG Journal, Oct. 2005, p 64. ) Because the modern trumpet and cornet utilize “dependent” valve systems—that is, the individual valves can be

287 used singularly and in combination, the length of the valve slides needs to be different when used singularly or in combination. The following chart shows how much additional tubing is required to lower the pitch of any open tone by half-steps until all three valves are depressed. These lengths are based on the approximate length of a standard B-flat trumpet which is 53 inches (140 cm) in open position. (See: Blom, Eric. “Trumpet.” Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th Ed., Vol. VIII, 1962, NY: St. Martin’s Press, p 561.) LENGTH OF B-FLAT TRUMPET WITH VARIOUS FINGERINGS correct length in “open” position = correct length using fingering “2” = correct length using fingering “1” = correct length using fingering “3”or “1+2” = correct length using fingering “2+3” = correct length using fingering “1+3” = correct length using fingering “1+2+3” =

53 inches (140 cm) 56.15 in. (148.33 cm) 59.49 in. (157.16 cm) 63.03 in. (166.50 cm) 66.78 in. (176.41 cm) 70.75 in. (186.91 cm) 74.96 in. (198.03 cm)

[increase: 3.15 in.] [increase: 6.49 in.] [increase: 10.03 in.] [increase: 13.78 in.] [increase: 17.75 in.] [increase: 21.96 in.]

The increase in tubing length from “open” position to “1+2+3” should be 21.96 inches. However, the correct lengths of tubing for each valve used singularly (3.15 in. + 6.49 in. + 10.03 in.) total only 19.67 inches. Because the tubing is 2.29 inches too short, manufactures must decide whether to make the single-valve notes or the combination-valve notes better in-tune. Many different compromises are possible, but most instrument makers choose to make the valve slide lengths correct for the single-valve notes. Valve slide “triggers” are often added to the first and third valve slides so that the length of tubing can be increased as needed. (See the section on “Triggering” later in this chapter.) Instruments not possessing triggers, such as many student models, flugelhorns, and rotary valve trumpets, have valve slide lengths somewhere between the correct single-valve and combination-valve lengths. Aside from the general lengths of tubing required for each valve slide, manufacturers may choose to shorten or lengthen any particular slide in order to correct any notes that may be unusually out-of-tune in the harmonic series. Several leading manufacturers elect to make the first valve slide shorter (by one-quarter to one-half inch) in order that the fourth-line D be brought up to correct pitch. Also, most manufacturers lengthen the third valve slide more than actually needed in order to lower the 2+3 valve combination. Regardless, it is still necessary on all trumpets to lower the pitch of the 1+3 and 1+2+3 valve combinations by triggering, or extending, the third valve slide (usually about a half-inch and one full-inch respectively). The adjustment differs depending on the individual instrument, player, and the place of the note in a chord. The player must constantly listen to each note and make fine adjustments of tuning with the first and third valve slide triggers or by “lipping.”

INTONATION CHART Although intonation varies depending on make and model of instrument, the chromatic scale on the next page charts typical intonation of a B-flat trumpet. Each vertical line represents the correct pitch. Notes to the right of each line are sharp, and notes to the left are flat. The most outof-tune note is the low C-sharp, which is about a quarter-step sharp.

288 INTONATION CHART OF A B-FLAT TRUMPET (See previous page for explanations.)

ALTERING THE PITCH Lipping: A common method of altering the pitch is lipping, which is done in two ways: players blow notes higher by slightly firming the embouchure and increasing the air compression in the oral cavity, or players blow notes lower by slightly relaxing the embouchure and reducing air compression. Experienced performers do these without conscious effort simply by listening carefully to the music and by hearing in their minds exactly where each note should be placed. This type of tuning is essential and can become automatic with daily ear-training practice. For this reason, it is a good idea for the teacher to play along with younger students so that the students learn to match pitches exactly, and eventually, with little or no conscious effort. More advanced players benefit from playing along with recordings of solos and other works they are learning to help tuning within chords and provide an appropriate basis for developing musical concepts of blending, balancing, and phrasing. Triggering: Second to valves, valve slide triggers are the most common devices used to alter the pitch of the trumpet. Today, nearly all makes and models possess a third-valve slide trigger. Most professional-model piston trumpets also include a first-valve slide trigger. Triggers are generally a finger ring or U-shaped “saddle” that is attached to the valve-slide tubing, or a spring-mounted lever that can push or pull the slide as desired.

289

first-valve saddle trigger third-valve ring trigger

first-valve spring trigger third-valve spring trigger

Trumpet maker David Monette states: Using your first and third valve slides will dramatically improve your consistency of performance. If you do not use your slides to properly adjust the length of your instrument when you have more than one valve depressed or when using just intonation, you will have to make physical adjustment in your body in order to play in-tune. This adversely affects sound, intonation, and endurance. (“ Use Your Valve Slides.” David G. Monette Corp., www.monette.net/newsite/mouthpiece_acclimation04.htm) Another device that has enjoyed limited success is a spring-operated trigger for the main tuning slide. Although it is uncertain by whom or when this device was first employed, the University of Illinois Department of Bands has a complete set of cornets fitted with them. Mark Hindsley, the university’s Director of Bands from 1948 to 1970, designed and patented a mechanism that was placed on a cornet to manually change the position of the tuning slide at will while playing. (See: “Mark Hindsley.” www.bands.uiuc.edu/people/Mark_Hindsley.asp) Hindsley called the device “Tune As You Play.” In 1950, Hindsley’s son-in-law, John J. Haynie, accepted a position at North Texas State Teachers College (now UNT) and convinced the Reynolds Company to commercialize the device. (Olson, R. Dale. Letter to the author. July 10, 2006.) Jack Holland, a trumpeter from Nashville, marketed a similar device called the “Pitch Finder” that is commercially available through Pitch Finder/Buzzit, P. O. Box 436, Katonah, NY 10536. (Refer to: Holland, Jack. “The Pitch Finder.” Brass Bulletin. No. 46, II, 1984.) Recently, similar devices have become available from hornist Richard Speetjens in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. (See: “Industry News,” ITG Journal, Oct. 2005, p 88.) Additionally, many custom repair shops offer similar devices.

290

Pitch Finder (Photos taken from brochure, “New Directions in the Art of the Trumpet.” Nashville: Jack Holland Productions, [n. d.].) The principal advantage of a tuning-slide trigger is that the open notes can be adjusted. A movable rod can be pre-set to a distance where the tuning slide should generally be placed. A coil spring on each side of the set knob allows the tuning slide to be moved in two directions (in and out), and naturally returns it to the set position when not in use. These triggers have been designed to be operated by either the left thumb, right thumb, or left forefinger. Many players elect to use this device to adjust the intonation on all notes of the instrument, eliminating the need for the first and third valve slides. Other players use the device only for certain open tones because the shift in length causes the tuning slide to vary in proportion to the overall conicalcylindrical ratio of the leadpipe and tuning slide together, causing too wide of a range in the feel of blowing resistance and slotting of each note. Disadvantages of the device are: mechanical maintenance is often difficult; tuning slides must be “loose” to operate smoothly, creating potential for air leakage; players tend to overcompensate tuning. Venting Holes: Several makers of Baroque trumpet replicas and German-style rotary valve trumpets have added strategically-placed venting holes which, when opened, alter the pitch to make certain notes better in tune. Venting holes are usually small, about the same size of water key holes, and are placed near certain nodal points in the trumpet’s air column. When a venting hole is uncovered, the change in pressure inside the instrument causes the nodal point near the hole to shift slightly, altering the pitch of the trumpet. Physicist Thomas R. Moore states: The vent hole acts to change the effective length of the horn; however, it is not as simple as putting a node at the position of the hole. The hole actually acts nonlinearly with the rest of the instrument so the effect is very complicated. There is not a true node at the position of the vent hole, but there is a lower pressure at that position. The effect is to slightly shift the impedance maxima to make the horn appear to be a different length. (Moore, Thomas R. Letter to the author. Oct. 20, 2005.) Because venting holes are relatively small in proportion to the size of the tubing, the tone is not dramatically affected when they are open. Should a venting hole be located exactly on a nodal point, no note will sound when the hole is uncovered. This phenomenon can be demonstrated on many C trumpets by opening the tuning slide water key while playing a second-line G. If a nodal point is near the hole, the pitch will be affected, but if the nodal point is centered on the hole, no note will sound even though many other harmonics can be played while the water key is opened.

291

rotary trumpet with venting holes

rotary flugelhorn with venting holes

BORE SIZE AND BORE IRREGULARITIES The affects of bore size on the blow resistance and tone quality of a trumpet are often misunderstood. R. Dale Olson states: To the average brass performer, an instrument having a minimum of “resistance” is presumed to have a large bore, while considerable resistance is thought to be peculiar to a small bore instrument. Well known and accepted by acousticians and instrument designers is the fact that the tapered sections [leadpipe and bell] can and do exert considerably more influence on the performance characteristics of an instrument than does a slight variation in the valve bore. It is possible, by altering the design of the various tapered sections, to construct a B-flat trumpet having a four hundred and fifty-three thousands of an inch (.453) bore (considered to be comparatively small), and yet retain the basic performance characteristics of a large bore instrument. Obviously, the opposite also is true. (Olson, R. Dale. “Brass Inside Bore.” The Instrumentalist. 17, Jan. 1963, p 60.) In the above article, Olson describes a B-flat flugelhorn built by him and Zigmant Kanstul for the F. E. Olds and Sons Company that players considered to be very free-blowing and dark in tonal color, yet had a bore size of only .437 of an inch. (A standard B-flat “large bore” trumpet has a typical bore of .460 to .462 of an inch.) Trumpet maker Andrew Naumann states: The differences in bell size and leadpipe design will change the resistance of the instrument, tonal production and rate of air flow much more significantly than the overall bore size. For this reason, you should not concern yourself with bore size more than understanding the different leadpipes and bells for each trumpet you sample. (Naumann, Andrew. “The Trumpet and Its Bore Size.” Getzen Gazette. Apr. 2002.) It is the present author’s contention that nearly all actual wind resistance felt by the player occurs within the mouthpiece. This can be demonstrated by buzzing the mouthpiece alone and feeling the small amount of wind pressure exiting the shank of the mouthpiece. When playing the trumpet with the tuning slide removed from the bottom sleeve, only a tiny amount of air movement is felt at the end of the tuning slide. What is felt by the player are the reflections of sound waves caused by tubing bends, bore irregularities, and the bell-taper standing pressure wave. Assuming that two trumpets of identical design and materials, but possessing different valve-bore sizes, are play-tested side by side, an experienced performer may notice slight

292 differences in tone quality and blow resistance. However, most instruments deemed to be “stuffy” or “free-blowing” are, in the author’s opinion, not substantially due to differences in bore size. A sampling of measurements among several leading manufacturers indicates a wide range in bore sizes. By comparing the bore dimensions of the following instruments with the overall sound and feel they each produce, it becomes obvious how misleading any preconceived notions of bore size versus playing characteristics are. According to a study by R. Dale Olson, about 58% of all currently made B-flat trumpets have a bore size of .459-.460 of an inch. (Refer to: Olson, R. Dale. Sensory Evaluation of Brass Musical Instruments. Fullerton, CA: A. I. Press, 2000.) Maker

Key/Type

Model

Bore

Bach Bach Blackburn Blackburn Blackburn Holton Kanstul/Severinsen Kanstul Kanstul Kanstul Martin Martin Schilke Schilke Selmer (Paris) Yamaha Yamaha Yamaha Yamaha Yamaha Yamaha Yamaha

B-flat B-flat C (piston) C (rotary) G/A piccolo B-flat B-flat B-flat flugelhorn B-flat B-flat/A piccolo B-flat B-flat B-flat B-flat/A piccolo B-flat/A piccolo B-flat/A piccolo B-flat B-flat B-flat C B-flat flugelhorn E-flat

“ML” Stradivarius “L” Stradivarius

.459 .462 .462 .453 .462 .468 .460 .415 .460 .460 .452 .465 .468 .450 .425 .445 .459 .462 .433 .442 .413 .459

“Claude Gordon” Destino (5 Star) CCF-925 CCT-900 CCT-920 “Committee” (M) “Committee” (L) X5 P5-4 YTR-9830 “Zeno” YTR-8335/G/S/GS “Zeno” YTR-8345/G/S/GS rotary YTR-436G rotary YTR-946/S/G/GS YTR-6310Z/ZS YTR-9635

Charles A. Macaluso provides some clarification on how different sections of the trumpet affect sound, pitch, and feel of the instrument: The trumpet air column resonance frequencies are determined by the specific shape of the bell flare provided that there are no discontinuities within the air column. The cylindrical tubing length controls the pitch. The mouthpiece cup and the taper of the mouthpiece backbore, leadpipe and bell, collectively, control the size of the note center. The size of the note center affects the basic quality of the sound, the projection of the sound, and the dynamic range. The mouthpiece internal volume controls the selective amplification of resonances. (Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997, p. 1.) Changes in bore angle and size affect blow resistance and the feel of how the notes “slot,” or center. Generally, a more conically-shaped instrument (such as a cornet) has a greater ease of flexibility but a less discernible slotting of the notes. Conversely, a more cylindrical instrument

293 (such as a trumpet) feels stiffer to the player in terms of flexibility but has much more discernible note centers. Sudden changes in bore angle due to curves in slides, valve ports, and bell shape also have an effect on blow resistance and slotting. Other bore irregularities include water key ports, dents, poor solder joints, corrosion or dirt inside the instrument or mouthpiece, valve alignment, mouthpiece receiver gap, tuning slide tubing edges (caused by extending a slide), and mutes. A leadpipe with a slowly-expanding taper (slightly conical) tends to feel relatively stiff to the player as compared to a more conically-shaped leadpipe. It possesses a quicker response and brighter tone quality than a leadpipe that tapers at a faster rate. Similarly, tuning slides that are more “square” in shape have more resistance due to sharper angles and subsequent reflection of sound waves. This results in a brighter tone, quicker response, and more discernible note centers. (See: Ibid., p 3.) Bell taper has a large influence on the trumpet’s overall tone and intonation. Macaluso states: The bell flare dominates the acoustical behavior of the air column by controlling the critically important ratios of the resonance frequencies.....A more open bell taper produces a fuller, broader, more spread sound. (Ibid.) Using standard principles of fluid mechanics, Macaluso was able to measure the changes in resistance among three Bach Stradivarius model B-flat trumpets in medium (M), medium-large (ML), and large (L) bores. Naturally, the large bore instrument produced the least resistance. The medium-large bore trumpet produced approximately eight percent more resistance than a large bore trumpet, and the medium bore trumpet produced approximately fourteen percent more resistance than the large bore trumpet. Further tests showed that differences in tuning slide shape affected resistance up to six percent. (See: Macaluso, op. cit., p 16.) (Refer to “Tuning Slide Shapes” in Chapter XIII: Types of Modern Trumpets.) It should be noted, however, that air resistance felt by the player is much less than found in fluid pressure measurements. Trumpeter Don Novy of Denver is the inventor of the AcoustiCoil, a relatively-small coiled piece of thin polyester with many tiny holes. When rolled into the shape of the tubing and inserted into the upper or lower inner sleeve of the tuning slide, the device can be placed wherever desired to create bore irregularities. According to Novy, this causes a change in response and slotting feel to the player. The device can be used in all brass and woodwind instruments. For proper placement, some experimentation is needed to determine if the device improves the overall response of the instrument. (Refer to: “ An Interview With AcoustiCoil’s Inventor, Don Novy.” Idaho Music Notes, Fall 1994. www.dmamusic.org/acousticoils/interview.html)

AcoustiCoil

294 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Reflected Sound Waves Within The Instrument: As discussed earlier in this chapter, the design and construction of the trumpet plays a primary role in determining its acoustical qualities and intonation. There are, however, other factors that must be considered. The interior dimensions of the instrument determine the overall feel and response of tone production. The velocity of the sound within a brass instrument is slower than the sound traveling in the open air. The velocity of sound in the tubing of the [French] horn, when it is calculated as a product of wavelength and frequency, does not correspond to the sound velocity of 345 meters per second at 22˚C in the open field. (Aebi, Willi. The Horn And Its Inner Acoustics. Chicago: The Schilke Co., [n. d.].)

As the sound waves from the vibration of the lips pass through the trumpet, bore irregularities reflect the sound back toward the player’s lips. When sound eventually reaches the end of the bell flare, a standing pressure wave is formed at the end of the bell and reflects back through the entire instrument. Standing pressure waves are caused by the differences in pressure within the bell versus the open air. This pressure wave, plus other bore irregularity disturbance waves, is felt by the player’s lips and provide a basis of familiarity and control necessary to play the instrument accurately. The more strongly the player senses the waves against the lips, the more the instrument “slots.” Temperature: The frequencies at which an instrument resonates are influenced by the temperature of the air inside the instrument. A cold trumpet is always flat. Therefore, it is important to bring the instrument to room temperature before tuning it. Physicist John Liljencrants made a study of the effects of temperature on tuning a brass instrument. The following examples from his findings show the number of cents flat or sharp that a musical tone deviates within a metal pipe based on correct tuning at 70˚F (typical room temperature). (See: “Sound Speed and Pipe Tuning.” http://mmd.foxtail.com/Tech/soundspeed2.html) Keep in mind that one hundred cents equals a semitone. 32˚F 50˚F 70˚F 80˚F 90˚F 100˚F

= = = = = =

57 cents flat 27 cents flat 00 15 cents sharp 30 cents sharp 55 cents sharp

Distance: Every trumpeter who has performed offstage calls such as Beethoven’s Leonore Overtures 2 and 3, Respighi’s Pines of Rome, or Mahler’s Symphony No. 3 has dealt with the difficulties of tuning because of the large distance from the offstage trumpeter to the audience. If the pitch of the trumpet is not appropriately adjusted, the audience members hear the offstage trumpet as being flat in relation to the orchestra. This phenomenon is referred to as the Doppler Effect, first studied and documented by the Austrian mathematician and physicist Christian Doppler (1803 - 1853). (See: “The Doppler Effect.” Science Expo. http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Cyberia/Bima/doppler.html)

295 When sound waves travel, they become less compacted. The number of waves per second (frequency) reaching a distance of one thousand feet is fewer than the number reaching a distance of ten feet. Thus, the pitch at one thousand feet sounds lower. This is why a police car’s siren rises in pitch as the car comes nearer to the listener, and lowers as the car travels away from the listener. (Ibid.) Adjusting for the offstage trumpet’s change in pitch requires trial and error. However, a tip for the trumpeter would be to tune to the orchestra when on-stage, and then tune again when offstage. While offstage, the trumpet will sound flat to the orchestra. But, by the same token, the orchestra will sound flat to the trumpeter. If the trumpeter pulls the tuning slide out to match the perceived flatness pitch of the orchestra, this same amount should be used to push the tuning slide in further than the normal (on-stage) slide position. This causes the offstage trumpeter to play above the pitch heard from the orchestra, but the added distance to the audience will likely make the trumpet’s pitch very close to being correct. Mutes: All mutes alter intonation. This is usually the result of the mute leaking too much air or the mute being too long or too short in the bell. The position and height of the corks are critical in determining how much gap separates the body of the mute from the bell, affecting loudness, blowing resistance, and how far the mute enters the bell. According to R. Dale Olson, the resulting intonation patterns may vary from mute to mute, but of the over 100 mutes tested through acoustical studies, the undeniable fact remains that all mutes change intonation. (Refer to: Olson, R. Dale. Acoustical Properties of Trumpet Mutes. Fullerton, CA: unpublished data, Olson archives, 1969.) The pressure wave formed in the bell shifts position when a mute or hand is placed near or in the bell. If the hand or mute is inserted into the bell far enough to nearly close off the bell flare, the standing pressure wave at the end of the bell is shifted further into the bell. This raises the pitch and is the principle used in stopping a horn. Conversely, if the hand (or some other flat surface) or mute is placed just beyond the end of the bell, the standing pressure wave shifts further out—even beyond the bell. This causes the pitch to be lowered because the overall length of the trumpet’s air column is increased. Depending on the size and rate of taper in the bell flair, each mute may or may not work well with the instrument. The G. Leblanc company’s Vacchiano model metal straight mute comes with instructions on how to fit and tune a mute properly. The instructions read as follows: Play middle concert B-flat and low concert B-flat open horn, then repeat muted. The tuning should match perfectly. If not, trim the corks a bit with a medium grade sandpaper or with an emery board until the tuning of the muted horn matches the open horn to your satisfaction. A.

If your new Vacchiano straight mute does not enter the bell of your instrument far enough the low notes will sound fuzzy and out-of-tune.

B.

If you are FLAT muted the corks are too high.

C.

If you are SHARP muted the corks are too low.

Hint 1. It is a good idea to insert a new mute tightly in the bell overnight to allow the corks to compress before you sand them for perfect tuning and response.

296 Hint 2. Mutes with corks that have become dry, glazed and dirty from long use can be cleaned up a bit with light mineral oil used on a soft cloth. Hint 3. Mutes that become damaged so that they buzz should be replaced. (Instructions on box, Vacchiano-model straight mute. G. Leblanc Corp., Kenosha, WI.) Sound Projection: Not all registers of the trumpet project equally. This can be seen through the use of a decibel meter, an electronic machine that measures sound volume.

front view of decibel meter

rear view of decibel meter

By playing notes in various octaves, a decibel meter indicates that the middle-high register of the trumpet (top-line F up to high D) projects the most efficiently. The lowest register of the normal playing range (C below the staff down to low F-sharp) projects the least efficiently. If the trumpet bell is placed one foot from the microphone of a decibel meter, the following relative dynamic levels are needed to maintain 100 dB of volume:

TUNING INTERVALS AND CHORDS Learning to play in tune is one of the most difficult aspects of being a musician, primarily because there are so many variables that determine how pitches should be tuned. A note that is normally in-tune might sometimes need to be raised or lowered, depending on where it lies within a chord. Additionally, there are various systems of tuning, each of which works better with certain instruments. Most stringed instruments tune by fifths, whereas keyboard instruments are tuned by semi-tones. Brass instruments are tuned through the relationship of the natural harmonics produced by the instrument. Many of the notes within the harmonic series have closely-related frequencies—that is, the number of cycles per second (cps), or Hertz (Hz), of one pitch often easily divides into the cps of

297 the other. For instance, the octave has a ratio of 2:1, meaning that the frequency of one pitch is exactly twice that of the other (e.g. A=440 cps / A=220 cps). A fifth has a ratio of 3:2 (E=660 cps / A=440 cps), a fourth’s ratio is 4:3 (A=880 cps / E=660 cps), and so forth. The ratios of all intervals contained in a one-octave chromatic scale are: Unison: Minor Second: Major Second: Minor Third: Major Third: Perfect Fourth: Tritone: Perfect Fifth: Minor Sixth: Major Sixth: Minor Seventh: Major Seventh: Octave:

1:1 16:15 9:8 6:5 5:4 4:3 7:5 3:2 8:5 5:3 7:4 (9:5*) 15:8 2:1

(See: Schmidt-Jones, Catherine. “Tuning Systems.” http://cnx.org/content/m11639/latest) *Used in mm7 and halfdiminished 7 chords. These ratios depict the number of soundwaves each pitch produces compared to the other. For example, a 2:1 ratio means that for each soundwave produced by the lower of the two pitches, two soundwaves are produced by the upper pitch. A ratio of 8:5 means that for every five soundwaves produced by the lower pitch, eight soundwaves are produced by the upper pitch. Resultant tones, sometimes called “difference” or “Tartini*” tones, are faint sounds produced when two or more different pitches are sounded together. As soundwaves of different frequencies interact, waves overlap and create relatively strong waves that are heard as “beats.” If these beats are fairly frequent, they are heard as “buzzes” with discernible pitch centers. These resultant tones become part of the chord being played. (*Italian composer, violinist, and music theorist Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1779 ) is credited with determining how to tune double-stops on string instruments by listening to difference tones. His treatrise, Trattato di musica secondo la vera scienza dell’armonia, was published in 1754.)

The pitch of a resultant tone is calculated by subtracting one frequency from the other, such as in the following examples. (Refer to: Leuba, Christopher. A Study of Musical Intonation, Second revision. [Bellingham, WA]: Prospect Publications, 1980, p 3.) (Resultant tones are notated in black.)

298 When tuning by harmonics, most pitches fall within acceptable intonation. Adjusting some pitches higher or lower is necessary, but all notes are within the trumpeter’s ability to “hear” imperfections as they occur and make (usually) effortless pitch corrections. Equal Temperament, on the other hand, does not lend itself to perfect tuning because all half-steps within an octave are made equal. This distorts many of the interval ratios and causes corresponding resultant tones to occur outside the acceptable parameters of the chords being played. Although Equal Temperament is a practical means of playing all keys equally on a “fixed” instrument such as the piano or organ, the compromises in tuning are controversial. Performing on the trumpet with a keyboard instrument tuned in Equal Temperament is difficult. Because all semitones within a given octave are equal on the keyboard, pitches cannot be adjusted in certain intervals to produce resultant tones that compliment the chords played. Consequently, resultant tones are often uncontrollably dissonant. This dissonance decreases the player’s ability to project the trumpet’s sound and reduces the instrument’s fullness of tone. If the tonic of a scale in any key is sustained while each pitch is sounded, the following adjustments are necessary for a piano tuned in Equal Temperament to be made in tune with the tonic. (See: Hein, Richard. “Precise Intonation for Performing Musicians.” www.heincomputing.com/precise2.htm) (One-hundred cents equals one semi-one.) TUNING ADJUSTMENTS NEEDED WHEN PLAYING IN EQUAL TEMPERAMENT

Chords in Equal Temperament need many adjustments to be in-tune. Assuming that the tonic (C) of the following chords is perfectly in-tune, adjustment of other chord notes should be raised (+) or lowered (-) as indicated in the following examples. (Examples provided by William Anonie.)

299 Depending on where a pitch is placed within a chord, proper tuning can vary wildly (e.g. Bflat in previous examples). For this reason, students must learn that electronic tuning devices must be used correctly when studying intonation. Placing all notes “in tune” according to a tuning device does not necessarily make them correct when played within the context of the music or ensemble. Skilled composers and arrangers are aware of many of the inherent tuning problems encountered when an instrumentalist such as a trumpeter performs together with a keyboard instrument tuned in Equal Temperament. Paul Hindemith, Belá Bartok, Norman Dello Joio, Aaron Copland, Igor Stravinsky, and Gunther Schuller are among those who notate trumpet or other adjustable-pitch instrument parts so that large adjustments within intervals can be done by the soloist. In many cases, thirds, sixths, and sevenths are placed in the solo line so that they can be tuned properly. Doubling these pitches in the piano is to be avoided. SUGGESTED REFERENCE MATERIALS Aebi, Willi. The Horn and its Inner Acoustics. Chicago: The Schilke Co., [n. d.]. Bach, Vincent. Problems in Intonation of Brass Instruments. Symphony. Sept. 1950, pp 9-10. Backus, John. The Acoustical Foundations of Music. NY: W. W. Norton Co., 1969. Benade, Arthur. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics, Second edition. NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1990. ________. Horns, Strings and Harmony. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992. ________. The Physics of Brasses. Scientific American. July 1973, pp 24-35. Gibson, Daryl J. A Textbook for Trumpet. Minneapolis: Schmitt, Hall and McCreary Co., 1962, revised 1967. Hall, Jody C. and E. L. Kent. The Effect of Temperature on the Tuning Standards of Wind Instruments. Elkhart, IN: C. G. Conn, 1959. Hindemith, Paul. Craft of Musical Composition. NY: Associated Music Publishers, 1945. Hindsley, Mark H. Valve-Brass Intonation Difficulties Conquered. The Instrumentalist, Jan/Feb. 1953, pp 24-25. Holland, Jack. New Dimensions in the Art of the Trumpet (brochure). Nashville: Jack Holland Productions [n. d.]. ________. The Pitch Finder. Brass Bulletin. No. 46, II, 1984. Johnson, Keith. Basic Intonation for Brass Instruments. NACWPI Journal. 34, No. 4, 1986, pp 8-10. Kent, Earle. The Inside Story of Brass Instruments. Elkhart, IN: C. G. Conn Corp., 1956. Kurka, Martin J.. A Study of the Effects of Mutes on Wind Instruments. Fullerton, CA: F. E. Olds, 1961.

300 Leuba, Christopher. A Study of Musical Intonation. Second revision. [Bellingham, WA]: Prospect Publications, 1980. Liljencrants, John. Sound Speed and Pipe Tuning, http://mmd.foxtail.com/Tech/soundspeed2.html. Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997. Mark Hindsley. www.bands.uiuc.edu/people/Mark_Hindsley.asp. Monette, David. Use Your Valve Slides. David G. Monette Corp., Portland, OR: www.monette.net/newsite/mouthpiece_acclimation04.htm. Moore, Thomas. Why Can’t We Make A Perfectly Tuned Trumpet? ITG Journal. Vol. 30, No. 1, Oct. 2005, p 64. Olson, R. Dale. “Brass Inside Bore.” The Instrumentalist. 17, Jan. 1963, pp 60-63. Schilke, Renold. Schilke Brass Clinic: The Physics of Inner Brass: Acoustical Effects of Various Materials and Treatment. Chicago: Schilke Musical Products, 1978. Standing Waves. Hyperphysics. http://hyperphysics.phy-ast.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/standw.html. The Doppler Effect. Science Expo. http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Cyberia/Bima/doppler.html. Webster, John C. Internal Tuning Differences Due To Player and the Taper of Trumpet Bells. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.Vol. 21, pp 208-214, 1949. Waves, Sound and Light. The Physics Classroom. www.physicsclassroom.com/ mmedia/waves/ipl.html. Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990. Wolfe, Joe. Introduction to the Acoustics of Brass Instruments. Science@unsw. Sydney, AUS: www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/brassacoustics.html. Young, Robert W.. Dependence of Tuning of Wind Instruments on Temperature. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 17, pp 187-191, 1946.

301

GENERAL TUNING ADVICE 1.

Tune on a pitch that is normally in tune and is in the middle register.

2.

Tune at a medium volume, if possible, and with a tone color that is neither too bright nor too dark sounding.

3.

Bring the trumpet to room temperature before tuning.

4.

Become familiar with the common intonation tendencies of each note on the instrument and anticipate any adjustments needed.

5.

Avoid dents in the instrument (especially in the mouthpiece shank or trumpet leadpipe).

6.

Keep the backbore of the mouthpiece clean to avoid bore irregularities from corrosion.

7.

Adjust for distance when playing offstage solos.

8.

Keep in mind that string instruments (including the piano) tend to go sharp when cold because the metal strings contract and tighten. Trumpets go flat when cold.

9.

Electronic tuning devices are effective tools for tuning tonic notes. However, tuning notes within chords may need adjustments.

10.

Conical instruments (such as flugelhorn and cornet) have better flexibility than trumpets. Therefore, they are somewhat easier to lip in-tune.

11.

Learn to tune various intervals by listening carefully to resultant tones produced when two or more pitches are played at the same time. This helps develop a keen ability to tune notes within chords. (The author recommends reading and studying Leuba’s A Study of Musical Intonation. See “Suggested Reference Materials” near the end of this chapter.)

12.

Learn to tune within chords by studying the proper intonation adjustments needed for each note within various types of chordal structures when playing with an instrument tuned in Equal Temperament.

13.

Many soloists on every instrument tune sharp in order to stand out from the accompanying musical instruments or voices.

14.

There is no such thing as a perfectly “in tune” trumpet.

Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

HH 451: Trumpet in B-flat; "CONICAL BORE / PAT'D / E. A. COUTURIER CO. / LA PORTE / IND."; ca. 1921. The rotary quick change can switch to A and (with a different tuning slide) to A-flat. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation

HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—COUTURIER TRUMPET IN B-FLAT

302

303

CHAPTER XIII

Types of Modern Trumpets The invention of the valve in 1810 led to hundreds of types of trumpets and cornets. Through valve action, lengths of tubing open and close, changing the fundamental length of the instrument. Every tubing length produces its own harmonic series of pitches. Because modern three-valve trumpets and cornets provide a total of seven fundamental lengths of tubing, the notes available make up a full chromatic scale from low F-sharp up to the highest notes the player is capable of playing. (See “The Harmonic Series” in Chapter XII: Trumpet Intonation and Acoustics.) Two main types of valves exist today: piston and rotary. Piston valves developed fully in France during the first half of the nineteenth century, culminating with the type of valve invented by François Périnet in 1839. (See: Tarr, Edward. The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988, p 161.) The rotary valve was patented by Joseph Riedl in 1835 and was described as the “wheel valve.” (Ibid., p 160.) Rotary valves developed primarily in Germany and Austria.

piston B-flat (top) and C (bottom) trumpets by the Vincent Bach Corporation

piston valve in up position

piston valve in down position

304

rotary C (top) and B-flat (bottom) trumpets by Ganter

diagram of rotary valve in up position (left) and down position (right) TYPES OF VALVE TRUMPETS While most musical instruments are built in one, two, or perhaps three different keys, modern trumpets and cornets are normally produced in 21 sizes: contra-bass E-flat contra-bass F bass B-flat alto D alto E-flat alto E alto F alto G mezzo-soprano A mezzo-soprano B-flat mezzo-soprano B mezzo-soprano C mezzo-soprano D-flat soprano (piccolo) D

305 soprano (piccolo) E-flat soprano (piccolo) E piccolo F piccolo G piccolo A piccolo B-flat piccolo C This chapter provides descriptions and photographs of each type of instrument commonly used since the invention of the valve, and discusses numerous unusual types of trumpets.

CONTRA-BASS TRUMPETS The contra-bass trumpet is rare and is mentioned here only because it is technically a member of the trumpet family. It is built in the keys of E-flat and F and corresponds in size to the common E-flat and F tubas. It is normally played by tuba or bass trombone players when a brighter and more trumpet-like tone and articulation are desired. The well known tubist Roger Bobo performs on a contra-bass trumpet built by George Strucel. Bobo used this instrument for works by Gabrieli and Pezel when he was a member of the Los Angeles Brass Quintet during the 1960s. Douglas Yeo, bass trombonist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, also performs with a contra-bass trumpet. A unique variation on the contra-bass trumpet was built for the Hollywood studio tuba musician James Self. Self’s instrument is a contra-bass flugelhorn, or “fluba,” and is used in many of Self’s jazz performances.

James Self playing on the contra-bass “fluba.”

306 BASS TRUMPETS The bass trumpet in B-flat is pitched one octave below the standard mezzo-soprano B-flat trumpet. Some of the orchestral works including bass trumpet are: Richard Strauss Richard Strauss Richard Strauss Arnold Schönberg Leos Janácek Igor Stravinsky Richard Wagner

— — — — — — —

Elektra Macbeth Guntram Gurrelieder Sinfonietta The Rite of Spring Der Ring des Nibelungen (contrabass)

Euphonium and trombone players often perform on the bass trumpet because of the large mouthpiece needed for the instrument. The bass trumpet is also used in large trumpet ensembles, notably the United States Army Herald Trumpets and the former Vienna Trumpet Choir.

Bach model B188 B-flat bass trumpet (courtesy of Conn-Selmer) The noted conductor Donald Hunsberger suggests that the name “bass trumpet” be discarded and the more correct name of “tenor trumpet” be adopted for this instrument. He also believes that tenor and alto trumpets deserve an opportunity for inclusion in modern ensembles whenever works such as those listed above are performed. (See: Hunsberger, Donald. “The Bass Trumpet: From Wagner Until Today.” Brass Anthology. (article from May, 1965). Evanston, IL: The Instrumentalist, 1969, pp 386-390.)

ALTO TRUMPETS AND CORNETS Although seldom used today, alto trumpets and cornets were standard orchestral instruments during most of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Commonly pitched in low G or F, and later in E, E-flat, and D, alto trumpets were used in works by Bellini, Berlioz, Bruckner, Donizetti, Halévy, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Schumann, R. Strauss, Sibelius, Verdi, Wagner, and others. It is important to understand the former usage of alto trumpets and cornets because most published orchestral parts remain scored for these types of instruments and require modern trumpet players to transpose to them from the higher pitched B-flat and C trumpets. (Details of transposition are discussed later in this chapter.)

307

E-flat alto cornet (top) by F. E. Olds E-flat alto trumpet (bottom) by F. E. Olds (courtesy of the Rafael Méndez Library) THE B-FLAT TRUMPET B-flat trumpets were first used in military bands as early as 1830. (See: Hunsberger, op. cit., p Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, they were also used in orchestras whenever passages were written higher than normally played on the alto trumpet. Early composers who scored for B-flat trumpets include Mahler, Rimsky-Korsakov, R. Strauss, and Tchaikovsky. 169. )

Olds E-flat alto trumpet (left) Olds “Méndez-model” B-flat trumpet (right) (courtesy of the Rafael Méndez Library)

308 The mezzo-soprano B-flat is the most common type of trumpet used today. It gained immense popularity during the big band era between 1935 and 1960. Famous performers such as Harry James, Rafael Méndez, Carl “Doc” Severinsen, Maynard Ferguson, Charlie Spivak, Timofei Dokshitzer, Clark Terry, Herb Alpert, Adolf Scherbaum, Maurice André, Al Hirt, John Birkes “Dizzy” Gillespie, Ralph Marterie, and Ray Anthony were among the first to popularize the trumpet as a solo instrument. The B-flat trumpet is the most preferred type of trumpet used by jazz, commercial, and studio musicians. Leading artists of these styles include: William Adam William “Cat” Anderson Louis Armstrong John Audino Chet Baker Rick Baptist Wayne Bergeron Bill Berry Terence Blanchard Randy Brecker Bud Brisbois Clifford Brown Irving Bush Bill Chase Doc Cheetham Al Chez Buddy Childers Alan Colin Charles Colin

Conte Condoli Pete Condoli Charley Davis Miles Davis Allan Dean Vincent DiMartino Don Ellis Ziggy Elman Jon Faddis Bob Findley Chuck Findley Laurie Frink Bernie Glow Conrad Gozzo Pat Harbison Roy Hargrove Tom Harrell Jerry Hey Don Jacoby

Walt Johnson Manny Klein Warren Leuning Bobby Lewis Jon Lewis Wynton Marsalis Jimmy Maxwell Malcolm McNab Gilbert Mitchell Lee Morgan James Morrison Vaughn Nark Fats Navarro Red Nichols Nicholas Payton Al Porcino Louis Prima Uan Rasey George Rock

Claudio Roditi Chase Sanborn Arturo Sandoval Carl Saunders Tony Scodwell Doc Severinsen Bobby Shew Jay Sollenberger Lew Soloff Sam Soto Marvin Stamm Byron Stripling Lee Thornburg Jeff Tyzik Mike Vax Allen Vizzutti Scott Wendholt Mike Williams Snooky Young

The B-flat trumpet is the most commonly used orchestral trumpet in the United Kingdom. It is also used frequently in the United States by trumpeters playing the lower parts in an orchestral section because it bridges the colors of tone between the first (C) trumpet and the trombones. A few American principal trumpeters including Harry Glantz, Max Schlossberg, William Vacchiano, Louis Davidson, Robert DiVall, and Raymond Crisara performed often with the B-flat trumpet. Recently, several trumpet makers have developed trumpet models that not only play well, but are built as works of art. The following photographs depict recent instruments created by Jason Harrelson.

Harrelson “Mass” B-flat trumpet

309

Harrelson “907” B-flat trumpet (modified other brand)

Harrelson “Ebony” B-flat trumpet

Harrelson “Higher Ground” B-flat trumpet

310 THE B-FLAT CORNET The cornet (Fr: “small horn”) developed at the same time as the valve trumpet and became recognized as a solo instrument through the artistry and method of Joseph Jean-Baptiste Laurent Arban (1825-1889). The cornet emerged as a band instrument and quickly gained prominence by soloists such as Theodore Hoch, Jules Levy, Walter Emerson, Vasily Brandt, Saint-Jacome, Walter M. Smith, Walter F. Smith, Herbert Clarke, John Hazel, Del Staigers, Matthew Arbuckle, Benjamin Bent, Alessandro Liberati, Frank Simon, George Swift, Jack Macintosh, Oskar Böhme, Bohumir Kryl, James Burke, Leonard B. Smith, Vincent Bach, Edward Masters, and others. The cornet is also a popular jazz instrument and has been the instrument of choice for players such as Bobby Hackett, Bix Beiderbecke, Thad Jones, Don Cherry, Ruby Braff, Ray Nance, Nat Adderley, Joe “King” Oliver, Buddy Bolden, George Bean, Muggsy Spanier, and Doc Evans. The cornet and trumpet were designed differently from each other in the ninteenth century. In their pure and unadulterated forms, the main differences between a cornet and a trumpet are: 1. The cornet bore is more conical (tapered) than a trumpet. 2. The cornet generally has wider bends in the tubing than the trumpet, giving its shape a shorter, wider appearance. 3. The cornet mouthpiece has a deep “V-shaped” cup, as opposed to a trumpet mouthpiece with a slightly-shallower “C-shaped” cup. 4. The backbore and shank of the cornet mouthpiece are relatively shorter than those on a trumpet mouthpiece. 5. The throat size of the cornet mouthpiece is relatively large as compared to a trumpet mouthpiece. 6. The cornet produces a more mellow tone than does a trumpet. 7. The cornet has easier flexibility than a trumpet. Since the B-flat cornet and the B-flat trumpet share the same range, technique, fingerings, and method books, it is easy to forget that the two instruments have very different histories, repertoire, and function. In the United States, the advent of school jazz ensembles and marching bands during the mid-twentieth century brought about a need for a bright tone quality and high range, yet band directors preferred the use of cornets in concert bands. Because most students could not afford to purchase a cornet and a trumpet, manufacturers responded to this need by making the cornet mouthpiece cup shallower to assist with the upper register, and by lengthening the backbore to make the tone more brilliant. This caused the cornet to sound overly bright and harsh at loud volumes, killing the true cornet tone. (Refer to “Length of the Mouthpiece” in Chapter XI: Mouthpiece Design and Function.) Also, the addition of cylindrical tubing in valve slides gave the cornet a more trumpet-like bore and tone. By 1970, the trumpet nearly replaced the cornet altogether in public schools and colleges. The rise in popularity of the trumpet over the cornet during the twentieth century parallels the development and acceptance of jazz music. A now amusing but historical letter from the great cornet soloist Herbert L. Clarke (1867-1945) to Chicago Symphony Orchestra trumpeter and trumpet maker, Elden Benge (1904-1960) provides insights into this transition. The original letter is reprinted on the following page.

311 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—CLARKE LETTER TO BENGE

312 A number of recent artists have maintained the proper tone of the cornet in solo, band, orchestral, and chamber repertoire in concerts and recordings by utilizing instruments and mouthpieces of original design. These include Phillip McCann, Adolph Herseth, Donald Green, Mark Gould, David Bilger, Michael Sachs, Gerald Endsley, David Zauder, Charles Lewis, Rolf Smedvig, Gerard Schwarz, Maurice André, Håkan Hardenberger, Maurice Murphy, Daniel Patrylak, W. Ritchie Clendenin, Frank Hilligas, James Klages, Robert Birch, Douglas Hedwig, Philip Smith, Roger Webster, Nancy Taylor, Carl Saunders, Tage Larsen, Bram Smith, Joshua Whitehouse, and David Hickman. Thankfully, these and other players are bringing a new appreciation of the cornet sound, and a revitalization of the cornet and its repertoire. Examples of Modern Cornets

B & S B-flat cornet with insertable leadpipe

two models of B-flat cornets made by B & S

313

B-flat posthorn (“German cornet”)

Harrelson “Vine” B-flat cornet (showpiece)

314 THE FLUGELHORN The B-flat flugelhorn (Ger: flügelhorn or fluegelhorn) is the valved descendent of the nineteenth century keyed bugle. It possesses a small bore size and large bell, as well as a very deep “V-shaped” cup mouthpiece. Its characteristic tone is very deep and mellow. The flugelhorn is used primarily in jazz settings and British-style brass bands, although it is sometimes called for in orchestral, concert band, and brass quintet works. More recently, several solo pieces by Joseph Turrin, Richard Peaslee, Daniel Thrower, and others have called attention to it as a classical solo instrument.

