The Violin in The Arab Musical Tradition-History and GDGD Tuning [PDF]

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The Violin in the Arab Musical Tradition: History and GDgd tuning

Obeida Amer Madi September 2011

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of MMus in Music Performance

School of Performance and Screen Studies Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Kingston University

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Acknowledgement In the beginning, I would like to thank all of those who have supported me throughout my dissertation process. I am heartily thankful to my supervisor, Meredith White, whose encouragement; supervision and support from beginning to end enabled me to develop an understanding for the subject.

I would also like to thank professors Tim Ewers, Helen Minor and Jane Masters for their constructive comments and many useful discussions.

I owe my deepest gratitude to Mr. Abdallah Nazek, whom without I could not be writing this acknowledgment now.

This is a great opportunity for me to express my gratitude to the University of Jordan, which sponsored my studies in the United Kingdom. Particularly I would like to mention my professors Abd Alhamid Hamam, Rami Haddad, Timur Ibrahimov, Ayman Tayseer and Nabil Aldarras, to whom I owe my sincere and earnest appreciation having put their faith in me.

It would have been next to impossible to write this thesis without the help and encouragement of Miss Hind Sabanekh.

I would also like to specially mention the musicians I interviewed; Messrs Alfred Gamil, Khaled Mohamed Ali, Amr Abdel Rahman, George Assad, Feras Hattar, Yarub Smairat, Basil Khoury and Mohammed Tahboub. Which without their cooperation and guidance, I could not have gathered such noteworthy information. Also, Messrs Muhammed Othman Siddiq and Maen Alsayyed, to whom I owe my deepest appreciation for their patience and help.

Also to Mr. Adolfo Hernández, for helping me in recording and editing the music on the enclosed audio CD.

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Grateful acknowledgement for proofreading and correcting the English edition to Meredith White and Hind Sabanekh.

Love and thanks to my beloved deceased father Amer Madi who used to guide me and taught me the recesses of Arab Music. In addition to, my mother Nabeela Madi and Mr. Mohammed Amr for helping me in gathering the resources and for their continuous support and love. Finally, Miss Dalia Alshaer, Mr. Ramy Shaheen and all my friends in the United Kingdom and Jordan for their patience and support throughout the academic year, I could not have done it without you all!

Obeida Madi

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Table of Contents

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Acknowledgment Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tracks Introduction 1.

v vi vii 1

Arab Musical Life : A Historical Overview 1.1 1.2

2.

4.

The Emergence of the Violin in Al-mashriq The Tuning of the Violin in Arab Music Learning the Arab Violin The Role of the Violin in Arab Music

Accidentals and Pitch in Arab music The Intervals of Arab Music (al-bo’d al-sawti) The Tetrachords of Arab Music (Jinss) The Maqam Modulation and Families

The Reasons for the Use of GDgd Tuning 4.1 4.2 4.3

12 12 15 16 19

Arab Music Theory 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

3 9 11

The Violin in Arab music 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

3.

The Theory of Arab Music in a Vocal Tradition Musical Instruments of the Arab Music

