DIDI-HUBERMAN, Georges. Fra Angelico. Dissemblance & Figuration [PDF]

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GEORGES DIDI-HUBERMAN

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'Jra :Jlngelico Dissetnblance ~

Figuration Translated by JANE MARI E T ODD

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Gcorgcs Didi-Huberman tcachcs at the Ecolc des Hautcs Enidcs in Scienccs Sociales in Paris and has writtcn severa! books on thc history and theory of art. Jane Marie Todd is a frecla1icc writcr, translator, and editor who lives and works in l'ortland, Orcgon. Shc is chc auchor of Atttobiographics in Freud and Derrida (Garland Prcss, 1990 ). Thc Univcrsiry ofChicago Press, Chicago 60637 Thc Univcrsity ofChicago Prcss, Ltd., London © 1995 by Thc Universiry ofChicago Ali rights rcscrved. Publishcd 1995 Printcd in the Unitcd States of America 04 03 02

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ISBN (cloth): 0-226-14813-0 OriginaJly published as FraAngelico: Díssemblance et figuration, © Flammarion, Paris, 1990. This translation was publishcd with the assistancc of rhc Fn:nch Ministry of Culmrc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Didi-Huberman, Georgcs. [Fra Angelico. English J Fra Angclico : disscmblancc and figuration / Georgcs DidiHubcrman; translatcd by Jane Marie Todd. p. cm. Includes bibliographicaJ rcfercnccs and indcx. ISBN 0-226-14813-0 (acid-frce) 1. Angelico, fra, ca. 1400-1455 -Criticism and intcrprctation. 2. Human figure in art. 3. Symbolism in art. I. Angclico, fra, ca. 1400-1455. II. Titk. ND623.A5393D5313 1995 759.5 -dc20 94-32177 CIP

@) The papcr uscd in this publication mccts tl1c minimurn rcquircrnents of the American Nacional Standard for I nformation Scicnccs - l'ermancncc of l'apcr for Printcd Library Materiais, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Cusroditc igimr sollicitc animas vestras, 11011 vidistis aliquam similimdinem in die qua locun1s cst Dominus vobis. Takc ye thcreforc good heed unto yoursclves; for ye saw no manner of similitude on the day that the Lord spake unto you. Deuteronomy 4 : IS

IfGod ca11 accomplish miraclcs through boncs, it is clear he can do the same through images, stones, and many other things.

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Second Council ofNicaea

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Ali these memories, following 011e afrer another, were condensed into a singlc substancc, but had not so far coalcsced that I could not discern betwccn thc threc strata, bctwecn my oldcst, my instinctive memories, those others, inspircd more recently by a tastc or "perfüme," and thosc which were actually the memories of anothcr, from whom I had acquired them at second hand - no fissures, indeed, no geological faults, but at lcast thosc veins, those streaks of colour which in certain rocks, in certain marblcs, point to diffrrences of origin, age, and formation. Marcel Proust, Sivann's Way

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Contents

List of Illustrations Translaror's Note lntroduction

IX XIII

PART ONE

The Colors ofMystery PRA ANGELICO, PAINTER OF DISSEMBLANCE

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The Questi011 ofFigure, the Quesrion ofGround The Subtlety of Images The Four Senses ofScripture Thc Dialcctic of Dissemblance Memoria, or thc lmplicit of Figures l'racfi_quratio, or the Destiny of Figures l'racscntin, or the Virtual ofFigures

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PART TWO

Prophetic Places THE ANNUNC!ATION BEYOND ITS STORY

103 Srory and Mystcry J-Iow to Figure thc Unfigurablc?

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VII

CONTENTS

The Figure Is Time The Figure Is the Place Inhabitatio: In the Light of the Word Inchoatio: ln the Shadow of the Earth Incorporatio: ln the Bosom of Colors Notes Credits Index

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192 21 7

Illustrations

Plates (following page

fra Angdico. Noli me ttir(t)'&rc (dctail ). About 1438-50. Fresco. Florcnce, convcnt ofSan Marco 2-4. Fra Angelico. Madonna ofthc Shadows (dctails). About 1438-50. Fresco. Florcnce, convent ofSan Marco, cast corridor 5. "Christ stonc." Tcnrh century. Chalce dony mounted in a larer frame. Moscow, Kremlin, Museum ofArms. 6. Giotto. R esunection rif Christ ( detail). 1304 - 6. Fresco. Padua,Scrovegnichapel 7. Fra Angelico . Bosco ai Frati retablc ( de tail ). About 1450. Tempera. Florence, Musco di San Marco 8. School ofFra Angclico. Madonna and Chi/d. Mid -fiftccnth century. Tempera. Bcrgamo, Accadcmia C arrara 9. Fra Angclico. Coro1111tion of the Vir.._JTill. About 1434. Tempera. Florcncc, Musco di San Marco 1.

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10. Fra Angclico. Crmmation ofthc VirJ1in (detail). Abour 1434 - 35. Tempera. Paris, Louvre 11. Portablc altar in rcd porphyry. Elcvcnth cc11t11ry. Paris, Cluny Muscum 12. Domcnico Vene ziano. Amwnciation. About 1445. Tempera. Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Muscum 13. Lorcnzo di Crcdi. An1111nciatio11. About 1480-85 . Tempera. Florcncc, Uflizi 14. Fra Angclico and collaborator. Cmcifi:xion. About 1438-50. Fresco. Florcncc, convcnt ofSan Marco 15. Fra Angclico. A111wnciatio11. About 1438 - 50. Fresco. Florcnce, convcnt ofSan Marco 16. Agnolo Gaddi . Annunciatiim. 1394 - 95. Fresco. Prato, Cathcdral, Sacro Cingolo chapei 17. Fra Angelico. Am111nci11tion (rcliquary of Santa Maria Novclla ). About 1430- 34. Tempera. Florcncc, Musco di San Marco

IX

ILLUSTRATIONS

18. Fr,l Angdico and collaborator. A11111t11ci11tion. About 1440. Tempera. Momc Ca ri o, Cathcdral ofSan c.;io\'anni Valdarno 19. Fra Angclico. Fl({Jht into F,J1ypt (scvcnth s,c nc from thc Annndio d,~fJli Ar!fCllti). About !4SO. Tem pera. Florc.:ncc.:, Musco di San Marco 20 . Fr,l Angdico. A11111111ciatio11. t\bout

1438 - SO. hc,,o. Flon:ncc, uH1,·c11t ofS,\11 Marco 21. Fra Angcli co. Coron111i11n o/r/;c Vi1:11i11. Abo ut 1438 - SO. Frcs,·o. Florcncc,co n· ,·c11t ofSan 1\fan:o 22. Fra Angelico ,111d co llabor,llors. ( .'n1c1jixio11. Alimn 1438 - SO. Frcsc·o. Florcncc, Coll\·e111 of San 1\b rco

Figures 1. Fra Angclico. S11i11t l'ctcr !vfor(1'1". Abo ut J 438 - SO. Fresco. Florrnce, M usc.:o di S,111 Marco xv 2. Fra Angdico. Noli me tllJJJ/l'rC. About 1438 - SO. Fresco . Florc.: nn:, coll\'Clll ofSan Marco 16 )· Fra Angelico. J-lo~v C1ml'crsatio11 (1'.,J11dom1a oj'thc Shadows). Abour 1438 - SO. Fresco ,rnd tempera. Florcncc, convcllt ofSan Marco 29 +. C:halicc from thc Trcasury of Saim Denis. Twclti:h ccntury. C:arne lian. Washington, D.C., National c.;allcry ofArt 32 5. (.iiotto. Two patchcs of"fictivc marblc.:." About 1306. hcsco. l'adua, Scrovcgni d1apd 32 6. Fra Angclico. Vir3in nnd Chi/d. About 1430. Tempera. Florrncc, Musco di San Marco 33 7. Fra Angclico. l'smdo-J)ionysiw thc Arc11jJt1JJÍtl', dctail of Cr11cijixi1111 1J1ith Snints. About 1438-SO. Fresco. Florrncc, crn1vcnt ofSan Marco .1+ 8-9. Giotto. Alll~{Jory rf EnJJ_v and AllcJrm:1' of h1c1111St11ncy. About 1306. Fresco. !'adua, Scrovcgni c hapei 65 10. Ca rio da Camerino. Annunciation. Late fourtccnth ccntury. Tempera. Urbino, l'alazzo Ducalc 71 11. Fra Angclico. Inui_{Jo Pictatis(detail).

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Abou t 1438 - SO . Frcsc·o. Florl' lll"C, Cll\'Cllt ofSan J\Lirco ~, ' Ano11ymous C,irolingian. C:rrnti111J 11( Adam. Mid -11i11th cc.:11tury. Mout ier c.;ra11d\'al Biblc , l.011do11, British l .ibrary 75 Fra Angclico. l'ictá . About 1438. Tem pera. Mu11ich, Altc l'i11akothck 78 Fra f\11gclico. Adomtion o(thc M11!fi a11d lnuzJJo l'ict11tú. About 1438 -S O. h ·csco. Florencc, crnl\"cnt ofSa11 Marco 7'> Fra Angclico. Bosco ai Frati rctablc. Ahout 14SO. Tempera . Florc11cc, Musco di S,111 Marco 80 l\cnozzo Goz zo li . Vi1yri11 lllllÍ Chi/d rctablc (dctail ). 1466. Tempera. S,\11 (.;irnigna110, Pinacoteca 81 Cima da C:011cgli ,lno. Vi1yrin nnd Chi/d rctablc (dctail) . 1496-99. Tempera. Vcnice, Accadcmia 82 Pictro l .orc11zetti. l:n tm11/11nci1t 11( ( .'/;ri.a. About 1320-28 . Fresco. Assisi, lo\\'cr church ofSan Fra11ccsco 83 Andrea dei Castag110. lamt S11ppcr, Cn1ciJixio11, ])cpositirm , and Rcs11rrccti1m. 1445 - 50. Fresco. Florencc, rckctory ofSant ' Apollo11ia 8+ Mastcr of 14 I 6. li4adomia mui Chi/d ( dctail ). Early filiecmh cemury. Tempera. Flore11ce, Accademia 86

ll.LUSTRATIONS

21. Ciotto. lvfadonnn r!f' (~rnissn11ti ( dctail). About 1300 - 1303. Tempera. Florrncc, UHizi

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22. Sano di l'icrro. Rctablc ofthc Vi1~rrii1 and

Chi/d ( of'Scroliano) ( dctail). 1449. Tempera. Sicna, Pinacoteca

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Marco

23. Taddco Gaddi. h'11t111n/m1mt. First half of'fourtccmh century. Fresco . Florcncc, Sa nta Crocc, Bardi di Vcrnio chc1pcl

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2+. Stonc altar painted in "fictivc marblc." Fourrcenth ccnturv. Florencc, Sant;\ Croce , Rinuccini chapei

polvprych of'San ( ;iusto ). About 133540. 'l'cn1pcra. Sicna, Pinacoteca 132 J7. Fra An g clico. A111111nci11tim1 (sccond sccne from thc Annadio dcJrli ArJrc11ti). About 1450. "J'cmpcra. Florcncc, Musco di S;111

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25. Wood altar painted in "tictivc marblc."

l'adua, Scrovcgni chapei IH 39. Filippo Lippi. Am111ncit1tion. Ahout 1440. "f'cmpcra. Florcncc , San Lorenzo 135 +o. Filippino Lippi. l111111111cirrtio11 {lcli "rondo"). 1483. Tempera. San

Fiftecnth cenrury. Florence, Sama Maria dei Cirminc 95 2C lcss dctcrm inatc tl 1an thc play of " fig urcs" through which thc mcaning of a " figurativc" imagc is truly d1boratcd. O r so \,VC dlink. lt sccm s so obviou s.