Yamaha flugelhorn

F. E. Olds flugelhorn (courtesy of the Rafael Méndez Library)

315

Scherzer flugelhorn

Eclipse flugelhorn Many jazz soloists and recitalists consider the flugelhorn to be an indispensable instrument. Some of these artists include Chuck Mangione, Clark Terry, Jens Lindemann, Art Farmer, Joe Burgstaller, Ingrid Jensen, Arturo Sandoval, Bobby Shew, Allen Vizzutti, Marvin Stamm, and Doc Severinsen.

316 THE C TRUMPET The trumpet in C has been standard in France for over one hundred years. Composers such as Ravel, Stravinsky, Enesco, Tomasi, Debussy, Jolivet, and Chaynes composed for the C trumpet rather than the B-flat trumpet for its more brilliant tone and precise articulation. Prominent French trumpeters such as George Mager, René Voisin, Raymond Sabarich, Eugene Fouvou, Merri Franquin, and Marcel Lafosse popularized the C trumpet during the first half of the twentieth century. The C trumpet came to America in the early twentieth century and was used often in the Boston Symphony Orchestra by George Mager, René Voisin, Marcel Lafosse, and Roger Voisin. Many students of Mager, including Adolph Herseth, adopted the C trumpet as their primary orchestral instrument. Other American orchestral performers that advocate the C trumpet include: Bernard Adelstein J. Jerome Amend Stephen Anderson Charles Berginc Eric Berlin David Bilger Peter Bond Thomas Booth Gary Bordner Mel Broiles Barbara Butler Douglas Carlson Stephen Chenette Larry Clemens George Coble Philip Collins André Come Edmund Cord Jeffrey Curnow Jon Danté

Charles Daval Joyce Davis John DeWit Anthony DiLorenzo Robert Earley Glenn Fischthal Charles Geyer Armando Ghitalla Richard Giangiulio Chandler Goetting Mark Gould Donald Green Garth Greenup John Hagstrom Emery Harvison John Head Steven Hendrickson Charles Hois John Holt Boyde Hood

Billy Ray Hunter Mark Inouye Gilbert Johnson Frank Kaderabek David Krauss Patrick Kunkee Tage Larsen Manny Laureano Joshua MacCluer John Marchiando Christopher Martin Raymond Mase Laurie McGaw Paul Merkelo Timothy Morrison Ben Nguyen Nick Norton Ramon Parcells Anthony Plog Calvin Price

Mark Ridenour John Rommel Michael Sachs Adel Sanchez Irving Sarin Fred Sautter Charles Schlueter Mark Schubert Gary “Chip” Schutza Alan Siebert Philip Smith Marie Speziale Thomas Stevens Jack Sutte James Thompson William Vacchiano George Vosburgh Bill Williams James Wilt Michael Zonshine

American-made Severinsen “Destino” trumpets C trumpet (top); B-flat trumpet (bottom)

317

Bach “Stradivarius” C trumpet (bottom) and B-flat trumpet (top)

Edwards C trumpet with insertable leadpipe (additional leadpipe included)

318

Marcinkiewicz C trumpet with “shepherd’s crook” bell SOPRANO TRUMPETS High trumpets in D, E-flat, and E became popular solo instruments when the soprano keyed bugle was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. Leading soloists with early brass bands such as the American Brass Band, Boston Brass Band, and Dodsworth Brass Band include Ernst Sachse, Nathan Adams, Richard Willis, and Edward “Ned” Kendall.

keyed bugle in E-flat The valved soprano (“piccolo”) trumpet in D was designated by Igor Stravinsky in his Le Sacre du Printemps (1913), Petrouchka (1911), and Symphony of Psalms (1930). Vincent d’Indy and Maurice Ravel also scored for high E-flat and D trumpets. More recently, Peter Maxwell Davies wrote for the soprano trumpet in D in his Sonata for Trumpet and Piano (1955). Today’s popularity of soprano trumpets stems mainly from the desire to perform solo works from the Baroque, Rococo, and Classical eras on smaller instruments because more players have better accuracy with the small instruments than with B-flat and C trumpets. Some orchestral performers prefer using soprano trumpets in works that require a lighter tone quality or when accuracy in the middle-high register is difficult on the B-flat or C trumpets. Orchestral players

319 utilizing soprano trumpets frequently include Susan Slaughter (St. Louis Symphony), Donald Tison (Baltimore Symphony), Manuel Araujo (Colorado Symphony), and David Kuehn (Buffalo Philharmonic).

older Scherzer D trumpet (with E-flat slides inlcuded) This type of instrument was used by the famous soloist Adolf Scherbaum in many performances and recordings.

Schilke 4-valve E-flat trumpet (The fourth valve extends the range down a P4th.)

320

Yamaha E-flat trumpet (E bell and valve slides included) The soprano cornet in E-flat is widely used in British-style brass bands and is a favorite solo instrument of artists such as Maurice Murphy, Howard Snell, William Lang, Roger Webster, Phillip McCann, Derek Watkins, and Carl Saunders.

Blackburn E-flat cornet with insertable leadpipe

321 PICCOLO TRUMPETS Piccolo trumpets in D, E-flat, E, F, G, A, B-flat, and C were called “octave trumpets” during the late nineteenth century because they were pitched one octave higher than the standard alto and mezzo-soprano trumpets used at the time. Early makers of piccolo trumpets include C. Mahillon, V. Mahillon (Brussels), Besson & Company (United Kingdom), and Alexander Brothers (Germany). (See: Bate, Philip. The Trumpet and Trombone. London: Ernest Benn, Ltd., 1966, pp 180-81.) A few of the leading subsequent makers are Schilke, Yamaha, Selmer (Paris), Getzen, Blackburn, B & S, Stomvi, and Scherzer.

Milliens F trumpet once owned by Roger Voisin (author’s collection)

Yamaha G trumpet (F bell included)

322

Blackburn G piccolo trumpet

Yamaha B-flat piccolo trumpet (A leadpipe included)

Blackburn C piccolo trumpet (with detached C and B-flat leadpipe + valve slide inserts)

323

Yamaha A piccolo with rotary fourth valve Piccolo trumpets are often used in performances of Baroque and Rococo trumpet repertoire for their lighter tone and improved accuracy in the player’s upper register. They are also used frequently in more recent orchestral works including Prokofieff’s Scythian Suite, Ravel’s Bolero, Stravinsky’s Pulcinella and Le Sacre du Printemps, and Mussorgsky/Ravel Pictures at an Exhibition. Piccolo trumpets do not automatically increase the player’s upper range, although the use of a smaller mouthpiece with the piccolo instrument may help a player center pitches more easily than if a regular trumpet mouthpiece is used. Among the most respected performers and recording artists on piccolo trumpets are Maurice André, Ludwig Bauer, Matthias Höfs, Håkan Hardenberger, Wynton Marsalis, Adolph Herseth, Armando Ghitalla, Rolf Smedvig, Don Smithers, Edward Tarr, Guy Touvron, Roger Voisin, Reinhold Friedrich, Allen Vizzutti, Charles Schlueter, Konradin Groth, Hans Gansch, Otto Sauter, John Wilbraham, Crispian Steele-Perkins, Fred Sautter, Adolf Scherbaum, Ludwig Güttler, John Wallace, Jens Lindemann, Gerard Schwarz, Edward Carroll, Bo Nilsson, and David Hickman. Specific method books for the piccolo trumpets include: Cardoso, Wilfredo. High Trumpets, Vols. I-II. Buenos Aires: Wilfredo Cardoso, 1969. Gekker, Chris. Fifteen Studies for Piccolo Trumpet. NY: Charles Colin Music (distributor), 2006. Hickman, David. The Piccolo Trumpet. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1973. Hickman, David. The Piccolo Trumpet Big Book. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1991. Webster, Gerald. Method for Piccolo Trumpet, Vols. I-II. Nashville, TN: The Brass Press, 1974.

324 HERALD TRUMPETS Herald trumpets are standard trumpets with the bell extended forward. Although they are generally associated with show and pagaentry, the herald trumpet lends itself to playing with a brilliant tone color. Herald trumpets possess small rings that can suspend banners.

herald trumpet in B-flat Other names such as “coronation trumpet,” “fanfare trumpet,” “royal trumpet,” and “Renaissance trumpet” are also used. Herald trumpets are sometimes mistakenly called “Aida” trumpets because of their similar appearance to the long, valveless trumpets used in Verdi’s famous opera of the same name. Herald trumpets are typically pitched in mezzo-soprano B-flat, although they can be produced in all keys. The U. S. Army Herald Trumpets, a prominent sixteen-member ensemble, utilizes herald trumpets in several keys that range from soprano to bass. Current makers of herald trumpets include Harrelson, Amati, Blessing, Getzen, Raison, and Endsley Brass.

BAROQUE TRUMPET REPLICAS A relatively recent interest in Baroque performance practices has led to attempts to reconstruct seventeenth-century natural (valveless) trumpets. According to Edward Tarr, Walter Holy was the first player to enjoy success on the modern natural trumpet. Holy’s instrument was a coiled D trumpet made by Otto Steinkopf and Helmut Finke. (See: Tarr, Edward. The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988, p 192. ) His instrument is an improvement on the seventeenth century trumpets because of three venting holes that, when opened, correct several of the more out-of-tune partials. The study of authentic performance practices is led by the noted historian and trumpeter Edward H. Tarr and has brought about many concerts and recordings by artists such as Niklas Eklund, Gabriele Cassone, Bahb Civiletti, Barry Bauguess, Ralph Dudgeon, Dennis Ferry, Bryan Goff, Ludwig Güttler, Friedemann Immer, Paul Plunkett, Michele Kaminsky, Michael Laird, Henry Meredith, Susan Radcliff, Galindo Rodriguez, Crispian Steele-Perkins, Don Smithers, and Reinhold Friedrich.

325 Modern natural trumpet method books include: Laird, Michael. Brass Workbook for Natural Trumpet. Essex, UK: Book Works, 1999. Plunkett, Paul. Technical and Musical Studies for the Baroque Trumpet. Nagold, Ger: Spaeth/ Schmid Musikverlag, 1995. Tarr, Edward H. The Art of Baroque Trumpet Playing, Vols. I-III. Mainz, Ger: Schott, 1999.

modern natural trumpets made by Andrew Naumann The corno da caccia, used during the late Baroque (Rococo) and Classical periods (ca. 1770-1800) in solo and chamber works such as J. G. B. Neruda’s Concerto in E-flat, has also been reproduced recently. This instrument is available with and without valves.

Michael Tunnell playing a modern B-flat corno da caccia made by Thein

326 UNUSUAL TRUMPETS The following types and keys of modern trumpets are rare. However, the pedagogue should be aware of their existence, history, and usage. Trumpet in B-natural (Ger: Trompete in H): The trumpet in B-natural is basically a valved C trumpet lowered a half-step by “crooking,” or changing, tuning slides, or by extending the C tuning slide. It was used during the nineteenth century by Brahms (Symphony No. 2) and a few others, but is no longer available. Trumpet and Cornet in A: It was common for nineteenth- and early twentieth-century trumpets and cornets to have two tuning slides—one to place the instrument in B-flat, and one to place it in A. Valve slides were usually marked with small engraved lines to which they were extended when played as an A instrument. Certain models of instrument had a “quick change” rotary valve that would open or close a loop of tubing in either the tuning slide or bell that could quickly and easily change the key of the instrument. The tone of each instrument was very similar, but composers designated the key primarily for better technical facility or improved intonation. Composers including Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Ravel, Stravinsky, Chabrier, Berlioz, and Sousa wrote parts for the cornet and trumpet in A.

Trumpet in D-flat: The author is not aware of any modern manufacturer having produced a trumpet in D-flat. However, a D trumpet’s slides can be extended to place the instrument in the key of D-flat, making certain passages easier. William Vacchiano may have been the first person to use a D-flat trumpet in a modern symphony orchestra. Donald Green, Principal Trumpet with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, made a D-flat trumpet by placing a Bach C trumpet bell onto a Benge E-flat trumpet chasis. He prefers this instrument for the waltz section in Stravinsky’s Petrouchka.

327

Mr. Green also uses the D-flat trumpet in the following passages.

328

Pocket Trumpets and Cornets: Pocket trumpets are normally pitched in mezzo-soprano B-flat, the same as a standard trumpet. Their design is unusual in that the tubing is coiled tightly so that the appearance of the instrument is more like a piccolo instrument than a regular trumpet.

Marcinkiewicz pocket trumpet

329 The history of the pocket trumpet stems from the late ninteenth century when instrument makers provided Prussian military cornetists with small cornets capable of being carried in the pockets of their overcoats. Various companies later made them as more of a novelty than a regular musical instrument. However, they are often used in concert. Several manufacturers produce pocket trumpets including Marcinkiewicz, Conn, Besson, Holton, Benge, Jupiter, Sonaré, Weril, and Amati. Many performers use these instruments, the most famous ones being Don Cherry and Ornette Coleman, both well-known jazz artists. The well-known brass instrument maker Henry Distin produced one pocket cornet. It was won as a prize by Herbert L. Clarke in a cornet solo contest in 1886. (See: Clarke, Herbert L. A CornetPlaying Pilgrim’s Progress. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005, p 81.)

Henry Distin B-flat pocket cornet (courtesy of the Herbert L. Clarke Library) “Ascending-valve” Trumpets: “Ascending” valves cut off lengths of tubing when depressed—thus, raising the pitch. This is opposite of all currently made “descending” valve systems which add tubing and lower the pitch as each valve is depressed. The combination of three regular (descending) valves with one ascending (piston) valve was first developed by the Thibouville-Lamy company at the request of Merri Franquin (1848-1934), professor of trumpet at the Paris Conservatory from 1894 to 1925. The ascending valve cut off a portion of the main tuning slide of a C trumpet, raising the pitch a whole-step. This placed the trumpet in D. Thibouville-Lamy C/D trumpets are owned by Roger Voisin, Edward Tarr, Wilfredo Cardoso, and William Pfund.

330

Bach C trumpet with C/D conversion made for the author by Ron DeVore. (Closing the rotary valve places the instrument in D.)

Armando Ghitalla (1925-2001) with Bach C trumpet converted to C/D by William Tottle.

331 Because valve slides were proportioned for the C trumpet, the Thibouville-Lamy instrument could not be played in tune as a D trumpet. However, certain pitches on the C side can be substituted for D trumpet notes, making it essentially a C trumpet with many alternate fingerings. The following musical passages demonstrate how the four-valved C/D trumpet could be used to an advantage over the standard C trumpet. Passages within brackets are played on the D side of the instrument. Other passages are played on the C trumpet.

Roger Voisin played a Thibouville-Lamy C/D trumpet during most of his career as a principal trumpeter of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Armando Ghitalla, who succeeded Voisin in the BSO, also performed on a C/D trumpet (shown on the previous page.) For more information on the Thibouville-Lamy company, ascending valves, or C/D trumpets, please refer to the sources on the following page.

332 Bate, Philip. The Trumpet and Trombone. London: Ernest Benn, Ltd., 1966, p 170. Cardoso, Wilfredo. Ascending Trumpets. Buenos Aires: Wilfredo Cardoso, 1978. Hickman, David. “Advantages of the Four-Valve C/(d) Trumpet.” ITG Newsletter, Feb. 1980, pp 20-21. Tarr, Edward. The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988, p 170. “Mini Liberty” Trumpet: The H. N. White (King) Company of Cleveland, Ohio produced one hundred miniature trumpets, several in A and several others in B-flat. They are exact replicas of White’s regular B-flat and A trumpets but made to proportions half that of the originals. Mini Liberty trumpets are playable but are too small in bore and mouthpiece to be of any practical use. Thus, their main functions are as novelties and presentation awards. (See: www.hnwhite.com/Mini%20trumpets.htm)

“Mini Liberty” trumpet in B-flat (courtesy of the Rafael Méndez Library) Quarter-tone Trumpet: Trumpeter Don Ellis (1934-1978) was well known for his innovative jazz style and use of micro-tones. At his request, the Holton Company built a Don Ellis model quarter-tone B-flat trumpet with four valves. The fourth valve lowered any valve combination a quarter-step. These trumpets had limited sales during the 1960s and 1970s and have been out of production for many years. Joseph Marcinkiewicz, once a member of the Don Ellis Orchestra, recently manufactured a four valve quarter-tone trumpet. It has a “shepherd’s crook” bell and optional shepherd’s crook tuning slide. The quarter-tone trumpet is often played by soloist Ibrahim Maalouf.

333

four valve quarter-tone B-flat trumpet built by the Marcinkiewicz Company

BELL-TUNED TRUMPETS Bell-tuned trumpets and cornets date to the early twentieth century and became well known when Ernest Williams used a 1937 model Conn 38A Victor cornet. The tuning of this instrument was adjusted by turning a small wheel on a threaded rod that is attached to a vertical U-shaped tuning slide placed at the small end of the bell.

Conn 38A “Victor” cornet (Note: The short tube at the base of the U-shaped tuning slide is not an airway.)

334 William Tottle and Renold Schilke developed bell-tuned trumpets during the late 1960s. Today, many other manufacturers produce bell-tuned trumpets. Advantages of the bell-tuned trumpet are: 1. 2. 3.

A large proportion of conical (tapered) tubing can be added to the leadpipe section, providing ease in flexibility and intonation adjustments. Bell-tuning eliminates tuning slide gaps at the leadpipe that cause bore irregularities and can adversely affect intonation and blow resistance. Smaller adjustments for tuning are needed at the bell as compared to the main tuning slide.

Intonation tests done by Dr. Colin Bloch suggest that individual pitches are better in tune and more easily centered (focused) on a bell-tuned trumpet as compared to a slide-tuned trumpet. His early findings (1978) indicate that the average deviation from correct tuning of all notes from low F-sharp to high F on a C trumpet was 5.73 cents, whereas the slide-tuned trumpet deviated by an average of 8.56 cents. (Refer to: Bloch, Colin. “The Bell-Tuned Trumpet.” Brass Bulletin. 26, 1979, pp 4550.) Disadvantages of the bell-tuned trumpet are: 1.

2. 3.

The bell is not solidly braced to the chassis of the trumpet and is held in place by two clamps—one at the second valve, and one where the bell connects to the first valve. This often allows the bell to vibrate freely, causing sound distortions during loud dynamics. Adjusting the bell takes longer than moving a slide because of the loosening and tightening of the two clamps. The bell is susceptible to damage because no braces exist past the valve section.

bell-tuned Yamaha E-flat trumpet (bell in)

335

(bell extended)

TUNING SLIDE SHAPE The diameter and curvature of the main tuning slide has a noticeable affect on the tone, articulation, and blow resistance of a trumpet or cornet. Generally, broad tuning slide bends produce a smooth attack, mellow tone, and easy blow resistance. The most common types of tuning slide shape are of three basic designs. The following illustrations depict the three types.

“square”

“semi-round”

“round”

336 Square tuning slide: Because of sharper angles, square tuning slides provide more air resistance and sound wave reflections than each of the other slides, resulting in distinct articulation, good slotting, and a bright tone. Semi-round tuning slide: This shape creates a stable, broad tone with solid articulation. Standard slides provide a very even air flow with moderate resistance. Round tuning slide: The round tuning slide offers the least blow resistance and sound reflections of the three tuning slides depicted. It produces a dark tone and smooth articulation. The “Wild Thing” trumpet by Flip Oakes comes with two tuning slides. One slide possesses a .470” bore throughout, producing what the manufacturer describes as the biggest and most open sound. (www.flipoakes.com/bflat_trumpet.htm) The other slide is conical, starting with a bore of .460” at the top, and tapering to a .470” bore at the bottom, which adds just the right amount of resistance to produce a warm, full tone. (Ibid.) Some tuning slides are elliptical-shaped or designed in other non-symmetrical formations. These designs may be for aesthetic reasons or to alter the tone and blow resistance. Each player should test instruments with various tuning slides to determine the best configuration for his or her own manner and style of playing.

LIGHT VS. HEAVY TRUMPETS Metal alloys used in the construction of trumpets have a significant affect on how the instrument sounds, feels, and responds. The metal’s thickness and hardness, along with bore size and shape, provide the overall characteristics of timbre, articulation, and blow resistance of the instrument. Before understanding how lighter and heavier materials affect trumpet playing and tone, one must understand how different alloys and construction procedures govern certain qualities of a trumpet. For many centuries, trumpets have been made of brass. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc—a material that is strong but malleable enough to be shaped. The proportions of copper and zinc can vary in typical trumpet brass from 85% copper/15% zinc (“red” brass) to 66% copper/34% zinc (“yellow” brass). Many bells are heat-treated and cooled in various ways to change the hardness of the metal, affecting the tone and response of the instrument. Annealing the bell or leadpipe is one of the ways in which the metal is softened. By heating brass to about 1100˚ F and allowing it to air cool, the grains in the metal become fine and more flexible. This darkens the sound. When cooling is done rapidly by quenching—suddenly immersing the hot metal in cold water or oil, the metal becomes harder, causing a brighter tone. (See: www. schoolscience.co.uk/content/5/chemistry/steel/steelch2pg3.html) Therefore, it is very important to note that the softness or hardness of the brass alloy, as determined by the construction method, is a major factor in determining trumpet timbre and response.

337 Renold Schilke, among others, spent many years researching how various brass and nonbrass materials worked in trumpet bells. He constructed bells made of brass, copper, lead, tin, aluminum, nickel, silver, beryllium, glass, wood, and concrete. Schilke assembled instruments with bells made from different materials, played them, and often tested them for acoustical measurements. Mr. Schilke conducted an interesting experiment in the early 1970s. He placed a solid lead bell on a C trumpet and asked Adolph Herseth, principal trumpet of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, to play the instrument during a rehearsal while Schilke tape recorded the music from the balcony of the auditorium. As the rehearsal began, Mr. Herseth noticed a considerable lack of brilliance in sound, and unresponsiveness of the trumpet. Immediately, the brass section began playing softer so as to better hear the principal trumpet. The conductor motioned for Mr. Herseth to play louder and louder until eventually, the experimental trumpet was abandoned. Mr. Schilke returned to his office and played the recording. He was surprised to hear the principal trumpet playing much louder than the rest of the orchestra! Yet, to the orchestra players’ ears, the trumpet sounded softer because the higher overtones were not as strong as they were accustomed to hearing. Schilke discovered that the weights and materials used in bells had a significant impact on the projection of sound. During the past twenty-five years, many manufacturers experimented with ways to prevent trumpets from becoming excessively bright or crass at high volume levels in symphonic music. Scientific studies have shown that lighter weight brass trumpets and mouthpieces allow the tone to distort sooner as dynamics are increased. The simple solution first appeared to be to make instruments and mouthpieces heavier by increasing wall thickness, enlarging braces, and adding external weights. A flood of heavy trumpets, mouthpieces, and accessories such as heavier valve bottom caps, top valve caps, and mouthpiece “tone rings” were marketed during the 1970s and early 1980s. Many of these products are available today. However, the majority of these products proved unsatisfactory in concert performances because their primary purpose was merely to dampen higher overtones in the sound, causing the trumpet to sound “dull” or “dead,” especially at lower dynamic levels. More recently, trumpet makers have used science and many performance experiments to determine how materials, heat-treating techniques, and design can produce optimal results in tone, response, intonation, and ease of blowing. In some cases, a trumpet weighing as little as two pounds can sound as full and rich as another trumpet weighing nine pounds or more. Metals including titanium, beryllium, stainless steel, nickel, bronze, and various brass alloys such as Ambronze (contains a small amount of tin) have improved trumpets and mouthpieces in various ways. According to the noted metalurgist and trumpet design consultant Charles Macaluso: The trumpet wall natural frequency is raised when the thickness is thinner and the velocity of sound of the wall is higher. Conversely, the trumpet wall natural frequency is lowered when the wall thickness is thicker and velocity of sound of the wall material is lower. (Macaluso, Charles. The Trumpet: Construction & Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1998, p 5.) Macaluso points out that sound waves travel through pure metals at different speeds. (Ibid., p He also states that harder materials amplify higher frequency partials. The following page indicates results from tests conducted using various metals. (Ibid., p 7.) 8. )

338 Metal Platinum Lead Gold Silver Tin Red Brass Yellow brass Copper Zinc Nickel Aluminum Iron Beryllium

Density (pounds per cubic inch) .775 .410 .689 .380 .260 .316 .306 .323 .258 .322 .097 .285 .067

Velocity of Sound (inches per second X 1000) 35 49 79 102 108 141 142 143 151 190 200 202 498

A harder metal such as beryllium has a much quicker response and brighter tone than all of the other metals tested. However, tone quality and responsiveness of a particular metal does not always correspond with its weight. In a similar fashion, heat-treating processes can be used to soften or harden a metal without changing its weight. Molecular structures within metals can also be altered through cryogenic treatment. Cryogenics was advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this theory of hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded during the 1960s, primarily to improve the hardness of tool steel. Using liquid nitrogen and computer-controlled systems, metals can be gradually frozen to temperatures of -300˚ F, a temperature where molecules even out and relieve stresses from bending, soldering, or hammering. (Refer to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cryogenics) Recently, the idea of cryogenically freezing trumpets has become popular among a relatively small number of trumpeters who claim that treated trumpets have improved tones. In 2003, the Selmer Company asked Professor Chris Rogers of the School of Engineering at Tufts University to conduct experiments to see if trumpets could be improved through cryogenics. Ten new Bach Stradivarius-model trumpets were provided to Rogers—five to be untreated, and five to be cryogenically frozen. Six musicians of different skill levels from the Boston area play-tested each of the ten instruments without knowledge of which ones had been treated. (See: http://enews.tufts. edu/stories/111203FrozenTrumpets.htm) According to the researchers from Tufts, the musicians involved could not tell any differences between the treated and untreated trumpets. After compositional study, researchers also reported that no physical changes in structure were seen. (Ibid.) A similar experiment was undertaken in 1999 by trumpeter and NASA nuclear physicist/engineer John T. Lynch, with Wayne Tanabe, owner of The Brass Bow Music Company in Arlington Heights, Illinois. Three privately-owned trumpets were volunteered to be cryogenically frozen and tested. I was unable to detect any differences [in playing] that I could attribute to the treatment, Lynch concluded. (www.whc.net/rjones/lynch/Cryo) The large variety of trumpets available to the modern performer is staggering. Each player should test various makes and models to determine the best choice for him or her. The weight of the instrument is only part of the equation. The remainder depends on how the metal is heat-treated, bore size and shape, bell flair, bell diameter, type of metal used, and the size and shape of the mouthpiece.

339 Larger manufacturers usually offer several bore sizes and weights of trumpets. Custom makers work directly with individual players to determine the tone and response characteristics that are ideal for each customer. (See partial listing of trumpet makers in Appendix 7.)

LACQUERED VS. PLATED FINISHES Brass, being an alloy mostly of copper, tends to tarnish quickly. Playing can corrode raw brass trumpets significantly, causing pitting to occur in the areas most often contacted by hands and fingers. Once a trumpet is polished and cleaned to remove all acids and impurities, a clear layer of lacquer can be applied to protect the metal. Although lacquer provides an economical means of preserving the metal’s lustrous finish, many times lacquer is sprayed on by hand and is not evenly distributed. In addition, older lacquers were often of a hardness greater than brass, causing the tone and response of the instrument to change from its unfinished state. Fortunately, today’s lacquering techniques and chemical make-up of lacquer have improved, making instruments sound and play very much like they do before the finish is applied. Yamaha of America, for instance, lacquers instruments in an environmentally clean and controlled room. Instruments are suspended from a ceiling grid by nylon lines, and the air in the room is carefully filtered and heated to specific requirements. The room is then fogged with an air/lacquer mixture for a certain length of time to ensure an even coating and thickness of lacquer on each instrument. The resulting finish is very durable and attractive, yet no significant changes are made to the tone or response of each trumpet. Few scientific studies have been conducted to determine the affects of lacquer on brass instruments. One particular study was done by Robert W. Pyle Jr. and presented to the Acoustical Society of America in 1997. Pyle’s study tested the spectrum of sound outside the bell of two identical French horns of which one was lacquered and one was raw brass. Pyle states: At the lower playing [volume] level [circa 75 dB], there is no significant difference between the lacquered and unlacquered conditions, but at the higher [volume] level [circa 100 dB], the unlacquered bell radiates more energy at all frequencies. . . The fact that the effect of the lacquer is noticeable only at the louder playing level implies nonlinear behavior. A plausible hypothesis is that the lacquer damps vibrations in the bell flair, but this has not been verified. (www.acoustics.org/press/133rd/2amu4.html) It should be noted that this study does not describe the type of lacquer adhered to one of the instruments, nor does it indicate the manner in which the lacquer was applied. Despite advances in the lacquering of brass instruments, most players prefer nickel, nickelsilver (German silver), silver, or gold plating as a means of protecting the metal of the instrument. Although plating is more expensive than lacquering, its main advantages are: 1. 2.

Plating is much thinner (up to ten times) than lacquer. Plating places metal upon the brass and does not significantly hamper the vibration of the instrument, allowing the instrument to retain its original tone.

Silver plating of mouthpieces is quite heavy because of the large amounts of bacteria through saliva that come into contact with it. According to GR Mouthpieces’ website, GR normally silver plates mouthpieces to a thickness of .003 (.0762 cm.), whereas trumpets are typically plated with a thickness of .0005”. (See: www.grmouthpieces.com/questions15.htm)

340 Gold plating is seldom applied to raw brass. When gold (electroplating) is applied to a copper-rich surface such as brass, bronze, or beryllium copper, metal ions from these base metals diffuse into the gold layer and degrade its hardness and non-oxidizing properties. ( See: “Gold Plating—Underplate Recommendations.” www.proplate.com/gold.htm) Most trumpet makers apply a layer of silver plate to the brass before electroplating gold onto the instrument. Gold plate is so thin that it is not expressed in inches or centimeters, and is expressed in microinches. A microinch is one-millionth of an inch (.000001” or .0000254 mm). Charles Macaluso states: The thin [gold plus silver together] (.0005”) in comparison to the average [trumpet] wall thickness (.020”) is very small (2.5%). The darkening effect on the sound is imperceptible. (Macaluso, Charles. The Trumpet: Construction & Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1998, p 7.) To put this in perspective, silver plate on a trumpet is roughly one-tenth the thickness of a piece of standard-weight copy paper. Gold plate on a trumpet is approximately 1/250th of the thickness of a piece of copy paper. A relatively heavy layer of pure 24-karat gold plate is 10-20 microns. (See: www.artisanplating. This is the standard used by many Swiss watchmakers and is a thickness of approximately 1/25th that of silver plate. Nearly all trumpet manufacturers use 24karat gold that is applied to a layer of silver plate. However, some custom makers such as the David G. Monette Corporation prefer to apply a heavy layer of brushed gold directly to the brass surface of trumpets if a gold finish is requested. This is done to avoid hand-buffing of the instrument that is necessary before electroplating. com/articles/platingmyths5.html).

Because plating adds to the overall thickness of the instrument, and since silver and gold are heavier and softer metals than brass, one could assume that a plated trumpet possesses a darker sound than an identical raw brass instrument. The relatively small thickness of plating makes it difficult for humans to hear any change in sound, or to feel changes in blow resistance and response when plating is used as a finish on a brass instrument. However, instruments that have been replated often play with a brighter tone quality because the buffing process used to remove the original plating often removes more metal than the replating adds.

VALVE ALIGNMENT Bore irregularities create air flow and sound wave resistance that provides feedback to the player, making control and accuracy possible. Some resistance caused by mouthpiece bore, bends in tubing, and bell flair is unavoidable. Other irregularities such as dents, water keys, and improper valve alignment can be avoided if desired. According to the website of The Brass Bow in Arlington Heights, Illinois: A precise valve alignment can be the difference between a good instrument and a great one. Misaligned valves can slow an instrument’s response, cause an unevenness of timbre and create variable resistance for each of the valve combinations. . . When the valves are lined-up properly, the player does not need to compensate for the inefficiencies of the instrument, which means greater ease of control and playability. To illustrate how critical an accurate valve alignment is, consider the effect of even small changes along the bore of an instrument. For example, opening the throat of a mouthpiece one size is a change of approximately .002”, and playing a medium-large bore (.459”) trumpet as opposed to a large bore (.462”) trumpet is a difference of only .003”. Valves, however, may be misaligned by as much as .015” to .080”! Considering that each valve has six ports, three valves

341 combined provide eighteen possibilities for significant misalignment, which has a tremendous effect on the playability of the instrument. (www.thebrassbow.com/PVA.htm) The amount of feedback needed to control the instrument properly varies with each player. Too much resistance makes an instrument feel “stuffy” and requires more physical effort to play. An instrument with too little resistance can cause a player to lose response when playing softly or produce indistinct attacks. Thus, each player must test various mouthpieces, trumpets, and bore modifications for him- or herself so that the best overall equipment can be selected. Piston valve alignment is dependent on the precision in which valve components are made. Components include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Valve body Spring barrel Valve stem Top cap Finger button Felts, corks, rubber pads or bumpers Valve guides

Machining tolerances vary during the construction of each component due to human error and wear on cutting tools. Although variance in each component is usually very small, the combination of two or more variants may adversely affect the overall playing characteristics of the instrument. Unfortunately, most assembly line manufacturers do not measure final valve alignments carefully and make adjustments if necessary. By the time the horn is assembled, it is easy to see how the accumulated [error] tolerances can add up to .020”, .030”, .040”, or more! (www. bobreeves. com/products/valvealignment/truth/index.htm)

342 Custom valve alignments are made through various methods to determine the precise thickness needed in corks, felts, or rubber pads and bumpers. Valve guides are sometimes adjusted in width to better align the valves as they rotate. Determining alignment is made by pulling all slides out of the instrument and visually checking and measuring the alignment of valve ports in up and down positions, as well as side to side by twisting the piston. The use of mirrors or a fiber optic scope is needed to see port alignments not normally visible. The use of rubber or synthetic pads helps prevent variances that often occur as felt pads wear. Some of the leading companies offering precision valve alignment services are: Doctor Valve — Brass Instrument Specialist, 42 N. Ashland Ave., La Grange, IL 60525 708-482-8153 (www.doctorvalve.com) Bob Reeves — The Brass Spa, 25574 W. Rye Canyon Rd., Suites D & E, Valencia, CA 91355 800-837-0980 (www.bobreeves.com/brassspa/index.htm) The Brass Bow — 101 N. Hickory Ave., Arlington Heights, IL 60004 847-253-7552 (www.thebrassbow.com) Osmun Music, Inc. — 5 Forrest St., Arlington, MA 02476 781-646-5756 (www.osmun.com) B.A.C. Horn Doctor — 95th & Bluejacket, Overland Park, KS 66214 913-438-5338 (www.bachorndoctor.com)

REVERSE LEADPIPES A “reverse leadpipe” is a particular combination of leadpipe and tuning slide that allows for a longer conical (tapered) section within the leadpipe and eliminates the bore “gap” in the upper sleeve of the tuning slide. The purpose of a longer conical leadpipe is to improve intonation of the normally flat fifth partial in the harmonic series (written fourth-space E). This type of leadpipe also provides increased overall flexibility when playing the instrument. Construction of a reverse leadpipe is accomplished by making the bore of the leadpipe conical from end to end. The top sleeve of the tuning slide fits over the end of the leadpipe which has either been machined to be cylindrical on its outside, or fitted with a length of cylindrical tubing placed over it. Thus, the tuning slide is “reversed.”

Bach B-flat trumpet with “reverse” leadpipe and tuning slide

343

standard leadpipe and tuning slide

reverse leadpipe and tuning slide

Disadvantages of the reverse leadpipe are a decrease in “slotting” of notes due to nodes being less stable within a tapered air column, and the lack of bracing at the end of the bell which results in more tonal distortion at high volume levels. Many players consider these disadvantages to be small in comparison to the advantages gained through improved intonation and flexibility. As a result, many manufacturers offer trumpet models with options of conventional or reverse-style leadpipes and tuning slides. Preference of a reverse or standard leadpipe is a matter of individual taste. Several companies offer various leadpipe tapers that can be inserted quickly into the body of the instrument. (See photo of Edwards C trumpet on next page, and other photos on pages 312 and 320.)

344

Edwards C trumpet with insertable leadpipe (additional leadpipe included in photo) The insertable conical leadpipe slides into a frame-tube and is fastened by a thumb-screw. In the case of the Edwards trumpet above, the eliptical tuning slide is also inserted about one inch into the end of the leadpipe, creating a continuously smooth interior bore.

TRANSPOSITIONS Before the invention of keyed and valved instruments, natural trumpets of various keys were used. Some instruments could be lengthened by means of crooks, which were varying lengths of tubing inserted into the body of the instrument. In most cases, trumpet music was written without key signatures and appeared as harmonics in the key of C. When trumpets and cornets became fully chromatic during the early nineteenth century, composers tended to score for them in the same manner as was done during the Baroque and Classical periods. Edward Tarr explains: Trumpeters are accustomed to thinking of the overtone series always in C; with D or B-flat trumpet the series sounded a tone higher or lower, respectively. Composers, with the exception of Italian or Italian-influenced composers of the Baroque era, kept to this way of thinking and writing. Wagner and R. Strauss still attempted to notate the trumpets in keys, on paper, always in C major. (Tarr, Edward. The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988, p 166.) This means that the modern trumpeter is required to transpose “written C” pitches to whatever key the music is indicated such as “trumpet in D,” “trompette en Es,” or “trompette in Fa.” Some highly chromatic works require changes in transposition every few lines. Tarr states:

345 Bruckner’s symphonies show frequent tuning [transposition] changes—up to 62 times in the Fifth Symphony with nine different tunings [keys]. (Ibid., p 167.) Modern composers often designate the key of trumpet desired by the tonal quality and instrumentation normally used in various types of ensembles. For instance, chamber wind ensembles typically use B-flat trumpets whereas large symphonic bands use a large section of Bflat cornets and a smaller section of B-flat trumpets. Jazz bands nearly always use B-flat trumpets, and symphony orchestras generally use a mixture of C and B-flat trumpets. Trumpeters may elect to use instruments other than the ones indicated if the tone, technical facility, range, and/or transposition are improved. Transposition is required most of the time for players working in symphony, opera, and ballet orchestras. A good trumpet player is proficient in transpositions to all keys. Avoiding certain transpositions is as remiss as avoiding certain scales or key signatures. Before dealing directly with methods of transposition, it is important to know the many language designations for each key. The following list should be memorized for quick identification of commonly-used keys of trumpets. English

German

French

Italian

cornet trumpet C D E-flat E F G A-flat A B-flat B

Ventil-kornet Trompete C D Es E F G As A B H

cornet-à-pistons trompette Ut Re Mi-flat (Mi bémole) Mi Fa Sol La-flat (La bémole) La Si-flat (Si bémole) Si

cornetta tromba Do Re Mi-flat (Mi bemolle) Mi Fa Sol La-flat (La bemolle) La Si-flat (Si bemolle) Si

The most common methods of transposition for trumpeters are by intervals and clefs. Some performers learn a combination of the two so that the transposition intervals are never more than a short distance from the written pitches. Interval transposition: The most common method of transposition for trumpeters is by interval. The following page provides written notes and sounding pitches (concert) for each type of trumpet.

346

347 Musical examples of transposition are as follows: Example 1. Music written for the C trumpet:

As played on the B-flat trumpet:

Example 2. Music written for B-flat trumpet:

As played on the C trumpet:

Example 3. Music written for the D trumpet:

As played on the C trumpet:

348 Example 4. (Please refer to page 350.) Music written for the (alto) trumpet in E-flat:

As played on the trumpet in B-flat:

Example 5. Music as written for the cornet in A:

As played by the trumpet in B-flat:

As played by the trumpet in C:

349 Example 6. (Please refer to page 350.) Music as written for the (alto) trumpet in E:

As played on the trumpet in B-flat:

As played on the trumpet in C:

Example 7. (Please refer to page 350.) Music as written for the (alto) trumpet in F:

As played on the trumpet in B-flat:

As played on the trumpet in C:

350 Example 8: Music written for the trumpet in D:

As played on the piccolo trumpet in A:

As played on the piccolo trumpet in B-flat:

The previous examples of transpositions for alto trumpets in F, E, and E-flat show that the sounding pitches are higher than the notes written. This would be the correct way of transposing music that was scored by composers such as Mahler, Bruckner, Debussy, Wagner, Sibelius, R. Strauss, and many others. However, these composers scored alto trumpets an octave lower than is correct. (See transpositions preceding musical examples.) Rimsky-Korsakov and Shostakovich are the only two major composers to score alto trumpets in the proper octave. Music by these composers designates “alta” or “alto” and should be transposed down from the written notes when played on a B-flat or C trumpet. Rimsky-Korsakov spent nearly thirty years writing his treatise, Principles of Orchestration, finished by friends after his death in 1908 and first published in 1922. ( See: http:// everything2.com/indexpl?node_id=842407) His treatise was studied by Shostakovich (born in 1906) when Shostakovich studied composition at the Leningrad Conservatory from 1919 to 1925. (Fanning, David. “Dmitry Shostakovich—Up to 1926.” Grove’s Music Online, www.grovemusic.com, July 2006.) Thus, Shostakovich scored for the alto trumpet in the same manner as Rimsky-Korsakov. Example from Rimsky-Korsakov’s Le Coq d’Or:

351 As played on the B-flat trumpet:

Example from Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1:

As played on the C trumpet:

Piccolo trumpet parts are scored lower than they sound. Examples of correct transposition are as follows: Example 1.

Example 2.

352 Example 3.

The general rule for interval transposition: Transpose from the key of the instrument being played to the key of the instrument scored. Examples: Trumpet being played B-flat C B-flat C B-flat C piccolo G B-flat C B-flat C piccolo B-flat piccolo A B-flat C piccolo B-flat

Key of trumpet scored C B-flat D D F (not designated “alta”) F (not designated “alta”) C E-flat (not designated “alta”) E-flat (not designated “alta”) E (not designated “alta”) E (not designated “alta”) D D F alta F alta C

Interval up a full step down a full step up a M3 up a full step up a P5 up a P4 down a P5 up a P4 up a m3 up an Aug. 4 up a M3 down a m6 down a P5 down a P4 down a P5 down a m7

Trumpeters rarely transpose by clefs because trumpet parts are almost exclusively written in the treble clef, and trumpeters usually lack a general proficiency in reading other clefs. However, players with skills in playing the piano or other instruments utilizing other clefs sometimes find that clef transpositions are useful. The advantage of clef transposition is that the notes on the page are read as written, eliminating the need for the player to think different notes. However, it is necessary for the player to imagine a different clef and key signature from what is written. As an illustration, a trumpeter playing on a B-flat trumpet would play the following musical phrase “as written” if it were scored for the B-flat trumpet. (See next page.)

353

If the same written notes are scored for trumpets other than the B-flat trumpet, transposition from a B-flat trumpet requires clef and key signature changes.

As stated earlier, some trumpeters transpose through the use of a combination of clefs and intervals so that played pitches are only a short distance from written notes. It does not matter if the player uses intervals, clefs, or a combination when transposing.

354 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—LATE BAROQUE-STYLE NATURAL TRUMPET IN D

no #: Late baroque-style natural trumpet in D; "MACHTS JOSEPH SIMON ANGER IN GRASLITZ 1791"; The instrument is one out of three totally alike that came with many crooks and period mouthpieces and were acquired by Musica Kremsmuenster recently. (Photograph by Renate Katteneder.)

355

CHAPTER XIV

Types of Mutes STOP MUTE AND HAND-STOPPING The earliest mutes for trumpet date to the seventeenth century. These were hollow mutes, made of wood, and were inserted into the bell of a natural trumpet far enough to decrease the volume of sound significantly. This enabled the trumpet to blend with softer instruments such as the oboe, flute, and violin. Such mutes caused the pitch to rise a whole tone because the mute was inserted very far into the bell and reduced the effective length of the trumpet. Mutes of this type are depicted in Marin Mersenne’s Harmonie universale (Paris, 1636-37).