3

The Historical Aspects The Theoretical Aspects The Technical Aspects

19 21 22 27 31 36 36 38 38 40

Conclusion and Future Debates Bibliography

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List of Figures

Figure(2.2.1): Western Violin Tuning (Madi,2011). Figure(2.2.2): Turkish Violin Tuning (Madi,2011). Figure(2.2.3): GDgc Arab Violin Tuning (Madi,2011). Figure(2.2.4): GDdg Arab Violin Tuning (Madi,2011). Figure(3.1.1) Quartertones. (figure 3, marcus, 2002, p.35) Figure(3.1.2): the Persian nomenclatures for the notes most used. (Madi, 2011) Figure(3.2.1): Whole tone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5). Figure(3.2.2): Quartertone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5). Figure(3.2.3): Half tone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5). Figure(3.2.4): Augmented second (Mohamed, 1984, p 6). Figure(3.3.1): Jinss Rast (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). Figure(3.3.2): Jinss Bayati (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). Figure(3.3.3): Jinss Nahawand (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). Figure(3.3.4): Jinss Ajam (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). Figure(3.3.5): Jinss Kurd (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). Figure(3.3.6): Jinss Hijazz (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). Figure(3.3.7): Jinss Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). Figure(3.3.8): Tabe’ Seka (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). Figure(3.3.9): Eqd Nawa Athar (Mohamed, 1984, p 16). Figure(3.4.1): Maqam Rast (Mohamed, 1984, p 24). Figure(3.4.2): Maqam Bayati (Mohamed, 1984, p 28). Figure(3.4.3): Maqam Nahawand (Mohamed, 1984, p 26). Figure(3.4.4): Maqam Ajam (Mohamed, 1984, p 33). Figure(3.4.5): Maqam Kurd (Mohamed, 1984, p 29). Figure(3.4.6): Maqam Hijazz(Mohamed, 1984, p 30). Figure(3.4.7): Maqam Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 31). Figure(3.4.8): Maqam Seka (Mohamed, 1984, p 32). Figure(3.4.9): Maqam Nikrez (Mohamed, 1984, p 27). Figure(3.5.1): Rast Family (Madi,2011). Figure(3.5.2): lower jinss modulation (Madi,2011). Figure(4.2.1): fingering used on western tuning – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, an excerpt from bar 5. Figure(4.2.2): fingering used on GDgd tuning – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, an excerpt from bar 5. Figure(4.2.3): original pitch – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, bar 1. Figure(4.2.4): octave higher with the same fingering and embellishments – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, bar 1.

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List of Tracks Track(01): Jinss Rast. Track(02): Jinss Bayati. Track(03): Jinss Nahawand. Track(04): Jinss Ajam. Track(05): Jinss Kurd. Track(06): Jinss Hijazz. Track(07): Jinss Saba. Track(08): Tabe’ Seka. Track(09): Eqd Nawa Athar. Track(10): Maqam Rast. Track(11): Maqam Bayati. Track(12): Maqam Nahawand. Track(13): Maqam Ajam. Track(14): Maqam Kurd. Track(15): Maqam Hijazz. Track(16): Maqam Saba. Track(17): Maqam Seka. Track(18): Maqam Nikrez. Track(19): Upper Jinss Rast on G. Track(20): Upper jinss Hijazz on G. Track(21): Upper jinss Nahawand on G. Track(22): Upper jinss Bayati on G. Track(23): Upper jinss Ajam on G. Track(24): Upper jinss Kurd on G. Track(25): western tuning. Track(26): GDgd tuning. Track(27): original pitch. Track(28): octave higher.

00:06 00:06 00:06 00:06 00:06 00:06 00:06 00:06 00:06 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:07 00:13 00:11

Performer : Obeida Madi. Sound Engineer : Adolfo Hernández. Recorded at Kingston University Studio 2011.

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Introduction Arab music along with other musical cultures has a distinguished cultivated style characterized by its uniqueness. However, “musical life [in that region]… is largely in the realm of oral tradition where individuals learn music by hearing it and being taught without written notation”, as Bruno Nettl (1964, p.7), an ethnomusicologist, observes. Scholars throughout history have presented various aspects of Arab music regarding the theory, its history and the instruments used; however, they have not addressed a number of issues associated with the practical aspects such as the application of the modal system and methods for the musical instruments. As a violinist who performs both classical and Arab music, I see that western music has contributed to a better comprehension of the methodology of music. This has aroused my interest in researching issues associated with the violin in Arab music, since it suffers from lack of literature and practical methodologies, a part from a few promising attempts. So far, there has been little discussion about the Arab Violin Tuning (GDgd) in either Arab or western literature. This paper has been divided into four chapters. The first chapter is a historical overview of Arab music as a vocal tradition that is associated with the application of the music on the violin, and the musical instruments of the Arab music. While the second chapter deals with the violin in Arab music, exploring its emergence, the tuning, learning it, and its role in Arab music. For 1

better understanding of the reasons behind the use of the tuning, the third chapter has been devoted to explaining different aspects regarding the Arab music theory. Finally, the fourth chapter clarifies my conclusions about the reasons of why the GDgd tuning is used in Arab music. During the past thirty years, much more information has become available on the Arab Violin Tuning (GDgd). However, the sources merely mention the violin as a part of Arab ensembles, list the tunings used in Arab music, and provide little information about who introduced the violin into Arab music and when. Therefore, in order to ensure the integrity of the raised topics, I had to do a number of interviews besides collecting the majority of doctoral and masters theses, which focus on the Arab violin.