f at prcsc11t wc i11qu irc i1110 what rhc act o f' paiming a figure - a .fi.11111·n wi t hi11 a place o r 0 11 a g rou nd - ;1 /orns - cou ld h:wc 111eant for rn J\11gdico, in thcory and in practicc, wc fi11d rhings are rnu ch lll()l"L' suhrlc and rnud1 lcss "thcatric.11" tha11 th cy :1ppcar. Fra r\ngd ico was a Domi11i can friar. This simplc facr o ught to rc m ind us oí thc impressivc culrun: th::ir hdo ng ing to a rclig ious o rdcr prcsupposnl from rhe outsct: in foc t, cruriitio constirutcd onc of" th t: g 1,i d ing ideas of;1 Dominican novitiatc . 10 ( ;ram111ar, log ic, r hctori c, poctry, l:1w, 111usic, physics, arithmctic, :llH.l gcomctry wcrc :tll taught therc, a, was of n>11 r,c 1hcology, suprcnll' snpii:nt ia - rhat is, nonnaru ral scit:ncc, " horh '>pt:rn Liri \'c and practical, and in thcsc two rcspccrs moving bcvond ;i.ll thc orhcr scicnn:s." 11 Thc I loly Scripturcs wcrc a pcr vasivt: prcscncc in thc novi1iarc, as wcn: tl1c g rt:at doctors of thc Church, thosc of rhc o rdcr in particular: Albcrrus 1'vbgrn 1s and S aint T homas .A.quinas, whosc S1mmia thcolrt11ico bcga11 ro bc in fl11 c1 1ti;1J i11 1 \09 and progrcssivcly ro supplant Pctcr Lomb,ml's Hoo!, rfScntmi:cs :1s 1"11c basic tcxthook. 12 I11cidc11rl y, Aqui nas had alrcad y prcfaccd rhc iminc nsc Sm1111111 wi th thc splcndid aposrolic nict,1phor of 111il/: dcstincd for childrL'n, that i.,, fór t hc initiatcs i11 rdig io11: iniriarcs whom lic promiscd cbr iry :md C\'Cll brcviry, ":1s mu ch as t hc m aterial w ill ;1 llow," hc hasrcn cd to add. " Fra Angclico rhus dra11k in thi s scholasti c m ilk, w hich i11 rcalirr co11s tin11 r ir deals with thc vcry status of any Christian sign: it is clcar that, fór a Christian, the mystcry of thc Word incarna te - that is, Christ himsclf- cannot bc rcduccd to the story ofthe acts and gcstcs ofJcsus ofNazarcth, cven if this story is writtcn by onc of thc evangclists in person . The story has cerrainly revcalcd thc mystery, though it has not unveilcd it to thc lrnman gaze. But thc story is past, whcrcas in the living presem of a Dominican friar in San Marco, thc mysrcry has nevcr ccased to cxist. Ir is thcrc, presem on a daily basís, within the walls of rhe convent. And it ís disseminated everywhere in rcligious lifo: it is disscminated in s(ffns that are at the same tilnc presences. The Eucharist, of course, constitutes thc modcl par exccllencc for these signs. What is the host? The hostis both a sign and the prcscnce of Christ's flesh. Yet the host is only a whitc surfacc, "figurclcss," by whích I mean ír is uttcrly without rcsemblancc to the thíng of which it is rhe sígn and presence. It is as if the element of presencc required rhe sign's nonresemblance to íts referem. Thc word fi.qura ís nevcrthcless at the heart of this entire dialcctic. F(qura occupies a central place in thc history of formulations abollt the Eucharist from rhe very first centurícs of Christianiry, in Tertullian for examplc. "'1 ln rhe Middle Ages, thc Eucharist was still cxplicítly what brought abour the miraclc of a conjuncrion betwecnji.._qum and res, or evenftqum and Peritas, in the ritual cclebration.''º Thc consecrated host is thus a Ji.qura Christi but in the strong sensc of a "figureprescnce": a living sign, an dkctivc sign where rhere is precisely nothing "figurativc" - in thc way a lover of paimings would understand the tcrm - in the fig-

THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

ure. It is a.fl.qure by virtue of rhe fact that ir is without rcscmblancc to rhc aspect: a remarkablc way of resolving anorhcr figurarivc paradox - rhis onc too linkcd to the Incarnation - thc paradox of rransubsrantiation. This rcquiremcnt of nonrcscmblancc is not localizcd in thc singlc, extreme cxarnplc of rhc Eucharist. Onc of thc classic definirions of the sign in general, the one Augustinc gives in the second book of De doctrina christiana, already clcarl~, umkrlincs not only the otherness thc sign carrics within ir but also the dissc111-_, , blancc ir establishcs with its referem, the objcct signified. The sign, writes Saint· Augustine, is "bcyond thc aspecr" (practcr JjJccicn1); and rhat is how ir brings to mind "in addition to thc imprcssion ir produccs on thc senses" ( that is, its aspecr), somcthing rhat is "outsidc itself" (ex se). The three examplcs Augustine gives to illustrate this general dcfinition ali have in common what Peirce would have called indexical characterisrics: a footstep (JJestfqitnn); smoke from a fire; and the voice as sign of thc sou 1. The indcxical character of thcse three examplcs lics, firsr, in the rnaterial contact they supposc berween the sign and the object significd and, sccond, in their noniconic, nonrcscmblant characrcr; for a footprint no more prcscnts thc aspcct of thc walkcr than smokc imitares thc color of firc. 61

(7J li this may sccm to move us away from painting and Fra Angclico, sincc it .l'lsecms to bc guiding us toward incrcasing abstraction. ln fact, wc might objcct that fra Angclico did not aim so high but was contcnt to spend his entirc lifc humbly illustrating Holy Scripturc. But Holy Scripturc irsclf has to bc undcrstood - by which I mcan that Fra Angclico undcrstood it - as a sign that is both prcscncc and mystcry, beyond irs aspcct, bcyond rhc storics it tclls. Thc Bi blc structured the cntirc thinking of thc Middlc Ages and continucd to structurc Fra Angclico's thinking. This mcans wc should not takc thc word illustrate in its rcstrictcd or usual scnsc. 62 On thc contrary: "for cvcryonc, Scripturc containcd cvcrything in principie," wrotc Henri de Lubac, "Scripturc was first in cvcrything, in authority, in uscfolcncss, in age. lt was quasi totus entditionisfims," that is, practically thc only source of knowlcdgc in gcncral.'' 3 At thc hcart of thc mystcry of thc Incarnation, Jesus Christ himsclf was to be apprchcndcd as thc act par cxc way as what givcs acccss - but an access that is always a dctour, a displacc1ncnt, a temporization-to thc divine "thing itsclf." That is thc cni._q11u1 Saint Paul spokc of. Exegcsis as a wholc can in this scnsc bc dcfined as a pracricc of figuration, a glorification or "illustration" of figures. Thus, Holy Scripturc is cndowcd with unfathomablc dcpths, bccausc bcyond thc lctter -its manitcst meaning, thc story it tclls - it puts into play a wholc world of figures wherc its spirit will progrcssivcly come forth. "Thc lcttcr killcth," as cvcryonc knows, "but thc spirit givcth litc."'''1 Oncc more, Saint Paul was inaugurating a tradition, common to thc wholc Middlc Ages, whcrc cvcry rncaning in Scripture acquircs dcpth by dividinJT, by splitting in two: thc lcttcr and the spirit, thc surfacc and thc undcrsidc. Ir is thc book, writtcn on both sidcs, in thc vision from Saint John's Rcvclation. 7 0 Thcrc is thc front

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THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

side, "attractive to the littk oncs," and therc are the admirabk (lepths of thc reverse side, foldcd a thousand times and scakd by scven scals. In medieval cxcgcsis, the tcchnical namc for the front síck- for thc lcttcr, thc surfacc - is historia. The story relates thc facts; in thc case of thc Bible, such facts are obviously very diffcrent from thc chaptcrs in a chroniclc or thc arguments in a fablc. Aquinas writes that they are alrcady in rhcmsclvcs cndowcd wírh a spiritual meaning.71 From thís point of view, the biblical historia is kss a surfacc than a thrcshold wc must cross in ordcr to go "insidc" Scripture. lt has bcen comparcd to thc limen templi, the tcmpk door, which hidcs but also givcs acccss to what wc could call thc Holy of I-Iolies in the scriptural sensc. 72 But thís sensc-miraprofunditas-cscapcs ir. ln the entirc exegetical traditicm, the story reprcscnts only a firsr srcp: at the levei of the text, the historia can be defined as a prima si__qnijicatio; ar thc levei of rcading, ít consritutes a primus intellectus; ar the levei of commentary, it is only a prinia expositio. Sometimcs, ali dignity of meaning is dcnied it, sincc the expression ad litterarn, in the twclfth ccntury for examplc, is opposed to thc cxpression ad sensurn, which musr itsclf unfold ad sentiam; that is, it must aím toward the highest levei of meaning. 7 ·' ln short, thc story is simplex, simplc, cven simplistic, whilc thc spiritual mcaning is multiplex. What thc story givcs us to understand is only what is said. I-Iilary of Poitiers violcntly rejectcd any approach to Scripturc that only took inro account what is said historialiter, anel it is not insignificant that thc vcry first word of his Tractatus mysteriorurn, isolatcd by thc spaccs that follow, is thc word "multiplex." 74 Thc story can cvcn bc worse than símplistic. It can bc malcficcnt; it c.111 lcad us into error; it can constitutc somcthing like a "hystcria of mcaning." Historia dicitur ab ysteron, quod est Besticulatio - thc story is undcrstood through thc utcrus (the "hysteron," thc lower parts), anel that is why ir prcsupposcs gcsticulation (that is, hystcrical cxccss and spcctaclc). That is the dcfinition wc rcad in Stcphcn Langton's gloss of thc Historia scolastica. 75 This mcans, first of ali, that thc story is about thíngs that havc mcrely bccn sccn or cnactcd r JJÍsa,Lqesta 1. Thc story gocs so far as to delivcr gcsticulations of mcaning, and wc know that, throughout thc Middlc Ages, thc word,Hcsticulatio was continually takcn to task in thc most violem way: ,Hesticulatio is a gcsturc inasmuch as ít is bad, recklcss, cvcn demonic; ir is associatcd with pcrvcrtcd dcsires, with a "pcccaminious" libido, and with thc activities of actors in thc theatcr. 76 Evcn whcn thc historia dclivcrs thc cdifying spcctaclc of Scripturc, it still rcmains opcn to a prejudicial

THE FOUR SENSES OF SCRIPTURE

suspicion: Tcrtullian anel Augustinc's classic suspicion of thcatrical visibility with its risk of cxccss, hysteria, and idolarry. At bortom, rhc story is valued only for whar lics bcyond ir: Saint Augustinc said clcarly rhar hisrory was subjcct to thc ordcr of túne, "of which God is rhc crcator and adminisrrator." 77 And thc cntirc Middlc Ages rcad in this collcction of biblical historiac "lcss thc account of cvcnrs carrying rheir mcaning wirhin thcm tlun thc prdiguration of what ought to follow thcm: thc shadow of thc futurc in Augustinc's words." n Thc story is a threshold, cvcn a foundation, bm ir is a founcbtion that musr be lcfr bchind and rhus, in a ccrtain sense, dcnicd: to arrivc at thc meaning of Scriprurc, wc must bcgin with, but dcparr from, thc srory. Whar, then, is rhcrc bcyond, underneath, thc story? Formulations of rhc qucsrion have long hesitarcd: ir is ccrtainly a qucsrion of thc spiritual mcaning whosc sovcrcignty Saint Paul cvoked. But how and by what means cm this spiritual mcaning bc dcfincd? Wc can call it "mystical" as opposcd to "literal"; in thc ninth century, Raban Maur calls ir "mystcry" as opposcd to "historical"; in thc twclfth ccntury, Honorius II prcfcrs to oppose rhe term "allcgory" to "story." 79 Bcforc thcm, Saint Jeromc was not afraid to generalize in a scnsc, firmly opposing historia and tropolo._qia. Anel what is "tropology"? I t is the sciencc or thc undcrstanding of tropcs and dctours of meanings: it is the scicncc of figures. Saint Jcromc addcd a kcy clausc to thc cxposition of this dichoromy; historia, stricta; tropolo,__qia, libera. 80 And thus was cstablishcd thc principie of rcading whcre thc story-thc surface - circumscribcs, limits meaning to thc tclling of thc cvcnts, whcrcas thc figure is "frcc," which does not mcan it is unrcgulatcd, but rathcr that it is capablc of opcning rncanin__q to thc "admirablc depths" of sacrcd Scripture. Anel thcsc dcpths werc unccasingly scrutinized, conccived, and conccptualizcd during thc Middlc Ages, lcss as a way of dividing or compartmcntalizing than as a way of propcrly dijfractin;_q, as light is diffractcd in crystal. I t is in this way that the conceptual matrix of thc jimr scnses r thc rcading, cxplanation, and transmission ( modus exponcndi, nwdus traditionis) of sacrcd Scriptun:. 81 Lct us recai! thc mcaning of thcsc tcrms. Allc._qoria conccrns not what onc should scc in Scriprurc - for thar is historitr - but what onc should bcliePc. I t is through allcgorical mcaning, wrotc Grcgory thc Grcat, that faith itsclf grows

THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

stronger. The allegorical meaning, however, does not present itsclf as an immediate conviction: it is latem, hidden, occultus, which lcd Gregory the Great to say that the highest mysteries of rhe heavenly reign are interiora to Scriprure. They hide from carnal eyes, just as mystery is hiddcn beneath tbe telling of the fablc. Hence, they temi explicitly toward a sacramental modcl and can bc distinguished from classical pagan allegory's more uniformly rhetorical charactcr. 8 2 Christian allegory is not an "image" in the usual sense: etymologically, ir is what signifies according to the Other; as Origen cxplaincd, citing Saint Paul, allegory is what makes an imprint in the flesh in view of a spirirual conversion. Thc word conversion is fundamental hcre: it presupposes that allegory funcrions as a force of protcnsion and prcmonition of thc mystcry of thc Word incarnatc. Allcgory allows us to arrivc ata kind of prophccy- a verbum - that historical facts, the facta, conceal and contain wirhout knowing it. Allcgory is thcrcfore prefiguration. It opposes the 1nysterium futurmn to the res gesta of history; ir opposes the nonresemblance of the sacramentum to rhe rcsemblancc of thc literal species. And in that way it constitutes, according to M.-D. Chenu's cxprcssion, thc "nerve of doctrinal construction": wc can summarize the notion by saying that it converts historical meaning in view of truth itsclf. 83 Tropologia, in contrast, converts literal meaning in vicw of virtus, moral virtuc. It corresponds to the meaning that Scripturc, beyond its historical factuality, but also alongside its timeless truth, has for us: it is the sens1nn quotidie, the kind of everyday prophccy that Scripture should inspire in every sou!, in thc entire Church, ar every moment intime. It is a day-to-day guide. It can be compareci to thc honey that man may consume, whcreas this consumption itself can be compareci to an internai sacramcnt, interioris hominis sacramentznn. According to Origcn's cxprcssion, it is the "Savior's daily birth," "the continuai coming forth of the Logos." Tropology is an enacting-hodie usque ad nos-of an ancient biblical prophecy maintaining that, from beginning to cnd, Scripturc concerns only thc Christian's salvarion, that is, the cnd of time. It is the very principie of a per-fection of the sou!; it converts, not in rhe manner of the cognitio veritatis, like allegory, but in the manner of whar the Middlc Ages called the fimna JJÍrtutis. 8 ·1

Finally, anagogia designares the ultimate principie of ali these convcrsions. It is mystical mcaning par excellcnce, and it is much more than a meaning: ir is the very act of elcvating oncsclf to the light and face of God. Ali thc meraphors of anagogy are of flight and light: hence it is defincd as a pennti contemplationis, thc "fcather of contemplation" that every passage of Scriprure holds within if wc

40

THE FOUR SENSES OF SCRIPTURE

only know how to grasp it. Hcnce ir is called sursumductio, or sublcvatio. It srnrts out low -with cvcry physical particlc of sacrcd tcxt- and aims hcavcnward, toward invisiblc anel divinc !iglu; it aims toward the fiuurc in thc eschatological scnsc; it aims toward what William of Saint-Thicrry calice! osculum actcrnitatis, thc kiss of ctcrnity. Anagogy is thc mcaning of Scripturc vicwcd from thc anglc of its last ends: it constitutcs thc thcological anel tclcological atmosphcrc of mcaning par cxccllcncc. No mcaning but thc anagogical posscsscs this charactcr of immincnce-which is callcd prae-scns-of divinc prcscncc; anel thc tcnsion that its tcmporality implics is manikst in thc advcrb interim, an advcrb of intervai and of cxpcctation, an adverb poised "bctwcen thc nunc of the carth and thc tunc ofctcrnity." 85 lt is through anagogia that thc hopc that ali of Holy Scripturc carrics within it is constructcd: if JJcritas constitutes the central word of allcgory and virtus that of tropology, wc can say that dcsidcrimn - thc dcsirc for eternal blcssings-providcs thc principal, dynamic charactcr of this third and final spiritual meaning. 86

(1 ,4 }hen Fra Angclico rcad a passagc of Scripturc, on thc Noli me tan.!JCrc, for

· VV cxamplc, hc kncw vcry wcll he was not just reading a simplc story with

an oriental decor anel more or lcss dramatic characters and action. Hc was certainly reading a story, but hc was also reading a JJcritas, a JJirtus, anel a dcsidcrium. For many gcncrations, the four scnscs of Scripturc constituted a classical modcl, undisputcd and unshakablc. Thcy providcd a real framc for thought, to thc point that ccrtain medieval librarics uscd thc four scnses as a principie of classification for thcir books. 87 Thc four senscs originatcd in thc remore past- abovc ali in rabbinical exegeses, via Philo of Alexandria 88 - anel travclcd a grcat distancc to bring thcir mcthodology to thc Dominican convcnts of Tuscany, particularly in thc quattroccnto. lt is not complctcly accuratc to say that thc fóur scnscs wcrc a "framc'' for thought; or rathcr, thcy were a framc in the way that Gothic painters conceived of the framc in thcir rctablcs and polyptychs: for thcy werc in the first placc a modcl of opcnncss and prolifcration. Prcaching itsclf~ which wc would bc wrong to imagine functioning according to an cquation bctwccn instructio and sinzplicitas, continucd to borrow thc influential labyrinths of the four scnscs to such an cxtcnt that thc composition of medieval scrmons oftcn escapes us, so entircly is it markcd by displaccments, s~rna translata - "thc association of ideas" as Eticnnc Gilson rightly notcd-cndlessly dcvcloping a paralogic whosc finality sccms only to diffi-act, nd libitmn, cvcry mcaning. 8 '' from thc time of Guibcrt of

THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

Nogent's Liber quo ordine sermo fieri dcbeat at the begin11ing of the twelfth century, umil thc grcat flourishing of scholastic Artes pracdicandi at the end of the Middlc Ages, the movement was the sarne: through a modcl of thc four senses, a constam, almost ddirious practice of invcntion and thc blossoming of mcaning unfólded .';º When a preacher told thc story of David and Goliath to his flock, for cxamplc, he made of his discourse a veritablc organism, a principie of 1netmnorphosis: he moved in this way from dcscriptions to definitions; hc dividcd gcncra imo specics; he advanced argurncnts; hc discussed opposing cxamplcs; hc gavc cxamplcs drawn from cveryday lifc; he composcd a catalog of scriptural and thcological authorities; he "formcd" or "derivcd" words bascd on their roots; hc substituted one prefix for another; he presenteei metaphors; hc "cnlargcd" upon these sarne mctaphors according to thc four scnscs; and hc constructcd a wholc network of images anel causal principies. Thc story hc bcgan with was metamorphosed entircly inro the body of commcntary, and thc stonc thrown by David beca me onc of Christ 's wounels, cvcry parti ele of thc episode arriving in diverse ways at something Iike the "admirable depths." 91 ln a Thomist Ars praedicandi from the cnd of the Middle Ages, nine methods were put forth to develop-a word to be taken in thc strong scnsc-a scrmon: among thcse nine mcthods, along with analogics, synonyms, and similituelcs, thcre is what the author calls the multiplication of meanings, by which hc mcans something more than a simplc accumulation of mctaphors.'; 2 What is at stakc rcscmblcs lcss a elcsirc to delimit a thcmc likc that of David anel Goliath, than to engulf that themc in the bottomlcss depths - thc "forest of forcsts," wrote Bonaventura - by opening it up to the frrnr senscs. lt is no accielcnt that the decline of this great model of thinking corresponded to the very period whcn Renaissance humanism was devcloping. Saint Antoninus of Florence, faithful to Thomist thinking down to its smallcst details, still represented a bastion of exegetical thought in Fra Angelico's time.'1·' At the sarne momem, Alberti's famous treatise, De pictura, appeared in the field of pictorial thought; it is a theoretical essay where, in a brief but decisive manner, the wholc of medieval propositions concerning historia and figura are preciscly turncd on their hcad and denied. Afi._JJttre, according to Alberti, is not an abyss of meaning and does not move toward the "admirable depths," as Saint Augustine wrotc. Figure is not opposed to aspcct: on the contrary, it is an aspect, a configuration of the visiblc world. Hencefórth, the meaning of the word would transit between a gcographical vo-

42

THE FOUR SENS E S OF SCR!l'TURE

cabulary, thc world of classical rhctoric, and thc studio tcrminology wc alrcady find in Ccnnini.')4 Nevcrthclcss, De pictura displaccs, alrcady in rclation to Ccnnini, thc cntirc rhcorctical univcrsc of painting. This is obvious from thc first lincs of thc trcatisc: Ccnnini opcncd his Libro defl>arte with an invocation ro God, thc Virgin, and ,lll thc saints; Albcrti, on thc othcr hand , bcgins his tcxt with an homagc to mathcmaticians and a dcmand for thc autonom y of thc paintcr's po int of vicw.9 5 Whcn, in addition to thc auto no my of his discipline, Albcrti dcmand s ,ln erttditio that would constitutc this discipline, hc does not ask thc apprcmicc to bc a "novice" in thc Do minican scnsc: hc does not advisc him to losc himsclf in thc rcading of tcxts, but rathcr to look cardi.rll y at thc scnsiblc aspcct of things in nan,rc.')'' Thus, far from bcing considcrcd a gcrminating "virtuc," a divinc virtuc that cngcndcrs forms, Albcrti's notion of pltlce is envisioncd as a "quality inhcrcnt to surfaccs": it is abovc all a mattcr of"circurnscription" -and tinis prcsupposcs thc act of ritaJ1liare- and not of "ficld," thc act of cmnpc._q_qiare. Thc placc does not havc a gcnctic quality but rathcr a pcrccptual onc: ir conccrns thc sighr of things - appartiene alla forza dei Pedere- rathcr than thc things thcmsclvcs.') 7 Similarly, whcn Albcrti spcaks of a s(qn, hc is far from cvoking rhc diffractcd hicrarchy of biblical "particlcs": "I call a sign," hc writcs, "anything which cxists 011 a surfacc so thar it is visiblc to thc cyc." Thc thcorctical conscqucncc of this dcfinition is immcdiatcly drawn: what wc cannot scc with thc nakcd cyc - for cxamplc, a peritas, a PÍrtus, or a thcological mystcry- is in no way thc conccrn of painting.')~ As a rcsult, it is not surprising to find in Albcrri a w hok practicc of rchabilitating thc su1f ace, as opposcd to ali thc "admirablc dcpths" of thc Middlc Ages, and thc historia, as opposcd to thc wholc tradition of thc four scnscs. Thus, bcauty and cvcn gracc- that is, thc quality attribt1tcd to thc Virgin by rhc archangcl Gabriel in pcrson - is considcrcd in De pictura to bc mcrcl y rhc rcsult of thc "composition of surfaccs" (cmnposizione dcllc supc1:ficic). And thc wholc issuc of thc "so u!" cxprcsscd in a painting is rcduccd to rhc arrangcmcm of "movcmcnts of thc bod y" -such as laughtcr cxprcssing joy and tcars cxprcssing sadncss -which a rhcologian of thc Middlc Ages might vcr y wcll havc

tcrmcd .11csticulatio. ')" As for rchabilitating history, Albcrri's istoria no longcr has anything to do with thc simplex cxpositio, whcrc medieval cxcgcsis had situatcd thc word historia. 100 Far from bcing "sirnplc," thc istoria, according to Albcrti, co11stitt1tcs rhc ulrimatc stakcs of an y pictorial composition; it thu s constiturcs a ncw and spc-