Baroque trumpet mute The use of mutes during the seventeenth century was not uncommon. Composers including Monteverdi, Cazzati, Buxtehude, and Krieger called for muted trumpets. (Smithers, Don L. The Music and History of the Baroque Trumpet before 1721. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1973, pp 96-97.) Although the Baroque mute is effectively a “stop” mute, it should not be confused with the technique of hand-stopping. First developed around 1750 by Dresden hornist Anton Joseph Hampel, the player’s hand is inserted into the bell to lower the pitch a half or whole tone. This enabled horn players to fill in many of the chromatic notes missing in the natural harmonic series of the horn. Michael Wöggel transferred this successful technique to the trumpet circa 1777. He had a trumpet bent into a half-moon shape and could then insert three fingers into the bell. This instrument, called the Inventionstrompete (It: Trompete Demilune; Fr: Trompette d’Harmonie), could easily produce lower half-steps through hand-stopping. (Tarr, Edward. The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988, pp 147-48.) The coiled Jägertrompete (hunting trumpet) also lent itself to hand-stopping.

356

“Inventionstrompete” used for hand-stopping

Portrait of Johann Gottfried Reiche with Jägertrompete by Elias Gottlob Haussmann (1727)

357 The success of hand-stopping a trumpet is questionable. While lowered notes can be produced, hand-stopping significantly alters the sound and does not make the trumpet fully chromatic. Therefore, one can infer that the main reasons for inserting the hand into the bell were to adjust certain out-of-tune partials, change the color of sound, and occasionally produce pitches other than the natural harmonics. In works by Beethoven and Schubert, E-flats were probably produced in this manner. Hand-stopping is also discussed in Berlioz’s well known instrumentation treatise of 1843, Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes. Hand-stopping is used more recently as a means of changing the color of sound. This technique is indicated in many of the symphonies of Mahler where clear indications of both “mit dämpfer” (with mute) and “gestopft” (stop) appear in his trumpet parts. Likewise, Richard Strauss indicates both terms in his Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche (1895). Two methods of hand-stopping are commonly used today. The first is advocated by Thomas Stevens and Donald Green of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra and is described as follows: 1. 2. 3.

The rim of the bell is placed in the crease of the left palm. The thumb is held vertically against the bead of the bell. The fingers are folded inward and lie flat against the bell.

This hand position mutes the sound of the trumpet significantly and does not adversely affect tuning. By dampening the vibrations of the bell, the tone is very dark and muffled—especially from the audience’s perspective.

one type of hand-stopping as seen from the player’s point of view

as seen from audience’s point of view

The second method is used by Michael Sachs of The Cleveland Orchestra and is described as follows: 1. 2. 3.

The fingers of the left hand are placed in the bell with the lower palm touching the rim. The fingers are kept together and drawn inward so that the tips touch the opposite side of the bell. Written pitches must be transposed up one-half tone.

358

another type of hand-stopping as seen from the player’s point of view

as seen from the audience’s point of view

This manner of hand-stopping mutes the tone more than the previous method. With it, the pitch becomes somewhat unstable and requires great control to execute the notes properly. It also flattens the pitch enough to require transposition of one-half step higher. Stop mutes are not used with modern trumpets. Hand-stopping has also been abandoned, save for performances of works by Mahler and Strauss and certain dance band tunes where the hand is used for a “wah-wah” or “doo-wah” effect.

STRAIGHT MUTES The most commonly used mute is the straight mute (usually designated as “mute,” or “st. mute”). This mute is made of metal, fiberboard, wood, or plastic and can be used to lessen the volume of sound or to create a different timbre. A large variety of straight mutes are available, each with their own color of sound and blowing resistance.

various straight mutes (L to R: TrumCor, Sotto Voce, Chicago, Najoom, Humes & Berg, Leblanc, Crown, TrumCor)

359 Generally, metal mutes produce the loudest and most brilliant sounds. Popular mutes of this type are made by TrumCor and Denis Wick and are effective in works such as: Bartok Copland Mahler Ravel Ravel Rimsky-Korsakov Shostakovich Stravinsky Stravinsky

— — — — — — — — —

Concerto for Orchestra Rodeo Symphony No. 1 Alborado del Gracioso Daphnis et Chloé L’Coq d’Or Symphony Nos. 1 & 7 Petrouchka The Rite of Spring

Mutes possessing a softer straight mute sound include the Sotto Voce, Chicago, TrumCor “Stealth,” and Montreal mutes. Works with appropriate passages for this type of mute include: Copland Debussy Debussy Debussy Enseco Kennan Riisager Shostakovich H. Stevens Tomasi

— — — — — — — — — —

Quiet City Fêtes (from “Three Nocturnes”) Iberia La Mer Legend Sonata Concertino Piano Concerto No. 1 Sonata Concerto

L to R: TrumCor “Stealth,” Sotto Voce, Chicago straight mutes Straight mutes fit all trumpets and cornets with standard-sized bells including instruments in mezzo-soprano A, B-flat, C, and soprano D, E-flat, and E. Piccolo trumpet mutes are used with piccolo trumpets in high F, G, A, B-flat, and C.

360

piccolo trumpet mutes (L to R: JoRal, unknown, TrumCor, Crown “wa-wa”) Works containing muted passages often played on piccolo trumpet include: Mussorgsky/Ravel Stravinsky Stravinsky Tomasi

— — — —

Pictures at an Exhibition Petrouchka The Rite of Spring Semaine Sainte a Cuzco

CUP MUTES The use of a cup mute quiets the trumpet’s sound significantly. When played at softer dynamics, a cup mute helps produce a warm and gentle tone and is often used in ballad solos and slower dance band tunes.

three types of cup mutes (L to R: Wick, Humes & Berg “Mica,” Humes & Berg)

361 Some cup mutes, such as those made by Denis Wick and Shastock, have movable cups that change the dynamic and color of sound when the cup is adjusted to various positions.

Denis Wick adjustable cup mute

Denis Wick cup mute extended

Well-known works requiring the use of a cup mute include: Bennett Chaynes Faillenot Jolivet Pachmutova Tomasi

— — — — — —

Rose Variations Concerto No. 1 Concertino Concerto No. 2 Concerto (revised version) Concerto

A Robinson Mute is sometimes specified in works, especially by French composers, because it produces a somewhat quieter and more covered sound than a regular cup mute. These mutes are no longer made. However, a good substitute is the Mica Mute or a cup mute used in conjunction with an Endsley “Silencer” (foam ring) placed inside the cup. (See “Silencers” later in this chapter.)

Robinson Mute Photo courtesy of the Rafael Méndez Library.

362 MICA MUTE The mica mute is built like a cup mute but has a soft rubber edging along the rim of the cup. When the edging lightly touches the bell, the volume is greatly reduced and the tone sounds very distant. This mute is appropriately used when a composer specifies “mica mute” or “tight cup.” Mica mutes are manufactured by Humes & Berg.

two styles of Humes & Berg “Mica” mute

SILENCERS Gerald Endsley’s Tromba Enterprises manufactures “silencers,” soft foam rings that are placed over a straight mute or inside a cup mute to make the sound quieter and more distant. Silencers are provided in two thicknesses and can be used individually or together.

Foam ring “Silencers” come in two thicknesses. Similarly, rings of cloth or felt can be used (individually or stacked) to serve as silencers.

363 HARMON MUTES Harmon is a brand name that became synonymous with a particular type of mute made during the big band era. This mute is nearly always made of metal and consists of a large body and a movable stem that runs through its center. The cork completely covers the circumference of the end placed inside the bell, forcing all sound to pass through the mute. When the stem is adjusted to various positions, the tone changes dramatically. By removing the stem completely, a soft, “buzzy” tone is produced. A small bowl-shaped cup is attached to the end of the stem and produces a comical effect (like a crying baby) when the player covers and uncovers the cup with the fingers of the left hand.

Harmon mute

stem extended

stem removed

364 Several companies manufacture “Harmon” mutes including Harmon, Humes & Berg, JoRal, Tom Crown, Denis Wick, and Yamaha. Jo-Ral also produces a “bubble” mute that sounds slightly louder than other harmon mutes.

WA-WA MUTES Although the Harmon mute is considered to be a type of “wa-wa” mute, a true wa-wa mute is held by the left hand and is not attached to, or inserted in, the bell of a trumpet. It is used to cover and uncover the bell, creating a sound effect similar to saying the syllable “wah.” Wa-wa muting can be accomplished by flapping an opaque object such as a cupped hand, toilet plunger, or derby in front of the bell. The flapping motion can be done at various speeds to create moaning or mumbling sounds. It is often used in jazz and dance band music and became very popular when Clyde McCoy recorded Sugar Blues in 1931. Other jazz performers famous for wa-wa mute solos include Clark Terry, Cootie Williams, and James “Bubber” Miley.

plunger in closed position (+)

plunger in open position (o)

Indications for wa-wa muting are as follows:

Composers designate the type of mute desired by indicating words such as “Harmon,” “plunger,” “hat,” or “hand.”

365 BUCKET MUTES The largest mute to be added to the bell is the bucket mute. Bucket mutes can be attached to the rim of the bell or inserted into the bell. The following photograph shows the more common type:

Humes and Berg bucket mute The bucket mute forms a resonant sound chamber that muffles the tone of the trumpet. Some brands contain loosely-layered cloth in the bottom of the mute to help absorb sound. The effect is very mellow and “foggy.” Bucket mutes are most often used in jazz bands.

Jo-Ral produces a bucket mute that is inserted in the bell.

366 PLAYING IN THE STAND Placing the opening of the bell six to twelve inches from the face of a music stand creates a distant and non-direct sound quality. This type of muting is usually indicated by the words “in stand.” The player must be careful not to place the bell too close to the stand, as the pitch will become flat.

SOLOTONE MUTE The solotone mute, also called the “Cleartone” mute, creates a very nasal and piercing tone. Alfred Blatter describes it as “listening through a telephone receiver over which indistinct sounds but not intelligible words can be heard, quite loud, but very far away.” (Blatter, Alfred. Instrumentation and Orchestration. NY: Longman, Inc., 1980, p 135.)

“Solotone,” or “Cleartone,” mute The solotone mute is made by the Humes & Berg Manufacturing Company. A similar mute called the “Gatsby” mute is produced by Walt Johnson. Composers and arrangers occasionally call for the solotone mute in works for jazz band.

PRACTICE MUTES Some types of trumpet mutes are designed specifically for practicing when very little sound volume is desired—hotel rooms, apartments, back-stage, etc. These mutes generally reduce the volume by eighty or ninety percent.

367

various types of practice mutes (L to R: “Whispa,” “Sh! Sh! Quiet Manny Klein,” Najoom, and “Super Stealth”) Popular brands of practice mutes include: Jo-Ral practice mute Denis Wick practice mute Bremner Music “sshhhMute” Shastock “Whispa” (whisper) mute Brass Spa practice mute TrumCor “Stealth” TrumCor “Lyric Stealth” TrumCor “Super Stealth” Wallace practice mute Humes & Berg “Sh! Sh! Quiet Manny Klein” practice mute Two systems of silent practice are Peacemaker and Silent Brass. These systems provide extremely quiet mutes that are connected to headphones so that the player hears the sound as if no mute is used. To an observer, these mute systems sound about the same volume as other practice mutes, but the performer hears the sound at a much higher volume.

“Peacemaker” quiet practice system

368

Yamaha Silent Brass (earphones not included with purchase) While playing with a practice mute or silent system is a practical means of reducing the trumpet’s volume, the blowing resistance is greatly increased. If used for long periods of time, the player’s embouchure tires quickly and an abnormal feel of blowing pressure is sensed. More frequent rest periods are important when using these mutes so that the player’s embouchure can maintain normal strength. Composers seldom write for practice mutes in musical compositions. When used, practice mutes are usually indicated by the words “whisper mute.” FELT CROWN MUTE Placing a cloth over the opening of the bell reduces the strength of the higher overtones in the sound, giving the trumpet a darker timbre. A felt crown mute is the felt top of a lightweight cap or derby hung over the end of the bell to create a distant and haunting sound. Similar mutes consist of a handkerchief or cloth hung over the bell, a cloth bag placed over the bell, or a round piece of felt stretched over the bell by elastic edges. George Gershwin’s blues-style trumpet solo in the second movement of his Piano Concerto in F calls for a felt crown mute, as does his An American in Paris. Charles Ives also calls for it in his The Unanswered Question.

369 DERBY MUTE Humes & Berg makes a “derby” mute shaped like a derby hat and made of metal. The mute can be held over the bell by the left hand or can be placed on a floor stand, in which case the bell is placed slightly into the opening of the mute. The tone produced is similar to that of a bucket mute, but the advantage is that the mute is not attached to the instrument, making it possible for the player to cover and uncover the bell quickly.

jazz trumpeter Bunny Berrigan (1906-1942) with derby mute Derby mutes were originally derby hats often worn by dance band musicians during the 1920s, ‘30s, and ‘40s. Derbies were used for “doo-wah” sound effects in the music of Glenn Miller, Tommy Dorsey, and other big band leaders. PIXIE MUTE A “pixie” mute is a very short mute, that when placed in the bell of a trumpet, is almost flush with the end of the bell making it possible for a plunger or wa-wa mute to be used over it.

370 When used by itself, its tone is like a regular straight mute. Pixie mutes are manufactured by Humes & Berg.

Pixie mute

Pixie mute and standard straight mute A newer style of Pixie mute is available from Humes and Berg. It is shorter than the previous mute and works well with the use of a wa-wa mute or plunger. (See photos on the next page.)

371

newer-style Pixie mute with straight mute

Pixie mute used with plunger

BUZZ-WOW MUTE Humes and Berg manufactures the “BuzzWow” mute. It sounds like a “buzzy” kazoo, or like an electric guitar with lots of distortion added to the tone. The author is not aware of any instance where a composer specifies this mute.

Humes & Berg “BuzzWow” mute

bottom of mute

372 MUTE TERMINOLOGY English

French

German

Italian

mute

sourdine

dämpfer

sordino; sordina

with mute

avec sourdine; con sourdine; con sord.

mit dämpfer; gedämpft

mettere la sordina

without mute

sans sourdine

keine dämpfer; ohne dämpfer

senza sordino

open; remove mute

enlevez la sourdine; ôtez la sourdine; ouvert; ôtez la sourdine

dämpfer weg; dämpfer absetzen; offen; dämpfer ab

togliere la sordina; via sordina

stop

bouchée

gestopft

cup mute

sourdine bol

[NOTE: Please see Appendix 9: Partial Listing of Mute Manufacturers.]

373

CHAPTER XV

Care and Maintenance of the Instrument CLEANING AND OILING THE TRUMPET Valves usually need oiling on a weekly basis or whenever the action of the valves is sluggish. To oil a valve, unscrew the top casing cap and remove the valve completely, being careful not to touch it against the instrument or anything else that could dent or scratch it. Apply several drops of valve oil to all sides of the main body of the valve, allowing excess oil to wash dirt or grime from the valve. Replace the valve carefully, making sure the valve guides are properly aligned. Depending on the amount of use, the trumpet should receive a thorough washing every three to six months. Instruments played several hours each day, especially outdoors, need more frequent cleaning due to wear, dirt, moisture, bacteria, and oil residue. The instrument must be washed inside and outside so that the inside bore and exterior finish are clean and free from saliva and finger oils that can cause corrosion. The author recommends the following procedures when cleaning a trumpet: 1. 2.

Place a large, lint-free towel on the counter next to a large sink or bathtub. Disassemble the instrument as shown in the following photograph. Set the valves aside in the order they were removed.

3.

Fill the sink or tub with very warm water, about the temperature of normal bath water. Soaps or detergents are not needed unless a great deal of grime is evident. If necessary, a mild, liquid soap should be used. Place all parts of the trumpet (except valves) in the sink or tub and allow them to soak for several minutes.

4.

374 5.

Run a flexible “snake” brush through all tubing, being careful to avoid scratching the inside of the valves casings. Brushes produced by H. W. Brass-Saver (www.padsaver.com/BrassPage.html) are also excellent. A larger brush is used to clean the inside of the valve casings.

6.

Drain the sink or tub. Rinse each part inside and outside with warm water from the faucet. Remove all water from the instrument by wiping it dry with a soft cotton towel. Blow air through each tube to remove moisture. Set all clean, dry parts on the large towel. Place tuning slide grease on the sleeves (straight tubes) and insert the tuning slide into the instrument. Add valve oil or a very light “valve slide grease” (heavy oil) to the sleeves of each valve slide and insert the slides into the trumpet. Add a drop of valve oil or light grease to the threads of each valve bottom cap and screw each cap onto the bottom of each valve casing. Caps should be snug but not tight.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

Handling one valve at a time, rinse the main body of the valve with warm water from the faucet. Allow water to flow through each valve port. A finger may be used to rub off any stubborn grime. If soap is used, make sure

375 that no soap residue remains on the valve as it can leave grit. Avoid excessive water contact with the upper spring and pads so that the spring does not corrode and the pads do not shrink. 13.

Over a sink or towel, add valve oil to each valve, allowing excess oil to drip off. Place the valve in the appropriate valve casing so that the valve guides align properly. Each valve is numbered on the upper spring box. There are usually two valve guides for each valve—wide and narrow. These must correspond to the slots in the valve casing.

NOTE: It is best to insert the third valve, then the second, and then the first, blowing air through the instrument after each valve is replaced. Because the air travels through the valves in this order, an incorrectly inserted valve (backwards) is easily detected.

Rotary valve instruments are more difficult to clean because the valves are not normally removed from the instrument. Slides should be removed and cleaned as described previously. The body of the instrument should be placed under a faucet, allowing warm water to flow through all tubes as the valves are opened and closed. After the instrument is dried, all valves should be oiled by adding valve oil through open tubes. Valve oil should also be placed on the top and bottom part of each valve. By operating the valves, oil seeps into the valve section.

376

Finally, rotary oil should be applied to the main bearing of each valve and all linkage points. Rotary oil is a specific type of oil that is heavier than valve oil.

oiling main bearing

377

oiling lever linkage All new instruments have relatively tight valve tolerances and therefore work best with light oils such as those made by Al Cass, Yamaha, Blue Juice, and Schilke. Light synthetic oils are also fine, such as Hetman (No. 1 & 2), La Tromba T2, and Alisyn. New instruments should be cleaned each week during the first two months of use to remove microscopic metal fragments from initial wear. Older, worn instruments require heavier oils such as Roché-Thomas, Ultra-Pure, BiNak Pro, Slick Stuff, or Hetman (No. 3). These and other fine oils are available at most large music stores. CLEANING THE MOUTHPIECE: A small mouthpiece brush should be used to swab the throat and backbore of the mouthpiece on a weekly basis. This is done best under an open faucet of warm water.

378 BASIC REPAIR STUCK TUNING SLIDE: Hard water and bacteria in saliva cause brass tubing to corrode easily. If the tuning slide is not properly lubricated with grease to form a waterproof barrier, bacteria may corrode the slide and cause it to stick. It is important that the inside of the leadpipe and tuning slide be dried completely after each day’s practice so that moisture is not allowed to settle inside the instrument. The tuning slide should be removed and swabbed with a small cloth attached to a string that has a small lead weight attached. The leadpipe should also be swabbed. Although drying the instrument properly takes time, failure to do so often leads to “red rot,” or pitting. Red rot often causes tiny cracks that look like snowflakes to appear on the outside of the leadpipe.

removing saliva and other moisture Another method of drying the inside bore of the instrument is by blowing a spitball through the entire instrument while all valves are depressed. A Herco Spitball is a soft ball of fabric that is inserted into the mouthpiece receiver (mouthpiece removed) and vigorously blown through the instrument while all valves are depressed firmly. One hand should be placed over the end of the bell to catch the spitball as it flies out. The spitball can completely dry the bore of the instrument if blown through once or twice.

379 It is a good idea to add a couple of drops of valve oil to the spitball after all moisture is removed. The ball can be blown through the instrument several times, giving a light coat of oil to the entire bore. This helps prevent corrosion, or red rot. Herco Spitballs are very inexpensive and are available through many larger music stores including BowTie Brass in Newburgh, Indiana (www.ibowtie.com).

Herco Spitballs It is important that a stuck tuning slide be removed properly. Pulling with the fingers against the bell, as shown in the following photograph, is to be avoided. Otherwise, the bell could be bent backwards accidentally.

Be careful not to bend the bell when removing a stuck tuning slide!

380 If the tuning slide is stuck badly, penetrating oil should be applied to the exposed portion of the tuning slide sleeve. Penetrating oil breaks-down corrosion chemically and helps loosen stuck parts. It can be purchased at most hardware stores. Allow the oil to penetrate for several minutes. If the slide remains frozen, the following extraction methods should be tried. 1.

Loop a handkerchief or polishing cloth through the bow of the slide and tug lightly several times. Do NOT yank violently on the cloth.

Remove stuck tuning slide by gently tugging on cloth. 2. 3.

Run very warm (not hot) water over the outside tubing of the tuning sleeves while pulling with the fingers or tugging with a cloth. Place a thin cloth around the thick end of a baseball bat and position the bat into the bow of the tuning slide. While another person holds the instrument, lightly tap against the bat with any type of small hammer until the slide is free. If this method fails to remove the slide, take the trumpet to a professional repairman.

STUCK VALVE SLIDE: Methods for removing a stuck valve slide are the same as when removing a stuck tuning slide. It is important to tug the cloth in the direction parallel to the stuck slide. A sideways tug can cause the tubing to warp at the valve casing port, pinching the valve and stopping or hindering valve action. In addition, a metal rod or punch can be placed in the crook of the slide, allowing the slide to be tapped out by a small hammer.

381

removing a badly stuck slide STUCK MOUTHPIECE: Students should insert mouthpieces by lightly pushing the mouthpiece into the receiver while twisting it in one direction. The mouthpiece must not be hit with the hand or allowed to be jammed into the receiver. If a reasonable hand twist and pull does not remove the mouthpiece, the following methods should be employed: 1.

Run very warm (not hot) water over the receiver while attempting to remove the mouthpiece.

2.

Use a mouthpiece puller, such as one of the types in the following photographs.

382

In the absence of a mouthpiece puller, wrap a light cloth around the exposed shank of the mouthpiece and very gently apply a pair of pliers in a twisting motion. Be careful not to squeeze too hard or the mouthpiece may warp. If pliers fail to remove the mouthpiece with gentle twisting, this method of extraction should be immediately abandoned. The use of pliers can easily cause solder joints to break or the leadpipe to bend. REMOVING DENTS FROM THE END OF THE MOUTHPIECE SHANK: Mouthpieces are easy to drop, often causing the end of the shank to become dented. This restricts the sound greatly and increases blowing resistance. A tapered metal punch should be inserted into the backbore of the mouthpiece, being careful that the punch does not extend into the throat area. The punch should be inserted snugly so that it removes the dent at the end of the shank. A small dent hammer should be used to strike glancing blows in the opposite direction of the mouthpiece cup at the end of the shank. This process may need to be repeated several times, ensuring that the end of the shank is not split due to excessive force from the punch.

383 INSTRUMENT DENT REMOVAL: Generally, dents should be removed by skilled repairmen who have the proper tools to restore the instrument to near-perfect condition. In the absence of a repairman, most dents and creases in the flair of the bell can be reasonably removed by wrapping a thin cloth around the handle of a snare drum stick and rolling (not scraping) the drumstick over the high points of the metal. While applying pressure against the drum stick, a thumb or finger should lightly press against the opposite side of the dent to feel if the dent is being removed. Professional model instruments should be repaired by an expert technician.

removing dent in bell STUCK SECOND VALVE: Students must be taught to lay a trumpet or cornet down so that the instrument rests on the side with the bell, not the leadpipe. This helps protect the second valve slide from hitting the table and becoming dented, sometimes crimping the tubing port where the valve slide meets the valve casing. If the casing warps at the port, the second valve may become pinched and inoperable. In the event that the second valve is partially or completely stuck, the valve can regain normal action when the second valve slide is gently forced back to its correct position. This is accomplished by gradually applying thumb pressure against the slide in an outward direction while operating the second valve. Care must be taken to not force the slide too far, causing additional warping. In cases where the valve continues to stick, a skilled repair technician should be employed.

384

pulling against second valve slide to free the action of the second valve BROKEN WATER-KEY SPRING: While it is not difficult to replace a broken water-key spring, finding the correct replacement spring may be troublesome. Sizes and shapes of springs vary with each brand and model of trumpet. A good repair shop normally stocks dozens of sizes, so it is a good idea to take the instrument to the shop to determine which replacement spring should be selected. A rubber band can be used as a temporary means of keeping the water-key closed. However, acidic content in the rubber may cause the lacquer or plating on the instrument to corrode within a few days. A better alternative is an elastic hair band. LOST OR BROKEN WATER-KEY CORK: Corks or synthetic pads can become dislodged, allowing air to escape from the water-key. This causes a drastic loss of tone quality. Each brand and model of trumpet utilizes specific sizes and shapes of corks, making them somewhat difficult to replace properly. If found, the original cork should be re-glued into the water-key lever. A good repair shop normally stocks a large assortment of replacement corks. For a temporary fix, a small piece of cardboard can be used to replace the cork.

385 VALVE BOUNCE: It is common for valve springs to lose some of their strength after a couple years of use. This is evidenced by a slight bounce, or flutter, of the valve when released from the down position.

Valve bounce creates disturbances in the airstream and soundwaves, causing accuracy problems. In fast, soft passages, a faint growling sound is often heard in the tone due to the fluttering of the valves. Another problem is that valves sometimes stick when returning to the up position because of weak springs. It is seldom necessary for springs to be replaced after they become weakened. In nearly all cases, the springs can be removed and stretched with a series of gentle, straight tugs from each end. The length of each spring should be noted before they are removed from the spring box. After gently tugging the spring 8-10 times, replace the spring to determine its increase in length. Generally, an increase of approximately one-quarter inch is sufficient to eliminate valve bounce.

weak spring

386

tugging spring gently

stretched spring

REPAIR RESOURCES Basic trumpet repair tools include: mouthpiece puller small dent hammer small brass hammer small plastic or rawhide hammer tapered metal punch drumstick thin cotton cloth flexible “snake” brush mouthpiece brush glue assortment of replacement water-key corks and springs These and other tools may be purchased through the following supply companies: Ferree’s Tools (Erick Brand) 1477 E. Michigan Avenue Battle Creek, Michigan 49014 (800) 253-2261 www.ferreestools.com Interstate Music 13819 W. National Avenue New Berlin, Wisconsin 53151 (262) 786-6210 www.interstatemusic.com

387 Allied Supply Corporation P. O. Box 288 Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 (414) 723-5455 Strege-Wuttke Tool & Supply Corp. N. 5276 Bowers Road Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 (414) 723-4656 Votaw Tool Company 1523 N. National Avenue Springfield, Missouri 65803 (417) 865-7509 www.votawtool.com A listing of some of the world’s leading brass repair shops are provided at the following Internet site: http://mywebpages.comcast.net/vglockwood/tpin/InstrumentRepair.htm This list is compiled by members of the Trumpet Players International Network (TPIN).

388 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—KEYED BUGLE IN C

HH 593: Keyed bugle in C; England?; 1830-40s; Unsigned; In the main features following Haliday's models. No tuning slide, conical leadpipe; 6 keys. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

389

APPENDIX 1

List of Recordings The following list of recordings provides the student with a small sampling of excellent LPs and CDs that depict artistic and musical concepts of style. The author wishes to thank Ryan Nielsen for supplying much of the information concerning jazz recordings. BAROQUE TRUMPET SOLOS: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

André André André André André André André Bauer Bernard Butler/Geyer Carroll Carroll Dobrzelewski Dobrzelewski Eklund, N. Eklund, N. Eklund, N. Eklund, N. Eklund, N. Eklund, N. Eklund, N. FriedrichItalian Friedrich Ghitalla Ghitalla Güttler Güttler Hardenberger Hardenberger Hickman Höfs Immer Immer Läubin Bros. Marsalis Marsalis Marsalis Marsalis Nakariakov

Five Concertos by Molter Four Trumpet Concertos Maurice André Trumpet Concertos Trumpet Concertos Trumpet Concertos Trumpet Concertos Concerti a Clarino Solo André Bernard Music for Trumpets and Organ The Art of the Trumpet Sound the Trumpet! Triptyque Triptyque Renewal The Art of the Baroque Trumpet, Vol. 1 The Art of the Baroque Trumpet, Vol. 2 The Art of the Baroque Trumpet, Vol. 3 The Art of the Baroque Trumpet, Vol. 4 The Art of the Baroque Trumpet, Vol. 5 Virtuosa Trumpetkonserter Trumpet Concertos Trumpet Concertos Tribute to Old England Armando Ghitalla Bach and Scarlatti Cantatas Classical Trumpet Concertos Ludwig Güttler Telemann Trumpet Concertos Trumpet Concertos Intimate Baroque Un Concerto Italiano Barocke Trompetenmusik Trumpet Concertos of the Italian Baroque The Trumpet’s Lofty Sound Baroque Duet Baroque Music for Trumpets In Gabriel’s Garden Wynton Marsalis Baroque Trumpet Concertos

LP LP CD LP CD CD CD CD LP CD LP LP CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD LP LP CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD LP CD

EMI C-063-28 EMI/Angel DS-37905 DGG 413 853-1 EMI/Angel DS-37984 EMI/Angel 515108H DGG 419874-2 EMI 2-CDZB7 69152 2 Koch 3-6507-2G1 CBS M 35856 Gasparo GS-271C Vox/Turnabout PVT 7183 Newport Classics NCD-60038 AMIE (no number) AMIE (no number) Naxos 8.553531 Naxos 8.553621 Naxos 8.553735 Naxos 8.554375 Naxos 8.5550099 Naxos 8.55351S Naxos 8.554806 Capriccio 10768 Capriccio B00007GZN4 Cambridge CRS 1819 Cambridge CRS 2710 Capriccio CDC-10057 Berlin Classics BC 1053-2 Philips 420 954-2 Philips 426311-2 PH Summit DCD 118 DA Music CD870155-2 D. Harmonia Mundi 77027-2-RC Amon-Ra CD-SAR 30 DGG 419245-2 GH Sony SK 46672 Sony Classical SK 42478 Sony Classical SK66244 CBS IM 39061 Teldec 0630-10788-2

390 Nakariakov Nilsson Plog/Norton Plunkett Sautter Scherbaum Scherbaum Scherbaum Schwarz Smedvig Smithers Smithers Steele-Perkins Steele-Perkins Tarr Tarr Tarr Tarr Tarr Touvron Voisin Voisin Voisin Voisin Voisin Voisin Wallace Wallace Wilbraham

Trumpet Concertos CD Bo Nilsson, Trumpet LP The Colors of the Baroque CD Baroque Trumpet and Strings CD The Baroque Trumpet and Organ LP Adolf Scherbaum, Trompete LP Baroque Music, Vol. 1 LP Baroque Music, Vol. 2 LP The Sound of Trumpets CD Ceremonial Music for Trumpet and Organ CD Bach’s Trumpet LP Baroque Trumpet Anthology LP The King’s Trumpeter CD Trumpet Voluntary CD Baroque Masterpieces, Vol. 1 CD Baroque Masterpieces, Vol. 3 LP Baroque Masterpieces for Trumpet and Organ LP Spanish Golden Age Music for Trumpet LP The Princely Trumpet CD Trumpet and Organ LP Music for Trumpet and Orchestra LP Music for Trumpet and Orchestra, Vol. 2 LP Music for Trumpet and Orchestra, Vol. 3 LP Music for Trumpet and Orchestra, Vol. 4 LP Music for Trumpet and Orchestra, Vol. 5 LP The Extraordinary Roger Voisin CD Italian Trumpet Spectacular CD Trumpet Music of the Italian Baroque CD Baroque Trumpet Concertos LP

Teldec 4509 90846-2 EMI E 053-35226 Summit DCD 108 Move MD 3127 Crystal S700 DGG 2530 023 DGG 19 470 DGG 136 518 Delos D/CD 3002 Telarc CD 80341 Philips 6500 925 Philips 6500 110 Priory PRCD 189 ASV Quicksilva QS 6081 Elektra/Nonesuch 71279-4 Nonesuch H-71356 Nonesuch H-71279 Nonesuch 71415-1 Christophorus 74559 Musical Heritage MHS 1720 Kapp KCL-9017 Kapp KCL-9033 Kapp KCL-9050 Kapp KCL-1383 Kapp KCL-9062 MCA Classics 2-MCAD2 Nimbus NI-1405 Nimbus NI-5079 Decca ZRG 585

ROCOCO TRUMPET SOLOS: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

André André André Bauer Güttler Hardenberger Preis Scherbaum Smithers Smithers Steel-Perkins

Concertos for Trumpet Michael Haydn Trumpet Concertos Concerto a Clarino Solo Virtuose Trompetenkonzerte Trumpet Concertos Berühmte Trompetenkonzerte Trumpet Concertos Trumpet Concertos Virtuose Trompetenkonzerte Six Trumpet Concertos

LP LP LP CD LP CD LP LP LP LP CD

Erato 75026 Musical Heritage MHS 720 Archiv 198415 Koch 3-6507-2 G1 Eterna 8 27 002 Philips 426311-2 PH Supraphon 80 236 LK Heliodor HS 25056 Philips 9500 109 BASF 25 21778-7 IMP Masters PCD 821

CLASSICAL TRUMPET SOLOS: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

André André André André

Classical Trumpet Concertos Maurice André Maurice André, Trompete Hummel Concerto for Trumpet

CD LP LP LP

EMI Angel DGG Erato

7 54086 2 S-37513 413 853-1 75026

391 André André Eklund, N. Friedrich Ghitalla Hardenberger Herseth Hovaldt Marsalis Marsalis Mertens Stringer Tarr Wallace

Hummel Concerto in E Trompetenkonzerte Haydn and Hummel Concertos Concertos for Keyed Trumpet Hummel Concerto in E Trumpet Concertos Haydn Trumpet Concerto Trumpet Concertos—Haydn/Glindeman The London Concert Trumpet Concertos Virtuose Trompete Joseph Haydn Trumpet Concerto Trumpet Concertos T for Trumpeter

LP LP CD CD LP CD CD LP CD CD LP LP LP CD

Musical Heritage MHS 746 Archiv 198 415 Naxos 8.554806 Capriccio 10 598 Cambridge CRS 1819 Philips 420 203-2 DGG 415 104-2 Mark MC 1530 Sony Classical SK-57497 CBS MK37846 Teldec 6.41145 Argo ZRG 543 Nonesuch H-71270 Nimbus NI-5065

CORNET SOLOS: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

André André André Chunn Clarke collection collection Cowell Endsley Endsley Friedrich Hardenberger Hickman Hickman Mackintosh Marsalis Schwarz Schwarz Schwarz Smith, L Smith, P. Sommerhalder Whitehouse Wiame

Kiosque 1900 La Belle Époque Trompette Hors-Série Michael Chunn—Music for Cornet & Trpt. Soloist Herbert L. Clarke Cornet Solos by Pioneer American Artists European Cornet and Trumpet Soloists Carnival of Venice Music for Trumpet and Cornet Prevailing Winds La Belle Époque At the Beach Golden Age of Brass, Vol. 1 Golden Age of Brass, Vol. 2 The Cornet King Carnaval Cornet Favorites Cousins Turn of the Century Cornet Favorites Leonard B. Smith Escapades Cornet à Pistons Cornet Fantasie Rendezvous

LP LP CD LP CD CD CD CD LP CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD LP CD CD CD CD CD CD

Erato 75041 Erato 4509-92126-2 RyM Musique 191 634-2 Crystal S662 Crystal CD450 ITG ITG004 ITG CD 114 Fanfare DFCD1-010 Clarino SLP 1006 Denver Mun. Band (no number) Capriccio 0867152 Philips 422 344-2 Summit DCD 114 Summit DCD 121 Choice CD1-BM1 CBS MK 42137 Nonesuch 9 79157-2 Nonesuch H-71341 Sony Classical 94886 Walking Frog WFR 312 Heavyweight HR601/D Accord 149058 Summit DCD453 DHM 3.014-3

TWENTIETH CENTURY SOLOS: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

Ackley André André André Antonsen Antonsen

Recital Music for Trumpet Maurice André Interprets André Jolivet Maurice André Performs Tomasi and Chaynes Concertos Ole Edvard Antonsen Twentieth Century Works for Trumpet

CD LP LP LP CD CD

Claronade CD6001 Erato STU 70691 Musical Heritage MHS 1778 Musical Heritage MHS 829 Simax PSC 1041 Simax PSC 1041

392 Aubier Christensen Cobb Cox Darling Dobrzelewski Dobrzelewski Dokschitzer Dokschitzer Dokschitzer Dokschitzer Dokschitzer Dokschitzer Eichberger Ellis Everson Friedman Friedrich Friedrich Gansch/Höfs Ghitalla Gilreath Giuffredi Hardenberger Hardenberger Harjanne Harjanne Harjanne Haynie Head Hickman Hickman Jackson Johnson Kaderabek Kveback Marsalis Marsalis Mase Mase Mase Mase Masters Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Nakarjakov Nakarjakov

Four French Trumpet Concertos Danish Trumpet Concertos One Petite Pieces for Trumpet Music for Trumpet and Piano Triptyque Triptyque Renewal Arabesque Concertpieces Timofei Dokschitzer, Trumpet Timofei Dokschitzer, Trumpet Timofei Dokschitzer, Trumpet Trumpet Rhapsody Works for Trumpet & Organ, Vol. 2 SoloPro: Trumpet Terry Everson, Trumpet The Lyric Trumpet Nobody Knows The Trouble I See Modern Trumpet Gansch Meets Höfs Three Trumpet Concertos Enjoying Life Forme d’arte Endless Parade The Virtuoso Trumpet Finnish Trumpet Concertos Total Trumpet Trumpet Experience John Haynie, Trumpet Music for Trumpet David Hickman, Trumpet Three Trumpet Concertos Bret Jackson, Trumpet First Chair Encores American Trumpet in Prague Bull Concerto No. 1 On the Twentieth Century Tomasi and Jolivet Concertos Trumpet in Our Time Hindemith—Complete Brass Works Monument: Music of David Sampson Vocalise Contest Music for Trumpet and Cornet The Legendary Trumpet Virtuosity Magnificent Méndez Presenting Rafael Méndez The Trumpet Magic of Rafael Méndez Trumpet Showcase Trumpet Spectacular The Majestic Sound of Rafael Méndez The Singing Trumpet Méndez in Madrid Love and Inspiration Concerto for Méndez Méndez and Almeida Together Trumpet Extraordinary Carmen Fantasy Trumpet Concertos

CD LP CD CD LP CD CD CD CD CD LP LP CD CD Cass. CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD LP LP CD CD CD LP CD LP CD LP CD CD CD CD LP CD LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP CD CD

Adda 590027 Rondo RLP 8312 Summit DCD 401 Mark 4751MCD Advent 5006 AMIE (no number) AMIE (no number) Marcophon CD915-2 Marcophon CD904 (no label) TD-950101-AT2000 Melodyia 33 C 10-11990 Melodyia 33 C 10 BMG 74321-32045-2 Hänssler 98.969 Summit DCD 103 ITG ITG 001 Ode/New Zealand ODE 1327 Capriccio 10482 Capriccio 10439 Schagerl SR 06001 Opus 9350 1845 private pressing (no number) Summit DCD 315 Philips 432 075-2 BIS CD 287 Finlandia FACD 388 Jase CD 0015 ITG (no number) Golden Crest RE-7008 Trumpeter (no number) Crystal CD668 Summit DCD 191 Summit DCD 153 Columbia CMS 6791 Vars VA 0014 Philips 6507 013 Sony SK 47193-2 CBS 42096 Summit DCD 148 Summit DCD 115-2 Summit DCD 237 Summit DCD 185 Guide (no number) Summit DCD 177 MCA/Decca DL74932 MCA/Decca DL8624 MCA/Decca DL4147 MCA/Decca DL74636 MCA/Decca DL74351 MCA/Decca DL74210 MCA/Decca DL78869 MCA/Decca MCA220 MCA/Decca DL75185 MCA/Decca DL75055 MCA/Decca DL74921 MCA/Decca MCA523 Teldec 4509-94554-2 Teldec 4509-90846-2

393 Nakarjakov Payne Pepping Peters Plog Plog Plog Plog Plog Popov Ranger Rapier Rapier Reinhart Richardson Robertson Sachs Sandoval Schlueter Schlueter Schwarz Schwarz Severinsen Severinsen Smith, P. Smith, P. Smith, P. Snedecor Steuart Steuart Stevens Stevens Stevens Sullivan Sullivan Theurer Thompson Tunnell Vizzutti

Trumpet Works CD Trumpet Magic CD Amanda CD Friendly Amendments CD Anthony Plog and Sharon Davis LP Contemporary Music for Trumpet & Organ LP Old and New Music for Trumpet LP Twentieth Century Music for Trpt. & Organ CD Twentieth Century Settings for Trumpet CD A Modern Russian Concerto Festival LP The Trumpet Comes of Age CD Bloch Proclamation LP Addison Concerto LP Carol Dawn Reinhart, Trompete LP Masks CD New Concertos for Trumpet LP Live at Severance Hall CD John Williams Trumpet Concerto CD Bravura Trumpet CD Virtuoso Trumpet CD New Music for Trumpet LP The New Trumpet LP Five Episodes (with Summit Brass) CD Modern Trumpet Concertos LP Contest Solos CD My Song of Songs CD Philip Smith—New York Legends CD The Lyrical Trumpet CD La Piccola CD La Tromba CD Thomas Stevens CD Thomas Stevens, Trumpet CD Thomas Stevens, Trumpet CD Kaleidoscope CD Treasures for Trumpet CD Fantasia CD An American Portrait CD Melancholia CD The Carnival of Venus CD

Teldec ABC Classics Summit private pressing Crystal Avant Crystal BIS Crystal Monitor Crystal First Edition First Edition DGG/Debut Summit RCA/Victrola private pressing Denouement Vox Kleos Desto Nonesuch ProArte Firstline ITG Summit Cala Summit RM Musik RM Musik Crystal Crystal Crystal Summit Summit Capstone ITG Coronet Summit

9031-77705-2 476 9163 DCD 433 (no number) S660 AV 1014 S364 CD 565 CD663 MC 2030 CD669 LS-636 LOU 695 2555 008 DCD 423 VICS-1437 (no number) DR 1003 7513 5114 DC-7133 H-71275 CDD 278 FLLP 5002 ITG 111 DCD 1013 CACD-0516 DCD 349 CD 0383 CD 0372 CD667 CD665 CD761 DCD 317 DCD 319 CPS-8612 CD 112 CD-COR-400-5 DCD 188

NEW ORLEANS-STYLE SOLOS: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #_______________

Clark, K. Hirt Hirt Hirt NY Tpt. Ens.

New Orleans Trumpet Al (He’s the King) Hirt The Greatest Horn in the World Al Hirt at the Marti Gras Trumpets in Stride

CD LP LP LP CD

Summit RCA RCA RCA Summit

DCD 268 LPM-2354 LPM-2366 LPM-2497 DCD 113

394 COMMERCIAL AND POP SOLOS: Artist

Title

André An Evening With Maurice André André Joyride II André Trompette Hors-Série André Trumpettissimo André Maurice André André Toot Suite Baranger A Trumpeter’s Prayer Ghitalla Opera Without Singing Gozzo, et al. Tutti’s Trumpets Hickman A Brassy Night at the Opera Hickman A Cool Brassy Night at the North Pole Hirt “Pops” Goes the Trumpet Hirt Al Hirt Blows His Own Horn James All Times Favorites by Harry James Lindemann Flying Solo Lindemann Rising Sun Marsalis Carnaval Nakariakov Carmen Fantasy Nakariakov Trumpet Works Nark Flying High Nark Somethin’ Special Severinsen Brass Roots Severinsen Facets Severinsen London Sessions Severinsen Brass on Ivory Severinsen Brass, Ivory and Strings Severinsen Doc Severinsen Severinsen High—Wide and Wonderful Severinsen Trumpets & Crumpets & Things Severinsen Live! Severinsen The New Sound Severinsen Tempestuous Trumpet Severinsen The Great Arrival Severinsen Doc Severinsen and Strings Severinsen Command Performances Severinsen Rhapsody for Now Shew Outstanding in His Field Vizzutti Skyrocket Vizzutti/Shew/DiMartino Trumpet Summit

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

LP LP CD LP LP LP CD LP CD CD CD LP LP CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP CD CD

EMI/Angel LPS-38067 RCA FRL1-3504 RyM Musique 191-634-2 Musical Heritage MHS 1210 Impact 6371 305 CBS FM 36731 Summit DCD 222 RCA LM-1906 Bainbridge BCD2048 Summit DCD 190 Summit DCD 223 RCA LM-2729 Pickwick ACL-7060 CBS A20715 Marquis 7 74 71-81295-29 Marquis 7 7471-81305-25 CBS MK42137 Teldec 4509-94554-2 Teldec 9031-77705-2 Summit DCD 240 Summit DCD 225 RCA LPS-4522 Amherst AMH 3319 Firstline FDLP 5001 RCA LSP-4629 RCA APD1-0098 RCA LSP-4669 Command RS 883 SD Command ABCX-771/2 Command RS 9015D Command RS 917 SD Command RS 819 SD Command RS 927 SD Command RS 937 SD Command RS 904 SD RCA APL1-0273 Inner City IC-1077 Summit DCD 179 Summit DCD 169

OUTSTANDING TRUMPET PLAYING IN A SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA: Orch./Cond.

