Applied Linguistics - Summary [PDF]

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS 1. Introduction to Applied Linguistics Applied Linguistics is concerned with the systematic study of language structure, the acquisition of first and subsequent languages, the role of language in communication, and the status of language as the product of particular cultures and other social groups. A background in linguistics is essential for language teachers, translators, speech-language pathologists, audiologists, and many other language professionals. Applied Linguistics: Examines the structure of language and its role in communication Explores how children acquire language Studies how the skills of second-language speakers develop Investigates how the social or cultural environment interacts with language 2. Scopes of Applied Linguistics a.

Language and Teaching

This scope covers methods of language teaching. In doing teaching learning activity, linguistic is applied on those methods. b.

Language and Society

The branch in this scope is called sociolinguistics. Sociolinguistic studies about the relationship between the society and language, and explore/solve the problem related to society that affects the language, varieties of language in society, terms of taboos and euphemism, etc. c.

Language Education/Learning

This scope tries to explain about the first language education, additional language education such as second language education and foreign language education. It also help us to know about clinical linguistic and language testing. Clinical linguistic is the study about language disability. d.

Language, Work and Law

The scope of Language, Work and Law explain about communication in the workplace, language planning, and forensic linguistic. e.

Language, Information and Effect

It studies the literary stylistics, critical discourse analysis, translation and interpretation, information design, and lexicography. 3. History of Applied Linguistics The tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as a response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics with the advent in the late 1950s of generative linguistics, and has always maintained a socially-accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems. Although the field of applied linguistics started from Europe and the United States, the field rapidly flourished in the international context. Applied linguistics first concerned itself with principles and practices on the basis of linguistics. In the early days, applied linguistics was thought as “linguistics-applied” at least from the outside of the field. In the 1960s, however, applied linguistics was expanded to include language assessment, language policy, and second language acquisition. As early as the 1970s, applied linguistics became a problem-driven field rather than theoretical linguistics, including the solution of language-related problems in the real world. By the 1990s, applied linguistics had broadened including critical studies and multilingualism. Research in applied linguistics was shifted to "the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue." In the United States, applied linguistics also began narrowly as the application of insights from structural linguistics—first to the teaching of English in schools and subsequently to second and foreign language teaching. The linguistics applied approach to language teaching was promulgated most strenuously by Leonard Bloomfield, who developed the foundation for the Army Specialized Training Program, and by Charles C. Fries, who established the English Language Institute (ELI) at the University of Michigan in 1941. In 1948, the Research Club at Michigan established Language Learning: A Journal of Applied Linguistics, the first journal to bear the term applied linguistics. In the late 1960s, applied linguistics began to establish its own identity as an interdisciplinary field of linguistics concerned with real-world language issues. The new identity was solidified by the creation of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1977. 4. Language Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued

that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought. 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky.

5. Language Acquisition Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits, because non-humans do not communicate by using language. Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from second-language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages. The capacity to successfully use language requires one to acquire a range of tools including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and an extensive vocabulary. Language can be vocalized as in speech or manual as in sign. The human language capacity is represented in the brain. Even though the human language capacity is finite, one can say and understand an infinite number of sentences, which is based on a syntactic principle called recursion. Evidence suggests that every individual has three recursive mechanisms that allow sentences to go indeterminately. These three mechanisms are: relativization, complementation and coordination. Furthermore, there are actually two main guiding principles in first-language acquisition, that is, speech perception always precedes speech production and the gradually evolving system by which a child learns a language is built up one step at a time, beginning with the distinction between individual phonemes. 6. Language acquisition vs. language learning There is an important distinction made by linguists between language acquisition and language learning. Children acquire language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acquire their first language. They get a feel for what is and what isn’t correct. In order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication. The emphasis is on the text of the communication and not on the form. Young students who are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of “on the job” practice. They readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates.