+,

THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

cific order of complcxity and subtlcty. As such, it realizes t!H.: !Trandissima opera of the art of paiming: Composition is that proccdurc in painting [piJ1endi ratio, litcrally, "painting 's rcason" - trans. 1 whcrcby thc parts are composcd togcthcr in a picturc. Thc grcat work of thc paintcr is thc "historia"; parts of rhc "historia" are thc bodics, part ofthc body is thc mcmbcr, and part ofthc mcmbcr is a surfacc. 1º 1

ln that way, the notion of istoria came to occupy the preeminent place in the entire humanist conception of painting, a place that art history, a "humanist" discipline in Panofsky's famous expression, still maimains - rightly so, when ir is dealing with an "Albertian" painting (but we have reasem to doubt whether this adjective has any rigorous meaning in painting); wrongly, when it is ckaling with somcthing cise. We know evcrything thc Albertian istoria owes to the conceptual universe of classical rhetoric: whereas medieval theology opposed historia and veritas - or rathcr historia and mystcrimn - Cicero had opposcd history, what is true, and fabula, what is lacking in vcrisimilitude. Ir is somcthing like this notion that Albcrti takcs up when he makes the pictorial istoria a fünction of verisimilitude and-why not? - still within the Ciccronian lcgacy, thc lux JJCritatis par cxcellcnce. 102 As a function of vcrisimilitude, istoria is also apprchenckd in this context in terms of a strict rhetorical function, and evcn thc rhetorical function par cxcellcnce: invcntion. Spcaking of thc "plcasurc of composing the story," Alberti explains that "ali the glory consists in invcntion [ invcnzione ]"which he supports with an cxplicit reference to thc pocts and rhctors of antiquity. 1º·' This is why wc ought to bc surprised, yet not too surprised, to find Albcrti almost guilty of blasphemy when he dares to spcak of a "divinc power" (.fàrza diJJina) in the very art of painting or whcn, far from Cennini's Virgins, he speaks to us of painting as an art excellcntly endowed with thc gifr of expressing the face of gods. 104 Ali this suggests to us thc cxtcnt to which Alberti's and Saint Antoninus's categorics of thought wcre hetcrogeneous.IOs If Fra Angdico had had to choosc between two scmiotic worlds th:1t were mutually exclusive, ít is clear he would have choscn that of Saint Antoninus. But it is more probablc that he did not cvcn have to choose. Fra Angclico "illustrated" Holy Scripturc; tbat was his semiotic world. He did not have to sede out the vcrisimilitudc of the istoria; he did not hesitate, contrary to "historical truth," to represem the Virgin and Saint Dominic, for examplc, in a Transfiguration. 106 What hc was seekíng, in painting Holy Scripture, was rather to "engulf" and multiply mcanings, in order to cm-

44

THE DIALECTIC OF DISSEMRLANCE

bracc, if possiblc, thc abyss and the multiplication of scriptural mcanings. Hc sought to paint imagcs endowcd with historia, ccrtainly-thc obligatory rhrcshold of visible rccognition - but also endowcd with allegory, topology, anel anagogy. ln other words, he sought to paint imagcs capablc of supporting a cloctrinal bclicf~ an evcryclay prophccy, and a force for contemplation; in short, a Peritas, a virtus, anel a desiderii11n. But that bclief, I repcat, prcsupposcs a pictorial practicc of thc place; hcncc the opaciry of the medi um, unlikc thc "surfaccs" that aim tmvard the ideal fcaturcs of glass -of thc window and of transparcncy. It prcsupposcs a pictorial practicc of sense undcrsrood as thc mysterics of signification, unlikc purc and sim pie "sensory" scnse. It also presupposcs a pictorial practicc of non11erisimilitude, in opposition to evcry poctics or rhctoric of vcrisimilitudc. Anel finally, it prcsupposcs a pictorial practicc of dissernblance, in opposition to cvery acsthctic of thc "figure" undcrsrood as a mimctic aspcct. Oddly, thcn, disscmblancc had come to inhabit thc vcry hcart of thc "dcsirc for figuration" in a Florcminc painter of thc quattroccnto. But what should wc undcrstand, cxactly, by this notion of disscmblancc?

The Dialectic of Dissemblance At first glance, thc notion of disscmblancc appcars in a rathcr diabolical light. An ovcrvicw of thc occurrcnccs of thc word dissi1nilitudo in Saint Thomas Aquinas, for cxample, rcvcals an ovcrall negative connotation. Disscmblancc is abovc ali linkcd to the landscapc of impurity and sin: it rdcrs most fundamcntally perhaps to an idea of othcrness - hencc wc cncounrcr cxprcssions likc extraneus et dissi1nilis- and Aqui nas uses thc sarne tcrm, dissinúlis, to rdcr to Christ 's sccond coming on thc day of thc Last Judgmcn t. 107 Ncvcrthclcss, bcforc bccoming an intcrscction for more or lcss convcrging connotations, throughout thc Middlc Ages "disscmblancc" dcnotcd a precise conccpt that assigncd it a placc: thc conccpt is that of thc re.._qio dissimilitudinú or rcgion of disscmblancc. Wc nccd to cmphasizc that thc cxprcssion is not originally bíblica! or Christian, cvcn though the "far country" whcrc thc prodigal son squandcrs ali his worldly goods was intcrprctcd in thc Middlc Ages in rcrms of disscmblancc. Thc regio dissimilitudinus is íirst of ali Platonic, found in thc myth that appcars in thc Politics. Wc do not in fact know with ccrtainty, sincc the oldcst manuscripts vary on this point, whcthcr wc are to rcad "occan" (pontos) or rathcr "placc" (topos) of disscmblancc (anmnoÜ/tetos) in Plato's tcxt; what is ccnain is

45

THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

that the dissemblance in question is a dissemblance from onesclt~ which engen. 11·k·e onto 1ogica . 1rum, . represenreu1 cosm1ca li y 111 . I)J aros ' , my ti 1. 108 · . ders somet11mg Later, Plotinus füsed rhis image with that of the foul mire of Hacks, which is described in Pbto's Phaedo. The region of dissemblance thus became the vcry symbol for the first evil and this evil consisted prcciscly, according to Plotinus, in "getting stuck in matter anel being satisfied wirh it." 'º'' The specifically Christian revision of this image consists in superimposing the theme of original sin onro the absolute negativiry-far removed from Aristotle's notion, therefore - that Plorinus attributes to matter. Dissemblancc f1'om oneself bccomcs disscmblancc from God. The founding mornent of the Christian nrq_io dissinúlitudinis occurs in a superb and exalted passage in Augustine's Conji:ssions where we find, not accidentally, the association between trernor, mnor, and horror, in an expression symmetrical to the '\ldmirablc depths" that Holy Scripture clicited at another point: eternal truth and true chariry and dear eternity! You are my Cod, I sigh for you day and night! Whcn for the first time I knew you, you lifted me up to make me sec that there was a Being for me to see, and that I was not yet a being worthy to scc it. You struck continually at the weakness of my gaze [infinnitatc:m aspcctus] through the violcnce of your rays on me, and I trernblcd with !ove and horror [contremui amore et horrore]. Anel I discovered that I was far from you, in thc region of dissemblance. 11 º

O

This extremely famous tcxt, oft:en rcpeated and recitcd during thc Middlc Ages,' 11 thus defincd thc rcgion of "negative dcpths ": dissemblance named a region where God is nota bein._q to be seen. But that region is our own: it defines no more and no less than our common fate of being fallcn and blinded . lt therefore calls for a rcfkction on thc origin of our common fate, and this origin is Adam's sin. Before he sinncd, Adam was irna.lfO Dei: he was the image of God, in a relation of rcsemblance that was face to face, a relation of obedience and imitation. A median resemblance in a scnsc, interior to what Hugh of Saint Victor callcd a "rescrnblance of cquality," which defines thc specific rclation betwcen Jesus Christ and his divine fathcr- and far superior to a "rcsemblance of opposites," a deceitful resemblancc, likc that of a theatcr actor or the Antichrist. 11 2 Tempted by the devi!, who madc him hope fór the inaccessibk rcscmblancc of equality, Adam sinned; in doing so, he lost ali rcsemblance to God; he was no longer ima__qo Dei. Or rather, thc image was "deformed" in him, "blackened," "discolored"; the image was "obscured"; the imagc was "broken." 11 3

\

THE DIALECTIC OF l)JSSEMBLANCE

rrom this point on, thc history of thc notion of n~qio dissimilitudinis consists cntircly of an attcmpt to cxprcss spatially such a brcaking of thc divinc imagc. Thcologians spokc of a land of forgctting, of a goldcn surfacc tarnishcd by filth. Thcy cvokcd ruins or a scpukhcr; thcy proposcd mctaphors of blindncss, of rcscmblancc to bcasts, of"dcformity," cvcn of a ccsspool; they searched high and low in rheir attcmpt to undcrstand the kind of monstrosity characteristic of the human being comkmned to dissemblance. 111 Beyond the visual metaphors of evil, however, the theological problcm of the status of the imCf_!JO J)ci persistcd: obscurcd or discolorcd, this imagc was still not to be considcred irrcmcdiably rcduced to nothing ar all. If ir werc, any possibiliry in man of a cm1Pc1·sim1 and, bcyond rhat, ;1 rcdcmption, a salvation, would havc bccn lacking. If ir wcre, even rhe Savior's coming and sacrifice would have becn uttcrly pointlcss. The solution to thc problcm consists in dialccticizing thc notions of imagc and of dissemblance. And nothing is easier to dialccticize- but also, nothing is more unscrtling- than the notion of the image, for the image is emircly capablc ofslipping away from the snare of univocity. Let us bcgin, for examplc, with rhe famous verse from the thirty-ninth Psalm: "Surcly every man walkcth in a vain shcw" ( Vcrumtaincn in i1naJ1inc pcrtransit homo). lt is an intcnsc moment in a sorrowfúl elcgy: the psalmist fecls his own nothingness in rclation to God. Every man who rises up, he says, is mere hot air, pure mnitas; in the sarne way, hc walks in the image, in ima~qinc pcrtrcmsit, that is, in shadow and appcarance. And yer, the thinkers ofthc Middk Ages - Saint Augusrinc, Saint Bernard, Pcter Lombard, and orhcr-complctcly rcverscd thc valuc ofdespair in thc line . They commcntcd: evcn though blindcd in thc commission of sins and in disscmblance, 111:111, rhrough God's goodness, continues to walk in the im17JJO J)ci for which he was created. And his salvation can only consist in finally recognizing hirnsclf in his native environmcnt whcrc, cven today, he wanders likc a blind 111:111. 11 s for it is thc irnagc, takcn in its ultimate sense of i1napo Dei, that defines rhe highcst qualirics of thc human: it is, say the prescholastic thcologians, ratio par cxccllcnce, thc reasr thc simplc rcasn that a figure consists of "transposing scnse to anothcr figure," in a!iam.fi._quram mutarc. i ;;•, It is no accidcnt that thc "operational" meaning of thc figure predominatcd in thc Middlc Ages in evcrything touching the theological ficld. Godcfroy 's Diction-

THE COLORS OF MYSTERY

naire de l'ancienne lan;:1ue Jrançaise gavc to rhc words fLqurc and fLqural rhn.'.c dircctions of mcaning that are truly rhrcc "spiritual" mcanings, and ali thrcc are dominated by thc idca of disscmblancc: "without great similarity, and figurally," wc read, for cxamplc, in a quotation takcn from Orcsmc. 1"º Thc íirst spiritual mcaning, alle__qoria, relates to the idca of apprchcnding thc figure in relation to rhe paradigm of thc mystery: "Things that are by figural mystcry mean somcthing other than thcy sound in writing." ln this scnsc, what is at stakc in figures is the "mcmory of thc mystery," it bcing undcrstood that mystcry is opposcd hcrc to thc manifcst mcaning of thc story. Thc second spiritual sense, tropolo;_1ia, relates to thc idca of apprehcnding rhe figure in relation to rhc paradigm of prophec_v: "Manna figurcd the very hol y sacrament." ln rhis sensc, what is at stake in thc figure consists lcss of a rcpresentation of a presem aspcct than a prdiguration of a meaning to come. Thc third spiritual mcaning, tma!Jf~qia, moves through a phcnomenology of the conversion of the gaze: it aims at a presencc. Hcre, "in figure" mcans "facing, in the prescnce of" 11,1 That is the meaning of thc word when thc sacramental paradigm of an "dkctive sign" dominares: thc Christian faces the host, a figure for Christ, faces it as a prcscncc. Mcmory of thc mystcry, prefiguration, prcscncc: wc now nccd to considcr, onc by onc, thcsc threc functions of thc figure as dissembbncc and scc how thcy can conccrn, in a crucial, intima te way, thc very opcration of painting.