Work

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

BerlinPhilO/Karajan BerlinPhilO/Karajan BerlinPhilO/Karajan BerlinPhilO/Karajan BerlinPhilO/Karajan BostonSO/Davis BostonSO/Leinsdorf BostonSO/Leinsdorf

Holst - The Planets Berlioz - Symphonie Fantastique Strauss - Till Eulenspiegel Shostakovich - Symphony No. 10 Strauss - Don Quixote Debussy - La Mer Mahler - Symphony No. 1 Mahler - Symphony No. 3

CD LP LP LP LP LP LP LP

DGG DGG DGG DGG DGG Philips RCA RCA

400 028-2 2530 597 2530 349 2532 030 2535 195-10 6514 260 LSC-2642 LSC-7046

395 BostonSO/Monteux Tchaikovsky - Symphony No. 6 LP BostonSO/Steinberg Hindemith - Mathis der Maler LP ChicagoSO/Abbado Berlioz - Symphonie Fantastique CD ChicagoSO/Abbado Mahler - Symphony No. 7 LP ChicagoSO/Levine Stravinsky - Petrouchka (1947) LP ChicagoSO/Levine Mahler - Symphony No. 3 LP ChicagoSO/Ozawa Janácek - Sinfonietta LP ChicagoSO/Solti Bruckner - Symphony No. 5 CD ChicagoSO/Solti Bruckner - Symphony No. 4 CD ChicagoSO/Solti Bruckner - Symphony No. 6 CD ChicagoSO/Solti Mahler - Symphony No. 5 CD ChicagoSO/Solti Mahler - Symphony No. 2 LP ChicagoSO/Solti Mussorgsky/Ravel - Pictures CD ChicagoSO/Reiner Mussorgsky/Ravel - Pictures LP ChicagoSO/Reiner Bartok - Concerto for Orchestra LP ChOrch/Rozhdestvensky Stravinsky - L’Historie du Soldat LP Cleveland Orch/Dohnányi Mahler - Symphony No. 1 CD Cleveland Orch/Dohnányi Mahler - Symphony No. 6 CD Cleveland Orch/Dohnányi Mahler - Symphony No. 7 CD Concertgebouw/Haitink Strauss - Ein Heldenleben LP CzeckPhil/Sejna Shostakovich - Symphony No. 7 LP LondonPhil/Hermann Holst - The Planets LP LondonSymO/Solti Mahler - Symphony No. 2 LP LAPhil/Mehta Strauss - Don Juan LP LAPhil/Salonen Revueltas - Sensemeyá CD MoscowPhil/Kondrashin Shostakovich - Symphony No. 5 LP NYPhilO/Bernstein Copland - Billy the Kid/Rodeo CD NYPhilO/Bernstein Mahler - Symphony No. 3 CD NYPhilO/Mehta Stravinsky - Le Sacre du Printemps CD NYPhilO/Boulez Stravinsky - Pulcinella Suite LP St.LouisSO/Slatkin Prokofieff - Symphony No. 5 LP Smith, P. OrchPro: Trumpet CD USSRSym/Svetlanov Scriabin - The Poem of Ecstasy LP USSRSmy/Svetlanov Tchaikovsky - Manfred LP

RCA DGG DGG DGG RCA RCA Angel London London London London London London RCA RCA Angel Decca Decca DGG Philips Suppaphon London London RCA Sony Melodyia CBS DGG CBS Columbia RCA Summit Angel Angel

VICS-1009 2530 246 410 895-2 413 773-1 ARL1-2615 ARL2-1752 S-36045 425 008-2 410 550-2 417 389-2 414 321-2 CSA-2217 400 051-2 LSC 3313 AGL-1-5220 R 40005 466 343-2 466 345-2 447-756-2 6527 128 SUA 10359/60 SPC 21049 CSA-2217 LSB 4109 SK 60676 R 400028 MYK 36727 427 328-2 MK 34557 M35105 ARC1-5035 DCD 144 R-40019 SR-40028

SMALL BRASS ENSEMBLE: Artist/Ensemble

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #_______________

American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet American Brass Quintet Atlantic Brass Quintet Atlantic Brass Quintet

A Storm in the Land American Brass Quintet American Visions Chamber Music of Eric Ewazen Classic American Brass Five Chairs Four Pieces for Brass Players Fyre & Lightning In Gabrieli’s Day Music of the Mid-1800s New American Brass Premier! Quintessence The American Brass Quintet The Yankee Brass Band A Musical Voyage Picture This

CD CD CD CD CD CD LP CD CD LP CD CD CD LP LP CD CD

New World Crystal Summit Well-Tempered Summit Summit Serenus Summit Summit Titanic Summit Summit Summit MPS New World Summit Summit

80608-2 CD214 DCD 365 WTP5172 DCD 275 DCD 396 SRS 12041 DCD181 DCD 429 TI-81 DCD 133 DCD 187 DCD 263 KMB 20812 NW 312 DCD 119 DCD 417

396 Boston Brass Boston Brass Boston Brass Boston Brass Canadian Brass Canadian Brass Canadian Brass Canadian Brass Chestnut Brass Company Chicago Brass Quintet Chicago Chamber Brass Chicago Sym. Brass Ens. Dallas Brass Eastern Brass Quintet Eastman Brass Quintet Eastman Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Empire Brass Quintet Fine Arts Brass Quintet Luur Metalls Meridian Arts Ensemble New York Brass Quintet Pioneer Brass St. Louis Brass Quintet St. Louis Brass Quintet St. Louis Brass Quintet St. Louis Brass Quintet St. Louis Brass Quintet St. Louis Brass Quintet Stockholm Phil. Brass The King’s Brass US Army Brass Quintet

Stealing the Show Within Earshot Ya Gotta Try Young Fogeys Canadian Brass English Renaissance Music Magic Horn Mostly Fats (Waller) The Chestnut Brass Company Chicago Brass Quintet Chicago Chamber Brass, Vol. 1 Concert in Brass Christmas Brass Baroque Brass 1975 Archive Renaissance Brass A Bach Festival Braggin’ in Brass Class Brass—Firedance Fireworks Music for Organ and Brass On Broadway Russian Brass A Brass Potpourri Spanish Brass Quintet Prime Meridian Two Contemporary Composers Acres of Clams Baroque Brass Carnival for Brass Fascinating Rhythms Renaissance Faire The Saint Louis Brass Quintet Windows Filharmonins Brassensemble Classic Hymns Light Cavalry and Other Favorites

CD CD CD CD LP CD CD LP LP LP LP LP CD LP CD LP CD CD CD CD CD CD LP LP CD CD LP CD CD CD CD CD LP LP LP CD LP

Summit DCD 272 Summit DCD 384 Summit DCD 282 Summit DCD 260 Umbrella (limited pressing) CBS Masterworks MK45792 Opening Day ODR9330 RCA XRL1-3212 Chestnut Brass (no number) Crystal S211 Chicago Ch. Br. (no number) Audiophile AP-21 World Records CN2CHCD4 Klavier KS-536 Summit DCD449 Candide CE 31004 EMI/Angel CDC 7 47395 Telarc 80249 Telarc 80493 EMI/Angel CDC 7 49277 2 Telarc 80218 Telarc 80303 Sine Qua Non SA 2012 WIM WIMR-4 Solstice SOCD 143 Channel Classics CCS 8195 Golden Crest CR-4017 Centaur CRC 2131 Summit DCD120 ProArte DCC314 Summit DCD 195 Summit DCD 284 Crystal S212 Crystal S215 Swedish Society SLT 33254 Summit DCD 428 US Army (no number)

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

CD LP CD LP LP LP CD CD LP LP CD LP LP LP

Summit CRI Doyen EMI/Angel Odeon CRD Telarc IMP Crystal Crystal Crystal WIM Columbia London

DCD 126 CRI 92 DOY CD005 DS-38288 27 0357 1 CRDD 1102 4509-90856-2 PCD 836 S110 S115 CD433 WIMR-3 MS 7209 410 125-1

LARGE BRASS ENSEMBLE: Artist Ensemble

Title

Americus Brass Band Music of the Civil War Brass Society of NY Haufrecht - Symphony for Brass C. W. S. Band Flowers of Scotland German Brass Bach 300 German Brass Samuel Scheidt Locke Brass Consort Symphonic Marches London Brass Gabrieli in Venice London Brass Impressions of Brass Los Angeles Brass Society Next Right Los Angeles Phil. Brass Philharmonic Brass Millar Brass Ensemble Millar Brass Ensemble NY Brass Society New York Brass Society Phil/Chi/Cleve Brass Antiphonal Music of Gabrieli Philip Jones Brass Ens. Carnival of the Animals

397 Philip Jones Brass Ens. Philip Jones Brass Ens. Philip Jones Brass Ens. Philip Jones Brass Ens. River City Brass Band River City Brass Band Scandinavian Brass Ens. Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Summit Brass Theo Mertens Brass Ens. Tokyo Brass Ensemble Washington Sym. Brass Washington Sym. Brass Washington Sym. Brass Washington Sym. Brass

Fanfare LP Festive Brass LP Philip Jones Brass in Switzerland LP Pictures at an Exhibition LP All American CD Polished Brass CD Brass Festival LP All American Brass CD American Tribute CD Colors for Brass: Music of Plog CD Delights CD Episodes (+ Doc Severinsen) CD Hindemith: Complete Brass Works CD Paving the Way CD Spirits of Fire CD Summit Brass LIVE! CD Toccata & Fugue CD Koperensemble Theo Mertens LP Brilliant Sound of Brass, Vol. 2 LP Ancient Airs and Dances CD Dances with Brass CD Nielsen on Brass CD Voices of Brass CD

Argo ZRG 870 Argo ZRG 912 Claves DPf 600 Argo ZRG 885 Summit DCD 310 Summit DCD 342 BIS LP-265 ProArte CDD 318 Summit DCD 127 Summit DCD 116 Summit DCD 138 ProArte CDD 278 Summit DCD 114-2 Summit DCD 171 Summit DCD 218 Summit DCD 380 Summit DCD 101 Eufoda 1029 Nippon Columbia PLS-272RP Summit DCD 250 Summit DCD 375 Summit DCD 305 MSR Classics MS 1159

BIG BAND TRUMPET FEATURES: Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Ferguson Gordon Severinsen Severinsen Severinsen Vax Vax

Chameleon Conquistador Echoes of an Era Maynard ‘64 Maynard Ferguson M. F. Horn M. F. Horn 3 New Vintage Stratospheric Claude Gordon at the Palladium Night Journey The Tonight Show Band The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 2 BigBandJazz.net Live . . . on the Road

CD LP LP LP LP LP LP LP LP CD LP CD CD CD CD

CBS Columbia Roulette Roulette Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Mercury Klavier Epic Amherst Amherst Summit Summit

CK 46112 34457 RE-122 R 52107 31117 30466 32403 34971 EMS-2-406 KA-55005 PE 34078 AMH 93311 AMH 93312 DCD 329 DCD 356

Artist

Title

Type

Label

Cat. #________________

Armstrong Armstrong Armstrong Armstrong Armstrong Blanchard

Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson Armstrong Plays W. C. Handy Ella and Louis Hot Fives and Sevens The Great Summit: Master Takes Bounce

CD CD CD CD CD CD

Verve (USA) Legacy Verve (USA) JSP (UK) Roulette Blue Note

314539060 64925 825373 100 24547 83189

JAZZ:

398 Blanchard Blanchard Brecker Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown/Ferguson/Terry Byrd Byrd Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Dorham Dorham Dorham Edison Edison/Eldridge Eldridge Eldridge/Gillespie Eldridge/Gillespie/Terry Ellis Ellis Faddis, et al Faddis, et al. Gillespie Gillespie Gillespie Gillespie Gillespie Gillespie/Davis Gillespie/Hubbard/Terry Hagans/Printup Hargrove Hargrove Hargrove Hargrove Hargrove Harrell Harrell Hubbard Hubbard Hubbard Hubbard

Flow CD Illuminations CD Return of the Brecker Brothers CD A Night at Birdland, Vol. 1 CD A Night at Birdland, Vol. 2 CD At Basin Street CD Clifford Brown and Max Roach CD More Study in Brown CD Study in Brown CD Dinah Jams CD Fuego CD Off to the Races CD Birth of the Cool CD Cookin’ w/ Miles Davis Quartet CD Four and More CD Kind of Blue CD Miles Ahead CD My Funny Valentine CD Nefertiti CD Porgy and Bess CD Relaxin’ w/ Miles Davis Quartet CD Seven Steps to Heaven CD Sketches of Spain CD Someday My Prince Will Come CD Somethin’ Else CD Steamin’ w/ Miles Davis Quartet CD Workin’ w/ Miles Davis Quartet CD Hard Driving Jazz CD In ‘N Out CD Whistle Stop CD Harry “Sweets” Edison CD Laughin’ to Keep from Cryin’ CD What It’s All About CD Roy and Diz CD The Trumpet Kings at Montreaux CD Electric Bath CD Don Ellis Orch. at Monterey CD Some of My Best Friends . . CD To Diz with Love CD Diz and Getz CD Jazz at Massey Hall CD Something Old, Something New CD Sonny Side Up CD Town Hall, New York City, 1945 CD The Complete Savoy Set CD Trpt. Summit Meets Oscar PetersonCD Hub Songs CD Birds of a Feather CD Directions in Music CD Hard Groove CD Parker’s Mood CD With the Tenors of Our Time CD Quartets: Live Village Vanguard CD Village Rhythm CD Blue Spirits CD Breaking Point CD Hub Cap CD Hub-Tones CD

Blue Note 78273 Telarc 83599 GRP GRD9684 Blue Note 32146 Blue Note 32147 Emarcy 814648 Verve 314543306 Emarcy 814637 Emarcy 814646 Mercury 814639 Blue Note 63802 Blue Note 4988006825925 Blue Note 30117 Perstige 7094 Legacy 93595 Legacy 64935 Legacy 40784 Columbia 93593 Legacy 65681 Legacy 65141 Prestige 7129 Legacy 93592 Legacy 65142 Legacy 65919 Blue Note 95329 Prestige 7200 Prestige 7166 Gambit 69221 Blue Note 96507 Gambit 25646 Storyville 8225 Verve 314543301 Orig. Jazz Class. 853 Verve (USA) 314521647 Orig. Jazz Class. 445 CBS (France) 472620 EMI CJ32-5006 Telarc 83495 Telarc 83307 Verve (USA) 314549749 Orig. Jazz Class. 44 Verve (USA) 314558079 Verve (USA) 314521426 Uptown Records 2751 Definitive (Spain)11148 Orig. Jazz Class. 603 Capitol 59509 Dreyfus 36625 Verve 314589654 Verve 440065192 Verve 314527907 Verve 314523019 Blue Note 29125 Soul Note 121182 Blue Note 94317 Blue Note 90845 Blue Note 42302 Blue Note 99008

399 Hubbard Hubbard Hubbard Hubbard Hubbard Jones, T. Jones, T. Jones, T. Jones, T. Kisor Marsalis Marsalis Marsalis Marsalis Marsalis Marsalis Mitchell Mitchell Mitchell Morgan Morgan Morgan Navarro Payton Payton Payton Payton Payton Pelt Roditi Sandoval, et al. Sandoval Shaw Shaw Shaw Stafford Stafford Terry Terry Terry Terry Terry Terry Terry Terry Wendholt

Interplay CD It’s About Time: Acoustic Proj. CD Ugetsu CD Ready for Freddie CD Red Clay CD Consummation CD Elvin! CD Live at the Village Vanguard CD Mad Thad CD Battle Cry CD Black Codes from Underground CD Live at Blues Alley CD Live at the Village Vanguard CD Live at the House of Tribes CD Standard Time, Vol. 1 CD Standard Time, Vol. 5 CD Down With It CD Song for My Father CD The Thing to Do CD Blue Train CD Moanin’ CD The Sidewinder CD The Fats Navarro Story CD Dear Louis CD Doc Cheetham & Nicholas Payton CD From This Moment CD Gumbo Nouveau CD Payton’s Place CD Close to My Heart CD Double Standards CD Live! CD Trumpet Evolution CD Moontrane CD Stepping Stones: Live Village Van.CD Unity CD Fields of Gold CD New Beginnings CD Friendship CD Homage to Duke CD Live at the Village Gate CD Memories of Duke CD Porgy and Bess CD Serenade To A Bus Seat CD Trio Plus One - Clarke Terry CD Yes, The Blues CD What Goes Unsaid CD

Orig. Jazz Class. 308 Artistry 7003 Riverside 9464 Blue Note 90837 Legacy 85216 Blue Note 38226 Orig. Jazz Class. 259 Blue Note 60438 Orig. Jazz Class. 1919 Criss-Cross 1145 Columbia 40009 Columbia 40675 Columbia 69876 Columbia 77132 Columbia 40461 Columbia 68921 Blue Note 11492 Blue Note 99002 Blue Note 94319 Blue Note 95326 Blue Note 95324 Blue Note 95332 Proper Records 604988991123 Verve 314549419 Verve 314537062 Verve 314527073 Verve 314531199 Verve 314557327 Maxjazz 403 Reservoir 148 Universal GRD9740 Crescent Moon 87195 Muse 4988009953595 Legacy 93646 Blue Note 97808 Nagel-Hayer 2005 Maxjazz 402 Columbia (USA) 87171 GRP 9715 Chesky JD49 Orig. Jazz Class. 604 A440 Music 9002 Orig. Jazz Class. 66 Verve 314558075 Orig. Jazz Class. 856 Double-Time 164

400 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—ENGLISH STOELZEL VALVE TRUMPET IN F

HH 299: English Stölzel valve trumpet in F; "IMPROVED & MADE BY / CHAs PACE/ 49. KING ST WESTMINSTER"; London 1834-1849. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

401

APPENDIX 2

Recommended Practice Materials BEGINNING (FIRST 2 YEARS)

Composer (Edit. or Arr.)

Title

Publisher__________

First and Second Year Exercises My First Arban Introduction... Graded Lip Trainers Graded Tongue Trainers

Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer

Method, Bk. 1 Method, Bk. 1 The Advancing Trumpeter The Progressing Trumpeter Practical Studies, Bk. 1 Trumpet Course, Bk. 1 Breeze-Easy Method, Vol. 1 Breeze-Easy Method, Vol. 2 The Talking Trumpet First Tunes and Studies

Warner Bros. Belwin-Mills Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Belwin-Mills Carl Fischer Warner Bros. Warner Bros. Colin Oxford Univ. Press

Cornet Method, Vol. 1 Elementary Studies (from Clarke Studies) Volume I Physical Approach to Elementary..... Method for the Beginning Trumpeter Method Book 1 Bill Pfund’s Beginning Trumpet Method The Balanced Embouchure

Leduc Hickman Tromba Carl Fischer Kissling Balquhidder Pfund Smiley

Aria, Bist du bei mir Beginning Trumpet Solos (w/ CD) Easy Trumpet Solos (w/ CD) Baroque Music (collection)

Belwin-Mills Hal Leonard Hal Leonard Hal Leonard

Exercises: Arban (Prescott) Arban (Foster) Shuebruk Shuebruk Etudes: Beeler Edwards (Hovey) Hering Hering Getchell (Hovey) Hering Kinyon Kinyon Reger Wiggins Methods: Balay Clarke Endsley Gordon Kissling Lillya Pfund Smiley Solos: Bach, J. S. (Fitzgerald) Mills, F. (Romm) Mills, F. (Romm) Nagel (editor)

402 Robbins Rubank Smith, L. (editor) Smith, L. (editor) Vandercook

Mont-Saint Michel Trumpet Solos - EZ Trumpet Solos, Bk. 1 Trumpet Solos, Bk. 2 Trumpet Stars Series

Leduc Rubank Belwin-Mills Belwin-Mills Rubank

Celebrated Practice Duets Easy Duets Belwin Master Duets—Easy

Barnhouse Carl Fischer Belwin-Mills

Duets: Amsden Arban Snell

INTERMEDIATE (3-5 YEARS) Exercises: Arban (Goldman, Smith) Clarke (Hickman) Colin, C. Gordon Gordon Irons Little McGregor Saint-Jacome Schlossberg Shuebruk Shuebruk Smith, W. Vizzutti Voisin

Complete Conservatory Method Clarke Studies (4 Clarke books) Advanced Lip Flexibilities 30 Velocity Studies Tongue Level Exercises 27 Groups of Exercises Embouchure Builder Daily Scale Builder Complete Grand Method Daily Drills and Technical Studies Lip Trainers Tongue Trainers Lip Flexibility on the Trumpet Trumpet Method, Bk. 1 - Technical Daily Exercises

Carl Fischer Hickman Colin Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Southern Pro Art Balquhidder Carl Fischer Baron Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Alfred International

15 Etudes Lyrical Studies Practical Studies, Bk. 2 24 Advanced Etudes 32 Etudes Trumpet Technic 20 Melodic Etudes Preparatory Melodies to Solo Work Playing Techniques & Perf. Studies, Vol. 1 Selected Studies

Leduc Brass Press Belwin-Mills Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Balquhidder Barnhouse Belwin-Mills Hal Leonard Rubank

Clarke Studies (4 Clarke books)

Hickman

Etudes: Balay Concone (Sawyer) Getchell (Hovey) Hering Hering Lillya Moeck Pottag Sandoval Voxman (editor) Methods: Clarke (Hickman)

403 Hickman Hickman Pfund Stamp

Trumpet Lessons, Vol. 1—Tone Production Trumpet Lessons, Vol. 2—Embouchure Bill Pfund’s Intermediate Method Warm-Ups + Studies

Tromba Tromba Pfund Editions BIM

A Trumpeter’s Lullaby Petite Pìece Concertante Maid of the Mist Sounds from the Hudson Pavane Ballad English Suite Modern Suite Sonatina Boutade Ave Maria Prayer of Saint Gregory Carnival (collection of 11 solos) My Regards Scherzo Iberico Romanza Baroque Music (collection) The Regal Trumpet (collection) Pavane for an Infant Dead Princess Intermediate Solos (collection) Intermediate Master Solos (collection) Danse Napolitaine (from Swan Lake) Trumpet Stars (collection) Metropolis The Enchanted Trumpet

Belwin-Mills Hickman Hickman Hickman Leduc Southern Presser Carl Fischer Brass Press Leduc Carl Fischer SONY/Presser Carl Fischer Hickman Editions BIM Carl Fischer Hal Leonard Hal Leonard International Hal Leonard Belwin-Mills Brass Press Balquhidder Dehaske Dehaske

Celebrated Practice Duets 12 Duets Moravian Brass Duets, Bk. 1 Moravian Brass Duets, Bk. 2 Selected Duets, Bk. 1 41 Duets

Barnhouse International Brass Press Brass Press Rubank International

Bugler’s Holiday (w/ piano) Sound the Trumpets Trumpets of Spain (w/ piano) The Three Jacks (w/ piano) The Three Bluejackets (w/ piano)

Belwin-Mills Mentor Belwin-Mills Leduc Colin

Solos: Anderson, L. Balay Clarke Clarke Fauré (Caens) Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Frackenpohl Gabaye Gounod (Mendez) Hovhaness Hunsberger (arranger) Llewellyn Longinotti Méndez Nagel Nagel Ravel (Nagel) Romm (editor) Snell (editor) Tchaikovsky (Hickman) Vandercook Vizzutti Vizzutti Duets: Amsden Clodomir (Foveau) Tarr/Glover (editors) Tarr/Glover (editors) Voxman (editor) Wurm Trios: Anderson, L. Nagel Nagel Walters Williams, E.

404

Trumpet Ensembles: Anderson (Hickman) Brandt Broiles Fitzgerald Gesualdo (Hickman) Jacob Olcott (arranger) Palestrina (Hickman) Rubank Tchaikovsky (Kaisershot) Williams, E. Zelenka

Bugler’s Holiday (12 trumpets) Country Pictures (4 trumpets) Fanfare (6 trumpets) Scherzino (4 trumpets) Madrigal, Moro Lasso (5 trumpets) The Canterbury Flourish (8 trumpets) Christmas Carol Accompaniments (6 tpts.) Missa Arterna Christu Munera (4 tpts.) Quartet Repertoire (collection) Trepak (from The Nutcracker) (4 tpts.) Bolero (4 trumpets) 6 Fanfares (4 trumpets and tympani)

Triplo International King Carl Fischer Wimbledon King Triplo Wimbledon Rubank Kendor Colin Musica Rara

ADVANCED (6-9 YEARS) Exercises: Arban (Goldman, Smith) Bellstedt Bing Bush Caruso Clarke (Hickman) Colin Colin Gekker Gekker Glasel Gordon Harbison Haynie Hickman Irons Lin Nagel Nagel Pfund Plog Sachs Saint-Jacome Sandoval Schlossberg Shew Shuebruk Shuebruk Smith, W. Smith, W. Stamp

Complete Conservatory Method The 12 Famous Technical Studies The Bing Book Advanced Range, Tech., and Interval Long Setting Clarke Studies (4 instructional books) Advanced Lip Flexibilities Endurance and Elasticity Articulation Studies Endurance Drills for Performance Skills Relaxation Techniques, Bks. 1-3 30 Velocity Studies Technical Studies (jazz) How to Play High Notes and Low Notes Music Speed Reading (sight reading) 27 Groups of Exercises Lip Flexibilities Rhythmic Studies Trumpet Skills Problem Solving Exercises Method for Trumpet, Bks. 1-2 Daily Fundamentals for Trumpet Complete Grand Method Playing Techniques, Vols. 1-3 Daily Drills & Technical Studies Exercises & Etudes (jazz and classical) Lip Trainers Tongue Trainers Lip Flexibility Top Tones Warm-Up + Studies

Carl Fischer Colin Whipple Wimbledon Hal Leonard Hickman Colin Colin Colin Colin Chamber Carl Fischer Aebersold Colin Wimbledon Southern Balquhidder Mentor Mentor Pfund Balquidder International Carl Fischer Hal Leonard Baron Balquhidder Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Editions BIM

405 Vacchiano Vacchiano Weast

The Art of Double Tonguing The Art of Triple Tonguing Valuable Repetitions

C. F. Peters C. F. Peters McGinnes

Characteristic Studies (Complete Method) Improvization Patterns, Bks. 1-3 (jazz) Twelve Technical Studies 24 Melodic Studies 36 Celebrated Studies 34 Studies 24 Last Studies (transposition) Characteristic Studies (from Clarke Studies) Lyrical Studies Develop Sightreading Advanced Multiple Tonguing Etudes Odd Meter Etudes Practical Studies 15 Characteristic Etudes 28 Melodic and Technical Etudes 60 Selected Studies, Bks. 1-2 48 Etudes 48 Lyric Studies Ten Stinkin’ Fun Performance Etudes Selected Studies

Carl Fischer Colin Filmore International Carl Fischer International International Hickman Brass Press Colin Tromba Fox Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer International G. Schirmer Editions BIM Eighth Note Rubank

Clarke Studies (4 books) Complete Modern Method Trumpet Techniques Methode Trompette Systematic Approach to Daily Practice Music Speed Reading (sight reading) Trumpet Lessons, Vol. 3 - Power, Range Trumpet Lessons, Vol. 4 - Technique The Trumpeter’s Pedagogical Guide Method for Trumpet, Bks. 1-2

Hickman Colin Davidson Leduc Carl Fischer Wimbledon Tromba Tromba Pfund Balquhidder

Carnival of Venice 12 Celebrated Fantasies (pno. pt. only) Hungarian Melodies Andante et Scherzo Fantasie in E-flat Rondo for Lifey Proclamation Carnival of Venice

Hickman Carl Fischer V. Bach Corp. Leduc Leduc Boosey Broude Bros. Hickman

Etudes: Arban (Goldman, Smith) Baker Bellstedt Böhme Bousquet Brandt (Nagel) Brandt (Foveau) Clarke Concone (Sawyer) Dufresne (Voisin) Endsley Gates Goldman Hering Hering Kopprasch (Voisin) Reynolds Stevens, T. Thrower Voxman Methods: Clarke (Hickman) Colin, C. Davidson Dokschitzer Gordon Hickman Hickman Hickman Pfund Plog

Solos: Arban Arban Bach, V. Barat Barat Bernstein Bloch Arban

406 Arnold Arutunian Arutunian Balay Bellstedt Bellstedt Böhme Brandt Brandt Broughton Clarke Clarke Clarke Clarke Clarke Clarke Clarke De Falla (Pepping) Endsley Enesco Ewazen Gabaye Gaubert Gershwin (arr. Turrin) Gödicke Handel (Fitzgerald) Hansen Hartmann Haydn, F. J. Hindemith Höhne Hummel Hunsberger (arranger) Jolivet Kennan Ketting Koff Latham Levy Méndez Monti (Méndez) Nagel Neruda (Hickman) Pachmutova Peaslee Peeters Persichetti Pilss Presser Purcell Reed Renwick Riisager Ropartz

Fantasy (unacc.) Concerto Aria et Scherzo Prelude et Ballade La Mandolinata Napoli Russian Dance First Concert Piece, op. 11 Second Concert Piece, op. 12 Folksong Bride of the Waves Carnival of Venice The Débutante From the Shores of the Mighty Pacific Showers of Gold The Southern Cross Stars in a Velvety Sky Suite of Spanish Songs (C tpt.) Chant (unacc.) Legend Sonata Boutade Cantabile et Scherzetto Someone to Watch Over Me Concert Etude Aria con Variazioni Sonata, op. 18 Facilita Concerto in E-flat Sonate Slavische Fantasie Concerto in E-flat Carnival (collection of 11 solos) Air de Bravoure Sonata Intrada (unacc.) Farewell My Granada Suite Grand Russian Fantasia (original) Bambuco Czardas Concerto Concerto in E-flat Concerto Nightsongs Sonata The Hollow Men Sonate Suite (unacc.) Sonata in D Ode for Trumpet Encore Piece (unacc.) Concertino Andante et Allegro

Faber International Leduc Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Southern Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Hickman Tromba Hickman Southern Leduc Hickman Turrin Hickman Belwin-Mills Hickman Tromba Hickman Schott Hickman Hickman Carl Fischer International Warner Bros. Donemus Koff Presser Hickman Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Mentor Hickman Reift Margun C. F. Peters Presser Universal Presser Hickman Southern Tromba Peters Hickman

407 Seneé Shadwell Shakhov Simon Simeone Smith, L. Thomé Tull White

Concertino Theme and Variations (unacc.) Scherzo Willow Echoes Trumpet in the Night Spanish Caprice Fantasie Eight Profiles (unacc.) Sonata

Hickman Tromba Brass Press Hickman Shawnee Colin Hickman Boosey King

Celebrated Practice Duets Studies and Duets, Bks. 1-3 Two Divertimenti Odd Meter Duets Duets Advanced Duets A Palette of Colorful Duets Selected Duets, Bk. 2 Challenging Duets & Etudes

Barnhouse McGinnis International Fox Carl Fischer Colin Eighth Note Rubank Colin

Bugler’s Holiday (w/ piano) Fanfare for St. Edmundsbury Canon for Three Chiapenecas (w/ piano) Chunca (w/ piano) Encino Polka (w/ piano) Tre-Méndez Polka (w/ piano) Fanfare for a Festive Occasion Flight Suite Orion (w/ piano) The Three Bluejackets (w/ piano)

Belwin-Mills Boosey Associated Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Triplo Brass Press Leduc Colin Colin

Bugler’s Holiday (12 trumpets) Bugler’s Holiday (9 trumpets & piano) Woodbury Fanfare (4 trumpets) Country Pictures (4 trumpets) Fanfare (6 trumpets) Fantasia in B-flat (7 trumpets) Fanfare of the Bells (6 trumpets) The Four Horsemen (4 trumpets) The Canterbury Flourish (8 trumpets) Suite (5 trumpets) 14 Recreational Jazz Quartets Missa Arterna Christu ... (4 trumpets)

Triplo Triplo Nichols International King Triplo Hickman Brass Press King Shanee Triplo Wimbledon

Duets: Amsden Broiles Corrette (Voisin) Gates Gatti Nelson Thrower Voxman (editor) Zottola Trios: Anderson, L. Britten Carter Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Olcott Sampson Tomasi Williams, E. Williams, E. Trumpet Ensembles: Anderson (Hickman) Anderson (Olcott) Anderson, L. Brandt Broiles Ewazen Fletcher Guentzel Jacob LoPresti Olcott Palestrina (Hickman)

408 Reynolds, V. Rubank Scheidt (King) Thrower Tower Vinter

Music for Five Trumpets Quartet Repertoire Canzona (4 trumpets) 50 Fanfares for all Occassions (2-5 trpts) Fanfare for the Uncommon Woman (4 tpts.) Blazon (8 trumpets)

King Rubank King Hickman Associated Bourne

Orchestral Excerpts, Vols. 1-5 Essential Orchestral Excerpts, Vols. 1-16 Top 50 Orchestral Excerpts Orchestral Excerpts Orchestral Excerpts, Vol. 6-10 Orchestral Excerpts, Vols. 1-2

International Hickman Crown International International International

24 Vocalises 100 Studi Melodic The Orchestra Trumpeter 100 Studies Method of Transposition

Leduc Recordi Carl Fischer International Colin

Orchestral Excerpts: Bartold (editor) Dobrzelewski (editor) Norris (editor) Strauss Voisin (editor) Wagner Transposition Etudes: Bordogni Caffarelli Hering Sachse Williams, E.

PRE-PROFESSIONAL (COLLEGE PERFORMANCE MAJOR) Exercises: Arban (Goldman, Smith) Bush Clarke (Hickman) Colin Gordon Gordon Hickman Irons Nagel Sachs Saint-Jacome Schlossberg Smith, W. Stamp (Poper) Stevens, T. Thibaud Thompson

Complete Conservatory Method Advanced Range, Technique.... Clarke Studies (4 books) Advanced Lip Flexibilities Daily Trumpet Routines Systematic Approach to Daily Practice Music Speed Reading (sight reading) 27 Groups of Exercises Speed Studies Daily Fundamentals Complete Grand Method Daily Drills and Technical Studies Lip Flexibilities Roy Poper’s Guide to James Stamp Contemporary Interval Studies Chromatic Exercises and Technical Studies The Buzzing Book (method + CD)

Carl Fischer Wimbledon Hickman Colin Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Wimbledon Southern Mentor International Carl Fischer Baron Carl Fischer Balquhidder Editions BIM Balquhidder Editions BIM

409 Etudes: Arban Arban (Maire) Bitsch Blatter/Zonn (Hickman) Bozza Caffarelli Charlier Chavanne, A. Chavanne, H. Chaynes Concone (Korak) Harbison Hering Hickman LaPorta Longinotti McGregor Plog Sabarich Sachse Snedecor Stevens, T. Tomasi Vizzutti

Characteristic Studies (in Complete Method) Carl Fischer Complete Method, Part III Leduc 20 Etudes Leduc Contemporary Trumpet Studies Tromba 16 Etudes Leduc 100 Melodic Studies in Transposition Recordi 36 Etudes Transcendantes Leduc 25 Characteristic Etudes Leduc 25 Etudes de Virtuosite, Vol. 1 Leduc 15 Etudes Leduc The Complete Solfeggi Balquhidder 20 Bebop Jazz Solos Aebersold 23 Orchestral Etudes Carl Fischer The Piccolo Trumpet Tromba Develop Sight Reading in the Jazz Idiom Berklee Press 12 Studies in the Classical and Modern Style International Audition and Performance Prep., Vols. 1-4 Balquhidder 16 Contemporary Etudes Tromba Dix Etudes Selmer 100 Etudes in Transposition International Low Etudes for Trumpet PAS Music Contemporary Trumpet Studies Billaudot 6 Etudes Leduc Advanced Etudes Brass Press

Methods: Caruso Davidson, L. Hickman Mathez MacBeth Quinque Thibaud Webster Zorn

Musical Calisthentics Trumpet Techniques The Piccolo Trumpet Big Book Trumpetenschule (in German) The Original Louis Maggio System A-S-A Method Method for the Advanced Trumpeter Method for the Piccolo Trumpet Exploring the Trumpet’s Upper Register

Hal Leonard Davidson Tromba Universal Maggio Music Editions BIM Balquhidder Brass Press Kendor

Pedagogical Texts (general pedagogy): Bellamah Bellamah Colin, Burke (Thiecke) Colin, C. Colin, C. Cox Davidson, L. Farkas Farkas Fox Frederiksen

Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Trumpeter’s Treasury of Information The Art of Trumpet Playing The Brass Player Vital Brass Notes You Can Become A Good Musician Trumpet Profiles The Art of Brass Playing The Art of Musicianship Essentials of Brass Playing Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind

Southern Southern Colin Colin Colin Cox & Cox Davidson Wind Music Wind Music Columbia/Belwin Windsong Press

410 Gibson Gordon Green, B. Hanson Hickman Johnson, K. Reinhardt Sherman Tarr-Kruger various Weast Weast Young

A Textbook for Trumpet Brass Playing Is No Harder Than Deep... The Inner Game of Music Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic Trumpet Lessons, Vol. 5 - Psychology The Art of Trumpet Playing Encylopedia of the Pivot System Trumpeter’s Handbook Performance Power (psychology) Brass Anthology (collection of articles) Brass Performance Keys to Natural Performance Embouchure Enlightenment

T. S. Denison Carl Fischer Doubleday Carl Fischer Tromba Gore Colin Accura Summit Instrumentalist McGinnis McGinnis Tromba

Complete Repertoire, Vols. 1-3 Orchestral Excerpts for Trumpet, Vols. 1-5 Essential Orchestral Excerpts, Vols. 1-16 Orchestral Literature - Brahms Complete Repertoire, Vols. 1-4 Audition and Performance, Vols. 1-4 Top 50 Orchestral Excerpts Die Trompete Orchesterstudien, Bks. 1-2 Complete Trumpet Parts Orchestral Excerpts for Trumpet, Vols. 6-10 Orchestral Excerpts, Vols. 1-2

Musica Rara International Hickman Shawnee Musica Rara Balquhidder Crown U. of Mich. Press Boosey Kerby International International

Concerto Concertino in E-flat Sonata Concerto Fantasy (unacc.) Theme and Variations Carnival of Venice Rose Variations Sequenza X Four Variations on a Theme by Scarlatti Ballet Scene Concerto in F Minor La Napolitaine Concerto Caprice Concertino Frigariana Rustiques Vernal Equinox Breves Rencontres

Galaxy Brass Press Weintraub Faber Faber G. Schirmer Hickman Presser Universal Leduc Hickman Hickman Hickman Warner Bros. Leduc Leduc Leduc Leduc McGinnis Leduc

Orchestral Excerpts: Bach (Güttler) Bartold (editor) Dobrzelewski (editor) Gorham (editor) Handel (Minter) McGregor (editor) Norris Pietzsch (Lillya) Strauss Verese (Young) Voisin (editor) Wagner

Solos: (* = virtuoso) Addison Albrechtsberger Antheil Arnold Arnold Arutunian Bellstedt Bennett Berio Bitsch Böhme Böhme Böhme Bohrnstedt Bozza Bozza Bozza Bozza Broiles Castérède

411 Castérède Chance Chaynes Chaynes Davies, P. M. De Falla (Pepping) Dello Joio Enesco Erickson Ewazen Ewazen Faillenot Fasch Françaix Freedman Friedman George Giannini Gliere (Dokschitzer) Gödike Goldman Gomez (Méndez) Gregson Grieg (Hickman) Hamilton Hansen, T. Haydn, F. J. Haydn, M. Henderson Henze Hertel (Tarr) Hertel (Tarr) Hertel (Hickman) Hindemith Hoffman Holmes Honegger Hubay (Méndez) Hue Hummel Husa Ibert Jolivet Jolivet Kennan Ketting Krol Latham Marsalis (editor) Méndez Méndez Méndez Méndez Molter

Sonatine Credo Concerto Concerto No. 2 * Sonata * Suite of Spanish Dances Sonata Legend Kryl (unacc.) * Concerto Sonata Concertino Concerto in D Major Sonatine Concerto Solus (unacc.) Sonata Concerto Concerto Concerto, op. 41 Scherzo Aires Andaluces Concerto Anitra’s Dance Five Scenes Sonata, op. 18 Concerto in E-flat Concerto in D (and A) Variation Movements (unacc.) * Sonatina (unacc.) Concerto No. 1 in E-flat Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Concerto No. 3 in D Sonate Four Miniatures (unacc.) Sonata Intrada Hejre Kati Solo de Concert Concerto in E (or E-flat) Concerto * Impromptu Concertino Concerto No. 2 * Sonata Intrada (unacc.) Magnificat Variations * Suite Carnival (collection of 11 solos) Jota Jota No. 2 Jota No. 3 (Fandango) Scherzo in D Minor Concerto No. 1 in D Major

Leduc Boosey Leduc Leduc Schott Hickman Associated Hickman Smith Southern Southern Martin Hickman Eschig Crown Brass Press George Warner Bros. Reift Hickman Shanee Press Carl Fischer Novello Hickman Presser Hickman Hickman Hickman Wimbledon Schott Brass Press Musica Rara Hickman Schott Tromba Shawnee Press Salabert Carl Fischer Southern Hickman Associated Leduc Durand Durand Warner Bros. Donemus Benjamin John Church Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Carl Fischer Brass Press

412 Molter Molter Monti (Méndez) Mozart, L. Neruda Pakhmutova Persichetti Planel Plog Plog Porrino Powell Purcell Querfurth Rabe Richter Sachse Schuller Staigers Stevens, H. Suderburg Suderburg Tartini Telemann Thrower Thrower Tomasi Tomasi Tomasi Torelli Torelli Torelli Tull Tull Turrin Turrin Turrin Turrin Vizzutti Vizzutti Vizzutti Weiner Werner Whittenberg Wolpe

Concerto No. 2 in D Major Concerto No. 3 in D Major Czardas Concerto in D Concerto in E-flat Concerto Parable (unacc.) Concerto Concerto No. 1 Concerto No. 2 Concertino Alone (unacc.) Sonata Concerto in E-flat * Shazam (unacc.) * Concerto in D Major * Concertino in E-flat Concerto * Carnival of Venice Sonata Chamber Music VII Chamber Music VIII Concerto in D Major Concerto in D Major Away Expressions (unacc.) Concerto * Semaine Sainte a Cuzco Triptyque Concerto in D Major Concerto, G. 1 Concerto, G. 8 Eight Profiles (unacc.) Sonata Caprice Intrada Three Episodes Two Portraits Cascades Sonata No. 1 Sonata No. 2 Five Pieces (unacc.) Suite Concertante * Polyphony (unacc.) * Solo Piece (unacc.) *

Brass Press Musica Rara Carl Fischer Hickman Hickman Reift Presser E. M. Trans. Editions BIM Editions BIM Recordi Brass Press Hickman Musica Rara Reimers Breitkopf Hickman Associated Carl Fischer Peters Presser Presser Selmer Hickman Eighth Note Eighth Note Leduc Leduc Leduc Hickman Musica Rara Musica Rara Boosey Boosey Brass Press Editions BIM Turrin Editions BIM Brass Press B Flat Music B Flat Music Billaudot Billaudot McGinnis McGinnis

Concerto, “St. Marc” (tpt. + 6 clar.) Capricorn Concerto (tpt., fl., ob. + stgs.) Serenata (tpt., cl., bsn., vn., cello) Interbalances IV (tpt. + narrator) Cousins (cnt., tbn., pno.)