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1.

Arab Musical Life: A Historical Overview

1.1.

The Theory of Arab Music in a Vocal Tradition

Arab Music is unique among the world’s various genres of music. It may sound strange for the inexperienced ear since it is based on a modal system (maqamat), and involves improvising different embellishments by each musician on a given theme. However, those embellishments are varied according to the taste, emotion or effect desired (Touma, 1996, & Farmer, 1915). Different readings show that the Arab musical tradition has been based on singing since its origin; therefore, there is a predominance of vocal music in the Arab tradition (Touma, 1996, p xx). Arab music has been associated with poetry and words throughout its history (Touma, 1996, p xvii). However, instrumental music could be used as solo parts, independent instrumental forms, or preludes and interludes as a part of a song (Hassan, 2002, p.402). The earliest roots of the musical life of the Arabs originate from the Arab Peninsula during the Pre-Islamic period in the sixth century AD (Touma, 1996, p1). The musical life of that epoch was distinguished by two singing styles based on the traditional poetry; the singing of the Bedouin nomads1 and the sedentary population (Touma, 1996, p2). That of the sedentary

1

this style is limited in pitch and unaccompanied, usually sung to entertain the travelers in addition to dirges, love and war songs (Touma, 1996, p2)

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population defined by the qanyah2 (singular, plural: qyaan,) whose voice and techniques depicted the pure Arab vocal performance; this would be accompanied by a small ensemble consisting of basic instruments similar to lute, flute and drum (Touma, 1996, p 2-4). The qyaan singing depicted the generality of Arab musical life and led to the appearance and development of a special school and tradition that maintained its influence into the ninth century after the appearance of Islam (Touma, 1996, p3-4). It is thought that Arab musicians in that period probably had transformed the singing style they had borrowed from the Persians and made it their own (Touma, 1996, p.6). These singing styles remained unchanged through the first three decades of Islam which started in approximately 632 AD. After the emergence of Islam the Arabic language started to be used for the names of musical instruments, and for other musical terminologies, not only for the lyrics of songs (Touma, 1996, p6). At the time of the Umayyad reign from approximately 661 AD until the beginnings of the Abbasid dynasty, a new singing tradition was created originally from the Hijaz3 that was a musical center of the Arab empire and the source of excellent singers. Those singers used to be accompanied by large choruses and female instrumental ensembles. Therefore, the great singers were able to establish an Arab vocal 2

a singer and servant, whose duty was to entertain the guests with songs, pouring wine and eroticism in the Eros houses or palaces of rich people (Touma, 1996, p.2) 3

a specific region in the Arab Peninsula (Touma, 1996, p 5).

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school that taught the popular style of singing that time, defined later as the Early Arab Classical School of music (Touma, 1996, p 7-9). Music scholars developed their theories on the basis of musical practice and gathered the music of their time. Further information about the quality of the sound could not be gathered from the written evidence, since the contemporary theory of Arab music has been handed down orally, therefore only an obscure picture of the original sound could be obtained (Touma, 1996, p.10-11). The Arab classical singing tradition of Hijaz experienced its culmination in the eighth and early ninth centuries. However, it lost its position during the first half of the ninth century because of the rising of a new musical movement in Baghdad that originated from Persia; therefore, the influence of Persian music enriched the classical singing of Hijaz with new musical elements that probably still set the tone of Arab music (Touma, 1996, p 9). From that time onwards, singers began to free themselves from the limitation of the old tradition (Touma, 1996, p 9). Until this instance, theories of music remained close to the Greek modes that could not accommodate the local practice (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16). Nevertheless, a number of writings that systemized music to actual practice occurred, the most original and important of these come from the ninth to thirteenth century and are associated with names such as al-Kindi (d. 874) , al-Farabi (d. 950) and Ibn Sina (d.1037) (Touma, 1996, p.10-11). Their