Jvlernoria, or the I rnplicit of Figures Whcn Giovanni di Genova assigncd to imagcs thc suprcmc stakcs of a "memory of thc mystcry of thc Incarnation," hc undoubtcdly undcrstood thc word "mcmory" in rcfcrcncc to what we cal! an ars mcmorandi. Thc art of mcmory, according to onc of the oldcst ddinitions, is thc art of"forming for oncself figurcs of things OllC WJ.ntS to rctain in thc lllClllOry [ and arranging] thesc figures in ccrtain placcs." 162 Wc know from franccs A. Yatcs's famous work that arts of mcmory playcd a dccisivc role in constituting f-ields of knowlcdge in thc Middlc Ages and Rcnaissance, and in thc cntirc history of thc figurativc arts. Through thc thrcc main Latin sourccs-Ciccro, Quintillian, and thc Rhetorica ad Herenniurn 163 - medieval thinkcrs dcvelopcd in a concrcte way a tcchniquc whose Grcck origin was already lost within thc confines of myth. "It is fundamental to cmphasizc," writes Yatcs,

60

MEMORIA, OR THE IMl'LICIT OF FIGURES

that the art of memory carne out of the Micldle Ages. Its profoundest roots were in a most vencrablc past. From those dccp and mystcrious origins it flowed on into larcr cc11turies, bearing rhe sramp of rcligious fervor strangcly combined with thc mncmotechnical detail ,vhich was sct upon it in thc MilkUc Ages. 1M

This is truc to such an cxtent that the gokkn age of ars memoriae coincides cxactly with rhe age of Scbolasticism: Alberrus Magnus was already developing its means and stakes, primarily in his treatise De bono. pn\ CIUÍrl'. thcorics of inu-l.[fo t~qens- thc imagc thar acts, th ~ d 1i..·LTin · im.1gc. ·1h c sc rhco rics rnainciin thar an abcrra11r, absu rd , o r i11,1ppropriatc Ji g:u rc pcrs i~rs tn rhc mcmory of rhc onc comcmpbting ir much hcncr rh ;\ll a11\' o thn· 1i µ;urc. lkgi nning \\·ith thc tcxts or antiq11it\' - rcad J.nd rcrcad rhrouglH.>Ut rhc M iddk r\g;cs - purc Pisuai intcnsity had hccn promorcd as 011c of rhc high ;ire i11 sonK ,c11sc s1 1bmcrgcd in a un ivcrsc o f nunwi.finti - t ht.: rliird fi g u~·;iti,·c pri ncipie - it i:s 1ircciscly bccausc thc rcprcscntario n of \'cincd , g,Hidily colorcd , g lo\\'in g; rcd marhlc corrcsponds in fu ll to rhc impcrati\'l: of dissc mhla m sim ili rudc:s . Thc 1)aimcd p ,rncls are ccrrai11ly similar to marblc; bur s uch scrnhLmccs h a\'C rlK pcc uliarin·, b eca u se of rhcir rckrcnt itscl( of" i11cluding in rhcir aspcn form k-;sn css and purc color, in short, rhc ncgatio 11 of :ispccr: di sscrnh h i1 ts of rhc istorir1) temi rarhc r to move awav fro m rheir sirnp lc narra rivc fullction i11 o rd n to ,l!Ti,·c ar str,rngc-

ncss, at rhe stnKtu ral dig11in· o f rhcological placc'>. \.Yhrn Fra Angdico ...pai1~tcd rhe ''(igurc" of rhc Virg i11 i11 his An!lu11ci.1rion-;, he was not simpl y sccki ng ro rcprcmcs tlH: rccq)taclc fo r 1 h c c ntirc T rinity. And as if to fo thc ligurc i11 its plan:, thc grcar An11unci:nio11 of San Marco scts forrh rhc fo rmub " "forius T ri 11it atis Nohilc Tridi ni um" to dcsi g 1u rc thc Vi rg in hcrsclL Thus, shc is '> ym holic 1lly rhc -;t ructurc oi' rh c placc riu~ pic toriall y comain.\ hcr. 1'JI

or

nc.

l ' J, P J. .

,x

Thc marhlcd g round rhar rccurs i11 A1111u11c iations of thc fo uncc nth :m d (-j f .. tccmh centuri cs, i11 particular i11 i-:ra A11gclico -.()

1-1(;s. +x, 18

THE COI.ORS OF MY S 'i'ER Y

his inmqo aaens, bis im airc of' rncrnorv. 011 ÜK orhn hand, lK m.1kcs thi s purc ~ C' b . co lored visuality attain tl1e dimcnsion of a Aq11m, o pcn , co11s1;111t lv tm11slrr.ta, plurivuc 1l bccrnsc always diakctici?.rm o f the divinc Word, dcsccnds roward hurnanity. 1'' ·' ln any case, this t ypc of calor dialcctic, which associares a marblcd floor and th c Virgin\ bicolorcd 1:Hi. 5•J

drapery, constiturcs a truc topos in thc fourtccnrh and lifrccnth ccnturi cs : it can alrcady be found in S irnont: Martini's famou s J\nnunciatio11 at thc Uflizi ;md in works b y many othcr paintns of thc t im e, particularly in Tuscu1y. 1" 1 O f' course, Annunciations of thc quattroccnro are 11ot ali rh is ty pc :

or

marblcd Aoors - by mcans of which wc are gcncrall y put in thc prcscncc of patches of color prcscntcd fromall y in thc lowcr p art of t hc 1):1 inrings - ~1rc quick.l y ri va led by pcrspcctivisr arrangcmcllts of tilintf· At Lh is poim, cn:rything is rcverscd, or rathcr, turncd on its hcad : th11 of colo red marbk in rhe rcrablcs of rhe rn;ccnro ªnd q 11attroccn ro is o fren invt:sred wilh a valuc of rra nsformarion, of transiting, rbat equ arcs divine morherhood w irh mo urning l·i x rhc dcad C hrisr. This appcars clc:irly in rhe rctablc in Bosco ai Frati, probably commissionrm and color, rhis po lychrom.inc " marblc" - ,·cim:d or srripcd, spottcd or spccklcd , dapplcd or daubcd, sm d dcd or mortlcd mosr ofrc11 demo nstrares ;m cxrrcmelv conn:rrcd figural srratcgv. Tht· marblcd floo r can, for c:xamplc, providc th c i(ieal comprom isc hcrwcen •1 Virgin ofhumiliry, suggcslcd by thc loms - shc is scared o n thc t-loor - - and rbc

FII.,;. l'i, P I.. -

J' l ( i . !.I

T II E C O I. OR Cries o f • frcscocs in rhc currido rs and cclls o i' rl K convcnr, bcgi1111i11 g i11 1+_~8 . Thc largc A11nu nciatio 11 o f rhe nort h corridor, for cx,11n plc , is pain rcd 0 11 the c xtnior wall of Sai nt 1\n ro ninus's pcrsonal cdl. \Ve sho uld t hcreforc cx pccr a ccrr,1i11 " hisrori cal cohcrcncc," in sho rt, a b ri nging togcrhcr o f S aint A11to11inus's supposcdl y " r,1tion;1I" and " naturalist'' irnpcrati \'c and Fra Angclico's suppmcd dcsirc fo r istoria in rhc i\nnunciario ns . \Vc h,wc o nl v ro c 1s1 a tirs t glancc ar thc wo r ks ro rea lize rhat rhis clu.\ter o fh ypothcscs is a11 yrhi11g hur o lw io us . ,

'Ir

P I.. 1:"

rhc .sror y had lx:en h a Angc.:lico\ primar~' stakcs w he1 1 hc p:iintcd t hc ~ 11mmuan o n, wc vvoidd have to adm1r rh ar thcrc 1s a sen ou s prohlcm - an 111consistcncy, an ig no rancc, or ,lll impo rcnce - in hi s p ai 11ti11g. f o r w hat ir '' rc counrs" sccms immedi atcly m ;1rkcd by t hc scal of hi sto rical nom•cris imilirude: ir shows us nc irhe r 1JJhere 11or when rhc Annunciario n occurrcd ; i11 facr, ir shows on ly a contradictio n o i' times and pbccs. ln rhe sm all panei prnduccd fo r a re li q uar y i11 Santa M ari;1 Novella, rhe hi c.:rati sm o f rhc ch aracre rs n:coun ts 11c.:ither a tempo ral sequc ncc 11o r a psycho lo g ical cvcm ; rhe spacc is largcly rakc n ovcr by irs gro und of honeycombed gold and displays o nl y a lumin o us parch: norhing, rhen , rh ar allows us to po sit die ddi nit io n o r d escriprion o f a natural spacc. T hc J\11 11 u nciations o f rhe Prado a11d C orto n a obvio usly seem m ore dc.:scriprivc ; b ut they J)ronosc, w ithin thc uni tv o f rhe im::we the aberra m (from a historic 1l • t b ' pcrspccrive) sp acc and tcrnporality o f ::111 Annu nciatio n u11folding 0 11ly a ÍC\V mctcrs from thc G arde11 o f Edcn , w hcre \VC.: scc Adam and Evc just ka ving , ash am ed , chasc.:d out by thvhcrc, o utsidc thc li cld oi' st ricr dog ma, ;111d ro :111 leveis o f culturc: thc vcry "popub r" L (flC lUÍfl rmrca, rcad and rcrc ad by a li thc arrisrs inw rhc m idd lc o f thc Rc11 :1issancc, did nor omi r a ~

~

125

l'R Ol' JJ ET I C J> L;\CES

discussio n of rhe te mporal valuc of JiJTTfl'(l from ir~ mo ral considc rario n o r rh c Annunciation: Grcxri11gs, m k11111 day, rh,1t doseL't'.1. Florcncc, S.111 L on:111.0 .

hcrwccn thc angd :rnd rhc Vi rgin, J.s ir w.1s in c_;othic arr: ir is dissc 111i11an.:d across thc whok surfacc of the painring, but subtly, .1li nosr ahvays parri,illv, somcrimcs s urrepritio usly. It uses rhc pmvcrs o t· dcuúl. John Spc11u .:r norcs that thc Albcrri:m impcrativc tr mrictas had paradoxic 1lly suggcstcd a rcrnrn ro \'lT\' o ld thcmcs,"' and rl1ar is how wc c111 undcrstalld thc proli1i.:rarion o f sragc pro ps rhat appcar in thc Annunciations o f'thc quartrocnn o likc so 11uny iconographical suggcsrious of tlw mystcrv. T hc :1pocr~1plial Gospcls, via Jaco hus de Vor:1gi11c and Pseudo-Bona vent ura, bcg in oncc m ore ro bc con\'okcd, or thc :1nisr hi111scl t· prod uccs th

,I

1-H

l'ROl'!-IET I C !'LACES

Ler us no te rh at in rh is conrcx t rhc piar of real th 1r,hold-., o i' fo lsc or ill usory thrcsholds, and of rh wartcd rhrcs ho lds has nm hccn conccivcd in rhc imcn.:~r of cxciring o ur ra lcnrs as f'utu rc Shcr lock I Iohrn.:scs of arr hisro r ~'. In its sl~1 ncss, this play obviously lcnds itsel f to invcsriga rion by a tkrcni,·c su:ki ng to c,:pf,ú11 thc nonvcrisimilitudc of J span.: w ithi n rhc srory. Btn rhc ft.11ictirn1 or such pictori al enig m as is rathcr to scek out a way o f imp(Vti(IJ rh c cnig ma for rhc g aze casr on thc work, and of lctting rhis ga,..,e inquire, pcrhaps indctinircly, imo rh c 110 1111:1tural li nk bcrwccn rhe fig ures. VVe could Gtl l this visual pracri cc of i11quir~, a ccmtcmplarion. The stakcs of rlH:sc pai ntcd cnigm;1s are thu\ primarily tropolo__r,iml, to thc cnd that, cvcry day, rlK dcvour beholdcr passing m1t.c_fi/f1trnm \\'ili mJkc thc visibk: enigma a support fo r a considcracion of rhe rnysrery. \,Vc know rhc advi ce Albcrti gavc rhe pai nrcr : indude ndla st11rin "a characrer-g uide," wking Dionysia11 h in :irchics, posits an an,tgogical mm·crncnt th,tt cvcr1 rhc spatial :1rr,111gcnwnt of thc rcxt cchocs : a progrc\SI\'l' lifri11 g o f th c 111in d / i11tcnuu: Pirtutcs mmtis) rmvard rhc rwofold mvstcr\' oi" Cl1rist \ fksh a nd his divinitv.