Wimbledon G. Schirmer Universal Editions Presser Hickman

Chamber Works: Albinoni (Schmidt) Barber Casella Childs Clarke

413 Copland D’Indy Ewazen Handel Hertel Hindemith Jolivet Plog Plog Rivier Roland-Manuel Saint-Saens Scarlatti (Meridith) Scarlatti Scarlatti (Endsley) Stravinsky Surinach Telemann Wilder Zwilich

Quiet City (tpt., Eng. hn., + stgs. or pno.) Suite in the Olden Style (tpt., 2 fl., 2 vn., vla., vc) Trio (tpt., vn., pno.) Let the Bright Seraphim (tpt., sop., pno.) Concerto a 6 (tpt., ob. + stgs. or pno.) Concerto for Trpt. & Bsn. (+ stgs. or pno.) Heptade (tpt. + perc.) Animal Ditties (tpt., narrator, pno.) Animal Ditties No. 2 (tpt., narrator, pno.) Concerto (tpt., alto sax, pno.) Suite dans le gout Espagnol (tpt., ob., bsn., pno.) Septet (tpt., pno., 2 vns., va., vc., db.) 7 Arie con Tromba (tpt., sop., pno.) Su le Sponde del Tebro (tpt., sop., stgs.) Vega Cintia (tpt., sop., pno.) Octet for Winds (2 tpts., 2 tbns., fl., clar., 2 bsns.) Ritmo Jondo (tpt., cl., perc.) Concerto in D (tpt., 2 obs., cont.) Suite for Trumpet and Marimba Concerto (tpt., fl., 8 cl., perc., db., pno.)

Boosey

Celebrated Practice Duets Contemporary Jazz Duets Bop Duets Baroque Duets Studies & Duets, Bks. 1-3 Concert Dialogue Sonata in D Major (w/ piano) Gekker Duets Concerto in D Major (w/ piano) Concerto MWV IV 8 (w/ piano) Six Jazz Duets 10 Concert Duets Contemporary Music for Two Trumpets Concerto in C (w/ piano)

Barnhouse Colin Colin Queen City McGinnis Shawnee Musica Rara Colin Hickman Musica Rara Kendor Wimbledon Wimbledon Hickman

The Three Aces (w/ piano) Triplets of the Finest (w/ piano) Flight The Three Kings (w/ piano) Fanfare: Lift Up Thy Heart And Rejoice Indescribable Moods Suite Adagio and Allegro

Carl Fischer

International Southern Tromba Musica Rara G. Schirmer Billaudot Wimbledon Brass Press Billaudot Durand International Brass Press Mueller Tromba Boosey Associated Musica Rara Margun Presser

Duets: Amsden Berger Bower Broiles Broiles Cheetham Franceschini Gekker Manfredini Molter Niehaus Plog Plog Vivaldi Trios: Clarke Henneberg Sampson Smith Thrower Thrower Tomasi Truax

Brass Press Filmore Hickman Hickman Leduc Cimarron

414 Trumpet Ensembles: Altenburg (Tarr) Blatter C. Real (Tarr) Ewazen Ewazen Fulkerson Galib George Gödicke (Hickman) Guentzel Handel (Hickman) Handel (Olcott) Lazarof Lo Presti Molter Mosier (Olcott) Naulais Plog Schuller Sclater Stevens, T. Stevens, T. Thrower Thrower Thrower Tull Vinter Zwilich

Concerto for Seven Trumpets & Timpani Fanfare (12 trumpets) Sonata (24 trumpets + tym.) Fantasia (7 trumpets) Sonoran Desert Harmonies (8 trumpets) Music for Brass V (4 trumpets) The Moffit-Klein Phenomenon (7 tpts.) Fanfare for Columbus (8 trumpets) Concert Etude (12 trumpets) The Four Horsemen Arrival of the Queen of Sheba (12 tpts.) Royal Fireworks Overture (18 trumpets) Fanfare (5 trumpets) An Overture and a Finale (8 trumpets) Symphony in C Major (4 trumpets) Scherzo, op. 46 (12 tpts. + bass tpt.) Cocktail (5 trumpets) Suite for Six Trumpets Fanfare (12 trumpets) Soundings (8 trumpets) Moudon Fanfares (12 trumpets) A New Carnival of Venice (4 tpts + pno.) Arts Council Fanfare (6 tpts.) In Celebration of Greatness (4 tpts.) Providance Fanfare (6 tpts.) Segments (8 trumpets) Blazon (8 trumpets) Clarino Quartet

Brass Press Brass Press Amadeus Triplo Triplo Seesaw Triplo Brass Press Triplo Brass Press Hickman Triplo Presser Triplo Musica Rara Triplo Editions I. M. D. Editions BIM Margun Shawnee Wimbledon Leduc Eighth Note Hickman Hickman Boosey Bourne Margun

Solos with Band or Wind Ensemble Accompaniment: (* = virtuoso) Anderson, L. Arutunian (Duker) Bellstedt Bellstedt Bennett Bilik Böhme (Bergler) Brahms (Endsley) Clarke Clarke Faillenot Freedman Gödicke (Glover) Hummel (Ghitalla/Corley) Jolivet Koff Mendelssohn (Koff) Méndez Peaslee (Dotas) Peeters (Goff)

A Trumpeter’s Lullaby Concerto in A-flat La Mandolinata Napoli Rose Variations Concerto Concerto in F Minor Hungarian Dances Nos. 3 & 5 Carnival of Venice The Débutante Concertino (C trumpet) Concerto Concert Etude Concerto in E-flat Concerto No. 2 * Farewell My Granada Concerto (violin) La Virgen de la Macarena Nightsongs Aria (from Sonata)

Belwin-Mills Thompson Southern Southern Chappel Bilik Touch of Brass Tromba Warner Bros. Warner Bros. Martin Crown Brass Press King Durand Koff Koff Koff Margun Peters

415 Reed Rimsky-Korsakov (Koff) Simeone Staigers Tartini (Bach, Jan) Tchaikovsky (Glover) Tomasi (Duker)

Ode for Trumpet Flight of the Bumble Bee Trumpet in the Night Carnival of Venice Concerto in D Major Danse Napolitaine (from Swan Lake) Concerto

Southern Koff Shawnee Carl Fischer Modell Brass Press Duker

Solos with Orchestra Accompaniment: (* = virtuoso) Anderson, L. Arutunian Arutunian Baker, M. C. Bloch Chaynes Chaynes Copland Gödicke (McGuffy) Gödicke Handel Haydn. F. J. (Tarr) Haydn, M. (Tarr) Hummel (Tarr) Hummel (Thilde) Jolivet Latham Méndez (Koff) Molter (Glover) Molter (Glover) Molter (Talbot) Mozart, L. (Weinmann) Nagel Neruda (Tarr) Pachmutova Persichetti Planel Plog Plog Ponchielli (Cassone) Purcell (Lumsden) Richter Riisager Sampson Tamberg Tartini Telemann (Block) Tessarini (Thilde) Tomasi Torelli (Tarr) Torelli Torelli Tull

A Trumpeter’s Lullaby Concerto in A-flat (rental) Theme and Variations Summit Concerto Proclamation Concerto No. 1 Concerto No. 2 * Quiet City (w/ English horn) Concert Etude Concerto, op. 41 Suite in D Major Concerto in E-flat Concerto in C Major Concerto in E Major Concerto in E-flat Concertino Suite La Virgen de la Macarena Concerto No. 1 in D Major Concerto No. 2 in D Major Concerto No. 3 in D Major Concerto in D Major Concerto Concerto in E-flat Concerto The Hollow Men Concerto Concerto No. 1 Concerto No. 2 Concerto Sonata No. 1 in D Major Concerto in D Major Concertino Triptych Concerto Concerto in D Major Concerto in D Major Sonata in D Major Concerto Concerto in D Major Sonata, G. 1 Sonata, G. 8 Concerto No. 1

Belwin-Mills G. Schirmer G. Schirmer Baker Brodt Leduc Leduc Boosey Brass Press G. Schirmer Musica Rara Universal Musica Rara Universal Billaudot Leduc Presser Koff Brass Press Brass Press Musica Rara Heinrichshofen Mentor Editions BIM G. Schirmer Presser Musicale Trans. Editions BIM Editions BIM Editions BIM Musica Rara Hans Gerig W. Hansen Sampson G. Schirmer Modell Musica Rara Billaudot Leduc Musica Rara Musica Rara Musica Rara Boosey

416 Tull Turrin Vainberg Vasilenko Werner Williams, J.

Concerto No. 2 Concerto Concerto Concerto Suite Concertante * Concerto

Boosey Turrin G. Schirmer G. Schirmer Billaudot Williams

Solos with Brass Ensembles: Lazarof Plog Plog Vizzutti Vizzutti, Tyzik

The Summit Concertare Concerto for Trumpet, Brass & Perc. Concerto for Trumpet and Trombone Prism (movement 5 for trumpet) Five Episodes *

Presser Editions BIM Editions BIM Village Place Perelandra

GUIDE TO PUBLISHERS Accura Music Jamey Aebersold Amadeus Press Associated Music Publishers Michael Conway Baker Balquhidder Music C. L. Barnhouse Belwin-Mills Pub. Corp. Berklee Press Breitkopf & Haertel Editions Billaudot Bilik Music, Inc. Editions BIM Boosey & Hawkes Bourne Company Brode Bros. Brodt Music Company The Brass Press Cimarron Music & Productions Charles Colin Cox & Cox Consultants Crown Music Press Louis Davidson Donemus Editions Durand & Cie Eighth Note Publications Faber Music, Ltd. Carl Fischer, Inc. Sam Fox Music Sales Corp. Galaxy Editions I. M. D.

Box 4260, Athens, GA 45701 www.aebersold.com www.amadeuspress.com www.schirmer.com www.michaelconwaybaker.com www.balquhiddermusic.com www.barnhouse.com 15800 NW 48th Ave., Miami, FL 33014 www.berkleepress.com www.breitkopf.com www.billaudot.com 7700 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814 www.editions-bim.com www.boosey.com 5 West 37th Street, New York, NY 10018 c/o Plymouth Music Company, 170 NE 33rd St., Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33334 www.brodtmusic.com www.editions-bim.com www.cimarronmusic.com www.charlescolin.com [email protected] 612 Sedgwick Drive, Libertyville, IL 60048 www.editions-bim.com www.donemus.nl www.durand-salabert-eschig.com www.enpmusic.com www.fabermusic.co.uk www.carlfischer.com c/o Plymouth Music Company, 170 NE 33rd St., Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33334 138 Ipswich Street, Boston, MA 02215 24 Rue Etex, 75018 Paris, France

417 Hanson Music Company Heinrichshofen Verlag Hickman Music Editions International Music Company Kendor Music Company Robert King Music Company E. C. Kerby, Ltd.

1860 West Avenue, Miami Beach, FL 33139 www.heinrichshofen.de www.hickmanmusiceditions.com www.internationalmusiccompany.com www.kendormusic.com www.rkingmusic.com c/o Hal Leonard Corp., 777 W. Bluemond Road, Milwaukee, WI 53213 Andrew Kissling Brass Press www.akbp.com Koff Music Company Mother Lode Music, P. O. Box 110, Jamestown, CA 95327 Alphonse Leduc Editions Musicales www.alphonseleduc.com Hal Leonard Publishing Corp. www.halleonard.com Robert Martin Editions Musicales www.edrmartin.com Margun Music www.schirmer.com/margun McGinnis & Marx Music Pub. 236 West 26th Street, #11S, New York, NY 10001 Mentor Music www.mentormusic.com Ron Modell 1117 Holmes Place, De Kalb, IL 60115 Musica Rara www.musicarara.com Musikverlag Hans Gerig www.gerig.de Nichols Music Company 49 Tomlin Street, Waltham, MA 02154 Novello & Co., Ltd. c/o Shawnee Press, Waring Drive, Delaware Water Gap, PA 18327 Oxford University Press www.oup.com/us C. F. Peters Corporation 70-30 80th Street, Glendale, NY 11385 William A. Pfund 35629 WCR 41, Eaton, CO 80615 Theodore Presser Company www.presser.com Queen City Brass Publications www.ppmusic.com Editions Marc Reift www.reift.ch Editions Reimers Box 17051 S-167 17 Bromma, Stockholm, Sweden Rubank, Inc. 7777 West Bluemond Road, Milwaukee, WI 53213 Editions Salabert www.durand-salabert-eschig.com Editions Selmer www.selmer.com Jeff Smiley www.trumpetteacher.net Summit Books (Summit Records) www.summitrecords.com Schott & Co., Ltd. www.schott-music.com Seesaw Music Corporation 2067 Broadway, New York, NY 10023 Shawnee Press www.shawneepress.com Southern Music Company www.smcpublications.com Tromba Publications 2253 Bellaire Street, Denver, CO 80207 Triplo Press www.triplo.com Touch of Brass c/o www.rkingmusic.com Joseph Turrin www.josephturrin.com Universal Edition www.universaledition.com Warner Brothers Music www.wArnerbros.com Wimbledon Music www.wimbtri.com Wind Music, Inc. Wind Music / TAP Publications, 974 Berkshire Road, N. E. Atlanta, GA 30324 Windsong Press www.windsongpress.com

418 For further publisher references, consult the following sources: Music Publishers Association Print Music Publishers University Interscholastic League

www.mpa.org/agency/importsw.html www.apra.com.au/general/useful_contacts/ directories_print_music_publishers.asp www.uil.utexas.edu/music/pml_publishers.html

The recommended works in this chapter, plus thousands of other trumpet pieces, may be purchased directly from the publishers or through mail order companies listed in Appendix 4: Resources.

419

APPENDIX 3

Suggested Readings The following listings provide many of the informational sources for various categories of trumpet research. Listings are by no means comprehensive and represent only a portion of books and articles currently available. Sources are listed in alphabetical order.

HISTORY OF THE TRUMPET Books: Altenburg, Johann E. (English trans. Edward Tarr). Essay on an Introduction to the Heroic and Musical Trumpeters’ and Kettledrummers’ Art. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1974. Baines, Anthony. Brass Instruments: Their History and Development. London: Faber & Faber, 1976. Barbour, J. Murray. Trumpets, Horns, and Music. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1964. Bate, Philip. The Trumpet and Trombone. London: E. Benn; NY: W. W. Norton, 1966 and 1972. Bendinelli, Cesare (forward by Edward Tarr). Tutta l’arte della trombetta, 1614. Kassel, Germany: Bärenreiter, 1975 (facsimile edition). ________ (English trans. Edward Tarr). Tutta l’arte della trombetta, 1614. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1975 (text only). Brand, Violet, and Geoffrey Brand. Brass Bands in the Twentieth Century. Letchworth, Helts, UK: Egon Publications, Ltd., 1979. Burkart, Richard Edgar. The Trumpet in England in the Seventeenth Century with emphasis on its Treatment in the Works of Henry Purcell and a Biography of the Shore Family of Trumpeters. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1972. Candelaria, Leonard A. An Overview of Performance Practices Relating to Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Trumpet Music: Considerations for Modern Performance. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, unpublished DMA dissertation, 1985. Carse, Adam. Musical Wind Instruments. NY: Da Capo Press, 1939; revised 1973. Clappé, Arthur A. The Wind Band and its Instruments. Portland, ME: Longwood Publications, 1976. Dahlqvist, Reine. The Keyed Trumpet and its Greatest Virtuoso, Anton Weidinger. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1975.

420 Dudgeon, Ralph and Franz Streitwieser. The Flügelhorn: The History of the Flügelhorn as Illustrated by the Streitwieser Collection in the Instrument Museum of Schloss Kremsegg. Bergkirchen, Germany: PPVMEDIEN GmbH, Edition Bochinsky, 2004. Dudgeon, Ralph Thomas. The Keyed Bugle, Its History, Literature, and Technique. San Diego, CA: University of California at San Diego, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1980. Eichborn, Hermann. Die Trompete in alter und neuer Zeit. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1881. Eliason, Robert E. Brass Instrument Key and Valve Mechanisms Made in America before 1975, with special reference to the D. S. Pillsbury Collection in Greenfield, Michigan. Kansas City, MO: unpublished PhD. dissertation, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 1969. ________. Early American Brass Makers. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1979. ________. Keyed Bugles in the United States. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1972. Evenson, Pattee Edward. A History of Brass Instruments, Their Usage, Music, and Performance Practices in Ensembles During the Baroque Era. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, unpublished DMA dissertation, 1960. Fantini, Girolamo (English trans. Edward Tarr). Modo per Imparare a Sonare di Tromba Nashville: The Brass Press, 1978 (facsimile edition).

(1638).

Galpin, Francis W. Old English Instruments of Music. London: A. D. McClurg & Co., 1911. Harper, Thomas (edit. by Ralph Dudgeon). Instructions for the Trumpet. Homer, NY: Spring Tree Enterprises, 1988 (facsimile edition with commentary by Scott Sorenson and John Webb). Hazen, Margaret Hindle and Robert M. Hazon. The Music Men. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987. Keim, Friedel. Das Grosse Buch der Trompete: Instrument, Geschichte, Trompeterlexikon. Mainz, Germany: Schott, 2005. Kelley, Bruce C. and Mark A. Snell. Bugle Resounding: Music and Musicians of the Civil War. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2004. Mahillon, Victor Charles. La Trompette. Brussels: Mahillion, 1907. Mende, Emily and Jean-Pierre Mathez. Pictorial Family Tree of Brass Instruments in Europe Since the Early Middle Ages. Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1978. Menke, Werner. History of the Trumpet of Bach and Handel. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1972. Naylor, Tom L. The Trumpet and Trombone in Graphic Arts: 1500-1800. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1979. Pietzsch, Hermann. Die Trompete als Orchester-Instrument und ihre Behandlung in den Verschiedenen der Musik. Heilbronn, Germany: C. F. Schmidt, 1901.

421 Schubert, F. L. Die Blechinstrumente der Musik, ihre Geschichte, Natur, Handhabung und Verwendung in der Instrumental-, Gesangs-, Militär-, und Tanzmusik. Leipzig: Merseburger, 1866. Schwartz, Harry W. Bands in America. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1957. Simon, George T. The Big Bands. NY: Schirmer Books, 1967. Smithers, Don L. The Music and History of the Baroque Trumpet Before 1721. London: Dent & Sons, 1973. Stewart, Gary M. Keyed Brass Instruments in the Arne B. Larson Collection. Vermillion, SD: Shrine to Music Museum, 1980. Tarr, Edward H. Die Trompete. Bern; Stuttgart: Hallweg, 1977. ________. East Meets West. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2004. ________. The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988. ________. (English trans. L. Jospin). La Trompette. Lausanne, Switzerland: Payot, 1977.

Articles: Berger, Jean. “Notes on Some 17th-Century Compositions for Trumpets and Strings in Bologna.” Musical Quarterly. No. 37, 1951, pp 354-367. Birkemeier, Richard P. “The History and Music of the Orchestral Trumpet of the Nineteenth Century.” ITG Journal. Vol. 9, No. 3, 1985, pp 22-39. ________. Ibid., Vol. 9, No. 4, 1985, pp 13-27. Carse, Adam. “Clarino and Trumpet.” The Musical Times. Vol. 33, 1940. ________. “The Trumpet Makers of Nuremberg.” Monthly Musical Record. Vol. 67, 1971, pp 203-204. Dahlqvist, Reine. “Some Notes on the Early Valve.” The Galpin Society Journal. Vol. 33, 1980, pp 111-124. Dudgeon, Ralph T. “A Handbook for the Cornetto.” ITG Journal. Vol. 1, 1976, pp 30-34. Enrico, Eugene. “Torelli’s Trumpet Music: The Primary Sources.” ITG Journal. Vol. 3, 1978, pp 4-14. Franquin, Merri. “La Trompette à pistons.” Schweizerische Instrumentalmusik. Vol. 27, 1938, pp 64-65, 89-90, 113-114, 138. Halfpenny, Eric. “William Bull and the English Baroque Trumpet.” The Galpin Society Journal. Vol. 15, Mar. 1962, pp 18-24.

422 ________. “William Shaw’s ‘Harmonic Trumpet’.” The Galpin Society Journal. Vol. 13, 1960, pp 7-12. Hall, Ernest. “Bach’s Trumpets.” Monthly Musical Record. Vol. 61, 1931, p 78. Heyde, Herbert. “Die Unterscheidung von Klarin- und Prinzpaltrompete: Zum Problem des Klarinblasens.” Beiträge zur Musikwiessenschaft. Vol. 9, 1967, pp 55-61. Hoover, Cynthia A. “The Slide Trumpet of the Nineteenth Century.” Brass Quarterly. Vol. 6, No. 4, 1963, pp 159-178. ________. “A Trumpet Battle at Niblo’s Pleasure Garden.” Musical Quarterly. Vol. 55, No. 3, July 1969, pp 384-395. Hunsberger, Donald R. “The Bass Trumpet: From Wagner until Today.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 19, Apr. 1965, pp 99-102. Lewis, Horace Monroe. “Authentic Baroque Interpretation for Trumpet.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 32, Feb. 1978, pp 44-45. ________. “The Trumpet in the Romantic Era—A Forgotton Instrument.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 26, Jan. 1972, pp 26-27. Morley, Max Lynn. “Authentic Ornamentation Practice in Baroque Trumpet Arias.” ITG Journal. Vol. 6, No. 2, 1980, pp 17-21. Morley-Pegge, R. “Clarino and Trumpet.” The Musical Times. Vol. 81, 1940, pp 32-33. Sachs, Curt. “Bach’s ‘Tromba da Tararsi’.” Bach Jahrbuch. Vol. 5, 1908, pp 141-143. ________. “Chromatic Trumpets in the Renaissance.” Musical Quarterly. Vol. 36, 1950, pp 62-66. Sandor, Edward P. “Development and Use of the Chromatic Trumpet in the Nineteenth Century Orchestra.” NACWAPI Journal. Vol. 33, No. 4, 1985, pp 4-12. Schlesinger, Kathleen. “Bach’s Trumpets.” Monthly Musical Record. Vol. 61, 1931, pp 108-109. Smithers, Don L. “The Baroque Trumpet After 1721—Some Preliminary Observations.” Early Music. Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1978, pp 356-361. ________. “The Trumpets of J. W. Haas: A Survey of Four Generations of Nuremberg Brass Instrument Makers.” The Galpin Society Journal. Vol. 18, Mar. 1965, pp 23-41. Tarr, Edward H. “The Baroque Trumpet, the High Trumpet, and the so-called Bach Trumpet.” Brass Bulletin, No. 2, 1972, pp 25-42. ________. Ibid., No. 3, 1972, pp 39-57. Terry, C. Sanford. “The Tromba da Tararsi.” Monthly Musical Record. Vol. 61, 1931, p 141. Urban, Darrell Eugene. “Gottfried Reiche: Notes on His Art, Life, Instruments, and Music.” Monthly Journal of Research in Music Education. Vol. 1, No. 5, 1966, pp 14-55.

423 TRUMPET REPERTOIRE Cansler, Philip. An Analytical Listing of Published Music of the Twentieth Century for Solo Trumpet and Organ. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, published DMA dissertation, 1984. Carnovale, Norbert. Twentieth Century Music for Trumpet and Orchestra. Nashville: The Brass Press, 1975. Coleman, Jack. The Trumpet: Its Use in Selected Works of Stravinsky, Hindemith, Shostakovich, and Copland. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, DMA dissertation, 1965. Dunnick, D. Kim. “Selected Literature for Trumpet Ensemble.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 34, Mar. 1980, p 44. Fitzgerald, Bernard. “Chamber Music for Trumpet—with Strings or Woodwinds.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 5, Nov. 1950, pp 23-25. Geiringer, Karl. “Haydn’s Trumpet Concerto.” The Musical Times. Vol. 81, 1940, p 83. Gray, Robert and Mary Rasmussen. “Three Bibliographies of Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Concertante Works.” Brass Quarterly. Vol. 6, No. 1, 1962, pp 10-16. Haynie, John J. “A Graded List of Trumpet Solos.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 18, Aug. 1963, pp 47-49. Hohstadt, Thomas. Solo Literature for the Trumpet. Fullerton, CA: F. E. Olds Music Education Library, 1959. Kronholz, Keith. “Concertos, Sonatas, and Concert Works for Trumpet with Woodwinds: An Index.” ITG Newsletter. Vol. 7, No. 1, 1980, pp 14-16. Lowrey, Alvin. “Index of Baroque Masterpieces for Trumpet and Organ.” ITG Journal. Vol. 7, No. 3, 1983, pp 38-39. Mortenson, Gary Curtiss. The Varied Role of the Trumpet in the Musical Textures of Igor Stravinsky. Austin, TX: University of Texas, unpublished DMA dissertation, 1984. Nagel, Robert. “Trumpet Ensemble Music.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 31, Apr. 1977, p 60. Ode, James. “A Selected List of Trumpet Duet Collections.” ITG Journal. Vol. 1, 1976, p 28. Oneglia, Mario Francesco. The Trumpet in Chamber Music Other Than Brass Ensemble. NY: Columbia University, unpublished EdD. dissertation, 1966. Smithers, Don L. The Music and History of the Baroque Trumpet Before 1721. London: Dent & Sons, 1973. Wildman, L. “Wedding Music with Brass.” Diapason. Vol. 55, Oct. 1964, pp 20-21.

424 BIOGRAPHIES OF TRUMPET PLAYERS AND BRASS ENSEMBLES Books: Arndt, Michael John. The Extraordinary Roger Voisin: His Life and Contributions to Trumpet Performance, Repertoire, and Pedagogy. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, unpublished DMA dissertation, 2004. Barrow, Gary Wayne. Colonel Earl D. Irons: His Role in the History of Music Education in the Southwest to 1958. Denton, TX: North Texas State University, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1982. Bridges, Glenn D. Pioneers in Brass. Detroit, MI: Sherwood Publications, 1965. Clarke, Herbert L. A Cornet-Playing Pilgrim’s Progress. (autobiography) Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005 . Colin, Charles. Charles Colin Reflections. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1984. Dokshizer, Timofei. Trans. Olga Braslavsky. The Memoirs of Timofei Dokshizer. Westfield, MA: International Trumpet Guild, 1997. Gibbins, Gary. Satchmo. NY: Anchor Books, 1988. Hickman, David R. Welcome Summit Brass (Liver & Onions $4.95). Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, unpublished biography of Summit Brass, 2003. Hickman, Jane W. and Del Lyren. Magnificent Méndez. Summit Records, 1994, 2005. Lee, William F. MF Horn. Ojai, CA: Maynard Ferguson USA, Inc., 1997. Lyren, Delon G. Rafael Méndez (1906-1981): A Study of His Life and Influence in the Trumpet World. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, unpublished DMA dissertation, 1994. Madeja, James Thomas. The Life and Work of Herbert L. Clarke (1867-1945). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, unpublished EdD. dissertation, 1988. McDonald, Donna. The Odyessy of the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble. Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1986. Shook, Brian. William Vacchiano: His Career as a Trumpet Player and Pedagogue. Tempe, AZ: unpublished DMA dissertation, 2006. Tarr, Edward H. East Meets West. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2004. Woolworth, William Neal. A Biography of Adolph S. Herseth: His Performance and Pedogogical Contributions. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, unpublished DMA dissertation, 1993.

425 Articles: Almeida, John. “John Swana: Learning and Relating Through Jazz.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 4, June 2005, pp 56-62. Barrow, Gary. “Col. Earl D. Irons and the Evolution of Cornet Pedagogy.” ITG Journal. Vol. 10, Dec. 1985, pp 24-32. Birkemeir, Richard P. “The F Trumpet and its Last Virtuoso, Walter Morrow.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 65, 1989, pp 34-35. Bowman, Joseph. “David Hickman Goes On Record.” ITG Journal. June 2003, pp 27-38. ________. “Leonard Smith: American Premiere Cornet Virtuoso.” ITG Journal. June 2002, p 34. Briney, Bruce. “Vincent Cichowicz: Master Teacher.” ITG Journal. Dec. 1998, p 12. Caldwell, Michael. “Gerard Schwarz: From Virtuoso Trumpet Artist to World-Class Conductor.” ITG Journal. Mar. 2000, p 24. ________. “There Will Never Be Another Doc: An Interview with the Incomparable Doc Severinsen.” ITG Journal. Oct. 2000, p 36. Campos, Frank. “An Interview with George Coble.” ITG Journal. Dec. 1991, p 15. Card, Robyn. “A Life of Firsts” An Interview with Carole Dawn Reinhart.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2006, pp 6-13. Champoullon, David. “Gilbert Johnson, Artist and Teacher.” ITG Journal. May 1999, p 4. ________. “Living the Dream: Ronald and Avix Romm.” ITG Journal. Vol. 30, No. 4, June 2006, pp 6-12. ________. “Marvin Stamm on Expectations and Responsibility.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 4, June 2005, pp 44-50. Chenette, Stephen. “‘It’s My Greatest Joy’: An Interview with Maurice André.” ITG Journal. Mar. 2001, p 8. Dudgeon, Ralph. “An Interview with Edna White Chandler.” ITG Journal. Dec. 1990, p 4. ________. “An Interview With Mark Gould.” ITG Journal. Vol. 25, No. 2, Jan. 2001, pp 17-22. ________. “Ned Kendall: American Virtuoso.” ITG Journal. Sept. 1983, p 16. Edgett, Brian. “The Man Behind the Horn: An Interview with Leon Merian.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 4, June 2004, pp 32-38. Eisensmith, Kevin. “An Interview with Seymour Rosenfeld on the Occasion of His Retirement from the Philadelphia Orchestra.” ITG Journal. Vol. 13, May 1989, pp 4-13.

426 ________. “Gilbert Mitchell: A Musician Merely.” ITG Journal. Vol. 30, No. 4, June 2006, pp 18-25, 29. Engelke, Luis. “An Interview with Don Tison: Remembering Three Decades in Baltimore.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 4, June 2004, pp 42-45. ________. “Andrew Balio’s Journey to Baltimore.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 4, June 2005, pp 51-55. Erdmann, Tom. “A Passion for Creativity: An Interview with Herb Alpert.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 2, Jan. 2005, pp 21-30. ________. “Knowledge Enhances All Gifts: An Interview with Eddie Henderson.” ITG Journal. June 2003, pp 39-48. ________. “Putting Melody First: An Interview with Vaughn Nark.” ITG Journal. Vol. 30, No. 4, June 2006, pp 30-37, 51. ________. “This Is What I Do: An Interview with Kenny Wheeler.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2001, p 26. Flaherty, Mark. “The Life and Music of Paul Wesley “Doc” Evans (1907-1977).” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 1, Oct. 2003, pp 47-54. Frink, Laurie. “Wilmer Wise: A Remarkable Life of Diversity.” ITG Journal. Vol. 30, No. 1, Oct. 2005, pp 39-42. Gallowey, H. Michael. “Ernst Albert Coururier: American Cornet Virtuoso.” ITG Journal. Vol. 14, May 1990, pp 4-56. Glover, Stephen L. “Armando Ghitalla—An Interview.” ITG Journal. Vol. 8, Feb. 1982, pp 7-12. Gorham, Charles. “A Tribute to Louis Davidson.” ITG Newsletter. May 1982, p 8. Grabowski, Randy. “Trumpeter to Composer: An Interview with Anthony Plog.” ITG Journal. Mar. 2003, p 44. Gustafson, Karen. “Marie Speziale: Performer, Teacher and Pioneer.” ITG Journal. June 2002, p 7. Hagstrom, John. “Interview with Adolph Herseth.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 2, Jan. 2004, pp 6-11. Hardin, Anne. “A Salute to Clifford P. Lillya (1910-1998).” ITG Journal. Sept. 1998, p 48. Harvison, Emery. “David Bilger: The New Face in Philly.” ITG Journal. Feb. 1995, p 42. Herforth, Harry, Adolph Herseth and Martin Lessen. “A Tribute to Georges Mager (1885-1950).” ITG Journal. Vol. 10, Dec. 1985, pp 14-16. Hickman, David R. “Herbert Lincoln Clarke—Boyhood Years.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 18, 1977, pp 13-18.

427 ________. “Herbert Lincoln Clarke—Crucial Years.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 19, 1977, pp 19-27. ________. “Herbert Lincoln Clarke—Early Professional Years.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 21, 1978, pp 27-32. ________. “Herbert Lincoln Clarke—His Career.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 22, 1978, pp 27-32. Hood, Al. “What a Wonderful World! Reflections of Ron Modell.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 4, June 2005, pp 19-28. Irish, John. “Crispian Steele-Perkins: The King’s Trumpeter.” ITG Journal. June 2003, pp 17-26. ________. “John Wallace: Reflections and New Beginnings.” ITG Journal. Vol 26, No. 2, Jan. 2002, pp 8-14. ________. “Konradin Groth: German Virtuoso.” ITG Journal. Vol. 25, No. 3, Mar. 2001, pp 38-44. ________. “Michael Brydenfelt: A Solo Career.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 4, June 2004, pp 19-25. ________. “Putting Music First: An Interview with John Miller.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 2, Jan. 2005, pp 15-20. ________. “Robert Nagel: A Freelance Career.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2001, p 8. Kaderabek, Frank. “The Life and Times of John R. Ware.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2003, p 26. La Barbara, John. “An Interview with Byron Stripling.” ITG Journal. Dec. 1995, p 34. ________. “Clark Terry: More Than Mumbles.” ITG Journal. Dec., 1994, p 36. ________. “Marvin Stamm: Every Day A New Adventure.” ITG Journal. Sept. 1998, p 36. ________. “Maynard Ferguson: The King.” ITG Journal. Mar. 2000, p 6. ________. “Shew Horn: An Interview with Bobby Shew.” ITG Journal. Feb. 1993, p 22. Laplace, Michael. “Masters of the Twentieth Century: Roger Delmotte.” ITG Journal. May 1984, p 12. Lewis, H. M. “Rafael Méndez: Trumpeter Extraordinaire.” ITG Journal. Vol. 4, May 1979, pp 13-16. ________. “Roger Voisin: An Orchestral Legend.” ITG Newsletter. 6, No. 2, Feb. 1980, pp 5-7. Lyren, Del. “Cornettos, Recorders and Trumpets, Oh My! An Interview with Allan Dean.” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 3, Mar. 2005, pp 23-30. Mathez, Jean-Pierre. “Arban—His First Twenty Years.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 9, 1974, pp 35-44.

428 ________. “Arban—The Beginning of His Career.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 10, 1975, pp 10-11; 13-14. ________. “Arban—Success.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 11, 1975, pp 9; 21-25. ________. “Arban—The Conflict.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 12, 1976, pp 15-17. ________. “Arban—The Arban-Cornet.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 13, 1976, pp 12-14. ________. “Arban—The Last Years of His Life.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 14, pp 3-7. ________. “Arban (1825-1889).” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 15, 1976, pp 15-25. ________. “Charles Schuleter: Principal Trumpet of the Boston Symphony Orchestra.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 69, 1990, pp 70-77. Meredith, Henry. “Bill Adam at 80, Still ‘Fired Up!’.” ITG Journal. Sept. 1998, p 52. Mortenson, Gary. “Remembering Timofei Alexandrovich Dokshizer (1921-2005).” ITG Journal. Vol. 29, No. 4, June 2005, pp 6-18. Morton, Paul. “Raymond Mase: Trumpet in Our Time.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2003, p 33. Neidig, Kenneth L. “Man Alive What A Kick This Is!: An Interview With Adolph “Bud” Herseth.” The Instrumentalist. 21, No. 9, Apr. 1977, pp 38-44. Nowicke, Carole. “Walter F. Smith, ‘The Star of the Band’.” ITG Journal. Oct. 2004, pp 48-56. Nussbaum, Jeffrey. “An Interview With Don L. Smithers.” ITG Journal. Vol. 13, No. 2, Dec. 1988, pp 11-20, 30. Raschella, John. “A Tribute to Frank Kaderabek: 42 Years of Great Music Making.” ITG Journal. Dec. 1996, p 5. Selianin, Anatoly. “Wilhelm Wurm (1826-1904).” ITG Journal. Feb. 1997, p 44. Sherman, Roger. “The Legacy of Bernard Adelstein.” ITG Journal. Vol. 13 Dec. 1988, pp 5-10. Shook, Brian. “William Vacchiano (1912-2005): A Tribute to His Life, Career, and Pedagogical Method.” ITG Journal. Mar. 2006, pp 6-16. Sielert, Vern. “An Interview with Tom Harrell.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 2, Jan. 2004, pp 17-24. Theurer, Britton. “Donald Bullock: In Memoriam.” ITG Journal. Dec. 1988, p 24. Tunnell, Michael. “Leon Rapier: A Tribute.” ITG Journal. Vol. 12, May 1988, pp 30-37. ________. “Remembering and Congratulating Bud Herseth on His 50th Season!” ITG Journal. Feb. 1998, p 27. Ulrich, Brad. “Paul Merkelo: Trumpeter for the 21st Century.” ITG Journal. May 1999, p 35.

429 Urness, John. “The Inquisitive Life of Dennis Najoom.” ITG Journal. Vol. 28, No. 3, Mar. 2004, pp 44-51. West, James. “An Interview with Roger Voisin.” ITG Newsletter. Feb. 1980, p 4. Whitaker, Donald R. “Timofei Dokshitzer: Russia’s Greatest Trumpet Virtuoso.” The Instrumentalist. 21, No. 9, Apr. 1977, p 56. Winking, Keith. “Jake [Don Jacoby].” ITG Journal. Dec. 1992, p 36. ________. “Ray Crisara: Teaching by Example.” ITG Journal. Mar., 2000, p 33. ________. “The Legacy of Ernest S. Williams.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2000, p 34. ________. “The Long Road to the Chicago Symphony: An Interview with Craig Morris.” ITG Journal. Jan. 2001, p 7.

MOUTHPIECES Bach, Vincent. Embouchure and Mouthpiece Manual. Mt. Vernon, NY: V. Bach Corp., 1954. ________. “How to Choose a Brass Mouthpiece.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 26, Jan. 1972, pp 32-34. ________, Renold Schilke, Traugott Rohner and Ted Evans. “Brass Mouthpieces— Standardization of Measurements, Materials, Selections, Variations.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 7, Nov.-Dec. 1952, pp 28-41. Deutsch, Maury. “Dimensional Characteristics of Trumpet/Cornet Mouthpieces.” Down Beat. Vol. 47, Apr. 1980, pp 68-69. Endsley, Gerald. Mouthpiece Comparitive Guide for Trumpet. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1992. Faulkner, Maurice. “Brass Mouthpieces.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 21, Mar. 1967, p 16. Fitzgerald, Bernard. “Problems Involved in Standardizing Brass Mouthpieces.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 7, May-June 1953, pp 24-26. Hallquist, Robert Eugene. A Comprehensive Study of the Effect of Various Mouthpieces on the Harmonic Content of Trumpet Tones. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1979. Haynie, John J. “On Selecting the Proper Mouthpiece.” Southwestern Brass Journal. Fall 1957, pp 17-27. Hickman, David R. “Culprit: The Cornet Mouthpiece.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 33, Dec. 1978, p 112. Hunt, Norman J. A Study of the Cup Mouthpiece with Special Reference to Dentofacial Irregularity. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University, unpublished Master’s thesis, 1948.

430 Kent, Earle and R. P. Lazure. “Studies of Cup-Mouthpiece Tone Quality.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. (abstract) Vol. 31, 1959, p 130. Libs, Jean Morehead. “The Perfect Match: Trumpet Meets Mouthpiece.” ITG Journal. Vol. 19, No. 2, Dec. 1994, p 42. Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997. Malek, Vincent F. “What is a Good Cornet or Trumpet Mouthpiece?” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 8, May 1954, pp 22-23. Schilke, Renold. “How to Select a Brass Mouthpiece.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 21, Dec 1966, pp 50-51. Stevens, Thomas. “The Trumpet in the U. S.: Gadgets [backbores].” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 33, 1981, p 41. Stork, John and Phyllis Stork. Understanding the Mouthpiece. Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1989. ________. “Trumpet Modifications and Repair: Brass Guidelines for Mouthpiece Selection.” ITG Journal. Vol. 11, No. 2, 1986, pp 34-37. Wilcox, Francis F. “Materials for Mouthpieces.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 12, Nov. 1957, pp 67-69.

TRUMPET DESIGN AND ACOUSTICS Aebi, Willi. The Horn and its Inner Acoustics. Chicago: The Schilke Company, [n. d.]. Bach, Vincent. “Problems in Intonation of Brass Instruments.” Symphony. Sept. 1950, pp 9-10. Backas, John. The Acoustical Foundation of Music. Second edition. NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1990. Beauchamp, James W. “Analysis and Synthesis of Cornet Tones Using Non-Linear Interharmonic Relationships.” Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. Vol. 23, No. 10, Oct. 1975, pp 778-795. Benade, Arthur. Horns, Strings and Harmony. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992. ________. “How to Test a Good Trumpet.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 31, Apr. 1977, pp 57-58. ________. “The Physics of Brasses.” Scientific American. July 1973, pp 24-35. Bloch, C. “The Bell-Tuned Trumpet.” Brass Bulletin. Vol. 28, 1979, p 35. Cooper, G. “The Perils of Equal Temperment.” ITG Journal. Vol. 9, No. 4, 1985, pp 32-39.

431 Dunnick, D. Kim. A Physical Comparison of the Tone Qualities of Four Different Brands of B-flat Trumpets with Respect to the Presence and Relative Strengths of Their Respective Partials. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, unpublished DMus. dissertation, 1980. Hall, Jody C. “Effect of the Oral and Pharyngeal Cavities on Trumpet Tone Quality,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 27, 1955, p 996. ________. and Earle Kent. The Effect of Temperature on the Tuning Standards of Wind Instruments. Elkhart, IN: C. G. Conn Corp., 1959. Hallquist, Robert E. A Comparitive Study of the Effect of Various Mouthpieces on the Harmonic Content of Trumpet Tones. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, unpublished PhD. dissertation, 1979. Kent, Earle. “Some Related Subjective and Objective Measurements on Cornet Tones.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 27, 1955, p 209. ________. The Inside Story of Brass Instruments. Elkhart, IN: C. G. Conn Corp., 1956. Knauss, H. P., and Yeager, W. J. “Vibrations of the Walls of a Cornet.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 13, 1941, pp 160-162. Kurka, Martin J. A Study of the Effects of Mutes on Wind Instruments. Fullerton, CA: F. E. Olds & Co., 1961. Leuba, Christopher. A Study of Musical Intonation. [Bellingham, WA]: Prospect Publications, 1962, revised 1980. Macaluso, Charles A. The Trumpet: Construction and Performance. Palm City, FL: Brass Technology Press, 1997. McGuffey, Patrick. “Brass Pitch in Depth.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 27, June 1968, p 34. Meyer, L. “Trumpet and Cornet Tone Quality.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 23, Jan. 1969, pp 6267. Moore, Thomas. “Why We Can’t Make A Perfectly Tuned Trumpet.” ITG Journal. Oct. 2005, p 64. Olson, R. Dale. “Brass Inside Bore.” The Instrumentalist. 17, Jan. 1963, pp 60-63. Poe, Gerald. “Basic Intonation Tendencies of the Trumpet-Cornet.” The School Musician. Vol. 49, May 1978, pp 70-71. Redfield, J. “Minimizing Discrepancies of Intonation in Valve Instruments.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 3, 1931-32, pp 292-296. Samuels, H. “How They Make a Hot Trumpet.” Popular Science. Vol. 171, Oct. 1957, pp 108113. Schilke, Renold. “Leader Pipe and its Function.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 12, May 1958, pp 26-27. ________. “Practical Physics for Trumpeters and Teachers.” The Instrumentalist. Vol. 31,

432 Apr. 1977, pp 45-48. ________. Schilke Brass Clinic: The Physics of Inner Brass—Acoustical Effects of Various Materials and Treatment. Chicago: Schilke Musical Products, 1978. Smith, Richard A. “Recent Developments in Trumpet Design.” ITG Journal. Vol. 3, 1978, pp 27-29. ________. “It’s All in the Bore!” ITG Journal. Vol. 12, No. 4, May 1988, pp 42-45. Webster, John C. “Internal Tuning Differences due to Player and the Taper of Trumpet Bells.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 21, 1949, pp 208-214. Webster, John C. “Intonation Errors due to Discontinuities in the Valve Mechanisms of Trumpets.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 26, 1954, pp 932-933. ________. “Trumpet Intonation Differences due to Bell Taper.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 20, 1948, p 588. Young, Robert W. “Dependence of Tuning of Wind Instruments on Temperature.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 17, 1946, pp 187-191.