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ideas have been transmitted to a number of Middle Eastern societies; therefore, many musicians from that area claim the same theories as their own, such as Arabs, Turks, and Persians despite their different languages and social histories (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16). Those scholars systemized information about modes; analyzed rhythmic patterns and meters which were associated with poetic meter; developed a letter notation for rhythmic description, locating the attacks and describing ornamental techniques; and considered the processes of composition and performance (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16-17). The most accomplished of all is al-Farabi, who chose the Oud, his own instrument, to bring theory and practice together with “a keen ear” (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16). The Oud is an important instrument in the Arab musical tradition (Danielson and Fisher, 2002, p.16), and modern musicologists continue to address the Oud in serving theoretical issues regarding the modal system (Hassan, 2002, p.402). After the downfalls of numerous main cities of the Islamic empire between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, the influence of Turkish and Persian music on the music of the Arabs increased. However, a fundamental change occurred to the Eastern Arab musical culture from the beginning of the sixteenth century until the beginning of the twentieth century after the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the area (Touma, 1996, p 12).

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Since the end of the nineteenth century, the Arab world has encompassed five musical centers, each representing a different musical style: Iraq, Levant4, Egypt, the Arab Peninsula, and North Africa5 (Touma, 1996, p14). These different styles could be represented by; variations in manner of singing, technique of plucking the Oud, application of the modes used, rhythmic patterns of the accompanying percussion and structure of the poems used and their content (Touma, 1996, p 15). On the other hand, many aspects of music are the same in all Arab countries; such as the modal system (Maqamat), musical forms, rhythmic patterns, techniques of improvisation and composition along with the settings of ensembles. Singing styles and terminologies may be different in al-maghrib (North Africa) from those in al-mashriq (the Arab countries of the eastern Mediterranean including Egypt and Levant) (Touma, 1996, p xviii). However, the entire area of the mashriq share the same application of the modal system (Maqamat) that is distinguished from the modal traditions of the maghrib, Iraq, and the Arab Peninsula (Marcus, 2002, p.33). In the twentieth century, music for Arabs remained a singing tradition concentrating on

the

singer

and

the

ensemble

accompanying

the

performance, therefore a number of singers and composers were the

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Including Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestinian Territories. Including Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.

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instigators of the new Arab musical school 6(Touma, 1996, p 13). Those musicians have studied the modal system (Maqamat) in order to read the Koran7 and to give the call to prayer and afterwards became composers, singers, and teachers of vocal traditions and theories i (interview: Amer Madi, 2008). Since the early twentieth century, Egypt has become the prime center of Arab musical attraction and its culture has disseminated throughout the Arab world (Jones, 2002, p.432). It is the gate that connects Arab countries by sharing their musical culture (Jones, 2002, p.432). Cairo was the host of the pivotal Congress of Arab Music under the patronage of The Arab Society for Music of the League of Arab States in 1932, during which a substantial part of Arab music theory was written down by a number of distinguished Arab scholars (Jones, 2002, p.433 & interview: Amer Madi, 2008). Emerging media such as gramophone, film and later, local television and radio broadcast have played a major role in spreading the fame of numerous Egyptian musicians during that period (Jones, 2002, p.432). On the other hand, many Egyptian ensembles toured different parts of the Arab world inspiring local artists with Egyptian musical culture, which led to the merging of these two cultures that helped in inlaying and shaping the urban taste as in Jordan for example (Jones, 2002, p.432 & George, 2010).

among them ‘Abdo al-Hamuli and Mohammed ‘Uthman, abu al’ella Mohamed, Zakaryya Ahmed and Sayyed Darweesh. 7 the holy book of Islam. 6

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1.2

Musical Instruments of the Arab Music

Instruments have been at service of the voice throughout the history of the region (Hassan, 2002, p.401). In the twentieth century, performers began to change this status and liberate Arab instruments from their historical association with voice. However, those trends could not change the predominance of the voice (Hassan, 2002, p.401).