(Thc an :1gog1cal virrnc of rhc irn agc - for which J>sclldo- Dio11\'si us issucd

1

011cc :111d fo r ali rhc irnpcratÍ\'C - was p rob:1bly nc\·cr alisem from p;lÍIHcr'>' concc rns. \Vc cou ld cvc n s;w that anago gy co11stitt1 rcs thc suprcmc idea l of ;111 rcligious p :1i11tlllg : rhat o !' cliciri11g ;1 1110\'Clll l' lll of n m vcrs io11 from thc 11úi/1lc dimc11sio 11 toward sornn h ing wc cou ld c 11l thc l'isttrif p lacc of rn ysrcry. 1111 As \\'l' knmv, Dio11ysiu s t h c Arcopagirc hirnsclf discovc rnl rhc roy:11 road to rhi ~ co nvcrsion: it consisrs o f disscmb b ncc, rhc product ion oi' inugcs \\'ithour ver isirnil irudc, " u11 rcason :1bk" inugcs th,tt "bcttcr ra isc our 111ind th a11 t hosc i:ishio11cd in rhc rcscmbla11cc of thc ir objcct." 11,.' Hc11cc, rhc rc ligious pairncr h;1 s o nl v m a ll cl\\,. rh c :1spcct of this colunrn ro "flo;H " in an ;trchirccr un:, ler colo r w;tndcr, kt a li thc disscmbb nr " m ;ttcria ls" come forth - thosc m :1rcriab D io11 vsius hcld rcsponsiblc for ti gm ing hca\'Cnlv m ysrcrics, rhc ti rsr on.kr of w hich includcs gold, {i re, cloud s, and nrnl t icolon.:d sro11c. For how could ti re, clouds, :md sro11c fa il ro olfr r rhc m ;ttcrd ló r rhcsc colu1rn1s, whcn rhc Bi b lc ;md irs cxcgcsis- th:n of Rab;111 ,\.f aur :1mong m;my orhcr au t hors - co11ri11u:I1l y pbv ()11 word s :md assoei are colunms of sr011c, colu nms o i' clouds, and co lumns o i' fi rc) Thc colum n, rhcn, is \,·h irc i11;1smuch :1s ir is ;1 t·i g urc fo r light (/rn/,m to p/J()/ocidcs, as [)ionysius \\'rircs), 103 and light providcs rh c Pi.m al q uali ty p;1r c xcdlc ncc of rhc d ivi11c 'v\lord . Or t hc co lum11 is ga ud il y colorcd , co\·crnl w irh g lowin g rcd w;wcs, ;1s wc scc in (; io tro in 1'.1dua or, 111uch L11n, in Fi lippo Lippi's work in San l;imign:1110, whcrc tl1c col urn 11 olwio11sh· rdkcrs rhc hcavcnl y 1n:1tcrial of thc ;111gcl's wings . 1-lcncc, rhc prccious aml n\111 slucc11 t valu c ofnurbk is furt hcr cnrichcd lw igncous \':1lucs, as if" rhc d i1·i11e irsclf' wnc pass i11g

PROPJIETI C l'L J\C E S

through thc matcri:il of thc figures Jikc a d iaph;u1ous \\·i11d. Thc '' l1rc" Dion\'sius speaks o( in facr, "is, so to spc 1k, in cvcrvrhing. Ir p;l\SC'- undilu n.:d I riirr. pm.i tdlll throug h cvcryrhing and yct conri11ucs ro bc co m plctch· bcvrn1d rl1c111. Ir Jighrs up cvcrything and rc mai11 s hiddcn ar thc s;1111c ri me. !11 it.,c lf it is undctc,.:rabk a11d bccomcs cvid cnt o nly throug:h it s o w 11 \\·orking" 0 11 111 ;1rtcr." 10 ·1 In othcr pfaccs, thc column is "cloudlikc," m arbkd in cool tones, ,1qucous in a \LlV, in ordcr to "rai 11 undcrsra11di11g down" 011 thc g :r,:c, ;1nsiderablc.1 ·12 ln thc quattrocento, the "Albertists" had schools evcr ywhere in Europe: in Cologne, Paris, Padua. Evcn farther away, in Byzantium, thc cardinal Bcssarion possesscd in his library the thrce unpublished parts of thc Smmna de creaturis. 1·1' Dante's DiJJine Cornedy, which continued to pcrmcate Italian culture, had itsclf becn permcated by Albertus Magnus, evcn more than by Thomas Aquinas. 1H ln florencc, Saint Antoninus citcd thc great Dominican doctor a pagc at a time, whilc in the library in San Marco, the "scicntific" writings of Albcrtus Magnus (thc Physica, his trcatisc on stones) could bc consultcd, along with bis thcological writings (cspecially his commcntary on thc Annunciation, thc Super Missus est, also callcd Mariale). 14 5 Albcrrus Magnus is assurcdly the founder of what we call Christian Aristotdianisrn. He dcvoted dozcns of treatiscs to setting fc)rth and commenting on every aspcct of Aristotlc's ocuvrc, from the logic to the ParJJa natura/ia, including thc physics, the mctaphysics, and the cthics. If wc place this series of voluminous treatises ncxt to his theological corpus proper - an even more extcnsive oeuvrc, which supplcments bis Smmna theologiae with commcntarics on the prophcts, the Gospds, Pctcr Lombard's Booli ~f'Sentences, and thc cntire corpus of Pscudo-Dionysius the Areopagite -wc understand the stupcf)'ing extcnt of the knowlcdge hc had. at his fingcrtips. 1·16 Thc lcast onc can say of Albertus Magnus's corpus is that it unfolds like a gigantic cncyclopcdia. And in fact, the exposition of Aristotelianism occupies almost half of thís wholc effort at synthcsis. But how does such a synthcsis procced? It proceeds in a disconcerting fashion and rcvcals that it is nota synthesis in the strict scnse of the term. Today wc would call it a bricola'-qe, meaning in particular that the structure of Albcrtinian knowlcdge is invenred as it is constituted, and at thc end of the road is no longcr the sarne as the original Aristotelian knowlcdgc. Furthcrmore, what Albertus Magnus called «rhe Aristotclians" absolutcly does not designatc a precise school of thought but rather, as Pierre Duhcm pointed our, "ali the doctrincs of peripatetism, of Hcllcnic Neoplatonism, and of Semitic Neoplatonism," in short, thc cntirc sct of Grcco-Arab and Jcwish philosophy of the Middlc Agcs. 117 ln addition, Albcrtus Magnus's writings display a strange indiffrrencc to contradicticm and thus move abruptly from a dctail to íts gcncralization, from the inimitable divinc rniracle to thc dubious cxpcricnccs of magic, or from one concept to another that negares it: Bruno Nardi has implicitly tcrmed this cxtravagant

167

l'ROPHET!C !'LACES

encyclopcdism tnoctic ") saving that ") aft:cr ali ") Dante was thc 0111v~· onc to have ., embraced in this manncr so many kinds of knowlcdgc and so many divergent notions in a single gcsturc. 1·18 What the foundcr of Christian Aristorclianism scts in placc is thus something quite diffrrent from a rcstoration of Aristotdianism as such. To say this in what may secm a paradoxical manner, Albcrtus Magnus's Aristotclianism proves to bc cntircly Ncoplatonic. This is not at ali an cxccptional case in thc Middle Ages. Wc cvcn havc thc irnprcssion that Christian thcology could not havc integrated Aristotelianism - and its "natural history" - had it not dcnicd part of its scicntific premises by substituting a mctaphysics of creation primarily inspired by Ncoplatonic thought. H 9 More prcciscly, wc sec in Albcrtus Magnus's writings vcry classical Aristotclian notions - act and powcr, movcment, csscnce- traverscd by a grcat wind of Dionysian mysticism, supcrcsscntial light, negative thcology, and dissemblant symbolism. And Aristotle's logic and physics finei thcmsclvcs quite discountcnanced. 1"º As wc know, it will rcquirc Aquinas's rigor to rccstablish a more cohcrent usage of Aristotclian conccpts. But the rype of experimental mcthod inaugurated by Albcrtus Magnus in thc ficld of the physical and natural sciences- a ficld in which Aquinas did not havc thc scope of his teacher- this strangc method rctains its prcstigc into thc hcart of thc cinquecento, evcn though in thc meamimc thc landscapc of Aristotclianism in general had becn modified. 151 Wc might then fim1rnlate the hypothesis that the philosophical "weakness," the rclative indctcrminacy of Albcrtus Magnus's notions had amplificd thc "use valuc," so to spcak, of thcsc notions in ficlds that were not strictiy doctrinal. This is the case with thc notion of placc. If a florcntinc Dominican of thc quattrocemo wcre to inquire into the naturc or thc powcrs of thc placc, hc could read Aristotlc's Physics in thc library of San Marco or that of Santa Maria Novella. Ir had bccn translatcd and annoratcd by a largc numbcr of anonymous or well-known authors, such as Thomas Aquinas and Albcrtus Magnus. Thc Physics is thc tirst of Aristotlc's works that Albcrtus Magnus fdt obligcd to comment cm, which hc did in cight books, a littlc bcforc 1250; that is its stratcgic importancc in the vcry founding of Christian Aristotclianism. It is equally significam that this commcntary was dircctly followcd by thc work cntitlcd De melo ct mundo, thcn by a short trcarisc dcvorcd cnrircly to thc problcm of the placc, De natura loci. 15 2 Thc difficult passagcs that Aristotlc devotes to thc qucstion of thc placc in thc fourth book of thc Physics !cave thc rcadcr with a strangc imprcssion: wc

168

TH E FIGURE IS TH E !'LACE

bcgin by bcing rcassurcd, but wc cnd up in thc blackcst unccrtainty - in any case in a ccrtain muddle of thought. Aristotlc, in fact, cornforts us at thc omsct conccrning thc cxistcncc of thc placc: only nonbcing is nowhcrc, hc says commonscnsically; only thc chimcras ofdrcams havc no placc. 1s 3 Thcn hc givcs no tcwcr than four rcascms for not doubting thc cxistcncc of thc placc; thc only problem at that poinr sccms to bc that of dcfining its csscncc. 151 But, progrcssivcly, this cntirc schcma is turncd on its hcad: advancing toward thc dcfinition of an csscncc, wc arrivc, through thc rcgulatcd play of aporias carcfully sct in placc, ata point of doubting thc vcry cxistcncc of thc placc, at a final undcrstanding that thc placc has only a quasi cxistcncc. 155 Thc placc, writcs Aristotle, is afrcr ali only a \vay of bci1tq-i11-tmothcr: "Thc propcr mcaning of thc placc is whcn wc say 'in a vasc' and in general in a placc." 15 llows along thc way: thc Holy Scripturcs anel rhcir mystery wcrc dcposited in Mary like honC)' in a honcvcomb in thc cellula of a bcchivc, equivalem to the , ' ccll whcrc the monk gathcrs Scripturcs, equivalcnt as wcll to thc virginal womb that gathcred Jikc honcy the body to bc born: Mary is a cdl containing hiddcn Ioccultam within hcrsdfhcavcnly honcy, that is, Christ .... That is why it is said of him , in thc Song of Songs 4: II: "Milk and honcy are undcr th y tonguc" sub lirtq11a tua J . . . . This mcans that thc Son of God, in his rwo naturcs, was "undcr th y Acsh" [sub carne tua]. Or mb liltqua dcsignatcs thc father's vVord. Or sub língua designares what is lodged fabsconJ

J

ditum in thc utcrus ofthe mother. rn' J

Evcry holy book on evcry shclf of thc library is opcn as rhc rcccptacle of figures of the Incarnation, justas the Virgin hcrself~ receiving thc imprint of thc truth of the Word, is understood as an opening book: Jvlaria libcr ....crcncrationis, Saint Antoninus adds in the quattroccnto. 2·11 Ler us open rhc book: on evcry page there is something like thc "mystic writing pad" of divine powers. Every word can hold within its folds, in the mere form or arrangemcnt of its lcttcrs, the totality of a mystery. Consider for example rhe first naming of Mary in 212 Luke's narrative: Et n01nen vit;ginis Maria, "and the virgin's namc 1vas Mary." Why Maria? The exegctes respond with rhe help of a merhod they themsclvcs call intcrprctatio and dcripatio. Thcy begin with etymology: "Mary" in Hebrew significs the star of thc sca (stclla maris), to prefigure thc cxtent to which the Virgin was ever to guide repentant humanity- lost in sin - just as rhe star of the sca points the way to the navigator during a storm. ln rhe Syriac language, the excgctc adds, "Mary" signifies rhe ruler or spouse (domina), for she is both spouse and morher of God. 243 And obviously, 1Haria so closcly rcscmblcs the word myrrha to mark how Mary 's body prepared Christ 's body, not only to bc bom but also to dic, in the sacred unction of myrrh- bittcr [amara] myrrhdeposited on his skin. 2 -1-1 Exegesis also makes use of an infalliblc mcthod for unfolding thc sense of a word: this method is callcd litteratio, and Albertus Magnus prescnts it cxactly as the "description" of a sacred crcature with rcfcrence to the fórm of the lcrrcrs that compose its namc. Hence Maria brings rogethcr ali rhc virtual qualitics of the .NÍ (Morher, Mediator), thc A (Allcviator-allcPiatri,\:-she who bccomes the "Ark of ali treasures"), the R (R.oyalty, rhe Rulc, the Rcpairer), thc l (llluminator, but also the Javclin - iacul1-t1n - rhrown at Satan), and, oncc more, the