GENERAL PEDAGOGICAL TEXTS Arban, J. B. L. Complete Conservatory Method for Cornet. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1982. Autry, Byron. Basic Guide to Trumpet Playing. Chicago: Cole, 1963. Bellamah, Joseph L. Brass Facts. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1960. ________. A Survey of Modern Brass Teaching Philosophies. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Co., 1976. Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005. Colin, Charles. The Brass Player. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1972. Dale, Delbert. Trumpet Technique. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1965. D’Ath, Norman. Cornet Playing. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1960. Davidson, Louis. Trumpet Techniques. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1970. Endsley, Gerald. Volume I. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1972. Farkas, Philip. The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Wind Music, Inc., 1962. Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. Chicago: Windsong Press, Ltd., 1996.

433 Gibson, Daryl Robert. A Textbook for Trumpet. Minneapolis, MN: Schmitt, Hall & McCreary, 1962. Grafmeyer, James Boyd. Trumpet. Denver, CO: James Grafmeyer, 1975. Hanson, Fay. Brass Playing: Mechanism and Technic. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968. Hickman, David R. “Embouchure Formation and Warming-Up.” Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vol. 1. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1991. ________. “Tone Production.” Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vol. 2. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1991. ________. “Embouchure Development.” Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vol. 3. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1991. ________. “Articulation and Finger Dexterity.” Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vol. 4. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1991. ________. “Psychology.” Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vol. 5. Denver, CO: Tromba Publications, 1991. Johnson, Keith. The Art of Trumpet Playing. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1981. Loubriel, Luis. Lasting Change for Trumpeters: The Pedagogical Approach of Arnold Jacobs as Applied to Trumpet Pedagogy and Performance. Chicago: Scholar Publications, 2006. Maxwell, Jim. The First Trumpeter. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1982. McGlaughlin, Clint. How the Chops Work. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 2002. ________. The Pros Talk Embouchure. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 2002. Méndez, Rafael. [and Edward Gibney]. Prelude to Brass Playing. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1961, 2005. Pilafian, Samuel and Patrick Sheridan. The Brass Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Music, 2005. ________. The Breathing Gym. [Chandler, AZ]: Focus on Excellence, 2002. Reinhardt, Donald S. Encyclopedia of the Pivot System. NY: Charles Colin Publications, [n. d.]. Sanborn, Chase. The Brass Tactics Companion. Toronto: Chase Sanborn, 1999. Sherman, Roger. The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Accura Music, 1979. Weast, Robert D. Brass Performance: An Analytical Text. NY: McGinnis & Marx, Publishers, 1961. ________. Keys to Natural Performance for Brass Players. Des Moines, IA: The Brass World, 1979. Whitener, Scott. A Complete Guide to Brass. NY: Schirmer Books, 1990.

434 TRUMPET METHODS Arban, J. B. L. Complete Conservatory Method for Cornet. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1982. Callet, Jerome. Brass Power and Endurance. Long Island, NY: Harold Branch Publishing Co., 1974. ________. Superchops. NY: Jerome Callet, 1987. ________. Trumpet Secrets, Vol. 1 [of the Tongue Controlled Embouchure]. Staten Island, NY: Jerome Callet, 2002. ________. Trumpet Yoga. NY: Charles Colin Publications, 1973. Caruso, Carmine. Musical Calisthenics for Brass. Miami, FL: Almo Publications, 1979. Clarke, Herbert L. Clarke Studies. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music Editions, 2005. Dokschidzer, Timofei. Trans. Wendy Thompson. Trumpet Method. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1994. Gordon, Claude. Physical Approach to Elementary Brass Playing. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1977. ________. Systematic Approach to Daily Practice. NY: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1976. Johnson, Walt. Double High C in Ten Minutes. Burbank, CA: Madajo Music Co., 1981. MacBeth, Carlton. The Original Louis Maggio System for Brass. North Hollywood, CA: Maggio Music, 1968, 1969, 1971, 1975. McLaughlin, Clint. Chop Builder. TX: Clint “Pops” McLaughlin, 2003. Quinque, Rolf. Atmung Stütze Ansatz Methode, Bks. 1-2. Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1981. Sandoval, Arturo. Playing Techniques & Performance Studies. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard, 1995. Smiley, Jeff. The Balanced Embouchure. Garland, TX: Jeff Smiley, 2001. Spaulding, Roger W. Double High C in 37 Weeks. Hollywood, CA: High Note Studios, 1963. Stamp, James. James Stamp Warm-Ups + Studies. Switzerland: Editions BIM, 1978, 1981. Thompson, James. The Buzzing Book. Switzerland: Editions BIM, 2001. Vizzutti, Allen. Trumpet Method, Bks. 1-3. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 1990.

435

APPENDIX 4

Resources MAGAZINES

Brass Band World The leading British brass band magazine. Articles and news about brass ensembles and competitions. Website: www.brassbandworld.co.uk Brass Bulletin A leading quarterly brass magazine with worldwide distribution. Text in English, French, and German. Began in 1971 and ended in 2003. Jean-Pierre Mathez, Owner and Editor. The Brass Herald A quarterly magazine published in Cambridge, UK that covers all areas of brass study and activities. Website: www.thebrassherald.com The Brass Player A quarterly newsletter with an annual journal. Contains interviews and articles concerning brass music and musicians. Alan Colin, Editor. Website: www.charlescolin.com Brass Quarterly A leading scholarly journal devoted to the history of brass instruments and music. (discontinued) The Brass World A magazine owned and edited by Robert Weast. Contains articles, record and music reviews, and other items of interest to brass players. Began in 1965 and discontinued in 1975. College Band Directors National Association A magazine provided to members of the CBDNA. Contains articles, literature reviews, and other items of interest to wind, brass, and percussion musicians. Website: www.cbdna.com DownBeat A magazine devoted to jazz music and jazz education. Contains articles and interviews with famous jazz musicians and educators. Website: www.downbeat.com

436 The Instrumentalist A monthly magazine for musicians and music educators. James T. Rohner, Editor. Website: www.instrumentalistmagazine.com The International Musician A monthly newspaper provided to members of the American Federation of Musicians. Contains articles, union news, and music vacancy notices. Website: www.internationalmusician.org Historical Brass Society An annual periodical containing scholarly articles on the history and music of brass instruments. Began in 1989. Back issues available. Website: www.historicbrass.org Journal of the Acoustical Society of America A leading source of theoretical and experimental research results in the broad interdisciplinary subject of sound. Published monthly. Website: http://asa.aip.org Journal of the International Trumpet Guild A quarterly magazine distributed to members of the ITG, a world-wide, non-profit organization of over 6,000 members from 64 countries. English only. The ITG began in 1974 “to promote communications among trumpet players around the world, and to improve the artistic level of performance, teaching, and literature associated with the trumpet.” Website: www.trumpetguild.org National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors A quarterly journal provided to members of NACWPI. Contains articles, literature reviews, and music vacancy announcements. Website: www.nacwpi.org Windplayer A magazine focusing on woodwind and brass. Website: www.windplayer.com International Association for Jazz Education Journal A bi-monthly magazine with articles about jazz performance and education, biographies of leading jazz musicians, news, and record reviews. Website: www.iaje.org Jazz Times Began in 1970 with the name Radio Free Jazz, the name was changed to Jazz Times in 1980. Ten issues annually. Contains news items, articles, and biographies of well-known jazz artists. Website: www.jazztimes.com

437 INTERNET SITES General: International Trumpet Guild

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www.trumpetguild.org

Patrick Hession

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www.hessionssessions.com

Brass Resources

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www.whc.net/rjones/brassrsc.html

Ole J. Utnes (O. J.’s Page)

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http://abel.hive.no/trumpet/links.html

Embouchures

—

www.embouchures.com

Bryan Goff’s Trumpet Tips

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http://mailer.fsu.edu/~bgoff/tpt-tips/tips.html

Clint “Pops” McLaughlin’s Trumpet College

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www.bbtrumpet.com

Trumpet Stuff

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www.trumpetstuff.com

Jazz Links

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http://riad.usk.pk.edu.pl/~pmj/jazzlinks

Eddie Lewis’ Trumpet Essays — www.eddielewis.com/trumpet/essays/impressions.htm

Historical: Cornet Compendium — www.angelfire.com/music2/thecornetcompendium Streitweiser Trumpet Museum

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www.trumpetmuseum.de/anf.htm

The Brass Players Museum

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www.neillins.com/brass.htm

Bad Säckingen Trumpet Museum

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www.trumpetmuseum.de

Antique Sound Workshop

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www.aswltd.com

Henry Meredith Historical Trumpet Exhibit — www.trumpetguild.org/conferences/conferences99/Wednesday/hank_gallery/index.htm Olds Trumpets

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http://rouses.net/trumpet/olds.htm

The Natural Trumpet Resource Page

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www.earlybrass.com/nattrump.htm

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http://tpin.okcu.edu

Discussion: Trumpet Players International Network

438 Trumpet Herald Brass Quintet

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www.trumpetherald.com

— http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/BrassQuintet

Trumpet Master

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www.trumpetmaster.com

Trumpet Geeks International

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www.trumpetgeek.com

Brass Forum—England

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www.brass-forum.co.uk

Brass Player Biographies

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www.indiana.edu/musicref/brasscd.htm

Ole J. Utnes Links to Trumpet Web Sites

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http://abel.hive.no/trumpet/links.html

Lists of Biography Links:

ORGANIZATIONS International Trumpet Guild A world-wide organization to promote communications among trumpet players around the world, and to improve the artistic level of performance, teaching, and literature associated with the trumpet. Members receive quarterly journals, special CDs, and other items. Annual conference. Over 6,000 members from 64 countries. Membership open to anyone. Website: www.trumpetguild.org College Music Society A consortium of college, conservatory, university, and independent musicians and scholars interested in all disciplines of music. Its mission is “to promote music teaching and learning, musical creativity and expression, research and dialogue, and diversity and interdisciplinary interaction.” Services include job vacancy notices, listings of faculty, listings of music organizations, news items, etc. Website: www.music.org MENC: The National Association for Music Education MENC’s mission is to advance music education by encouraging the study and making of music by all. Founded in 1907, membership is currently 120,000 teachers and students. Annual convention. Publishes magazines, books, and videos on music education. Website: www.menc.org International Association for Jazz Education The mission of the IAJE is to assure the continued world-wide growth and development of jazz and jazz education. Annual conference. Publishes journal. Website: www.iaje.org

439 National Federation of Music Clubs NFMC is a not-for-profit organization dedicated to music education and the promotion of creative and performing arts in America. Membership open to anyone. The organization represents 6,500 music clubs and organizations by supporting legislation on bills affecting the welfare of musicians, music education, and development of American musical life. Funds competitions. Publishes quarterly magazines. Website: www.nfmc-music.org Music Teachers National Association MTNA advances the value of music study and music making to society and supports the professionalism of music teachers. Sponsors state, regional, and national solo competitions for college students. Founded in 1876 by Theodore Presser, membership includes 24,000 independent and collegiate music teachers. Website: www.mtna.org National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors NACWPI is a forum for communication within the profession of applied music on the college campus. Membership open to college, university, and conservatory music students and faculty. Publishes journal. Website: www.nacwpi.org American Federation of Musicians A national music union for musicians working in the United States and Canada. Members join by registering with local AFofM unions. Annual dues vary by city. Over 100,000 members. Monthly newspaper includes articles, news concerning government activities affecting musicians, and listings of job openings. Website: www.afm.org Historical Brass Society A society dedicated to the study of the history of brass music and instruments. Activities include seminars and concerts. Publishes newsletter and journal. Website: www.historicbrass.org CBDNA The College Band Directors National Association started in 1941 under the leadership of William Revelli. The organization is devoted to enhancing communication among college band directors. Website: www.cbdna.org

LIBRARIES, COLLECTIONS AND MUSEUMS Trumpet Museum of Bad Säckingen Established in 1985, the Trumpet Museum contains the world’s largest collection of historical trumpets and materials relating to the history of the trumpet. Formerly directed by Dr. Edward Tarr. Funded by the city of Bad Säckingen in southern Germany. Website: www.trompetenmuseum.de

440 Streitweiser Trumpet Museum Trumpeter Franz Streitweiser displayed his collection of hundreds of trumpets and cornets in the Streitweiser Trumpet Museum near Philadelphia before moving the collection in 1995 to the Schloss Kremsegg, a castle in Kremsmunster, Austria. The materials and instruments are overseen by the Landesmusikdirektion, a state agency for music education in Upper Austria. Website: www.trumpetmuseum.de/anf.htm National Music Museum An outstanding museum of historical musical instruments including hundreds of trumpets and cornets. Located on the campus of The University of South Dakota in Vermillion, South Dakota. Website: www.usd.edu/smm ITG Archives The archives of the International Trumpet Guild include complete publications of the ITG, recordings of thousands of concerts and lectures from ITG conferences, research papers, published materials, and ITG business reports. Location: School of Music, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008. Rafael Méndez Library Established in 1993 at the School of Music of Arizona State University through the generous support of the sons of Rafael Méndez—Dr. Rafael G. Méndez Jr. and Dr. Robert Méndez. The library contains and displays hundreds of instruments, awards, recordings, photographs, concert programs, letters of correspondence, and articles concerning the legendary Hollywood trumpeter, Rafael Méndez. Operated by the Summit Brass. Shown by appointment only. Website: http://mendezlibrary.asu.edu The John Haynie Collection The John Haynie Collection contains thousands of trumpet and cornet solos, etudes, and method books once owned by University of North Texas’ Professor Emeritus, John J. Haynie. Housed in the music library at the University of North Texas in Denton. Kenneth G. Fiske Museum A fine collection of 1,400 musical instruments located at Claremont University in Claremont, California. The Civil War-era brass instrument collection is exceptional. Website: www.cuc.claremont.edu/fiske/trumpets.htm The Stephen L. Glover Historical Research Collection Owned by the Summit Brass and housed in the School of Music at Arizona State University, the Glover collection contains copies of hundreds of Baroque and Classical trumpet manuscripts. A large number of out-of-print books and articles are included. In addition, a complete set of all publications by The Brass Press is provided. Deutsches Museum A collection of historical musical instruments in Munich, Germany. Website: www.deutsches-museum.de/ausstell/dauer/musik/e_musik4.htm

441 The Louisiana State Museum Jazz Collection Contains historic instruments, music, and memorabilia of great New Orleans jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong. Many items have been relocated to Lafayette, Louisiana due to the flood from hurricane Katrina. Website: http://lsm.crt.state.la.us/collections/jazz.htm Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of American History Located at The Mall in Washington, DC. Over 5,000 musical instruments of American and European heritage. Website: www.americanhistory.si.edu Stockholm Music Museum Located in Stockholm, Sweden, the museum holds approximately 6,000 musical instruments and has the world’s finest collection of Swedish folk instruments. Website: www.musikmuseet.se Yale University Collection of Musical Instruments Over 1,000 musical instruments are displayed including a large collection of American brass instruments. Located on the campus of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Website: www.yale.edu/musicalinstruments Royal College of Music Museum of Instruments Located in London, England. Contains a collection of 800 instruments including trumpets donated by Crispian Steele-Perkins. Website: www.rcm.ac.uk Stearns Collection of Musical Instruments The University of Michigan’s Stearns Collection contains over 2,500 musical instruments and is considered to be one of the world’s finest music museums. Located in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Website: www.music.umich.edu/research/stearns_collection/index.htm Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Located in Vienna, Austria, this collection of ancient musical instruments houses numerous brass trumpets including Baroque trumpets made by Anton Schnitzer. Website: www.html.at/homeE3.html The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City’s Metropolitan Museum of Art contains an extensive collection of musical instruments designed to appeal to the eye and the ear. Among the brass instruments are some of the most beautiful presentation instruments ever made. Website: www.metmuseum.org/Works_Of_Art/department.asp?dep=18 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Located in Boston, Massachusetts, the museum includes a fine collection of musical instruments. Website: www.mfa.org

442 Brass Players Museum Over 90 historical brass instruments are displayed in Springfield, Massachusetts. The museum also buys and sells historical instruments. Website: http://neillins.com/brass.htm Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments Located in Edinburgh, Scotland. Over 1,000 items displayed including many rare brass instruments. Housed in Reid Concert Hall. A computer program displays and sound recordings of the instruments, including performances by trumpeter Crispian SteelePerkins. Website: www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi Musikmuseum Historisches Museum Basel Located in Basel, Switzerland. The museum holds an extensive collection of over 650 musical instruments including rare brass instruments from the Baroque period. Website: www.hmb.ch/de.html The Bate Collection A fine collection of Western Culture musical instruments from the Medieval period to the present. Archives include papers by Bate, Blandford, Morley-Pegge, and Retford, plus many original tutors for brass. Located in Oxford, England. Website: www.bate.ox.ac.uk The Herbert L. Clarke Library and Collection Housed in the Department of Bands at the University of Illinois in Urbana, the library contains cornets, original music compositions, photographs, and memorabilia of the legendary cornetist, Herbert L. Clarke. Shown by appointment only. Website: www.bands.uiuc.edu/home/band_bldg.htm The John Philip Sousa Archives for Band Research A large display of personal items and awards owned by the great conductor, John Philip Sousa. Photographs document the members of the Sousa Band including cornetists Herbert L. Clarke, Ben Bent, Frank Simon, Del Staigers, Walter Rogers, and many others. Housed at the University of Illinois next to the Herbert L. Clarke Library. Shown by appointment only. Website: www.bands.uiuc.edu/home/band_bldg.htm The Carl Busch Historic Instrument Collection Adjacent to the John Philip Sousa Collection above, the Carl Busch Historic Instrument Collection contains numerous nineteenth century cornets and presentation keyed bugles. Shown by appointment only. Website: www.bands.uiuc.edu/home/band_bldg.htm

MAIL ORDER MUSIC DISTRIBUTORS Robert King Music Sales

140 Main Street North Easton, Massachusetts 02356 www.rkingmusic.com

443

Sheet Music Service

810 S.E. Sherman Street Portland, Oregon 97214 www.sheetmusicservice.com

Stanton’s Sheet Music

330 S. 4th Street Columbus, Ohio 43215 www.stantons.com

Theodore Front Musical Literature

16122 Cohasset Street Van Nuys, California 91406 www.tfront.com

Music Mart

3301 Carlisle Blvd., N.E. Albuquerque, New Mexico 87110 www.musicmart.com

Dillon Music

325 Fulton Street Woodbridge, New Jersey 07095 www.dillonmusic.com

Hickey’s Music Center

104 Adams Street Ithaca, New York 14850 www.hickeys.com

Thompson Music

1120 N. 205th Street, Suite 3 Elkhorn, Nebraska 68022 www.thompsonmusic.com

Spaeth/Schmid Blechbläsernoten GbR

Lise-Meitner-Str. 9 Nagold, Germany D-72202 www.spaeth-schmid.de

Menchey Music Service, Inc.

80 Wetzel Drive Hanover, Pennsylvania 17331 www.menchey.com

Southern Ohio Music Company

927 Summit Avenue Cincinnati, Ohio 45204 www.somusic.com

description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

HH 820: Over-the-shoulder soprano in E-flat; German silver; "ISAAC FISKE MAKER, WORCHESTER, MASS"; ca. 185060; 4 valves; The additional valve for the little finger is a half step ascending valve to improve the intonation. (Catalog number and

HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—FISKE SOPRANO IN E-FLAT

444

445 Ballad horn APPENDIX 5 Bamboo trumpet Bankia

Bombardino Borija Bosine Boukina Box trumpet Buburé The following list of labio-aerophones (lip-energized air horns)Bucca contains nearly all names of instruments belonging to the brass family. Some of the names refer toBuccina the same instrument (e.g. “Alpenhorn” and “Alp-horn”) and many names are archaic. The author wishes to thank Daniel Buccina surda Thrower for providing the large majority of names for the list.

List of Names of Labio-aerophones

Acherhorn Aereae tubae Aida trumpet Aida-Trompete Alp horn Alp-horn Alpenhorn Alphorn Alpine horn Alt Flügelhorn Alt-horn Altkornett Alto cornet Alto flugelhorn Alto horn Alto ophicleide Alto saxhorn Alto trombone Alto trumpet Alto tuba Amakondere American trombone Amor-schall Amorschall Anafil Añafil Anifir Appollino Araine Arupepe Assosra Azrag Bach trumpet

Ballad Horn Bamboo trumpet Bankia Baqa Baritone Baritone saxhorn Baritone tuba Baritono Bark trumpet Barocktrompete Baroque trumpet Barytone Bass à pistons Bass bugle Bass Cornet Bass horn Bass keyed trumpet Bass saxhorn Bass trombone Bass trumpet Bass-trompete Bass tuba Basse à pistons Basse-cor Basse trompette Basshorn Basso-tuba Basson russe Basstrompete Basszink Bersag horn Bersaglieri bugle Bocina

Bombardon Boukina Box trumpet Buburé Bucca Buccina Buccina surda Buccine Büchel Bucina Bucium Bügelhorn Bugle Bugle à clefs Bugle à pistons Bugle alto Bugle-horn Bugle ténor Bugle-trumpet Buisine Buk Bukke-horn Bukkehorn Buq Buq-al-nafir Buqat Buri Busine Busîne Busone Busûne Buysine Buzaun

446 Cane trumpet Cano Carnyx Cassis Cavalry trumpet Cernix Cha chiao Chatzotzrah Chazozrah Chnoue Cimbasso Circular trumpet Civil War bugle Clairon Clarasius Claret Clareta Clarim Clarín Clarino Clario Clarion Claritte Claro Claron Claronceau Clarone Classical F trumpet Clavi-cor Clavicor Clavitube Cnophe Coach horn Coiled trumpet Conch Conch horn Conch trumpet Contra-bombardon Contrabass trombone Contrabass tuba Contralto saxhorn Contrebass à pistons Cor Cor-a-pistons Cor à clef Cor à doigts

Cor alto Cor basso Cor de chasse Cor d’olifant Cor omnitonique Cor sarrazinois Cor tenore Corne Corne du chasse Corne par force Cornet Cornet a bouquin Cornet-à-pistons Cornet de post Cornet d’harmonie Cornet ordinaire Cornet simple Corneta Cornetín Corneto Cornett Cornetta Cornetta a chiavi Cornetta segnale Cornettino Cornetto Cornetto bianco Cornetto curvo Cornetto diritto Cornetto muto Corno Corno da tirarsi Corno di caccia Corno di chasse Corno di pastore Corno di posta Corno Kenth Corno pastoritio Corno silvano Corno torto Corno ventile Cornon Cornone Cornopean Cornophone Cornu

Cornua Coronation trumpet Cors crocus Crook bugle Cuerno Cuerno de caza Curved buisine Curved cornet Dautite Davui Demilune trumpet Descant horn Didgeridoo Didjeridu Discant trombone Dokaku Dopplehorn Double-bass trombone Double-bell trumpet Double flageolet Double horn Double sackbut Double-slide trombone Double-trumpet Doublophone Draucht trumpet Dun Dung Dung-chen Duplex trumpet/cornet Duty horn Duty trumpet Echo cornet Echo trumpet Egyptian trumpet Elephant tusk horn Emboliclave Eng’ombe English basshorn English slide trumpet Eufonio Euphonio Euphonium F horn Faluo Fanfare trumpet

447 Feldtrompete Felt-trumet Field trumpet Fiscorno Fiscorno tenor Flat trumpet Flatt trumpet Flicorno Flicorno alto Flicorno soprano Flicorno tenore Fluba Flügel horn Flugel horn Flügelhorn Flugelhorn Flumpet Frumpet French horn French slide trumpet French trombone Fuf Fürst-Pless horn Fusus Gashi Gekrümmten Gerader zink German horn Graile Graisle Greiselhorn Grifflochhorn Gross jagd horn Großzink Grüselhorn Hai lo Halbmond Hand-horn Hanoverian bugle Hao t’ung Harmonic trumpet Harschhorn Harsthorn Hasosra Hazozerah Hebrew trumpet

Heerhorn Helicon Herald trumpet Heritrumba Hibernicorn Hifthorn Hirschrufhörn Hochflügelhorn Holz-trompete Holzern trommet Hoorn Hora Horagai Horn Hornet Horntrumba Htztsrth Huchet Hunting horn Imphalamphala Infantry cornet Infantry trumpet Invention horn Invention trumpet Inventions-tromba Inventionshorn Inventionstrompete Ja Jagdhorn Jäger trommet Jägerhorn Jakthorn Jazz trompete Jazz trumpet Jegerhorn Jewish trumpet Jobel Kaiserbässe Kaisertuba Kakaki Karna Karnai Karnykes Kárnykes Karnyx Kavallerietrompete

Kele’a Kenthorn Kent bugle Kent horn Keren Kerena Kereney Key bugle Key trumpet Keyed bugle Keyed serpent Keyed trumpet Klappenflügelhorn Klappenflügel Klappenhorn Klappentrompete Kleinzink Klempners alptraum Klephoorn Kodon Kombu Kontrabass tuba Kornet Kornett Kräuselhorn Krummer zink Kudu-horn Lama trumpet Längstuba Lesní roh Liti Lituum Alpinum Lituus Looped horn Lur Luur Lysarden Lyzard Mabu Makondere Medic trumpet Medieval horn Medieval trumpet Mellophone Military posthorn Miniatur-Trompete

448 Mini-Liberty trumpet Miraphone Molimo Mute cornett Müttel horn Nafir Nafiri Naga cane trumpet Nakkara khana Narsinga Naturtrompete Natural horn Natural trumpet Ndumbu Octav-posaune Octavtrompetina Olifant Omnitonic horn Ophecleide Ophecleide monstre Ophi-barytone Ophibarytone Ophicleide Ophicléide Ophicléide à pistons Ophimonocléïde Orchestertrompete Orchestral horn Organisirte trompete Over-the-shoulder horn Over-the-shoulder trumpet Parforce horn Permutation trumpet Petit cornet Pfeifer trumpet Piccolo-Trompete Piccolo trumpet Piston Pistonkornett Pocket cornet Pocket trumpet Posaune Post-horn Posthorn Post trumpet Posttrompete

Prillar horn Primhorn Probehorn Pukku Pungacuqua Pusine Pusune Quarter-tone trumpet Quinteclave Quinticlave Quinti-tuba Quiquiztli Radius omnitonic horn Rag dung Rampone Rana-çringa Rana sringa Ranásrnga Rapa Rapal Reformierte Trompete Regent’s bugle Regimental bugle Renaissance trumpet Rkang-gling Rog Rojok Roman trumpet Roman tuba Rotary trumpet Rotary-valve flugelhorn Rotary-valve trumpet Royal Kent bugle Royal trumpet Rozhok Rüden horn Russian bassoon Russian cornet Russian horn Sacabuche Sacbud Sacbut Sackbote Sackbut Sacqueboute Sagbut

Sagbutt Salpinx Salpinxathina Sankh Sankha Saqueboute Saquebute Saxhorn Saxhorn baritone Saxhorn basse Saxhorn contrebasse Saxotromba Saxtromba Sax-tuba Saxtuba Saykebud Schlangen Serpent Serpent basson Serpent d’église Serpent droit Serpent forveille Serpent militaire Serpentone Sh-n-b Shackebutte Shagbolt Shagbushe Shell horn Shell trumpet Shepherd’s crook cornet Shepherd’s horn Shew horn Shofar Si-im Side-blown trumpet Signal trumpet Signalhorn Signaltrompete Single horn Slide bugle Slide trumpet Snb Sonorophone Sopran-cornett Sopranino saxhorn

449 Sopranino trumpet Soprano cornet Soprano flugelhorn Soprano keyed bugle Soprano saxhorn Soprano trombone Soprano tuba Sousaphone Spielzeugtrompete Stiller zink Stopped trumpet Straight buisine Straight horn Straight post horn Straight trumpet Stringa Strombus Sub-bass tuba Sub-contra tuba Sub-contrabass tuba Super-bone Tandem horn Tapáe Taratantara Taschenkornett Tasu taure Tecciztli Ténor Ténor-base trombone Ténorbasshorn Ténor cor Ténor cornett Ténor flugelhorn Ténor horn Ténor saxhorn Ténor-trompette Ténor-trompet-enbass Ténor tuba Ténor Wagner tuba Ténorbass posaune Tepuzquiquiztli Thighbone trumpet Tibetan lama trumpet Tirucinnam Toppelt pusaune Touba

Toy trumpet Transverse trumpet Tre Treble trombone Trembita Triple horn Triton Triton tritonis Tromba Tromba a chiavi Tromba brevis Tromba corva Tromba da caccia Tromba da tirarsi Tromba di posta Tromba doppia Tromba piccola Tromba silvana Tromba spezzata Trombe Trombeta Trombeta a tirarsi Trombetti Trombita Trombone Trombone a tirarsi Trombone a tiro Trombone à coulisse Trompa Trompe Trompe antique Trompe de chasse Trompe de Lorraine Trompet Trompeta Trompeta bastarda Trompeta morisca Trompete Trompetta Trompette Trompette à clef Trompette d’ordonnance Trompette demi-lune Trompette harmonique Trompette rompue Trompette-saicqueboute

Tropanno Trumb Trumba Trumet Trummet Trump Trumpa Trumpattis Trumpet Trumpetina Trutruca Tuba Tuba campestris Tuba directa Tuba ductilis Tubecta Turbinella rapa Turmerhorn Turya Tyrrhenica tuba Upright serpent Vadaszkürt Valtorne Valve horn Valve trombone Vented trumpet Ventilhorn Ventilkornett Ventiltrompete Vertical wooden trumpet Vienna horn Vulgo sacbottum Wagner-tuba Wagnerian tuba Waldhoorn Waldhorn War trumpet Weir trumpattis Wetterhorn Wooden trumpet Wunderhorn Yidaki Zinck Zing Zink Zinke

450 Zugposanne Zug-trompete

Zug Trompete Zugkornett

Zugtrompete Zug-Ventiltrompete

451

APPENDIX 6

A Partial Listing of Natural Trumpet Makers The Baroque Trumpet Shop —

724 Pollack Street New Bern, North Carolina 28562 336-793-0976 www.baroquetrumpet.com

Egger Brass Instruments

—

Turnerstrasse 32 CH-4058 Basel Switzerland +41 (0) 61-681-4233 www.eggerinstruments.ch

Endsley Brass

—

2253 Bellaire Street Denver, Colorado 80207 303-322-8608 www.dmamusic.org/tromba/endsleybrass.html

Finke Horns

—

Finke GmbH & Co. Industriestr. 17 32602 Viotho-Exter Germany +49 (0) 5228-323 www.finkehorns.de

Maller Baroque Brass Instruments

—

1243 Church Street Northbrook, Illinois 60062 847-509-1901 www.mallerbbi.com

Naumann Trumpets

—

4520 James Place Melrose Place, Illinois 60160 708-343-8858 www.baroquetrumpet.com/naumann.htm

Francisco Pérez

—

C/. Alemania 14 - 5˚ C 03003 Alicante Spain +34 (0) 657 682 872 www.baroque-trumpets.com

John Webb Natural Trumpets —

Padbrook, Chaddington Lane Bincknoll, Wootton Bassett Wiltshire SN4 8QR England +44 (0) 1793-853-171 http://members.aol.com/wwwebbrass/natural_ trumpets.htm

452 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—CORNET IN B-FLAT

HH 645: Cornet in B-flat; unsigned, matches a model in the 1885 catalog of the dealer and importer Alfred Squire. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

453

APPENDIX 7

A Partial Listing of Trumpet Makers Gebr. Alexander Mainz

—

Bahnhofstrasse 9 55116 Mainz, Germany +49 (0) 6131/2880 80 www.musik-alexander.de

Amati-Denak

—

Dukeská 44 Kraslice, Czech Republic +420-352-686-531 www.amati.cz

B & S Challenger Trumpets —

Vogtländische Musikinstrumentenfabric GmbH Markneukirchen Gewerbepark 13 D-08258 Markeukirchen Germany +49 (0) 374 22 5810 www.challenger-trumpets.com

Bach Company

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Peter Baumann Blechblasinstrumente bau

—

Kampenwandstrasse 71a D-83299 Aschau/Chiemgau Germany +49 (0) 8052-5311 www.blechblasinstrumente.de

Beck Music

—

Metzinger Str. 49 72581 Dettingen/Erms Germany +49 (0) 7123-972-775 www.musikbeck.de

Benge

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Besson Musical Instruments —

Number One, Blackmoor Lane Croxley Business Park Watford, Hertfordshire WD18 8GA United Kingdom 01923-659-700 www.besson.com/contact.asp

454 Blackburn Trumpets

—

1593 Highway 30W Decatur, Tennessee 37322 423-745-7337 www.blackburntrumpets.com

Brass Sound Creation Trumpets

—

L-6687 Mertert Luxembourg ++352-021-742-101 http://hometown.aol.com/Bsckato

Calicchio Trumpets

—

1320 E. 58th Street Tulsa, Oklahoma 74105 918-743-4922 www.calicchio.com

Jerome Callet Trumpets

—

3276 Buford Drive Suite 104 #357 Buford, Georgia 30519 404-316-4072 www.callet.com

Cannonball Musical Instr.

—

625 East Sego Lily Drive Sandy, Utah 84070 801-563-3081 www.cannonballmusic.com

Capitol Music

—

3834 Harrison Road Montgomery, Alabama 36109 334-277-9990 www.capitolmusicusa.com/darbytrumpet.html

Chicago Brass Works

—

101 N. Hickory Avenue Arlington Heights, Illinois 60004 (phone number not available) www.chicagobrassworks.com/default.htm

C. G. Conn

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Antoine Courtois Paris

—

104 Rue Bretonneau—B.P. 341 37400 Ambrose Cédex France (phone number not available) www.courtois-paris.com

455 Eclipse.uk Trumpets

—

First Class Brass, Ltd. Unit 9, Brittania Estate Leagrove Road Luton, Bedforshire England LU3 1RJ +44 (0) 1582-483-881 www.eclipsetrumpets.com

Edwards Instrument Co.

—

530 South Hwy H Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 262-723-4221 www.edwards-instruments.com

Exbrass GmbH

—

Dirlewanger Ring 4 D-76889 Steinfeld Germany 06-340-919-435 www.exbrass.de

Freebell Instruments

—

Futtestr. 4 66111 Saarbrücken Germany +49 (0) 681-938-5338 www.freebell.de/en/

Galileo Metallblasinstrumente —

Fritz-Reichle-Ring 28 78315 Rodolfzell Germany +49 (0) 7732-972-236 www.galileo-brass.de

Getzen Company

—

530 S. City Highway H P. O. Box 440 Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 262-723-4221 www.getzen.com

Gronitz Trompete

—

Haydnstrasse 10 22761 Hamburg Germany +49 (0) 40 891 649 www.gronitztuba.de

Haagston Brassinstruments

—

A-3350 Stadt Haag Stummerstrasse 3 Austria +43 (0) 7434-43913-0 www.haagston.at

Harrelson Modified Trumpets —

24 Second Street West Waconia, Minnesota 55387 952-442-8789 www.harrelsontrumpets.com

456 Holton

—

Inderbinen Blasinstrumente

—

Jupiter Band Instruments

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com Aarauestrasse 9 5033 Buchs, AG +41 (0) 62 822 8328 www.inderbinen.com P. O. Box 90249 Austin, Texas 78709 800-283-4676 www.jupitermusic.com

Kanstul Musical Instruments —

1332 S. Claudina Anaheim, California 92805 714-563-1000 www.kanstul.net

King

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Kordick Brass Instruments

—

Herzogstrasse 6 D-94566 Riedhütte Germany +49 (0) 8553-920-656 www.kordick.com

Ken Larson’s Brasswerks

—

P. O. Box 51 Interlochen, Michigan 49643 231-947-2925 www.brasswerks.com

J. Landress Brass

—

163 W. 48th Street New York, New York 10036 516-521-7101 www.jlandressbrass.com

Laskey Trumpets

—

270 N. Eisenhower Lane Suite 8 Lombard, Illinois 60148 630-889-2188 www.laskey.com

Roy Lawler Trumpets

—

131 Short Creek Road Decatur, Tennessee 37322 423-334-2112 www.lawlertrumpets.com.index.html

457 G. LeBlanc

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Lechner

—

Gaisbergsiedlung 7 A 5500 Bischofshofen Austria +43 (0) 6462-2338 www.musik-lechner.com

Josef Lídl Brass Instruments —

Lídl Music s.r.o. Zelny trh 10 602 00 Brno Czech Republic +42 (0) 542-216-358 www.lidlmusic.cz

Marcinkiewicz Company

—

593 SE First Avenue Canby, Oregon 97013 503-263-2456 www.marcinkiewicz.com

Miles Trumpets

—

10270 Spartan Drive #K Cincinnati, Ohio 45215 513-771-1139 www.milestrumpets.com

Martin

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

David G. Monette Corp.

—

6918 NE 79th Court Portland, Oregon 97218 503-255-5593 www.monette.net

Flip Oakes “Wild Thing” Trumpets

—

2559 Mottino Drive Oceanside, California 92056 760-643-1501 www.flipoakes.com

PJLA Music (Phaeton)

—

22159 N. Pepper Road P. O. Box 550 Barrington, Illinois 60010 847-382-3212 www.pjlamusic.com

458 Anton Possegger

—

Dellach 62 A-9872 Millstatt Austria +43 (0) 4766 3420 http://members.aon.at/possegger

Schagerl

—

Bergweg 6 92348 Berg-Unterrohrenstadt Germany +49 (0) 9189-9563 www.schagerl.at

Scherzer Trumpets

—

Vogtländische Musikinstrumentenfabric Gewerbepark 13 D-08528 Markneukirchen Germany +49 (0) 374-22-2090 www.scherzer-trumpets.com

Schilke Music Products

—

4520 James Place Melrose Park, Illinois 60160 708-343-8858 www.schilkemusic.com

Martin Schmidt

—

Benkerstrasse 11 D-14467 Potsdam Germany +49 (0) 331-295-078 www.martin-schmidt-potsdam.de

Scodwell Trumpets

—

dealer information: Washington Music www.washingtonmusic.com/scodwell.asp

Henri Selmer Paris

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Severinsen Custom Trumpets —

(address not available) 619-582-8007 www.docseverinsen.com

Smith-Watkins Brass

—

(address not available) 0870-350-1678 www.smithwatkins.com

Sonaré

—

1 Clock Tower Place Suite 300 Maynard, Massachusetts 01754 978-461-6111 www.sonarewinds.com

459 Musik Spiri

—

St. Georgenstrasse 52 8400 Winterhur Austria +41 (0) 52-213-2455 www.spiri.ch/default.htm

Straub Trumpets

—

D-88239 Wangen—Primisweiler Germany +49 (0) 75-28-6937 www.straub-trumpets.com

Stomvi

—

Antonio Mollé Street No. 10 46920 Mislata Valencia, Spain +34 (0) 963-790-657

Storm Trumpets

—

P. O. Box 95 Macquarie Fields NSW 2564 Australia +61 (0) 2 9829 4921 www.stormtrumpets.com

Taylor Trumpets

—

Unit 3, Elvin Way Sweetbriar Ind. Estate Norwich NR3 2BB United Kingdom +44 (0) 1603-417-436 www.taylortrumpets.com

Thein Bros.

—

Rembertiring 40 D-28203 Bremen Germany +49 (0) 421 325 693 www.thein-brass.de

Tombstone Trumpet Co.