Language learning, on the other hand, is not communicative. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an ageappropriate activity for your young learners. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. They can fill in the blanks on a grammar page. Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing.r A student who has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly. 7. Stages of First Language Acquisition In nearly all cases, children's language development follows a predictable sequence. However, there is a great deal of variation in the age at which children reach a given milestone. Furthermore, each child's development is usually characterized by gradual acquisition of particular abilities: thus "correct" use of English verbal inflection will emerge over a period of a year or more, starting from a stage where vebal inflections are always left out, and ending in a stage where they are nearly always used correctly. There are also many different ways to characterize the developmental sequence. On the production side, one way to name the stages is as follows, focusing primarily on the unfolding of lexical and syntactic knowledge: Stage

Typical age

Description

Babbling

6-8 months

Repetitive CV patterns

One-word stage (better onemorpheme or oneunit) or holophrastic stage

9-18 months

Single open-class words or word stems

Two-word stage

18-24 months

"mini-sentences" with simple semantic relations

24-30 months

"Telegraphic" sentence structures of lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes

Telegraphic stage or early multiword stage (better multi-

morpheme) Later multiword stage

30+ months

Grammatical or functional structures emerge

8. Developmental Patterns of Learning a Second Language Stages of Second Language Acquisition Stage I: Pre-production This is the silent period. English language learners may have up to 500 words in their receptive vocabulary but they are not yet speaking. Some students will, however, repeat every thing you say. They are not really producing language but are parroting. These new learners of English will listen attentively and they may even be able to copy words from the board. They will be able to respond to pictures and other visuals. They can understand and duplicate gestures and movements to show comprehension. Total Physical Response methods will work well with them. Teachers should focus attention on listening comprehension activities and on building a receptive vocabulary. English language learners at this stage will need much repetition of English. They will benefit from a “buddy” who speaks their language. Remember that the school day is exhausting for these newcomers as they are overwhelmed with listening to English language all day long. Stage II: Early production This stage may last up to six months and students will develop a receptive and active vocabulary of about 1000 words. During this stage, students can usually speak in one- or two-word phrases. They can use short language chunks that have been memorized although these chunks may not always be used correctly. Here are some suggestions for working with students in this stage of English language learning: Ask yes/no and either/or questions. Accept one or two word responses. Give students the opportunity to participate in some of the whole class activities. Use pictures and realia to support questions.

Modify content information to the language level of ELLs. Build vocabulary using pictures. Provide listening activities. Simplify the content materials to be used. Focus on key vocabulary and concepts. When teaching elementary age ELLs, use simple books with predictable text. Support learning with graphic organizers, charts and graphs. Begin to foster writing in English through labeling and short sentences. Use a frame to scaffold writing. Stage III: Speech emergence Students have developed a vocabulary of about 3,000 words and can communicate with simple phrases and sentences. They will ask simple questions, that may or may not be grammatically correct, such as “ May I go to bathroom? ” ELLs will also initiate short conversations with classmates. They will understand easy stories read in class with the support of pictures. They will also be able to do some content work with teacher support. Here are some simple tasks they can complete: Sound out stories phonetically. Read short, modified texts in content area subjects. Complete graphic organizers with word banks. Understand and answer questions about charts and graphs. Match vocabulary words to definitions. Study flashcards with content area vocabulary. Participate in duet, pair and choral reading activities. Write and illustrate riddles. Understand teacher explanations and two-step directions. Compose brief stories based on personal experience. Write in dialogue journals. Dialogue journals are a conversation between the teacher and the student. They are especially helpful with English language learners. Students can

write about topics that interest them and proceed at their own level and pace. They have a place to express their thoughts and ideas. Stage IV: Intermediate fluency English language learners at the intermediate fluency stage have a vocabulary of 6000 active words. They are beginning to use more complex sentences when speaking and writing and are willing to express opinions and share their thoughts. They will ask questions to clarify what they are learning in class. These English language learners will be able to work in grade level math and science classes with some teacher support. Comprehension of English literature and social studies content is increasing. At this stage, students will use strategies from their native language to learn content in English. Student writing at this stage will have many errors as ELLs try to master the complexity of English grammar and sentence structure. Many students may be translating written assignments from native language. They should be expected to synthesize what they have learned and to make inferences from that learning. This is the time for teachers to focus on learning strategies. Students in this stage will also be able to understand more complex concepts. Stage V: Advanced Fluency It takes students from 4-10 years to achieve cognitive academic language proficiency in a second language. Student at this stage will be near-native in their ability to perform in content area learning. Most ELLs at this stage have been exited from ESL and other support programs. At the beginning of this stage, however, they will need continued support from classroom teachers especially in content areas such as history/social studies and in writing.