l'R O PHE TI C PI. A C ES

A (t hc o nc w ho br ings us Aid, w ho bccom cs o ur t\d \'Ocarc lx forc r ,ve1-c agitatcd and even traversed by rhc Word, thc "efficicnt cause" of thc Incarnation. Morcover, this patch of marblcd colors, fi1eing in thc same dircction as Mary in thc frcsco's composition, might very well evoke the e:istern door of thc vision of Ezckicl, a door that is always sealcd, wc rcad in the Biblc, "bccausc thc Lord the God of Israel hath entered in by it" to make his home thcrc. 21'º The pictorial índex might rhercforc correspond to one of the many wclldocumcnted mineral figurations of Mary 's body 2 '' 1 - figures of scalcd rocks holding in virrnality the entire cycle of thc Incarnation: from thc tcmplc whcrc Mary was "prescntcd" as a child, to the chamber of the Annunciation, to the sepulchcr of her son that she covers with hcr tears, and finally, to the celestial throne where she will be crowncd. Albertus Magnus ""ªs not afraid to affirm rhat ali this- thc "füllness of rime" of the Incarnation and the "power of redempticm" - had been imprinted in thc Virgin's womb, which he compares preciscly to a wall bursting with graccs. 2 '' 2 How, then, can wc doubt rhat Agnolo Gaddi's littlc colored patches offercd us anything other rhan a tcrtile moment for the gaze, linked to the doublc mystery of inhabitation and Incarnation? This is even more true bccausc, in addition to thc clearly allegorical and anagogical vocation of a tropological axis, Gaddi included an orientation of the devout gaze toward the placc of mystery. The church of San Marco in Florencc also possesses a fresco variam of thc miraculous image of the SantissimaA11nunziata: from thc other si de of the door, wc sec two knecling monks contemplating from an anglc thc sccne of thc angclic colloquy. The prototypc, the Santissirna Annunziata, representeei on its left: edge rhc figure of a patron or oram- a figure that is today invisiblc, carcfülly hidden by thc baroquc framing of the veneratcd image. Agnolo Gaddi, entircly aware of this tropological layout, put it back imo play, but in thc order of disscmblance : thc colorcd patch of his wall, on rhc kft anel viewed from an anglc, is frontalized just bclow thc historiated zone in a series of marblcd paneis, most of which take up the vcry same chromaric play of red, yellow, and grcen spccked with dark tones. Looking alternatcly at the wall of the painred story and the wall of "ticrive marblc" in his church, rhe believer

195

PJ.. 16

l'ROPHET!C l'LACES

would thus be Jcd to imagine he fr)l\nd himsclf reciting his Ave Mari:1 bt:fiire thc wall of the virginal dwelling whcreas, J1Jithin, rhc angcl was uttcring r'1C original Ave Maria, the immcdiate prologue to the Incarnation and the time for being saved. In this case, too, the visual índex demonstrates thc vocation of figural expcrience anel the rclaying of meaning. We reali ze rhat thc medieval painrcr - filkd, like his master, with an entire uni verse of biblical images - in crearing a merc coloreei agitation, strategically and subtly deposited in the painted sror)', offcred for contcrnplation, wirhom making it visiblc, the mystcrious act of passi11g through ali walls, a virtual cxaltation of thc space into a place of divine inhabitation anel Incarnation .... What did thc Uiblc, exegcsis, and thcologY call this process exactly? They continually manipulated oxymorons and par;1doxes to challcnge, but especially, in thc end, to infinitizc the imaginary of bcJicf Understood within Moses' prohibition of images, this is thc very issuancc of a challcnge: "Take ye thcreforc good hccd unto yoursclvcs; for yc saw no inanncr of similitude [non Pidistis aliquam similitudenern] on the day that the Lord spake unto you." 263 Take hced, thereforc, of your penchant for the rcscmbJant imagc: God will be only dissemblancc to your gaze - except on thc day of rhe end of time. But dissemblance in this case means ncither nonappearance nor nonmanifcstation. God appcars in human daylight; hc spcaks to thc prophets, appears to them, offers himsclf as a phenomenon anel hence "unveils himsclf." But in appearing, hc does not unveil himsclf as a face ora semblancc: he dazzlcs or clouds the gaze like an immense pheno,nenon-index, 264 an immense symptoJ11. What is this índex? ln Lcviticus, God himsclf warned Moses: "I will appear in the cloud [ in nube apparebo] ." u,s And evcryonc hcnccforth Jus had the expericnce: God "bowed the heavens" and "madc darkness his sccret placc"; "darkncss JJ'as undcr his fcet" and hc clouded ali rcscmblancc through thc pure fórmlcssness of clouds placed above other clouds. 2 (,(, That is preciscly how God bows toward Mary: by "covering [hcr] with his shadow" - Pirtus Altissimi obumbrabit tibi. Thc act of "shadowing," as Luke cxpressed ir with thc rarc verb épislúazein, immcdiatcly evokcs the rabernaclc covercd with the divine cloud at thc vcry cnd of Exodus. 267 It is a.11 anticipatcd parousia. 13ut it is also a marriage rite, a nuptial sanctification: wc find in it thc immemorial Jewish figure of the taleth that covers thc union of the spouscs with its shadow. The image was takcn up again by rhc Christian tradition dcaling with thc Annunciation, with Latin authors playing on thc words innuha (thc young

INCHOATIO: lN THE SHADOW OF THE EARTH

virgin woman), nubes (divinc cloud), and nubere (to takc the vcil, that is, to marry). 268 And thc marriagc bctwecn the Virgin and divine ctcrnity includcs somcthing in its contract that wc could call the shadow of the futurc: a futurc as sacrificial as ir is glorious. Likc thc bdovcd of the Song of Songs, thc Virgin is scatcd "undcr his shadow with grcat delight" (sub mnbra quem desidercweram): it is thc shadow of time, writcs Albcrtus Magnus, a shadow that carries thc thrcat of Christ 's Passion and thc hopc fór rhc resurrections to come foldcd up within ir. 2 m Thcn will come thc rcign of light that thcologians, poets, and painters havc always glorificd. ln thc hcart of thick clouds Iikc a "pavilion,'' in the hcart of thc "dark waters" of divine storms, there is, says the Bible, "the brightncss that 1vas bcforc him" that sets cverything ablaze; thcre is lightning and pure light. 27° Covcred by thc shadow of thc Highcst, Mary is "filled with gracc," that is -as thc word in Grcek indicatcd -with a highly luminous quality, a brilliancc. And this transmutation of visual valucs accounts for what Saint Antoninus callcd the sublimitas sin:_qularis of the Virgin. 271 It is thc sublimity of a lux noJJa that comes to illuminatc Mary from within, so that her gracc can, symmetrically, shinc forth on othcrs, on humanity as a vvholc: Mary illurninata in se, fillcd and traverscd by grace, bccomcs illmninatri.,y; in alios, sourcc of a light that humanity must rcccive to undcrstand its chance for redernption. 272 Bctween thc interior of the body-tabcrnacle and thc exterior of thc burst of light, therc are - let us rcpeat- the wall, thc interfacing, thc texture, and the gannent. When wc look at the Annunciation paintcd by Fra Angdico to serve as a figural "door" for the reliquary of Santa Maria Novclla, wc are tempted to recognize in the image only a luminous saturation pushcd to the limit, as if the wholc story had becn told to us - and in thc most laconic way possiblc- only to manikst visually the brilliancc of divinc grace. The background of gold, cverywhcrc damascencd by wisps of red, cvokcs thc divine mantlc of light celcbrated in thc Psalms. 2 7 ·1 Thc place itself seems to bc madc cntirdy of a multitude of halocs, to the point rhat the halocd dovc is hardly disccrniblc in thc image. Thc oblique sequcnce of frmr circles of gold-the Crcator's halo, the globe in bis hand, thc dove, and finally Mary 's halocd face - shows not only how grace descends roward the virginal body, but also how thc "inhabiting" gracc becomes "disscminating," spreads throughout thc cntirc placc, in order to caress evcn our gaze. Let us note as well in this journey of light that passes through the hand of God the precise cvocation of Habakkuk's prophetic thcophany - "His bright-

197

PL. 17

PROl'H ET I C l'Lr\CE S

57. Bdbdlo d,1 !'avia . Annu ncitttím1. Fifú:c mh CCl ll lWI'. J ll u111 in ario11 of' ,1 hook o f' Homc Hmtn,: Vi1pi11is, fo i. ,:;v. FlorcneJ.

1-H+- Tt.:mJKL1. Florrncc, Mmco di .Sa11 Marco.

l'ROPHF.T I llCC

more, a11d írs he:1r

madc..: rliis flowcr grow in pcacc cremai !per lo mi mldo ndl 'cttcrna pacc í C{)J"t

eBcrminato ífUC,l"tU Jiore J .., .u

"Virgin mothcr, daug httr of yo ur son": thcrc is not onc but n-vo corporcal para-

220

INCORPORATJ () : IN TH F. ll0 SOM OF CO L OR

doxes in th is p hr:isc. Thc nrst, "Virgin mothcr," cksignares rhc mystery oLi corporcal placc both fi llcd and intact; wc havc sccn how the conccpt of inhabiration allows us m takc this inro accoun t . Thc sccond , daughtcr1fyourson , ind issociabk from the first, 11 0 doubt re lates more direcrlv ver ro the idea o f rhc mvstcrv of rl1c l ncarnation, rhrou~h w hich thc C rcator des ired to bc crcatcd by onc - rhc mosr hurnbk -of his crcaturcs. Ch ristian painri ng ha~ 110 doubt continually orga11izcd itsdl~ more or lcss cxpli citly, aruund rhis ad 111irablc paradox. Ir puts ir to work and pb ys with ir cvcrywlicrc. It rrouhlcs thc gaze rhrough thc Chrisromorphism ofthe Farhn a Fathcr w ho is nor contem ro rt:semblc his sem, as ali farhers do, bm \.Vho sholl's himsclj'as his Son, as Son ,'·' ·' and thus no longer cornpktclv n:scmbks a farhcr. Christian paimi11g pla~·s on rhis p;1radox in many other ways, fo r cxamplc, bv rcvcrsing rhc srrunurcs of cvidence : ir likcs to rcprcscnt rhc Virgin as a baby in t he arms of hcr own son bccomc glor iou/i - bccomc oncc more hcr Crcator ;\l\d evc n, in a preci se scnsc, mother {!fhis 1nothcr.:,.,,. A11d wc also nccd to say - or say again - that in thc Annunciation C hrisr cm1ers rhe Virgin even as he comes to be lodged within hcr, to inhabit hcr, as a human bcing, for 11irn: momhs. frorn thc poinr of vicw of thc p lacc, thi s paradoxical logic rnu ld be callcd a lo3ic of thcfrencraliz cd.fi,ld: ;1 logic whcre cvcr y clcment is foldcd imo anothcr, cven as rhc orhcr is al rcady foldcd ,,virhin it . Thc Virgin is thc pbcc of Christ sincc hc is bom fro m her womb; but at thc samc rime, rhc Virgin, the theologians say, has "dothcd" C hrist, having bccn "covcrcd"' by his divinity. bor the Virg in, thc act of in habiring (inhabitarc) , or rather, of being inhabircd , does nor procccd ,.v irhout a kind o f immediatc jigsaw movcment th::1.t the acr of dothing ( inducre) imposcs: a fa ntasti c - phantasmatic-topology of an envelope that is incorporatcd, comes abovc, and comes within, thus ddics ;\IW notion ofa body's lim it in thc visiblc o rdcr. T har is wh y wc rnusr spcak here of rhc fold, bec1usc fold as a tcrm relates to d othing (somcrhing that takcs placc on the outsidc) bur also to viscera (thc fé.>rmlcss for m of' the insidc) and finally to li mirs - - ,~incc to makc a fold, in sewing, is to .fhld oJJcr an cd!:JC, once or severa! times, hencc to displacc thc edgc, mak.c it.~ location var y. We h.1ve notcd , bcfore Angclico's frcsço, how thc qucstion W/Jcre is thc J/irlft1Ú lcd ro scarching, dctours, and paradoxes of thc place. Wc havc sccn thc Virgin eJJcrywhc1··c - in thc gardcn, in thc chamber, in rhc marbkd floo r, in rhc dou bk or trip ie arearnrc of rhc courtyard -- and wc havc seen hcr cwrvwhcre .folded, h iddcn away, as the grear d ith,se enigma of hcrlJenim/c sccrctum. T hc logic of thc fig ural fold lias thus pushcd cvcr y comparison, evcry metaphor, bur also •

J

•

~

2-2 1

l'RO l' H E T! C !'L A C E S

66 . Ano nymous l'rcnd1111a n. Adomti1111 of"t/Jc J\·'l((lTÍ ,md Cmcifix:ío11 \\'Íth th c 1 hc mc o f thc C:0JJ11mmicalio l'assioni.L Ab out I p, . lvory. !'anel o f thc d ip tych o i th t.: Tr..:a, ur )' o i" rhc Ahbcv o f Kn:msmlinstcr (Austr ia) .