—

15471 W. Port Royale Lane Surprise, Arizona 85379 623-218-6019 www.tombstonetrumpetcompany.com

Van Cleave Trumpets

—

(address not available) 260-918-3396 http://vancleavetrumpets.com

Hub van Laar Trumpets & Flugelhorns

—

Termaar 5 6269 AE MargrAten, The Netherlands +31 (0) 43-458-2841 www.hubvanlaar.nl

460 Wedgwood Brass

—

37 Broadway Cardiff, CF24 1QE Wales, United Kingdom +44 (0) 29-204-609-20 www.deniswedgwood.com

Weril (USA distribution)

—

D.E.G. Music Products N3475 Springfield Road Lake Geneva, Wisconsin 53147 800-558-9416 www.weril.com./us/index.asp

E. M. Winston Band Instruments of Boston

—

3323 Merritt Avenue Bronx, New York 10475 718-231-4870 www.emwinston.com

Willson Band Instruments

—

Industriestr. 5 CH-8890 Flums Switzerland +41 (0) 81-733-1478 www.swissprofi.ch/willson

Yamaha Corp. of America

—

6600 Orangethorpe Avenue Buena Park, California 96620 714-522-9011 www.yamaha.com

461

APPENDIX 8

Partial Listing of Mouthpiece Manufacturers Bach Mouthpieces

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.bachbrass.com/content/accessories/ details.php?match_id=2

Benterfa Mouthpieces

—

Stomvi-Honiba C/. Antonio Molle, 10 4 6920 Mislata Valencia, Spain +34 (0) 6 379 06 57 http://members.aol.com/benterfa

Blackburn Mouthpieces

—

1593 Highway 30W Decatur, Tennessee 37322 423-745-7337 www.blackburntrumpets.com/home.html

Bob Reeves Mouthpieces

—

Bob Reeves Brass Products 25574 W. Rye Canyon Road, Suite D Valencia, California 91355 661-775-8820 www.bobreeves.com

Breslmair Mouthpieces

—

Halterzeile 25 2453 Sornmerein Germany 0 2168/626 53 www.breslmair.at/index_e.htm

Callet Mouthpieces

—

3276 Buford Drive Suite 104 #357 Buford, Georgia 30519 404-316-4072 www.callet.com

Conn-Selmer Mouthpieces

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.cgconn.com/content/ckb.php

462 Curry Precision Mouthpieces —

(address not available) [email protected] 775-425-6195 www.currympc.com

Edwards Mouthpieces

—

530 South Hwy. H Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 262-723-4221 www.edwards.instruments.co.uk/ trumpet/mps02.shtml

Endsley Brass

—

2253 Bellaire Street Denver, Colorado 80207 303-388-0183 www.dmamusic.org/tromba/endsleybrass.html

Fokus Mouthpieces

—

P. O. Box 1134 Escondido, California 92033 [email protected] www.fokusmouthpieces.com

GW Mouthpieces

—

(address not available) 253-381-8346 www.gwmouthpiece.com

Giardinelli Mouthpieces

—

Giardinelli Band Instrument Company P. O. Box 4640 Medford, Oregon 97501 800-249-8361 www.giardinelli.com

GR Mouthpieces

—

GR Technolgies, LLC Box 96 Dousman, Wisconsin 53118 705-715-7060 www.grmouthpieces.com

Greg Black Mouthpieces

—

623 Eagle Rock Avenue PMB #127 West Orange, New Jersey 07052 973-736-4997 www.gregblackmouthpieces.com

Hammond Design

—

3700 Sandra Street Franklin Park, Illinois 60131 847-288-0242 www.karlhammonddesign.com

Houser Mouthpieces

—

10 Clyston Circle Rural Route #2 Norristown, Pennsylvania 19403 484-997-1056 www.housermouthpiece.com

463 Jaztex Mouthpieces

—

Taylor Trumpets Unit 3, Elvin Way Sweetbriar Industrial Estate Norwich NR3 2BB United Kingdon +44 (0) 1603 417 436 www.taylortrumpets.com/frameset.html

Jerwyn Mouthpieces

—

Bill Lewington, Ltd. Unit 8, Hornsby Square Southfields Industrial Park Laindon, Essex SS15 6SD United Kingdom +44 (0) 1268 413 366 [email protected] www.bill-lewington.com/jerwyn.htm

Jet-Tone Mouthpieces

—

P. O. Box 1462 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 574-288-1080 www.jet-tone.com

John Lynch Asymmetric

—

6716 Candy Lane Vermillion, Ohio 44089 440-967-1470 www.asymetric-mouthpiece.com

Kelly Mouthpieces

—

674 S. Pioneer Road Fond Du Lac, Wisconsin 54935 920-922-9888 www.kellymouthpieces.com

The Laskey Company

—

270 N. Eisenhower Lane, Suite 8 Lombard, Illinois 60148 630-889-2188 www.laskey.com

Mad Max Mouthpieces

—

(no address) (no phone number) www.bestproducts.com

Marcincowicz Mouthpieces

—

593 SE 1st Avenue Canby, Oregon 97013 503-263-2456 www.marcinkiewicz.com/mouthpieces

Monette Mouthpieces

—

6918 NE 79th Court Portland, Oregon 97218 503-255-5552 www.monette.net/newsite/mouthpieces_ trumpet_intro.htm

464 Najoom Mouthpieces

—

577 W16157 Mariner Court Muskego, Wisconsin 53150 414-422-1612 www.najoom.com/mouthpieces.htm

Parduba Mouthpieces

—

(no address) 800-PARDUBA www.parduba.com/price.html

Parke Mouthpieces

—

P. O. Box 541 Yucca Valley, California 92286 760-365-5393 www.parke.com

Rudy Muck Mouthpieces

—

(no address) www.music123.com/Rudy-Muckp2134773522.music

Schilke Music Products

—

4520 James Place Melrose Park, Illinois 60160 708-343-8858 www.schilkemusic.com

Stomvi Mouthpieces

—

Stomvi-Honiba C/. Antonio Molle, 10 4 6920 Mislata Valencia, Spain +34 (0) 6 379 06 57 www.stomvi.com

Stork Mouthpieces

—

160 Holt Road Plainfield, Vermont 05667 802-454-1004 www.storkcustom.com

Ted Sparx Mouthpieces

—

1571 Sandhurst Circle Box 63518 Toronto, Ontario M1V 5K2 Canada 416-262-8155 www.sparxmusic.com

Tottle Mouthpieces

—

Tottle/Diorio Brass Mouthpieces 223 Pocasset Avenue Providence, Rhode Island 02909 401-944-6660 www.tottlebrass.com

Warburton Music Products

—

418 Geneva Drive Oviedo, Florida 32765 407-366-1991 www.warburton-usa.com

465 Wild Thing Mouthpieces

—

Flip Oakes 2559 Mottino Drive Oceanside, California 92056 www.flipoakes.com/mouthpieces.htm

Zottola Mouthpieces

—

A & G Music Company 564 14th Street Oakland, California 94612 800-727-3822 www.zottolamouthpieces.com

466 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—ECHO BELL TRUMPET IN B-FLAT

HH 336: Trumpet in B-flat; Made in Cologne or Markneukirchen; ca. 1890-1900; Cologne type with "Neukölner Druckwerk" and an echo bell model that was invented by Friedrich Adolf Schmidt in Cologne in 1859; silver plated. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

467

APPENDIX 9

A Partial Listing of Mute Manufacturers Bach

—

Conn-Selmer 600 Industrial Parkway P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

B. B. Mutes

—

information not available

Balu Mutes

—

2639 Central Avenue #X-2 Memphis, Tennessee 38104 901-517-7226 www.ionbalu.com

Brasserie Hamburg

—

Koppel 94 20099 Hamburg Germany +49 (0) 040-243-728 www.brasseriehamburg.de

Brasswind Liberty Mutes

—

Pro Tec 1340 S. Manhattan Avenue Fullerton, California 92831 714-441-0114 www.ptcases.com

Dem-Bro Mutes

—

Middenstraat 14 9914AW Loppersum The Netherlands +31 (0) 596-573-076 www.dembro.nl

EZ Bucket Mute

—

made by Humes & Berg (see below)

Peter Gane Mutes

—

information not available

Holton

—

Conn-Selmer 600 Industrial Parkway P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.gleblanc.com

468 Humes & Berg

—

Humes & Berg Mfg. Co., Inc. 4801 Railroad Avenue East Chicago, Indiana 46312 219-397-1980 www.humes-berg.com

Walt Johnson Mutes

—

(address not available) (telephone number not available) http://johnsoncases.com

Jo-Ral Mutes

—

P. O. Box 597 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 574-288-1263 www.jo-ral.com

G. Leblanc

—

Conn-Selmer 600 Industrial Parkway P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.gleblanc.com

MHT

—

Mutec, Inc. (address not available) (telephone number not available) www.hornmutes.com

P & H Mutes

—

information not available (for dealer, see: www.johnpacker.co.uk)

Peacemaker

—

information not available (for dealer, see: www.bill-lewington.com)

Romera Brass Mutes

—

Romera Brass C/Balsareny s/n Pasaje Particular E-08242 Manresa, Spain +34 (0) 93-873-3718 www.romerabrass.com

Micro Shastock

—

information not available

sshhhMute

—

Bremner Music 3 Lapter Close Jamboree Heights Brisbane, Qld. Australia 4074 +617-3715-6237 www.bremnermusic.com.au (U. S. website: www.bremnermusic.com)

Silencers

—

Tromba Enterprises 2253 Bellaire Street Denver, Colorado 80207 303-388-0183 www.dmamusic.org/tromba/endsleybrass.html

469 Silent Brass

—

Yamaha Corporation of America 6600 Orangethorpe Avenue Buena Park, California 90620 714-522-9011 www.yamaha.com

Sotto Voce Mute

—

Hickman Music Editions P. O. Box 11370 Chandler, Arizona 85248 480-883-1224 www.HickmanMusicEditions.com

Stomvi

—

[trademark of] HONIBA, S. A. C/ Antonio Mollé, n˚ 10 46920 Mislata Valencia - España +34 (0) 963 790 657 U. K. dist.: www.stomvi.co.uk U. S. dist.: www.cambrass.com

The Brass Spa

—

25574 Rye Canyon Road Suites D & E Valencia, California 91355 800-837-0980 www.bobreeves.com

TrumCor

—

8176 San Benito Way Dallas, Texas 75218 214-321-0606 www.trumcor.com

Ullven Mutes

—

information not available

United Musical Instruments —

Conn-Selmer 600 Industrial Parkway P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Wallace Mutes

—

The Wallace Collection 4 Straithnairn Ave., Hairmyers East Kilbride 675 8FW United Kingdon 00 44 1355 570 017 www.wallacebrass.co.uk

Denis Wick

—

1 Broomfield Road Coventry, CV5 6JW England +44 (0) 2476-712-081 www.deniswick.com

470 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—WRIGHT KEYED BUGLE IN F

HH 590: Keyed bugle in F; "MADE BY / E. G. WRIGHT / BOSTON." "PRESENTED TO / A. K. LITCH / BY THE MEMBERS OF THE FITCHBURG CORNET BAND. / MARCH 1854."; Eleven keys in pillars, flat cups. Made of onepiece bell and a long receiver ferrule. Leadpipe conical. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

471

APPENDIX 10

A Partial Listing of Case Manufacturers Altieri Instrument Bags

—

1 Galapago Street Denver, Colorado 80223 303-291-0658 www.altieribags.com

Ameritage Trumpet Cases

—

P. O. Box 498 Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 866-669-8932 www.ameritage.com

B&S

—

Vogtländische Musikinstrumentenfabric GmbH Markneukirchen Gewerbepark 13 Germany (phone number not available) www.challenger-trumpets.com

Bach

—

Selmer-Conn P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Bam Trumpet Cases

—

Bam France USA 143 Lawrence Street Hackensack, New Jersey 07601 (phone number not available) www.bamcases.com

Barrington Cases

—

(no information)

Benge

—

Conn-Selmer P. O. Box 310 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-348-7426 www.conn-selmer.com

Berkeley Cases of London

—

(address not available) +44 (0) 20-895-258-13 www.berkeleycases.com

Marcus Bonna Cases

—

55 Meastro Ernesto Melhich Sao Paulo, Brazil CEP 04126-140 +55 (0) 11-5573-3135 www.mbcases.com.br

472 Brassbags

—

3 Yeomans Way Sutton Coldfield B75 7TZ England 0121-378-3775 www.brassbags.co.uk

Dolly Bags

—

(address not available) Cranford, New Jersey 908-653-1324 www.indianamusic.com/db/dollybag.htm

Fanfare Caseworks

—

(address not available) www.fanfarecaseworks.com

Galaxy

—

Humes & Berg Mfg. Co., Inc. 4801 Railroad Avenue East Chicago, Illinois 46312 219-397-1980 www.humes-berg.com

Gard Cases

—

Talwar Brothers P. Ltd. EN - 42, Sector 5, Salt Lake Calcutta - 700 064 India +91 (0) 33 2357 2608 www.talwarbrothers.com

Gator Cases

—

3421 N. Lakeview Drive Tampa, Florida 33618 813-221-4191 www.gatorcases.com

The Getzen Company

—

530 S. City Highway H P. O. Box 440 Elkhorn, Wisconsin 53121 www.getzen.com

Giardinelli

—

P. O. Box 4640 Medford, Oregon 97501 801-501-9551 www.giardinelli.com

Gig Cases

—

The Mody Company 56 West Main Norwich, New York 13815 888-826-6639 www.gigcases.com

Guardian Bags and Cases

—

(address not available) (phone number not available) www.guardiancases.com

473 Walt Johnson Cases

—

15150 Grand Avenue Suite 4 Lake Elsinore, California 92530 951-678-5558 www.johnsoncases.com P. O. Box 30819 Charleston, South Carolina 29417 843-763-9083 www.musicorp.com

MBT

—

MTS Products

—

P. O. Box 1338 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-688-6001 www.mtsproducts.com

Osmun

—

5 Forrest Street Arlington, Massachusetts 02476 781-646-5756 www.osmun.com

ProTec

—

1340 S. Manhattan Avenue Fullerton, California 92831 800-325-3455 www.ptcases.com

Raw Brass Armor Cases

—

P. O. Box 2191 Appleton, Wisconsin 54912 (phone number not available) www.rawbrass.com

Reunion Blues

—

397 Cortland Avenue, #212 San Francisco, California 94110 707-765-1500 www.reunionblues.com

Ritter Band & Orch. Bags

—

Ritter USA, LLC P. O. Box 140191 St. Louis, Missouri 63114 314-429-6808 www.ritter-bags.com

Schilke Music Products

—

4520 James Place Melrose Park, Illinois 60160 708-343-8858 www.schilkemusic.com

SKB Cases

—

1607 N. O’Donnell Orange, California 92867 714-637-1252 www.skbcases.com

474 Torpedo Trumpet Bags

—

4509 Pillsbury Avenue Minneapolis, Minnesota 55419 612-871-2631 www2.bitstream.net/~gtp/torpedo2.htm

Wiseman Cases

—

7 Genoa Road Amerley, London SE20 8ES England +44 (0) 20-8778-0752 www.wisemancases.com

WolfPak

—

P. O. Box 597 Elkhart, Indiana 46515 800-969-6531 www.wolfpakcases.com

Woodwind and Brasswind

—

4004 Technology Drive South Bend, Indiana 46628 800-348-5003 www.wwbw.com

Yamaha

—

6600 Orangethorpe Avenue Buena Park, California 96620 714-522-9011 www.yamaha.com

475 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—ECHO BELL FLUEGELHORN IN B-FLAT

HH 608: Echo bell fluegelhorn in B-flat; "DANIEL FUCHS WIEN"; ca. 1890; silver plated. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

476 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—BESSON SHEPHERD’S CROOK TRUMPET IN B-FLAT

HH 357: Shepherd's crook trumpet in B-flat; Paris ca. 1892; "SYSTEME PROTOTYPE / FB [intertwined initials] / F. BESSON / BREVETE / S. G. D. G. / 96. RUE D'ANGOULEME / PARIS"; Short leadpipe that needs a ca. 8 cm. long shank for B-flat (HP) and terminal crooks for B-flat (LP) in A. (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

477 HISTORICAL ARTIFACT—CONN TRUMPET IN B-FLAT

HH 416: Trumpet in B-flat; "MADE BY / C. G. CONN LTD. / ELKHART, IND. / U.S.A." ca. 1922-23; Probably the "Medium Symphony Trumpet" 26 B. Gold plated; The bell is richly engraved with floral ornaments, a female and a male figure, a swan and a wreath of red, white and green glass stones, a hero with a flag bearing the word "EXCELSIOR". (Catalog number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD). Photo by Renate Katteneder, Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

number and description taken from Streitwieser Foundation Catalogue that was started by Herbert Heyde (HH) and later extended by Ralph Dudgeon (RD) Photo by Renate Katteneder Kremsmuenster in Upper Austria. Instrument in the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg.)

HH 480: Piccolo trumpet in B-flat; "SCHERZER / AUGSBURG / MODELL PROF. A. PICHLER"; 1962; A model with a blind loop giving the appearance of a standard type rotary valve trumpet. Fourth valve for the left thumb to lower by a fourth. (Catalog

478

479

Listing of Historical Artifacts Italian model trumpet with bell on right side .................................................................. 36 Fowler’s Artificial-Lip Mouthpieces (advertisement) .................................................. 124 Trumpet in B-flat, circa 1853-56 with wooden case .................................................... 132 Tremolo Mouthpiece, patent page of 1888 .................................................................. 147 Schreiber cornet, circa 1867 ........................................................................................ 150 Nagphani Shiva trumpet .............................................................................................. 196 Schmidt posthorn in E-flat, circa 1867 ........................................................................ 232 Duplex-Aperture Mouthpiece, patent page of 1921 ..................................................... 265 Pask cornopean in B-flat ............................................................................................. 284 Couturier “conical bore” trumpet in B-flat, circa 1921 ................................................ 302 Letter from Herbert Clarke to Elden Benge dated Jan. 13, 1921 .................................. 311 Late Baroque-style natural trumpet in D by Joseph Simon Anger, 1791 ...................... 354 Keyed bugle in C, 1830-40s (unsigned) ....................................................................... 388 English Stözel valve trumpet in F ............................................................................... 400 Fiske soprano over-the-shoulder trumpet in E-flat, circa 1850-60 ............................... 444 Cornet in B-flat (unsigned), circa 1885 ....................................................................... 452 Echo bell trumpet in B-flat .......................................................................................... 466 E. G. Wright keyed bugle in F, 1854 ........................................................................... 470 Echo bell flügelhorn in B-flat by Daniel Fuchs, 1890 ................................................. 475 Besson “shepherd’s crook” trumpet in B-flat, circa 1892 ............................................ 476 Conn “Excelsior” trumpet, circa 1922-23 .................................................................... 477 Scherzer piccolo trumpet in B-flat, model “Prof. A. Pichler” ...................................... 478

Photographs of historical trumpets and cornets listed above provided through the generosity of the Musikinstrumentenmuseum Schloss Kremsegg, Kremsegger Strasse 59, A-4550 Kresmünster, Austria. Special thanks to Franz X. Streitwieser, Sigi Kristöfl, and Lars E. Lauhold.

480

481

Index of Names and Key Words A

Adams, Nathan, 318

Aaron, Stephen, 180

adapter [mouthpiece], 280-81

Abbado, [Claudio], 395

Adderly, Nat, 310

Abreu, [Zequinha], 149

Addison, [John], 410

Amsden, [Arthur], 402, 403, 407, 414, 415

ABS [brand], 273

Adelstein, Bernard, 316, 428

Ackley, James, iii, 89-90, 208, 215, 278, 391

adjustable-cup mouthpiece, 273-75

Amstutz, A. Keith, 17, 22, 42, 101, 225

AcoustiCoil [product], 293

Aebi, Willi, 294, 299, 430

Adam, A. A. “Sandy,” 183, 187

Agrell, Jeffrey, 42

Adam, William, 308, 428 Adams, Nathan, 318 adapter [mouthpiece], 280-81 Adderly, Nat, 310 Addison, [John], 410 Adelstein, Bernard, 316, 428 adjustable-cup mouthpiece, 273-75

Aida trumpet, 324 Albinoni, [Tomaso], 412 Albrechtsberger, [Johann], 410 Al Cass [company], 377 Alexander Bros. [company], 321 Alexander Technique, 34 Alisyn [company], 377 Allied Supply Corp., 387

American Brass Quintet, v, 65, 77, 212, 213, 395 Americus Brass Band, 396

anchor-tonguing, 29 Anderson, [Leroy], 403, 404, 407, 414, 415 Anderson, Stephen, 316 Anderson, William “Cat,” 308 André, Maurice, 4, 18, 38, 127, 143, 149, 237, 308, 312, 323, 389, 390, 391, 394, 425 Anger [company], 354 ankyloglossia, 134 annealing, 336 Anonie, William, iii, 298 Antheil, [George], 410

Aebi, Willi, 294, 299, 430

Almeida, John, 425

Agrell, Jeffrey, 42

Alpert, Herb, 85, 199, 308, 426

Aida trumpet, 324

“alpha” state, 174, 177, 178

Aaron, Stephen, 180

alpha angle, 263

Abbado, [Claudio], 395

Alphabiotic Alignment, 246

Abreu, [Zequinha], 149

Alphabiotics, 246

ABS [brand], 273

Altenburg, Johann E., 414, 419

Ackley, James, iii, 89-90, 208, 215, 278, 391

Altenmüller, Eckart, 245

Arban, Joseph Jean-Baptiste Laurent, 96, 138-39, 143, 148, 149, 167, 215, 310, 401, 402, 404, 405, 408, 409, 428, 432, 434

alto trumpet, 349, 350

Arbuckle, Matthew, 143, 310

Amati [company], 32, 324, 329

Arizona State University, 26, 245, 270, 440, [see Author’s Biography]

AcoustiCoil [product], 293 Adam, A. A. “Sandy,” 183, 187 Adam, William, 308, 428

Amend, J. Jerome, 316 American Brass Band, 318

Anthony, Ray, 308 Anthony, Robert, 180 Antique Sound Workshop, 437 Antonsen, [Olé], 149, 391 Araujo, Manuel, 319

ARMO Music [company], 279

482 Baines, Anthony, 419

Bean, George, 310

Arndt, Michael John, 424

Baird, Frank W., vii, 41, [see author’s biography]

Beauchamp, James W.

Arnold, [Malcolm], 406, 410

Baker, [David], 405

arthrisis, 252

Baker, Chet, 42, 308

Beethoven, [Ludwig van], 294, 357

Arutunian, Alexander, 127, 149, 406, 410, 414, 415

Baker, Emily, iii

Beiderbecke, Bix, 310

Baker, Eric, iii

Bell, Charles, 245

Baker, Michael Conway, 415

bell-tuned trumpet, 333-35

“Balanced Embouchure” [system], 108-109, 140

Bellamah, Joseph L., 102, 145, 183, 202, 205, 409, 432

atenolol, 180

Balay, [Guillaume], 401, 402, 403, 406

Bellini, [Vincenzo], 306

Atlantic Brass Quintet, 395

Balio, Andrew, 426

Aubier, Eric, iii, 51-52, 149, 206, 392

Baltimore Symphony, 319

Bellstedt [Jr.], [Herman], 149, 404, 405, 406, 410, 414

BandNow [company], 33

Benade, Arthur, 299, 430

Baptist, Rick, 308

Bendinelli, Cesare, 419

Baranger, [Louise], 494

Benedetti, Donald, 199

Barat, [J. Ed.], 405

Benge [company[, 326, 329

Barbenel, Joe, 17, 20, 22, 115, 225

Benge, Elden, 310-11

Armstrong, Louis, 85, 126, 242, 277, 308, 397, 424, 441

“ascending” valve, 329-332 asthma, 251 Asymmetric Mouthpiece [brandname], 123

Audino, John, 308 Autrey, Byron, 432 avec sourdine, 18 Ayers, A. Jean, 180

B B & S [company], 312, 321 Bach [company], 34, 122, 257, 258, 264, 269, 270, 279, 281, 292, 293, 303, 306, 317, 326, 330

Beeler, [Walter], 401

Bell’s palsy, 244-46

Barber, [Samuel], 412

Bennett, [Robert Russell], 361, 410, 414

Barbour, J. Murray, 419

Bent, Benjamin, 310, 442

Barrington [company], 33

bent mouthpiece, 11, 119-21, 215, 278

Barrow, Gary Wayne, 424, 425

Berger, David, 413

Bach, [Jan], 415

Bartok, Belá, 299, 328, 359, 395

Bach, [Johann Sebastian], 350, 351, 401, 410

Bartold, [Gabriel], 408, 410

Bach, Vincent, 269, 282, 299, 310, 405, 429, 430

Basmajian, J. V., 18, 20, 22

baciofen. 246

bass trumpet, 306

B. A. C. Horn Doctor [company], 342

Bate Collection, 442

backbore [mouthpiece], 259, 266-67, 276

Bauer, Ludwig, 323, 389, 390

Berlioz, [Hector], 306, 326, 357, 394, 395

Bauguess, Barry, 324

Bernard, [André], 389

Backus, John, 299, 430

basal ganglia, 243

Bate, Philip, 321, 332, 419, 442

Bad Säckingen Trumpet Museum, Baxter, Marty, 180 437

Berger, [Jean], 421 Bergeron, Wayne, 308 Berginc, Charles, 316 Berio, [Luciano], 410 Berlin, Eric, iii, 87-88, 207, 316 Berlin Philharmonic, 394

Bernstein, [Leonard], 395, 405

483 Berrigan, Bunny, 369

Bobo, Roger, 305

Berry, Bill, 308

Böhme, Oskar, 143, 149, 310, 405, 406, 410, 414

Bertsch, Matthias, 18 Besson & Co., 321, 329 beta-blockers, 180, 227 “beta” state, 174, 176 Bilger, David, iii, 63-64, 198, 209, 312, 316, 426

Brantigan, T. A., 181

Bolden, Buddy, 310

Brass Band World, 435

Bond, Peter, 316

Brass Bow (The) [company], 338, 340-41, 342

Booth, Sheldon, 199 Booth, Thomas, 316 Bordner, Gary, 316

BiNak [company], 377

Bordogni, [Marco], 408

Bing, William, 148, 167, 404

bore

instrument, 291-93 mouthpiece, 263-65

Birkemeier, Richard P., 421, 425

Boston Brass, 396

bite [mouthpiece], 259, 263

Boston Brass Band, 318

Bitsch, [Marcel], 409, 410

Boston Symphony Orchestra, 234, 275, 305, 316, 331, 394

Bizet, [Georges], 229-230 Bjurstrom, Neil Albert, 42 Black, Greg, 41 Blackburn, Clifford, 282 Blackburn Trumpets [company], 292, 320, 321, 322

Brass Forum, 438 Brass Herald (The), 435 Brass Player Biographies, 438 Brass Player (The), 435 Brass Players Museum, 442 Brass Press (The), 440 Brass Quarterly, 435 Brass Quintet, 438 Brass Resources, 437

Botti, Chris, 127

Brass Society of New York, 396

“bottom out,” 263

Brass Spa (The) [company], 342, 367

botulinum toxin (Botox), 244 bouchée, 372 Boulez, [Pierre], 395

Blanchard, Terence, 308, 397, 398

Bousquet, 405

Blatter, Alfred, 130, 131, 409, 414

Brass Bulletin, 435

Boston University, 59

blacking out [see syncope]

Blandford, W. F. H., 442

Brantigan, C. O., 181

Bohrnstedt, [Thomas], 410

Bilik, Jerry, 414

Birch, Robert, 312

Brandt, Vasily, 143, 149, 310, 404, 405, 406, 407

Bower, [Bugsy], 413 Bowman, Joseph, 325

Brasswind [company], 33 Brass World, 435 Breath Builder [device], 192 Brecker, Randy, 308, 398 Bremner [company[, 367

Bozza, [Eugene], 409, 410

Breslmair Mouthpieces [company], 273

Blessing [company], 32, 324

BP Mouthpiece [product], 41

Bridges, Glenn D., 424

Bloch, Colin, 334, 430

Braceguard [product], 40

Briney, Bruce, 425

Bloch, [Ernest], 405, 415

Braces, 1, 40, 41

Blom, Eric, 287, 350

Brahms, [Johannes], 140, 326, 347, 414

Brisbois, Austin Dean “Bud,” 18, 20, 308

Blue Juice [company], 377 Bob Reeves Mouthpieces [company], 276, 279, 280, 341, 342

Braff, Ruby, 310 Brand, Geoffrey, 419 Brand, Violet, 419

Britten, [Benjamin], 407 Broiles, Mel, 95, 316, 404, 407, 410, 413 bronchitis, 251

484 Brooks, George A., 151, 152

Cansler, Philip, 153, 423

cheek puffing, 234

Broughton, [Bruce], 406

carbamazepine, 246

Cheetham, Doc, 308

Brown, Clifford, 308, 398

Card, Robyn, 425

Cheetham, [John], 413

Browning, Chris, 244

Cardoso, Wilfredo, 323, 329, 332

Chenette, Stephen, 316, 425

Bruckner, [Anton], 306, 345, 350, 395

Carl Busch Historic Instrument Collection, 442

Cherry, Collon, 175

Brydenfeld, Michael, 427

Carlson, Douglas, 316

bucket mute, 265

Carnovale, Norbert, 423

Buffalo Philharmonic, 319

carpal tunnel syndrome, 24, 252-54

Bull, Willaim, 421 Bullock, Donald, 428 Burgstaller, Josef, 194, 195, 315 Burkart, Richard Edgar, 419 Burke, James, 143, 145, 310

Cherry, Don, 310, 329 Chestnut Brass Company, 396 Chez, Al, 308 ch’i, 246

Carroll, Edward, 323, 389

Chicago [mute], 358, 359

Carse, Adam, 419, 421

Chicago Brass Quintet, 396

Carter, [Elliot], 407

Chicago Chamber Brass, 396

Carter, William, 224, 238-39

Chicago Symphony Brass Ensemble, 396

Burns, Stephen, 95

Caruso, Carmine, 198, 199, 404, 409, 434

“Burt’s Bees” [product], 217

Casella, [Alfredo], 412

Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 190, 194, 244, 310, 337, 395, 429

Bush, Irving, 221, 308, 404, 408

Cassone, Gabriele, 324, 415

Childers, Buddy, 308

Butler, Barbara, 47, 316, 389

Castérède, [Jacques], 411

Childs, [Barney], 412

Buxtehude, [Dietrich], 355

Caufmann [company], 278

“Chopsaver” [product], 217

Buzzit [product], 289

Cazzati, [Maurizio], 355

“Chop-Sticks” [device], 200

BuzzWow mute, 371

CBDNA, 435, 439

Christensen, [Ketil], 392

Byrd, [Donald], 398

“center-force line,” 116-119

C

cervical dystonia, 243

chronic obstruction pulmonary disease, 251

Caffarelli, [Reginaldo], 408, 409 Caldwell, Michael, 425 Callet, Jerome, 102, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 139, 187, 204, 216, 434

Chabrier, [Emmanuel], 326 Champoullon, David, 425 Chance, [John Barnes], 149, 410 Charlier, [Theo], 409

Campbell, Don. G., 180

Charness, Michael, 244

Campos, Frank, 425

Chase, Bill, 308

Canadian Brass, 396

Chavanne, [A], 409

Candelaria, Leonard, iii, 81-82, 211, 215, 419

Chavanne, [H], 409

canker sores, 236-37

Chaynes, [Charles], 316, 361, 409, 411, 415

Chunn, [Michael], 391 Cichowicz, Vincent, 167, 425 circular breathing, 194-95 Civiletti, Bahb, 324 CKB “Acoustic-Balance” mouthpiece, 273 Clappé, Arthur A., 419 Clarke, Herbert L., 41, 42, 96, 104-05, 137, 143, 145, 148, 149, 167, 186, 187, 194, 198, 215, 221, 310-11, 329, 391, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 408, 413, 414, 424, 426, 427, 432, 434, 442

485 Clarke, [Jerimah], 125 Clark, [Keith], 393 Cleartone mute, 366 Clemens, Larry, 316

Conn-Selmer [company], 273, 306, 338

Curry Mouthpieces [company], 258, 276, 281

contra-bass trumpet, 305

C. W. S. Band, 396

Cooper, G., 430

D

Clendenin, W. Ritchie, 312

Copland, Aaron, 127, 299, 359, 395, 413, 415

Cleveland Orchestra (The), 23, 55, 154, 207, 357, 395

Cord, Edmund, 316

Dahlqvist, Reine, 419, 421 Dale, Delbert, 46, 137, 257, 263, 432

Clevenger, Dale, 244

Cornet , 33, 310, 345, [names—see Appendix 5]

Clodomir, [P.], 403

cornet-à-pistons, 345

dämpfer, 372

clonazepam, 247

cornetta, 345

Danté, Jon, 316

“closed” embouchure, 110, 111

Cornet Compendium, 437

Darling, [James], 392

Cobb, Kevin, iii, 77-78, 213, 392

coronation trumpet, 324

D’Ath, Norman, 133, 432

Coble, George, 316, 425

Corrette, [Michel], 407

Daval, Charles, 316

cold sores, 236-37

costal cartilage, 184

Coleman, Jack, 423

corno da caccia, 325

David G. Monette Corp., 258, 276-77, 289, 340

Coleman, Ornette, 329

corticosteroid, 253

Colin, Alan, 308, 435

Couturier Company, 302

Colin, Charles, 95, 125, 167, 215, Couturier, Ernst Albert, 104, 426 221, 308, 402, 404, 405, 408, 409, 424, 432 Cowell, [Johnny], 391

Dallas Brass, 396

Davidson, Louis, 128, 133, 145, 154, 198, 308, 405, 409, 426, 432 Davies, John Booth, 17, 22, 115, 225 Davies, Peter Maxwell, 318, 411

Collazo-Clavell, Marin, 250, 256

Cox, [Allan], 392

Davis, Charlie, 308

College Music Society, 438

Cox, Richard H., iii, 169, 174, 175, 176, 178, 181, 409

Davis, [Colin], 394

Collins, Philip, 316 Colorado Symphony, 319 Colson, John, 40 Come, André, 316

Crane, Virgil, 246 cranial dystonia, 243 Crisara, Raymond, 85, 308, 429

Davis, Joyce, 316 Davis, Miles, 308, 398 Dean, Allan, 40, 308

crooks, 344

Debussy, [Claude], 30, 141, 316, 349, 350, 359, 394

Crown [company[, 358, 360, 364

De Falla, [Manuel], 406, 411

cryogenic treatment, 338

Delmotte, Roger, 427

Condoli, Conte, 308

cryogenics, 338

Dello Joio, Norman, 299, 411

Condoli, Pete, 308

cup [mouthpiece], 258, 259-61

Delrin [product], 38, 262

Conn, C. G. [company], 32, 95, 140, 273, 329, 333, 477

cup mute, 360-61

“dependent” valve system, 286

Curnow, Jeffrey, 316

depressor anguli oris, 44, 85, 206

Curry, Mark, 115, 281

depressor labii inferioris, 44

Concertgebouw [Orchestra], 395 Concone, [Giuseppe], 402, 405, 409

Conn 38A cornet, 333

486 derby mute, 369

Dorsey, Tommy, 369

Eichborn, Hermann, 420

Deutsch, Mary, 429

dorsum [of the tongue], 29, 135, 139

Eisensmith, Kevin, 425, 426

Deutsches Museum, 440 DeVore, Ron, 330 DeWit, John, 316 diabetes, 224, 248-50 Dibbell, David G., 224, 238-39, 256

double buzz, 220-21 double-cup mouthpiece, 260 double-tongue, 133, 143-44 Downbeat, 435 “downstream” embouchure, 96-97

Dicterow, Glenn, 244

dry mouth, 227

didgeridoo, 194

Dufresne, [Gaston], 405

Die Lippen-hantel [device], 200

Diorio Custom Brass, 280

Dudgeon, Ralph, 36, 100, 132, 150, 196, 232, 252, 284, 302, 388, 400, 420, 421, 425, 444, 452, 466, 470, 475, 476, 477, 478

Dillon Music [company], 276

Duker, [Guy], 414, 415

DiLorenzo, Anthony, 316

Dunkel, Stuart Edward, 175, 180, 181

difference tone, 297

DiMartino, Vincent, 85, 308, 394

Eklund, Niklas, 126, 324, 389, 391 Eldridge, [Roy], 398 Elias, Fred, 104-05 Eliason, Robert, 420 Eliot, T. S., 167 Ellis, Don, 308, 332, 398 Ellis, [John], 392 Elman, Ziggy, 308 embouchure, 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 20, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 95, 105, 155, 437 embouchure denture, 41 Emerson, Walter, 310 emphysema, 251

Dunnick, D. Kim, 431

Empire Brass, 396

Distin, Henry, 270, 329

Duplex-Aperture Mouthpiece, 265

endorphins, 153

DiVall, Robert, 308

dystonia, 243-45

Dobrzelewski, Jean-Christophe, iii, 389, 392, 408, 410

E

Doctor Valve [company], 342

E. G. Wright [company], 470

Dodsworth Brass Band, 318

Eastern Brass Quintet, 396

Dohnányi, [Christoph von], 395

Eastman Brass Quintet, 396

d’Indy, Vincent, 318, 413

Dokshitzer [Dokschizer], Timofei, Earley, Robert, iii, 75-76, 212, 316 85, 127, 143, 149, 154, 198, 308, 392, 405, 424, 428, 429, echo bell trumpet, 475 434

Endsley Brass Products [company], 264, 275, 276, 324 Endsley, Gerald, 136, 257, 270, 279, 282, 312, 361, 362, 291, 401, 405, 406, 413, 414, 429, 432 Enesco, [Georges], 149, 316, 359, 406, 411 Engelke, Luis, iii, 91-92, 209, 426 Enrico, Eugene, 421 Epley, F. W., 42

Donaldson, James, 283

Eclipse [company], 315

Equal Temperament, 298-99

Donizetti, [Domenico], 306

Edgett, Brian, 425

Equilibrium Concept, 13-18

Doppler, Christian, 294

Edinburgh Collection, 442

Erdmann, Tom, 426

Doppler Effect, 294

Edison, [Harry “Sweets”], 398

Ericson, John, iii

Dolfi, David, 17, 20

Edwards, [Austyn], 401

Erickson, Robert, 130, 131, 411

Dorham, [Kenny], 398

Edwards Trumpets, 279, 317, 344

Estrin, Glen, 244

dorsal-tonguing, 29, 135-36, 139

Eichberger, [Albrecht], 392

Evans, Paul Wesley “Doc,” 310, 426

487 Evans, Ted, 282

Fine Arts Brass Quintet, 396

Friedman, [Stanley], 392, 411

Evenson, Pattee Edward, 420

Finke, Helmut, 324

frenulectomy, 135

Everett, Tom, 100

First Act [company], 33

frenulum, 29, 134, 135, 148

Everson, Terry, iii, 59-60, 392

Fischthal, Glenn, 316

Ewanowski, Stan, 224, 238-39

Fiske, Issac, 444

Friedrich, Reinhold, 323, 324, 389, 391, 392

Ewazen, [Eric], 406, 407, 411, 413, 414

Fitzgerald, [Bernard], 403, 404, 423, 429

Ezo Denture Cushion [product], 40

“fixed-jaw” embouchure, 45, 48-85, 126, 205-216

F

Flaherty, Mark, 426

F. E. Olds & Sons [company], 18, 285, 291, 307, 314 facial dystonia, 245 Faddis, Jon, 308, 398 Fahey, Thomas, 151 Faillenot, [Maurice], 361, 411, 414 Falcone, [Leonard], 102 fanfare trumpet, 324 Fanning, David, 350 Fantini, Girolamo, 420 Farmer, Art, 199, 315

Faulkner, Maurice, 429 Fauré, [Gabriel], 403 felt crown [mute], 368 Ferguson, Maynard, 6, 95, 118, 126, 183, 194, 308, 397, 398, 424, 427 Ferree’s Tools [company], 386 Ferry, Dennis, 324 Findley, Bob, 308 Findley, Chuck, 308

Frucht, Steven, 244, 245, 256 Fuchs, Daniel [company], 475 Fulkerson, [James], 414

Flaste, Richard, 175, 178, 181

G

Fletcher, Jennifer, iii, 407

G, Kenny, 194

“floating-jaw” embouchure, 45, 82, 85-95, 126, 206-216

G. Leblanc Corp., 295, 358

“fluba,” 305

GR Mouthpieces [company], 263, 275, 279, 282, 339

flügelhorn (flugelhorn), 314-15, 475

Gabaye, [Pierre], 403, 406

flutter-tongue, 111, 138-139, 148 focal dystonia, 243-44 focal palsy, 248 Forem, Jack, 241 Foss, Kent, iii Fosse, B., 181

Farkas, Philip, 13, 42, 43, 45, 101, 115, 183, 186, 187, 409, 432 “4Ps,” 13, 14, 17, 225 Fasch, [Johann Friedrich], 411

Frink, Laurie, 199, 308, 426

Fouvou, Eugene, 316

Gabbard, Glen, 182 Gabrieli, [Giovanni], 305 Galib, [Michael], 414 Gallowey, H. Michael, 426 Gallwey, W. Timothy, 175, 181 Gansch, Hans, 323, 392 Ganter [company], 304 Galpin, Francis W., 420

Gardner, Howard, 181 Fowler’s “Artifical-Lip Mouthpiece,” 123-24 Gates, [Charles], 405, 407 Fox, [Ronald], 409

Gatti, 407

Françaix, [Jean], 411

Gaubert, [Philippe], 406

Franquin, Marcel, 316, 329, 421

gedämpft, 372

Franceschini, [Petronio], 413

Geiringer, Karl, 423

Frederiksen, Brian, 105, 106, 185, Gekker, Chris, iii, 79-80, 323, 186, 188, 190, 252, 256, 410, 404, 413 432 generalized dystonia, 243-44 free-buzzing, 201 George, Thom Ritter, 411, 414 Freedman, [Robert], 411, 414

488 German Brass, 67, 396

Goetting, Chandler, 316

Gustafson, Karen, 426

Gershwin, George, 127, 148, 368, 406

Goff, Bryan, 201, 324, 415, 437

Güttler, Ludwig, 323, 324, 389, 390, 410

gestational diabetes mellitus, 248

Golan, J., 182

GW Mouthpieces [company], 273

gestopft, 357, 372

Goldman, [Edwin Franko], 138, 149, 402, 404, 405, 411

Gesualdo, [Carlo], 404

Gomez, [Guillermo], 411

Getchell, [Harold], 401 Getzen [company], 32, 321, 324

Gordon, Claude, 13, 95, 96, 101, 137, 204, 205, 215, 397, 401, 402, 404, 408, 410, 434

Geyer, Charles, 316, 389

Gordon, Jerry, 237

Ghitalla, Armando, 34, 95, 127, 137, 166, 234, 275, 316, 323, 330, 331, 389, 391, 392, 394, 414, 426

Gorham, [Charles], 410, 426

Haendel, [George F.], 347, 406, 410, 413, 414, 415

Gosling, Dan, 217

Hagans, [Tim], 398

Gould, Mark, 312, 316, 425

Hagstrom, John, 316, 426

Gounod, [Charles], 403

Haitink, [Bernard], 395

Gozzo, Conrad, 308, 394

Häkkinen, K., 197

Grabowski, Randy, 426

Halévy, [Jacques François], 306

Graffman, Gary, 244

Hamilton, [Ian], 411

Grafmeyer, James Boyd, 47, 126, 205, 433

Halfpenny, Eric, 421

Giangiulio, Richard, 42, 316 Giannini, [Vittorio], 411 Giardinelli [company], 34 Gibbons, Gary, 424 Gibney, Edward, 133, 153, 433 Gibson, Daryl, 18, 22, 101, 162, 225, 257, 258, 299, 410, 433 Gilette, Mic, 96

Graham, Hal, 199

H H. N. White Corp., 140, 332 H. W. Brass-Saver [company], 374 Hackett, Bobby, 310

Hall, Ernest, 422

Gray, Robert, 423

Hall, Jody C., 17, 22, 101, 225, 299, 431

Green, Barry, 181, 410

Hallman, Grady L., iii, 233

Green, Donald, 312, 316, 326, 327, 357

Hallquist, Robert Eugene, 282, 429, 431

Green, Urbie, 194

Hammant Design [company], 276

Greenup, Garth, 316

Hampel, Anton Joseph, 355

Glasel, [John], 404

Greg Black Mouthpieces [company], 275

Handel [see Haendel]

Glasser, William, 175, 181

Gregson, [Edward], 411

Gliere, [Reinhold], 411

Grieg, [Edvard], 411

gliss, 30

Groth, Konradin, 427

glottis, 127

growling [technique], 148

Gillespie, John Birkes “Dizzy,” 113, 308, 398 Gilreath, [Amy], 392 Giuffredi, [Andrea], 392 gingivitis, 39 Glantz, Harry, 308

Glover, Stephen L., 403, 415, 426 Gualtieri, Paul A., 42

hand-stopping, 355-58 Hansen, [Thorvald], 406, 411 Hanson, Fay, 18, 22, 46, 101, 111, 120, 133, 137, 146, 183, 186, 225, 410, 433 Harbison, Pat, 308, 404, 409

Glow, Bernie, 245, 308

Guarneri, Mario, iii, 57-58, 119, 214

Hardenberger, Håkan, 312, 323, 389, 390, 391, 392

Gödicke, [Alexander], 125, 149, 406, 411, 414, 415

Guentzel, [Gus], 407, 414

Hardin, Anne, 426 Hargrove, Roy, 308, 398

489 Harjanne, [Jouko], 392

Henry Meredith Historical Trumpet Exhibit, 437

Harkins, Edwin, 130

Henze, [Hans Werner], 411

Harmon mute, 363-64

herald trumpet, 324

harmonics, 285

Herbert L. Clarke Library, 442

Harmonie universale, 355

Herco Spitball [product], 378-79

Harper [Sr.], Thomas, 420

Herforth, Harry, 426

Harrell, Tom, 308, 398, 428

Hermann, [Bernard], 395

Harrelson Trumpets [company], 271, 308-09, 313, 324

hernia, 112, 233-35, 236

Harris, Thomas, 181

Herring, [Sigmund], 401, 402, 405, 408, 409

Harry Jacobs Mouthpieces [company], 120, 278 Hartmann, [John], 149, 406

Herseth, Adolph, 34, 41, 127, Honegger, [Arthur], 149, 411 312, 316, 323, 337, 391, 424, 426, 428, [see Author’s Biography] Hood, Alan, 427

Harvison, Emery, 316, 426

Hertel, [Johann Wilhelm], 411, 413

Haussman, Elias Gottlob, 356

Hession, Patrick, 278, 437

Hayden, Gregory, 242

Hetman [company], 377

Haydn, [Franz Joseph], 125, 167, 406, 411, 415

Hey, Jerry, 308

Haydn, [J. Michael], 411, 415 Haynie, John J., 12, 22, 101, 102, 225, 289, 404, 423, 429

Heyde, Herbert, 36, 132, 150, 196, 232, 284, 302, 388, 400, 444, 452, 466, 470, 475, 476, 477, 478

Hoch, Theodore, 143, 310 Höhne, [Carl], 149, 406 Hohstadt, Thomas, 423 Hois, Charles, 316 Holland, Jack, 289-90, 299 Holmes, 411 Holst, [Gustav], 394, 395 Holt, John, 3163 Holton [company], 292, 329, 332 Holy, Walter, 324

Hood, Boyde, 316 Hoover, Cynthia A., 422 Holton [company], 32 Houser Mouthpieces [company], 273 Holvaldt, [Knud], 391 Hovey, [Nilo W.], 401, 402 Hovhaness, [Alan], 403

Head, [Emerson], 292

Hickman, David R., v, 95, 131, 145, 149, 159-61, 167, 175, 181, 203-04, 269, 312, 323, 332, 389, 391, 392, 394, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408, 409, 410, 414, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429, 433, 501-03

Head, John, 316, 392

Hickman, Jane W., 95, 127, 194, 424

Humes & Berg [company], 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 367, 369, 370, 371