jo u rney, g uidcd by S aint Bernard, it is fi rsr of ali to t h c Virg i11 Ma r y t hat h is prayers are addrcsscd: rhc vcry last C anto of Pamdiso bcg ins, in a bri llianr nun n cr, w ith praisc that rcso narcs as th c g lo rificati n 11 o f an im m c nsc corpon.';ll pa radox: Virgin mother, d augh ter o f' yo ur son [ Ve1!7Ínc 11u1dn:,JiJ:1lia dcl tuofilJlio 1, mo re humblc a11d glo rio us th;m an y cn:;1rurc, prcdcstined by an etern al deen:e, You are the om: w h o so ennoh lcd human n aru rc rh:n hcr Crc1to r did nor

dcign tu beeo me her creatu rc \ che 'l suo.fàttorc / mm disdcJ-rno di.fàni sun

fattura l, l n your bosom lnel ventre tuo i lo vc was ser abbze once more, ,111d it , hcn mad e this flowe r g row in pcau.: crem ai lper lo mi u i/do nc/1 ' cttrnui pacc /

cosi e11crnúnato questo flore ].-ld, lxcausc fbld as a rcrm relates to clo rhing (sorncthing rhar l:tkcs placc on thc o utsidc) but ·also to víscera (rhe form kss fo rm o f rhc insidc ) and fin ally to limits - sincc to m ake a fold, in scwing, is to f old Ol'er tm ed[!C, o nu: or severa! times, hcnce ro dis pbce rhe cd ge, m;lkc irs loc1rio 11 var y. \Ve have nored, beforc Angelico's fresco , how thc q uesrio n Whcrc is t/Jc J/ir~qin? lcd to search ing, dt: rours, and paradoxes o f rhc pbcc. Wc havc scc n rhc Virgin eJJcrywhere - in t hc g :mkn , in rhe chambcr, in rhe ma rblcd Hoor, in Lhe d o ublc or tripie arcarure of thc courtyard - and wc havc secn hcr cvcrywhcn: .fbldcd, hidden away, as thl' g rc:1r di ffi.1se enig m a of hcr.1JC11Ítnlc sccrcw 111. Thc logic o i' rhe tigu ral fr>ld h as rhus p us hcd cvcry comp:1rison , cvcry rn craphor, bur also

22 1

l'Rü l'HETIC !'LA CES

every m eto11y111y to th e lirnit: the value of cverv containcr liL·s in it'.'> comem, rhc conrcnt in its containcr, thc part in rhc w holc, and thc whok in rhe k,1st of irs parts. Thar is \vhy wc could say t har the figure is rhc p b cc : bec w sc rhe \'alue o( cvcry parr of thc place a lso lics in the wholc of rhc figure, anel rhc \·a lue o f cvtTV detail ofthc fi g ure also lies in rhc wholc o f rhc pbcc. That is wh,ll t hc in nrricablc nct\vork o f cxcgetical rncming produccs, w lur rhe i11terbc ing o f colors i,i a painring scts to work. Emincntly m allcablc, capablc of bcing cornbincd , nuanccd , and covcn.:d ovcr, eulors -cvcn and i:s~xeiall ~, whcn t hcy ,11-c frw in nu rn ber- allow thc pa inting, through rhc sim pie play of bands of shadov,· :llld interwovcn laycrs, to put its hi g hcsr thcon.:riu l fun ctio 11 to good use: to cxhibit t/;c

w~ystery (not to explain ir, bm to impl y it in irs su rfaccs) , b y ri~ffusin,_11 acros.s rhc P I. . 11

wholc ticl d o f rhc paintin g proccd urcs o f subtk cm'C!o pin g, procedu rcs oi' \'irtuality. i\ paiming or the Ann unciatio n , li kc tlut by D o meuico Vcnczi,1110, for cxamplc/3 '' does 11ot mcrcly c 1thcct t h c placc rheologically rhroug h rhc use of perspcctivc and thc patcnt symbolism of ccrra in objects; it c1thccts ~1s wcll rhe cnrirc cxtcnsion of rhc colorcd nlanc t , rcd ucinub irs chromatism ro t hrcc colors, \vhi te, rcd , and b lack - as if ir wcrc cxhi biring froma ll y t h c c lcrncntary form u b

of a t rue incarnatio 11al complcxio, by diffu s in g ir in ,ili the objccts and fig ures of thc placc. With this picto rial pracricc of diffu sio n - halhvay bcrwcc!l t hc m anikst and thc !arcnt - wc rcdi scover o ncc m o re a trair ch aracrcrisric ofth colog ical Dionvsianism , w hcrc truth is not d crnonsrratcd o r spokcn, but shows its ind exes i11 diffusion: in reality, it passes. Ir passes Jik.c a w ind, likc ;l brcirh, o r like a \'Írtualin·. ln thc o rdcr of thc imagc, t his m cans th at rhc vi.si b lc is travcrscd by th c wi nd oC disscmblance. But '\lisscmblancc" does not m can "abstract ion." It is simpl y thar t hc w ind of m ystcry ma kes rescmblanccs m ove, ª!Jitatcs rhem , somcrimcs lo d gcs a11d manifests itsclf in ccrtai n , .oncs of choi cc, cerr;lÍn placcs in t hc painring: for cxamplc, rhcsc vani ~hing points, thcsc axcs or rora tio n , thesc plays o f cn vc lor)ing, t hcse patches or edgcs t hat havc hcld our attc n tion. As fc nilc placcs for thc passagc of myste ry, they ha ve had t hc fasci nating capacity m makc rh c evcnt of rhc visual emerge in t hc visiblc ~- in it outsíde íf it. 1f "wherc t hc cyc is, th erc also is love," and if lovc is fo und w hcrc rhc m vstcrv of Jncarnarion has to come fcnth - thcn, neccssan ly, rhc visiblc musr \;~K ill; re, bcar, trem b lc. This mcms t hat t hc cye must lcarn to dose, t hc cyclid to fold over, cvcn bcfo rc an imagc in a painting . 'vVe can assume th at in t hc Ncapo li ran church w he rc Thomas A.q ui nas rc-

vcalcd his visio 11 o f t hc t\vc Maria to th c fairhful on 9 April 1273, t he rc was ar

222

i NCO ltl' OR,\T I O: 1 1' T H E IIOSOM O F COLOR

,

,,. .. 1'

1· 1

/

__J

6 7. . Ca,tcll i, " Lc vinir ddlc gemmc: II loro significato simholico e a~trologico m:li:l n1ltu ra umanistica e ncllc crc dcn L.e popolari d e i Quarrroccnto," in l! orcjicaia nel/a Firrnzc dei QJ,attrucouo ( Florc ncc: SPES, 1977 ) 3 07 29 . 152 . Voragi n c, Lc,_qmtia a11rct1 1.68 ·69. 153. Erich Alll:rbach , ·'Figu r.1" ( 1929/ 1944), in Sccnesji-om th~ Drama of Eunipcmr Uterat11rc ( M in ncapolis: Univer,i ry of M inne sota l'rcss, 1984 ), 1 1 - 7 ó; J,:an -C laude Bonm:, working o n rhc qucsrion of Roma n ornamcnr ( a ,eminar o n Hisroirc:/ théoric de l'art at l-:1 IESS), has kd me to notice tlte analogy bc rwccn tlti~ type of scmioric fi.rncrioni ng ant li ,·c ( " /\ 11 11011L:ia t ion / L'fHJll(i :irion ," 4 ). 187. t\ra,sc 's i111crpn: 1,11 ion has t h,: 1rn:ri1 oi" playin [; r> h oth r,:gistcrs: ir proposcs tl tc :\n ll ll llci,ni un as t h c "r hcor r th i: .,-1ori11 in p .1i nt in g " (":\11 11 on(i,11ion/énonci.1t io 11 ," 4 ) ,rnd :ll r hc samc t iml' fr,,11, cs ,111 it., .u 1c111 io 11 0 11 t hc i11tcrvc11tio11 or fi g ure, in thc o cgc1i, ,1 l sc 11sc ( " a hscrn li-0111 t hc ti:XI, t hi: ,-olun111 ,d lo"·s t ill" 1cxr to bc fi l:\urnf ," 7) . 1\1 hotrom, th is i111crp rc1,1lio11 ,cck., t hc p o ints of co111;1ct hc1wi:cn hixt11n11 ,rnd Jlq11r11, \\'h cT) as a c losc· up o f rh, s.:pukhc r of 1hc saint (sccn from a distancc in thc up1)c r p:1rt), whosc: huna! is g ivcn as an olwious p rcfig u rario11 of" C hrist 's li uria l. 212. Scc l-1. B. J. M,1ginnis, " P i.:1ro l.orcn zc.:tti a11d r h , Assisi Passion C:yclc " ( l'h. l) . d 1s, , l'ri 11Cc.:ton U 11ivcrsi1y, 197S). 2q . Lukc 22: 13- 19 ( mv rn1phc1sis) 1 KJV slightly rnodin.:d ro ..:onform to thc hc11c h \. 21 + . Se, Arga n's womkrltrl p:ign in Frn /1111_1dico, 1S-23 . 215. Scc C . Mill ic t , 11,:cho·dJC.• sui· l 'ic11110 .!Jmjlhic de l'lhJ1rn1_:1ih aux X l X v·, ct XVI' .iühs ( P:iris: Fontcmoi ng, 19 16 ), 498 ; a nd my "U n sang d ' i niagcs," Noupc//c RcJ'l.tc tfr l\v· i:hmwfiosi:32 ( 198:i ): 123 - S3. 216. l \ q 11 inas , S1m111w ihcol,iqiw :b .S 1.2 . 217. lbid . 111 ccnain Sca ndi 11avia 11 works from t lK fifi ccnth c,ntu ry,· Clirisl \ ,,p ukhcr is 11 1arkc.:d liy rcd (irclcs tha1 figure.: t hc u nbrokrn scab. Scc Rn~111r i , cu. L. Ba 11chi (Sirn.1: T ip. Ard1 i,·., 1880 -88 ), 2: 388-429. 1 rdi.:1· rhc rccakr ro Daniel i\1~1s,c's work iu prog rc, ., 0 11 this subjccr. 7. Lukc 1 : 12 , 29. 8. Roma ns l O: 17. l .' /1_vpnl.-t1,· is mcn tionc.:d in rhc prccc.:diug \'t'l'~c; , cc J. P. Au,kt , " l .' a1111rn1..:e Da n ié lo11, "Tc rn.: n 1':1 r,1d1,," 4 33; B.ll'ktL1 , q u 1>1 c.:d !),1xa 11d.ill , l'aii11i11_11 1!1/d Albcrt 11 s !vbg11u,, S1111111111 d,: rrct1/ 11;·is r.xp,.,.i,·11ri', S7 . 2:1.79 .1 -4 , cd. i\. l\org,111.:1 , Op1Ta 011111in u. 1. St·c 1\lbn1u, {\ lag,1 1t1~. J)f ln 11di/111., ( Paris: Vives, 1896 ). :i .2 . lú , 12.4 . ,o+ . /\quin.1s , lé-:po., . lbid. , 149 - 15 1. 1889.

Photo Credits

Plates: 1, 2-4, 7, 9, 14-1 7, 19- 22, Pho tos Nicolà Orsi Battaglini; 6, 8, i,, 18, Scala/Art Rcsourcc, N.Y.; 5, 10, Copyright by folammarion ; 11, Réunion dcs Musécs Nationaux; 1z, htzwilk1m muscum, Cambridge. Figures: 1, 5, 8, 9, 17-19, 2 1, 39-41, 4 5, 48, 49, 58, 62, 67, Scala/Art Rcsourcc, N .Y. ; 2 , ,, 6, 7, 11 , 14-16, 20, 22 - 27, 33, 34 , ,6, 37, 42, 43, 47, 55, 56, 60 , 6 1, 63, 65, 68, 69 , L'horos Nicolb O rsi Banaglini ; 4, © 1995, Board of Trustces, National Gallcry of Art, \1/ashingrnn, D .C.; 10, 38, 52, Alinari/Art Resourcc, N. Y. ; 12, T hc British Library (RRS 389); 13, Joachim Blaucl-Artothek; 28, 46, 59, Alin ari-Giraudon; 29 - 31, 50, 51, © cliché Bibliothêquc Nationak de Francc, Paris; 32, 35, 57, 66, Copyright by Flammcrion; 44, Isabclla Stewart Gardncr Mus Lorc·,w.a ri), qo

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