Hedwig, Douglas, 312

Hilligas, Frank, 312

Hein, Richard, 298 hemidystonia, 243

Hindemith, Paul, 299, 395, 406, 411, 413

Hummel, [Johann Nepomuk], 125, 166, 226, 406, 411, 414, 415

Henderson, Eddie, 426

Hindsley, Mark, 289, 299, 300

Henderson, [Robert], 411

Hirt, Al, 126, 308, 393, 394

Henderson, Skitch, 244

Historic Brass Society, 436, 438

Hendrickson, Steven, 316

Hoffman, [Edward], 411

Henneberg, [Paul], 413

Höfs, Matthias, iii, 67-68, 210, 323, 389

Hazel, John, 310 Hazen, Margaret Hindle, 420 Hazen, M. Robert, 420

Hubay, [Jenö], 411 Hubbard, [Freddie], 398, 399 Hue, [George], 411

Hunsberger, Donald, 306, 307, 403, 406, 422 Hunsicker, J. David, iii Hunt, Norman J., 42, 282, 429 Hunter, Billy Ray, 316 hunting trumpet, 355 Husa, [Karel], 411

490 hypertrophy, 197

Jackson, Kingsley, 226

Jupiter [company], 32, 329

hypopharynx, 235

Jacob, [Gordon], 404, 407

K

I

Jacobs, Arnold, 105, 106, 185, 188, 190, 432

IAJE, 436, 438

Jacoby, Don “Jake,” 95, 308, 429

Ibert, [Jacques], 411

Jägertrompete, 355, 356

Immer, Friedemann, iii, 83-84, 126, 324, 389

James, Harry, 42, 85, 96, 127, 143, 260, 308, 394

immune-medicated diabetes mellitus, 248

Janácek, [Leos], 306, 395

incompetent palate, 224, 238-39 Indiana University, 190 Inouye, Mark, 316

Jazz Links, 437 Jazz Times, 436 Jensen, Ingrid, 315

insertable leadpipe, 317, 320, 344

Jerwyn Mouthpiece [company], 275

Inspiron [device], 192

Jet-Tone [mouthpieces], 273

Instrumentalist (The), 436

Jet-Tone Lip Protector [product], 40

insulin-resistant diabetes mellitus, J. Landress Brass [company], 272 248 intercostal muscles, 183-84, 186, 236

John Haynie Collection, 440 John Philip Sousa Library, 442

International Brassfest, 190

Kaderabek, Frank, 85, 316, 392, 427, 428 Kaminsky, Michele, 324 Kanstul Musical Instruments [company], 276, 279, 282, 292 Kanstul, Zigmant, 291 Karajan, [Herbert van], 394 Katteneder, Renate, 36, 132, 150, 196, 232, 284, 354, 388, 400, 444, 452, 466, 470, 475, 476, 477, 478 Keene, B. H., 42 Keim, Friedel, 420 Kelley, Bruce C., 420 Kelly Mouthpieces [company], 273 Kendall, Edward “Ned,” 318, 425 Kennan, [Kent], 359, 406, 411 Kenneth G. Fiske Museum, 440

Johnson, Keith, 13, 102, 111, 133, Kenny, Patrick, 17, 22, 115, 225 143, 154, 173, 175, 181, 205, 257-58, 282, 299, 410, 433, 434 Kent, Earle, 282, 299, 430, 431 International Trumpet Guild (ITG), 18, 115, 245, 437, 438, 440 Kenton, Stan, 20 Johnson, Gilbert, 316, 392, 425 Interstate Music [company], 386 Ketting, [Otto], 406, 411 Johnson, Walt, 110, 308 Inventionstrompete, 355 keyed bugle, 314, 318, 442 Johnson, Willie “Bunk,” 42 Irish, John, 427 Jolivet, André, 148, 167, 316, 361, King’s Brass (The), 396 406, 411, 413, 414, 415 Irons, Earl, 145, 148, 402, 404, Kinyon, [John], 401 408, 424, 425 Jones, Spike, 225 Kisor, [Ryan], 399 Isley, C. L., 18, 22 Jones, Thad, 310, 399 Kissling, [Andrew], 401 isometric exercise, 198 JoRal [company], 360, 364, 365, Klages, James, 312 367 isotonic exercise, 198 International Musician, 436

Ives, Charles, 368

J Jackson, Bret, 392

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 436 Journal of the International Trumpet Guild, 436

Klein, Manny, 308, 367 Knauss, H. P., 431 Koff, [Charles], 406, 414

491 Kolata, Gina, 151

larynx, 27, 186, 235

Kondrashin, [Kiril], 395

Latham, [William], 406, 411, 415

Kopprasch, [Georg], 405

Läubin Bros., 389

Krauss, David, 316

Laureano, Manny, 316

Krieger, [Johann P.], 355

Lazarof, [Henri], 414, 416

lip compression [technique], 106-09

Krol, [Bernard], 411

Lazure, R. P., 282

“lip clamp” [technique], 109, 216

Kronholz, Keith, 423

Lee, William F., 424

“lip curl” [technique], 110-11

Kryl, Bohumir, 143, 310

legato-tonguing, 30

Lippincott, 252, 256

Kuehn, David, 319

Lehnert, Oswald, [see Author’s Biography]

lipping, 31, 32, 287-88

Kunkee, Patrick, 316 Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna, 441

Lehr, Ryan, iii Leinsdorf, [Eric], 394

Lindemann, Jens, iii, 43, 85, 127, 315, 323, 394 Linguals [product], 41 lip bends [technique], 203-04

lip trill, 125-26, 226 List, Tony, iii Little, [Horace], 402

Kurka, Martin J., 299, 431

Leningrad Conservatory, 350

Kveback, [Harry], 392

Lessen, Martin, 426

Kynaston, Trent, 195

Leuba, Christopher, 297, 300, 301, 431

L

Leuning, Warren, 308

London Brass, 396

La Tromba [company], 377

levator anguli oris, 44

London Philharmonic, 395

LaBarbara, John, 427

levator labii superioris, 44

London Symphony Orchestra, 395

labio-aerophones, 445

Levine, [James], 395

Longinotti, [Pablo], 403, 409

lactate, 151, 152

Levy, Jules, 95, 104, 137, 143, 310, 406

Lo Presti, [Ronald], 407, 414

lactic acid, 151, 152 Lafosse, Marcel, 316 Laird, Michael, 324, 325 Lamp, C. J., 42 Lang, William, 320 Laplace, Michael, 427 LaPorta, [John], 409 laryngoceles, 235 Laskey Mouthpieces [company], 276 Laskey, Scott, 269, 283 Larsen, Tage, 312, 316

Lewis, Bobby, 308 Lewis, Charles, 312 Lewis, Eddie, 437

Liu, Steven, 242 Llewellyn, [Edward], 403 Locke Brass Consort, 396

Lorayne, Harry, 181 Los Angeles Brass Society, 396 Los Angeles Brass Quintet, 305

Lewis, Horace Monroe, 422, 427

Los Angeles Philharmonic, 326, 357, 395

Lewis, Jon, 308

Los Angeles Philharmonic Brass, 396

Lexan [product], 262, 273 Liberatti, Alessandro, 42, 310

Louisiana State Museum-Jazz Collection, 277, 441

Libs, Jean Morehead, 268, 283, 430

Louisiana State University, 155

Liljencrants, John, 294, 300 Lillya, Clifford, 167, 401, 402, 426 Lin, Bai, 167, 404

Loubriel, Luis, 433 Lovato, Hollie, iii Lowrey, Alvin, 423 Lozano, Pedro, 114

492 Lucite [brand], 273 lung cancer, 251 Luur Metalls [ensemble], 396 Lynch, John, 123, 338 Lyren, Delon G., 95, 127, 194, 424, 427

Marcinkiewicz, Joseph W., 283, 332

Méndez Jr., Rafael G., 440

Marsalis, Wynton, 85, 127, 143, 149, 194, 308, 323, 389, 391, 392, 394, 399, 411

Menke, Werner, 420

Marterie, Ralph, 308 Martin, Christopher, 316

Méndez, Robert, 440

Menken, Alan, 244 Menza, Don, 194 Meredith, Henry, 324, 413, 428

Lyric Opera of Chicago, 244

Mase, Raymond, iii, v, 47, 65-66, 137, 212, 215, 316, 392, 428

M

Masters, Edward, 310, 392

Merian, Leon, 425

Maalouf, Ibrahim, 332

Masters, Peter, iii

Merkelo, Paul, 95, 316, 428

Macaluso, Charles, 260, 261, 266, 267-68, 283, 292, 293, 300, 337, 340, 430, 431

masseter, 44, 85

Mersenne, Marin, 355

Meridian Arts Ensemble, 396

Mathez, Jean-Pierre, 409, 428, 435 Mertens, [Theo], 391 Maurice Benterfa [company], 273

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 441

Maxwell, Jimmy, 126, 308, 433

Meyer, L., 431

McCann, Phillip, 312, 320

Meyerbeer, [Giacomo], 306

McCoy, Clyde, 364

Mica mute, 360, 361, 362

Mad Max [brand], 262, 273

McDonald, Donna, 424

Miley, James “Bubber,” 364

Madeja, James Thomas, 424

McDunn, Mark, 174

Milhaud, [Darius], 148

Mager, Georges, 316, 426

McGaw, Laurie, 316

Millar Brass Ensemble, 396

Maggio, Louis, 47, 96, 101, 137, 205, 215, 434

McGlaughlin, Clint “Pops,” 46, 47, 106, 110, 199, 201, 260, 433, 434, 437

Miller, Glenn, 369

McGregor, Rob Roy, 167, 402, 409, 410

Miller, John, 427

MacBeth, Carlton, 47, 96, 137, 205, 215, 409, 434 MacCluer, Joshua, 316 Mackintosh, Jack, 143, 149, 310, 391

Mahillon, C. [company], 321 Mahillon, V. [company], 321

Mahler, Gustav, 30, 294, 307, 331, McGuffey, Patrick, 415, 431 350, 357, 358, 359, 394, 395 McNab, Malcolm, 308 Maire, [Jean], 409 McNees, Harry E., i, [see Author’s Biography] Malak, Vincent F., 111, 430

Millens Trumpets [company], 321

Mills, [Fred], 401 Milwaukee Symphony, 73, 213 Mini-Liberty trumpet, 332 Mitchell, Gilbert, 308, 426

Maltz, Maxwell, 181

Mehta, [Zubin], 395

Mitchell, [Blue], 399

Manfredini, [Francisco Onofrio], 413

Meister, Charles, 147

mit dämpfer, 357

MENC, 438

mitochondria, 151

Mende, Emily, 420

Modell, Ron, 427

Mendelssohn, [Felix], 306, 414

Moeck, [Walter], 402

Méndez, Rafael G., 26, 85, 95, 119, 127, 133, 143, 149, 153, 187, 194, 204, 308, 392, 403, 406, 407, 411, 412, 414, 415, 424, 427, 433, 440

Molter, [Johann Melchior], 166, 412, 413, 414

Mancini, Henry, 20 Mangione, Chuck, 315 Marchiando, John, 316 Marcinkiewicz Company, 273, 318, 328, 329, 333

Monette, David, 289, 300

493 Monteverdi, [Claudio], 355 Monti, [Vittorio], 406, 412 Montreux, [Pierre], 395 Moody, James, 194 Moore, E. C., 140 Moore, Thomas R., 286, 290, 300, 431 Mopecha, John, iii Mopley, Max Lynn, Morehead, T., 42 Morgan Bumper, (The) [product], 40

Musikinstrumentenmuseum neurovascular bundle, 253 Schloss Kremsegg, 36, 132, 150, 196, 232, 284, 302, 354, 388, New York Brass Quintet, 396 400, 440, 475, 476, 477, 478 New York Brass Society, 396 Musikmuseum Basel, 442 New York Philharmonic, 395 Mussorgsky, [Modest], 141, 323, 352, 360 New York Trumpet Ensemble, 393 mycobacterium tuberculosis, 251

Nguyen, Ben, 316

Myers, Walter J., 110, [see Author’s Biography]

Nichols, Red, 308

N

Nielsen, Holly, iii

NACWAPI, 436, 439

Nielsen, Ryan, iii

Niehaus, [Lenny], 413

Morley, Max Lynn, 422

Nagel, Robert, 128, 168, 401, 403, Nilsson, Bo, 323, 390 404, 406, 408, 415, 423, 427 “no pressure” method, 114 Najoom, Dennis, iii, 73-74, 95, 213, 429 “no pressure” mouthpiece, 114

Morley-Pegge, R., 422, 442

Najoom [mute], 358, 367

Morgan, Lee, 308, 399

Norris, [Philip], 408, 410

Nakarjakov, Sergei, 143, 149, 194, Norton, Nick, 316 389, 390, 392, 393, 394 Novy, Don, 293 Morrison, James, 308 Nance, Ray, 310 Nowicke, Carole, 428 Morrison, Timothy, 127, 137, 316 Nark, Vaughn, 308, 394, 426 Null, Gary, 237, 253, 256 Morrow, Walter, 425 National Federation of Music Clubs, 439 Nussbaum, Jeffrey, 428 Mortenson, Gary Curtiss, 423, 428 Morris, Craig, 429

Morton, Paul, 428

National Music Museum, 440

Moscow Philharmonic, 395

National Trumpet Symposium, 18, “O. J’s Page” [see Utnes, Ole J.] [see author’s biography]

Mosier, [Franz], 414 mouthpiece gap, 267-68

Natural Trumpet Resource Page, 437

mouthpiece sleeve, 272

Naulais, [Jérome], 414

Mozart, [Leopold], 412

Naumann, Andrew, 291, 325

multifocal dystonia, 243

Navarro, Fats, 308, 399

multiphonics [technique], 130-31

Naylor, Tom L., 420

multiple-tongue, 143

neck puffing, 111-13, 235

Murphy, Maurice, 34, 312, 320

Neidig, Kenneth L., 428

Museum of the Arts, Boston, 431

Nelson, [Bob], 407

Music Teachers National Association, 439

Nero, Peter, 244 Neruda, Johann Baptist Georg, 325, 406, 412, 415

O

Oakes, Flip, 336 “octave” trumpet, 321 Ode, James, 423 Olcott, [James], 404, 407, 414 Olds Trumpets [web page], 437 Oliver, Joe “King,” 310 Olson, R. Dale, iii, 13, 18, 19, 20, 225, 285, 289, 291, 292, 295, 300, 431 Oneglia, Mario Francesco, 423 “open” embouchure, 110, 111 orbicularis oris, 43, 44, 242-43

494 orbicularis inferior, 43 orbicularis superior, 43 Orlick, Terry, 175, 181 Osmun Music [company], 342

Persichetti, Vincent, 167, 406, 412, 415 Peters, [Grant], 393 Pezel, [Johann], 305

pocket trumpet, 33, 328-29 Poe, Gerald, 431 Ponchielli, [Amilcare], 415 “pop” tones, 142

Oundjian, Peter, 244

Pfund, William329, 401, 403, 404, 405

Owens, Jimmy, 199

Phelps, Joseph F., 244, 256

Popov, [Sergi], 393

oxprenolol, 180

phenytoin, 246

Porcino, Al, 199, 308

Ozawa, [Seiji], 395

Philadelphia Orchestra (The), 63, 75, 425

Porrino, [Ennio], 412

piccolo trumpet, 227, 282, 318, 321-23, 351, 359

posthorn, 313

P Pachmutova, [Alexandra], 361, 406, 412, 415 Paginini, [Niccolò], 149 Palestrina, [Giovanni P.], 404, 407 Parcells, Ramon, 316 Parduba [company], 260 partials, 285 Patrylak, Daniel, 312 Patterson, Katalina, iii Payne, [Geoffrey], 393 Payton, Nicholas, 308, 399 Paz, Victor, 199 Peacemaker [product], 367 Peaslee, Richard, 314, 406, 414 pedal tones, 204-16 Peeters, [Flor], 149, 406, 415 “peg” teeth, 41 Pelt, [Jeremy], 399 Pepping, Amanda, iii, 93-94, 210, 393

Poper, Roy, 203, 408

portamento, 30 Philip Jones Brass Ensemble, 396, 397, 424 Porter, Maurice, 38, 41, 42

Pietzsch, [Hermann], 410, 420 Pichler, Prof. A., 478 Pilafian, [J.] Samuel, 153, 168, 187, 188, 433

Pottag, [Max], 402 Powell, Morgan, 130, 412 Powerlung [device], 191 practice mute, 366-68

Pilss, [Karl], 406

prana, 246

pimples, 237

Preis, [Ivo], 390

Pioneer Brass, 396

Presser, Theodore, 406

piston valve, 303

Presser, [William], 406

Pitch Finder [product], 289-90

Previn, André, 244

“Pivot System,” 96-100

Price, Calvin, 111, 186, 188, 316

Pixie mute, 369-71

Prima, Louis, 308

Planel, [Robert], 412, 415

Printup, [Marcus], 398

Plog, Anthony, 130, 154, 316, 390, 393, 404, 405, 409, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 426

Prokofieff, [Sergey], 323, 395

plunger [mute], 264

Pugh, Paul, 105

Plunkett, Paul, 126, 324, 325, 390

“pulled” muscle, 235-36

pleurisy, 251

Purcell, [Henry], 406, 412, 415, 419

pleuritis, 251

propranolol, 180, 227

Purviance [company], 280

performance anxiety, 177

Plexiglas [brand], 273

Périnet, François, 303

plural effusion, 251

periodontitis, 39

pneumonia, 251

Q

pocket cornet, 328-29

quarter-tone trumpet, 332-33

Pyle Jr., Robert W., 339

495 Querfurth, [Franz], 412

Respighi, [Ottorino], 294

Rohner, James T., 436

quinching, 336

resultant tone, 297-98

Rohner, Traugott, 282

Quinque, Rolf, 85, 137, 409, 434

Retford, [William C.], 442

Roland-Manuel, [Alexis], 413

R

“reverse” leadpipe, 3, 342-44

“Roll-In” lip set [technique], 108-09, 216

Revueltas, [Carlos], 395 Rey, Rebeca, iii

“Roll-Out” lip set [technique], 108-09, 216

Reynolds [company], 289

Rollins, Sonny, 194

Reynolds, [Verne], 405, 408

Romm, Avis, 425

Richardson, [Rex], 393

Romm, Ronald, 85, 127, 403, 425

Rafael Méndez Library, 26, 306, 314, 332, 361, 440, [see Author’s Biography]

Richter, [Franz X.], 412, 415

Rommel, John, 316

Ridenour, Mark, 316

Ropartz, [Guy], 406

Raison [company], 324

Riedl, Joseph, 303

Rosenfeld, Seymour, 168, 425

Ranger, [Louis], 393

Riisager, [Knudage], 149, 359, 406, 415

Rosinni, [Gioacchino], 306

Rabe, [Folke], 412 Radcliff, Susan, 324 Radtke, Gary, 263, 268, 271, 283 Rafael Méndez Brass Institute, [see Author’s Biography]

Rapier, [Leon], 393 Raschelle, John, 428 Rasey, Uan, 308 Rasmussen, Mary, 423 Ravel, [Maurice], 141, 148, 230-31, 316, 318, 323, 326, 352, 359, 360, 403 recurrent herpes libialis, 236-37 red rot, 378 Redfield, J., 431 Reed, [Alfred], 406, 414 Reeves, Bob, 268 Reger, [Max], 401 Reiche, Johann Gottfried, 356 Reiner, [Fritz], 395 Reinhardt, Donald S., 96-100, 410, 433 Reinhart, [Carol Dawn], 393, 425 Renaissance trumpet, 324 Renwick, [Wilkie], 406 repetitive stress syndrome, 252

rim [mouthpiece], 259, 261-62 rim shoulder [mouthpiece], 259, 263 Rimski-Korsakov, [Nikolas], 146, 164, 307, 326, 350, 359, 415 rip, 31 risorius, 44

rotary valve, 303-04 Royal College of Music, 441 royal trumpet, 324 Rozhdestvensky, [Gennadi], 395 Rubank, 402, 404, 408 Rubin, Alan, 199

Ristad, Eloise, 181

Rudy Muck Mouthpieces [company], 122

River City Brass Band, 397

Ruiz-Esparza Jr., Enrique, iii

Rivier, [Jean], 413

Rusch, Harold, 111

Robbins, [Geoffrey], 402

S

Robinson mute, 361 Robertson, [John], 393 Roché-Thomas [company], 377 Rock, George, 225, 308 Roditi, Claudio, 95, 308, 399 Rodriguez, Galindo, 324 Rogers, Chris, 338 Rogers, Karissa, iii Rogers, Walter, 442

Sabarich, Raymond, 316, 409 Sachs, Curt, 422 Sachs, Michael, iii, 23, 55-56, 119, 168, 201, 207, 312, 316, 357, 393, 404, 408, 412 Sachse, Ernst, 318, 408, 409 Saint Louis Brass Quintet, 396, [see Author’s Biography] Saint Louis Symphony, 319, 395, [see Author’s Biography] Saint-Jacome, 148, 168, 215, 310, 402, 404, 408

496 Saint-Saens, [Camille], 413 Sampson, [David], 407, 413, 415 Samuels, H., 431 Sanborn, Chase, 101, 110, 308, 433 Sanchez, Adel, 316 Sandor, Edward P., 422 Sandoval, Arturo, iii, 23, 53-54, 119, 126, 168, 205, 251, 308, 315, 393, 399, 402, 404, 434

Schlossberg, Max, 148, 168, 222, 308, 402, 404, 408

shake, 125-26

Schlueter, Charles, 137, 316, 323, 393, 428

shank [mouthpiece], 259, 267-68

Shakhov, [Ilia], 407

Schmidt-Jones, Catherine, 297

Shastock [company], 361, 367

Schneider, Dennis L., 163, 198, 257

Shaw, [Woddy], 399

Schneiderman, Barbara, 181

Shepard, Hayden, 115, 198

Schönberg, Arnold, 306

“shepherd’s crook,” 318, 332-33, 476

Schreiber [company], 150 Schnitzer, Anton, 441

Shepley, Joe, 199

Schubert, F. L., 421

Sheridan, Patrick, 153, 167, 187, 188, 433

Sarin, Irving, 316

Schubert, [Franz], 357

Sasaki, Ray, 130

Schubert, Mark, 316

Sherman, Roger, 13, 96, 135, 146, 187, 410, 428, 433

“Satchmo” (See: Armstrong, Louis)

Schuller, Gunther, 299, 412, 414

Shew, Bobby, 163, 308, 315, 394, 404, 427

Schumann, [Robert], 306

Shimer, Steve, 241

Schutza, Gary “Chip,” 316

Shook, Brian, 424, 428

Schwartz, Harry W., 421

Shostakovich, [Dimitry], 148, 350-51, 359, 394, 395

Sarad Mouthpieces [company], 275

“Satchmo” syndrome, 242 satellite cells, 197 Saunders, Carl, 308, 312, 320 Sauter, Otto, 323

Schwarz, Gerard, 18, 149, 312, 323, 390, 391, 393, 425

Sautter, Fred, 316, 323, 390

Sclater, [John], 414

Sawyer, [John F.], 402, 405

Scodwell, Tony, 308

Scandinavian Brass Ensemble, 296

Scriabin, [Alexander], 347, 395

Scarlatti, [Alessandro], 413 Scheidt, [Samuel], 408

sebaceous cyst, 237-38 segmental dystonia, 243 Self, James, 305

Scherbaum, Adolf, 308, 319, 323, Selianin, Anatoly, 428 390

Shubruk, Richard, 148, 168, 401, 402, 404 Shulman, Matt, iii, 34 ShulmanSystem, 34, 254 Sibelius, [Jean], 306, 331, 350 Siebert, Alan, 316 Sielert, Vern, 428 “silencers,” 361, 362 Silent Brass, 367, 368

Scherzer Trumpets [company], 315, 319, 321, 390

Selmer (Paris) [company], 292, 321

Schilke [see Schilke Music Products]

Selya, H., 242, 256

Simon, Frank, 143, 310, 407, 442

Senja, [Karel], 395

Simon, George T., 421

Senée, [Henri], 407

Simone, [Harry], 407, 415

Schilke Music Products [company], 34, 257, 258, 264, 276, 279, 281, 292, 319, 321, 342, 377 Schilke, Renold, 260, 268, 282, 283, 300, 334, 337, 430, 431, 432 Schlessinger, Kathleen, 422

silicone wax, 40, 41

Severinsen, Carl “Doc,” iii, 49-50, Simons, D. G., 242, 256 127, 208, 308, 315, 316, 393, 394, 397, 425 Sinatra Jr., Frank, 244 Severson, Paul, 174 Shadwell, [Kay], 407

“skeletonizing,” 271, 272

497 Slatkin, [Leonard], 395

sordino, 372

Steptoe, Andrew, 182

Slaughter, Susan, 40, 319

Soto, Sam, 308

Steuart, [Richard Carson], 393

Slick Stuff [company], 377

sourdine, 372

Stevens, Halsey, 359, 412

“slotting,” 257, 268, 290, 292, 293, 343

sourdine bol, 372

Stevens, Roy, 110

Sotto Voce [mute], 358, 359

Stevens, Thomas, 316, 357, 393, 405, 408, 409, 414, 430

slur

lip, 30, 101 valve, 30

Smedvig, Rolf, 95, 137, 312, 323, 390 Smiley, Jeff, iii, 108-10, 140, 205, 216, 401, 434

Sousa, [John Philip], 326, 442 Spanier, Muggsy, 310 Spaulding, Roger, 101, 187, 205, 215, 434 Speetjens, Richard, 289

Smith, Bram, 312

Speziale, Marie, 316, 426

Smith, Joseph F., 153

spirometer [device], 193

Smith, Leonard B., 143, 145, 149, Spivak, Charlie, 308 310, 391, 402, 407 Spring, Robert S., 194, 195 Smith, Philip, 149, 166, 312, 391, Sproul, Sara, iii 393, 395

Stewart, Gary M., 421 Stockholm Music Museum, 441 Stockholm Philharmonic Brass, 396 Stomvi [company], 321 Stomvi Mouthpieces [company], 276 Stoneback, Ron, 40 stop mute, 355 Stork Custom Mouthpieces [company], 276

Smith, Richard A., 432

Squire, Alfred, 452

Smith, Walter F., 310, 428

Stacy, Charles E., 265

Smith, [Walter M.], 138, 143, 215, 222, 310, 402, 404, 405, 08,413,

Stafford, [Terell], 399

Smithers, Don L., 323, 324, 355, 389, 421, 422, 423, 428

Staigers, Del, 143, 149, 168, 310, 412, 415, 442

Smithsonian Institution, 441

Stamatos, John M., 248

Snedecor, [Phil], 393, 409

Stamm, Marvin, 85, 199, 308, 315, 425, 427

Stravinsky, [Igor], 141, 146, 231, 299, 306, 316, 318, 323, 326, 327, 331, 348, 351, 359, 360, 413

Snell [Keith], 402

Stamp, James, 168, 201-02, 205, 403, 404, 408, 434

Strege-Wuttla Tool & Supply Corp., 387

Snell, Mark A., 419

standing pressure wave, 294, 300

Streitweiser, Franz, 420

Sollars, David W., 248

Stasney, C. Richard, 235

Sollenberger, Jay, 308

Stearns Collection of Music Instruments, 441

Streitweiser Trumpet Museum [Foundation], 36, 132, 150, 196, 232, 302, 354, 385, 437, 400, 440, 475, 476, 477, 478

Snell, Howard, 320, 403

Solonen, [Esa-Pekka], 395

stage fright, 177

Soloff, Lew, 199, 308

Steele-Perkins, Crispian, 126, 323, 324, 390, 427, 441

Solotone mute, 366

Steinberg, [William], 395

Solti, [George], 395

Steinkopf, Otto, 324

Sommerhalder, [Max], 391

Stephen L. Glover Historic Research Collection, 440

sordina, 372

Stork, John, 283, 430 Stork, Phyllis, 268, 283, 430 straight mute, 358-60 Strauss, Richard, 165, 230, 306, 307, 344, 348, 350, 357, 358, 394, 395, 408, 410

Stringer, [Alan], 391 Stripling, Byron, 308, 427 Strucel, George, 305 “stutter” attacks, 223 Suderburg, [Robert], 412

498 Sullivan, Robert, 393 Summit Brass, 396, 424, 440, [see Author’s Biography] “Superchops” embouchure, 107, 108 Surinach, [Carlos], 413 Sutte, Jack, 316 Svetlanov, [Evgeni] 395 Swana, John, 425 Swift, George, 143, 310

Terry, Clark, 194, 308, 315, 398, 399, 427 Tessarini, [Carlo], 415 thalamus, 153 Thein Bros. [company], 325 Theo Mertens Brass Ensemble, 397 “theta” state, 174 Theurer, Britton, 393, 428 Thibaud, [Pierre], 408, 409

syncope, 239-40

Thibouville-Lamy [company], 329, 331

Szabo, Rich, 41

Thilde, [Jean], 415

T

Thomé, [Francis], 407

Talbot, [Michael], 415 Tamberg, Eino, 415, [see Author’s Biography] Tanabe, Wayne, 338 Tarr, Edward H., 85, 126, 303, 323, 324, 325, 329, 332, 344, 355, 390, 391, 403, 411, 414, 415, 421, 422, 424, 439 Tarr-Kruger, I., 181, 410 Tartini, Giuseppe, 297, 412, 415 “Tartini” tone, 297 Taylor, Nancy, 312 “taxi driver’s ear,” 245 Tchaikovsky, [Peter I.], 141, 142, 146, 307, 326, 327, 331, 395, 403, 404, 415 Ted Sparx Mouthpieces [company], 276 Telemann, [Georg Philipp], 412, 413, 415 temporomandibular joint [“TMJ”], 46, 240-42 tenor trumpet, 306 Terry, C. Stanford, 422

Thompson, James, 202-03, 316, 393, 408, 434

Tottle, William, 275, 330, 334 Touvron, Guy, 323, 390 Tower, [Joan], 408 Towson University, 91 transposition, 344-53 Trarell, T., 242, 256 “tremolo” mouthpiece, 147 Triflow [device], 193 trigerminal nerve, 246-47 Trigerminal Neuralgia (TN), 246-48 trigger, 31, 32, 287 triggering, 288-90 “Tri-labial Embouchure,” 105

thoracic outlet syndrome, 252-54

triple-tongue, 133, 144-45

Thornburg, Lee, 308

Triplett, Robert, 181

throat [mouthpiece], 259, 263-64, 276

tromba, 345

throat shoulder [mouthpiece], 259, 263 Thrower, Daniel, iii, 168, 314, 407, 408, 412, 413, 414, 445 tic douloureau, 246 tip-tonguing, 135, 138, 139 Tison, Donald, 319, 426 Titmus, Ken, 267 Tokyo Brass Ensemble, 397 Tomasi, [Henri], 149, 316, 359, 360, 361, 407, 409, 412, 413, 415

Tromba Enterprises [company], 362 TrumCor [company], 358, 359, 360, 367 Trompete, 345 Trompete demilune, 355 trompette d’Harmonie, 355 trompetta, 345 trompette, 345 Trumpet , 345, [names—see Appendix 5] “trumpet-flugel” mouthpiece, 281

“Tongue-Controlled Embouchure” Truax, [Bert], 413 [technique], 46, 104-05 Trumpet Geeks International, 438 tongue-tie, 134 Trumpet Herald, 438 Torelli, [Giuseppe], 412, 415 Trumpet Master, 438 torn muscle, 235-36 Trumpet Museum of Bad Tottle Brass Mouthpieces Säckingen, 439 [company], 275, 276

499 Trumpet Players International Network, 387, 437 Trumpet Stuff, 437 tuberculosis, 251 Tuck, Marilyn, 182 Tucker, Alan, 252, 256 Tufts University, 338 Tull, [Fisher], 407, 412, 414, 415 Tune As You Play [product], 289 Tunnell, Michael, iii, 71-72, 214, 325, 393, 428

Uppguard, Robert O., 242, 256 “upstream” embouchure, 96, 97 Urban, Darrell Eugene, 422 Urness, John, 429 U.S. Army Brass Quintet, 396 U.S. Army Herald Trumpets, 324 U.S.S.R. Symphony, 395 Utnes, Ole J., 283, 437, 438

V

Vizzutti, Allen, iii, 43, 69-70, 127, 143, 153, 168, 308, 315, 323, 393, 394, 402, 403, 409, 412, 416, 434 Voisin, René, 316 Voisin, Roger, 168, 316, 321, 323, 329, 331, 390, 402, 405, 408, 410, 424, 427, 429 Voldyne [device], 193 Vosburgh, George, 316 Votaw Tool Company, 387 Voxman, [Himie], 402, 403, 405, 407

Turnbull, David R., 100

Vacchiano, William, 308, 316, 326, 405, 424, 428

Turrin, Joseph, 314, 412, 416

Vacchiano-model mute, 295-96

Tyzik, Jeff, 308, 416

Vainberg, [Moisei], 415

Wagner, Richard, 306, 344, 350, 408, 410

U

valporic acid, 247

Wallace [company], 367

Valsalva maneuver, 27, 186, 23

Wallace, John, 323, 390, 391, 427

valve bounce, 385

Walters, [Harold], 403

Vandercook, [H. A.], 402, 403

Washington Symphonic Brass, 397

Ulrich, Brad, 428 umbilical hernia, 233 Ultra-Pure [company], 377 University of AlabamaBirmingham, 81 University of Colorado-Boulder, vii, 501 University of Connecticut, 89 University of Denver, 18

Vasilenko, [Sergy N.], 416 Vax, Mike, iii, 61-62, 211, 308, 397 Velcro [product], 235 velopharygneal valve, 224, 225, 238-39

W

Warburton Music Products, 275, 279, 283 Warburton, Terry, 266-67, 279 Ware, John, 427 Washington Jr., Grover, 194

Ventil-kornet, 345

Watkins, Derek, 320

venting holes, 290-91

Watrous, Bill, 194

University of Louisville, 71, 214

venturi, 267

wa-wa mute, 364

University of Maryland, 79

Verdi, [Giuseppe], 306, 324, 349

University of Massachusetts, 87

Verese, [Edgar], 410

Weast, Robert, 46, 105, 106, 116, 118, 405, 410, 433, 435

University of Michigan, 441

vertebrae, 184

University of Nebraska, 163

vibrato, 126-28, 194

University of North Texas, 154

Vienna Trumpet Choir, 306

University of South DakotaVermillion, 440

Vinter, [Gilbert], 408, 414

University of Illinois, 238, 289, 442 [see Author’s Biography]

University of Wisconsin-Madison, 224

Vivaldi, [Antonio], 413

Webster, Gerald, 320, 323, 409 Webster, John C., 432 Webster, Roger, 312 Weiner, [Fritz], 412 Weiner, Richard S., 248 Wells, Ingrid, iii

500 Wendholt, Scott, 308, 399

Williams, Mike, 308

Zonshine, Michael, 316

Weirl [company], 329

Willis, Richard, 318

Zorn, Jay, 47, 115, 118, 409

Werner, [Fritz], 412, 416

Wilt, James, 316

Zottola, [Frank], 407

West, James R., iii, 155-58, 182, 429

Windplayer, 436

Zwilich, [Ennen Taaffe], 413, 414

Windsong Press, 193

zygomatic major, 44

Western Michigan University, 440 wheel valve, 303 Wheeler, Kenny, 426 whisper mute, 368 “whisper” tones [technique], 217, 228

Winfield, Chuck, 199 Winking, Keith, 429 Wise, Wilmer, 426 Wöggel, Michael, 355 Woolfe, Joe, 300

Whitaker, Donald R., 429

Wolpe, [Stefan], 412

White, [Donald], 407

Woodwind & Brasswind [company], 281

White, Elmer Russell, 18, 20, 22 White [Chandler], Edna, 140, 425 Whitehouse, Joshua, 312, 391 Whitener, Scott, 96, 137, 260, 261, 263, 283, 300, 433 Whittenberg, [Charles], 412 Whitworth, William, 239-40, 256 Wiame, [Benny], 391 Wick [company], 360, 361 Wiggins, [B.], 401 Wilbraham, John, 323, 399 Wilcox, Francis F., 430 “Wild Thing” trumpet, 336 Wilder, [Alec], 413 Wildman, L., 423

Woolworth, William Neal, 424 Wootton, Timothy, iii Wurm, [Wilhelm], 403, 428

Y Yale University, 441 Yamaha [company], 32, 34, 258, 292, 314, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 339, 368, 377 Yamaha Silent Brass [product], 367, 368 Yeager, W. J., 431 Yeo, Douglas, 305 Young, Gene, 410 Young, Robert W., 300, 432 Young, Snooky, 308

Wilken, David M., 99, 100

Z

Williams, Bill, 316

Zakrzewska, J. M., 248

Williams, Cootie, 364

Zauder, David, 168, 312

Williams, Ernest, 333, 403, 404, 407, 408, 429

Zelenka, [Jan Dismas], 404

Williams, [John], 416

Zonn, Paul, 130, 409

501

David Hickman

Having performed over 2,000 solo appearances around the world as a recitalist and guest soloist with nearly 500 different orchestras, David Hickman is considered one of the world’s pre-eminent trumpet virtuosos. His tours have taken him to Japan, Korea, Thailand, Spain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Sweden, Austria, Canada, Mexico, Switzerland, and virtually every major American city. “David Hickman, playing as soloist with The American Sinfonietta in the Musikverein, played the trumpet concerto by Hummel. Spectacular was his change from staccato to a songful, soft legato with almost unending arches of phrasing and virtuosic agility of his delivery.” Weiner Zeitung (Vienna, Austria)

Hickman’s 15 solo albums encompass a wide variety of repertoire, from cornet solos by Clarke and Levy to modern concerti by Planel, Baker, and Plog; from Baroque works of Bach, Telemann, and Hertel to recital pieces by Chance, Dello Joio, and Méndez; from contemporary works to fun Christmas medleys. He has received numerous awards including the Naftzger Young Artist Award, C. D. Jackson Prize from the Tanglewood Music Festival, and grants from the National Endowment for the Arts. At the age of 27, he was selected by Musical America as one of the top ten young solo artists and was the only brass player so honored. David Hickman commissioned numerous works for trumpet by such composers as Anthony Plog, Thom Ritter George, Michael Conway Baker, Daniel Thrower, Paul Zonn, and Oskar Morawetz. He has given U. S. or world premieres of several important concertos including those of Eino Tamberg, Anthony Plog, and Jerry Bilik. In addition,

502 Hickman was the first to record many solo works including Concerto in E-flat by Neruda, Concerto for Trumpet by Arutunian (band version), Concerto for Trumpet and Band by Bilik, Sonata by Dello Joio, Rose Variations by Bennett, Credo by Chance, Concerto No. 1 by Molter, Suite by Presser, Summit Concerto by Baker, and Concerto for Trumpet and Brass by Plog. “David Hickman is an astounding musician. His articulation and phrasing are impeccable. More importantly, the wide affective range he coaxes from his instrument is continuously revelatory.” Fanfare

As a noted clinician and author, Hickman has presented workshops on over 300 major university campuses. He taught for 13 summers at the Banff Centre for the Arts (Canada), Bremen Trumpet Days (Germany), Rafael Méndez Brass Institute (18 summers), and dozens of music festivals. His published works include over 40 articles, 100 editions of solos, and several important trumpet and music texts including The Piccolo Trumpet, The Piccolo Trumpet Big Book, Trumpet Lessons With David Hickman, Vols. 1—5, and Music Speed Reading, a sight reading method used by hundreds of public school systems, universities, and conservatories such as the University of North Texas and The Juilliard School. He is owner of Hickman Music Editions, a publishing company devoted to issuing fine editions of trumpet music. David Hickman received his Bachelor of Music degree in Performance at the University of Colorado in 1972. He continued graduate work at Wichita State University where he was a Graduate Trumpet Teaching Assistant for two years, receiving his Master of Music degree in Performance in 1974. His main teachers include Harry McNees, Frank Baird, Walter Myers and Oswald Lehnert. He taught at the University of Illinois from 1974 to 1982 and has since been teaching at Arizona State University where he is a Regents’ Professor of Music. He has been a member of the Saint Louis Brass Quintet (11 yrs.), Wichita Brass Quintet (2 yrs.), Illinois Brass Quintet (8 yrs.), Baroque Consort (25 yrs.), Summit Brass (20 yrs.), and the Illinois Contemporary Chamber Players. As an orchestral musician, Hickman performed as Principal Trumpet of the National Repertory Orchestra (1971 and 1972), Third/Assistant Principal of the Wichita Symphony Orchestra (1972-1974), Co-Principal of the Tanglewood Fellowship Orchestra (1974), Principal of the Brevard Music Center Orchestra (1975), and Principal of the Champaign-Urbana Symphony (1974-1980). He has also performed with the Saint Louis Symphony, Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the Phoenix Symphony Orchestra. His principal orchestral teachers include Adolph Herseth, Armando Ghitalla, and Roger Voisin. Hickman is founder and president of the acclaimed Summit Brass, a large allstar American brass ensemble dubbed by the press as the “Dream Team of Brass.” Summit Brass has released 10 CDs, toured the world, and hosted the annual Rafael Méndez Brass Institute (formerly the Keystone Brass Institute) which has helped thousands of aspiring brass musicians. He served as president of the International Trumpet Guild from 1977 to 1979 and has presented numerous lectures, clinics, masterclasses, and concerts at major international conventions and festivals. His services are sought worldwide as a judge

503 for international solo and chamber music competitions. In 2005, Hickman received the prestigious Award of Merit from the International Trumpet Guild for his lifetime of achievement and service to the world of trumpet. “The most difficult task facing any trumpeter is not the production of bright, assertive fanfare, but rather the task of coaxing agile, cantabile lines from the most stentorian of instruments. David Hickman proved himself expert in both capacities.” New York Times

As an arts administrator, David Hickman hosted the 1977 Conference of the International Trumpet Guild at the University of Illinois, Keystone Brass Institute with the Summit Brass (7 summers), and the Rafael Méndez Brass Institute with the Summit Brass (4 summers). He was also the head administrator of the 1995 and 1996 Brassfests which attracted over 2,500 participants worldwide. He founded Summit Records, Inc. in 1990 and served as its president and CEO until 1999, having owned the company for part of that time. He is also the founder and head of the Rafael Méndez Library at ASU. Despite his many personal successes, Hickman’s greatest professional achievements stem from his teaching. His students have held or currently occupy leading positions in such ensembles as Canadian Brass, US Army Band, US Coast Guard Band, US Marine Band, Woody Herman’s Big Band, New York Trumpet Ensemble, Meridian Arts Ensemble, US Army Field Band, Lone Star Brass, as well as chairs in symphony orchestras such as The Philadelphia Orchestra, Detroit Symphony, Minnesota Orchestra, Mexico City Philharmonic, Dallas Symphony, Colorado Symphony, New Mexico Symphony, Phoenix Symphony, New Jersey Symphony, Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, San Diego Symphony, Atlanta Symphony, Berlin Philharmonic, Calgary Philharmonic, Malmö Symphony, National Symphony of Mexico, Sacramento Symphony, Wichita Symphony, Indianapolis Symphony, Charleston Symphony, Florida West Coast Symphony, Tucson Symphony, Columbus (OH) Symphony, Houston Ballet Orchestra, National Repertory Orchestra, Civic Orchestra of Chicago, and many others. Nearly 150 of Hickman’s former students were or are professors at leading colleges, universities, and conservatories including Michigan State University, Cincinnati Conservatory, University of Arizona, University of North Carolina, Towson University, Washington State University, University of California-Los Angeles, University of Oregon, University of Denver, Texas Christian University, University of Illinois, Southern Methodist University, Brigham Young University, Boise State University, Wichita State University, University of Kansas, Curtis Institute, Kent State University, State University of New York-Potsdam, University of New Mexico, University of Arkansas, University of Virginia, Western Washington University, Bemidji State University, Bowling Green State University, Middle Tennessee State University, University of Idaho, Northern Arizona University, Mahidol University (Thailand), Montana State University, Southern Illinois University, National Conservatory of Norway, Whitworth College, San Diego State University, Murray State University, Wayne State University, Western Illinois University, Millikin University, Northeast Missouri State University, William Jewel College, Eastern New Mexico University, Youngstown State University, Fort Lewis College, Western Louisiana University, Hirim College, University of Wisconsin-Platteville, University of Tennessee-Martin, and BYU-Idaho.