Distinguished Arab instruments in traditional urban and folk music are classified into three categories. The first category is stringed instruments (Chordophones) among which oud8, buzuq9, qanoun (kanoun)10 and violin. The second category is wind instruments (Aerophones) including nay, mizmar and kawala which are wooden flutes. The third category is rhythmic instruments (Membranophones), including riq11, tar and daff

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, tabl13, baz14, and tabla15

(durbakka or dambuk) (Hassan, 2002 & Mohamed, 1984).

Oud, qanoun and nay are symbols of Arab musical culture, those which have been given the main role of solo improvisation and are essential members of al-takht al-sharqi or takht (oriental ensemble) along with different sets of percussion and latterly a violin. Those instruments are part of al-firqa 8

an unfretted short-necked lute with five to fix double strings, played with a plectrum. a fretted long-necked lute with five to four to five double strings, played with a plectrum. 10 a board zither with about twenty six triple strings, played with two plectra attached to rings worn on the index finger of each hand. 11 a small tambourine. 12 are single-skin frame drums with different diameter. 13 a double-headed frame drum. 14 a kettledrum. 15 a single headed portable drum. 9

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al-arabyyah, that is an enlarged orchestra consisting of takht sharqi, violins, cellos, and a double bass. However, modern Arab composers in the late twentieth and twenty first century have introduced these instruments into some of their compositions including solo concertos with orchestra (Hassan, 2002 & Mohamed, 1984).

Arab music has adopted Western classical stringed instruments such as violin, viola, cello and double bass because they sound like local instruments and could be recruited to imitate the local music. (Hassan, 2002, p.420) The violin among other strings established a firm place in Arab music (Hassan, 2002, p.421).

In the next chapter, I will explore the emergence of the Arab violin specifically in al-mashriq, the tuning used, learning the Arab violin, and the role of it in Arab music.

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2.

The Violin in Arab music

The violin (Kaman or Kamanjah) was adopted widely into the Arab musical tradition without any structural modification as a non-tempered instrument. However, the tuning of the violin’s open strings has been modified to the intervals; fifth, fourth and fifth (GDgd) instead of three consecutive fifths (GDAE) as in western tuning (Hassan, 2002, p.421). Tawfiq Al-sabbagh (1950) says that this tuning is the most suitable tuning for the application of the majority of the modes (maqamat) and it is convenient to the vocal register (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.30). Moreover, there are a number of famous and distinguished Arab violinists in al-mashriq particularly, whose names have been associated with the Arab Violin (GDgd)16.

I will particularly explore the Arab violin in al-mashriq (the eastern part of the Arab world) where the violin is held as in western music in contrast to al-maghrib (the western part of the Arab world), where the violin playing position is inverted so that the sound box end rests on the knee rather than the chin, which substantially influences the performing techniques. Howerver, holding position in al-maghrib resembles that of the rebab, an indigenous

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among them Ahmed Al-hifnawi (1910s-?), Anwar Mansi (1922-1961), Mahmoud Al-gersha (1948-1999), Abdo Dagher (1936), Sa’ad Mohamed Hassan in Egypt; Abboud Abd Al-aall (19352009) in Syria, Khaled Mohamed Ali in Iraq; and Antoine Sha’moon (1952), George Jubrail known as George As’ad (1975), Feras Hattar (1969) Abed Dukhan (1969) and Yarub Smairat (1988) in Jordan.

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two-string fiddle-like instrument that used to be in the takht prior the violin (Hassan, 2002, p.421). 2.1

The Emergence of the Violin in Al-mashriq

Although the violin was officially recognized as a part of the takht in the Congress on Arab Music in 1932 (Tnnous, 2006 & Jubrail, 2010), the time of its emergence in the Arab musical culture is not clear. Sources agree that performers who originally come from Aleppo (Syria) have utilized the violin in Arab music in Egypt since the end of the nineteenth century. However, there is a lack of agreement about who introduced it first. Yousif Tnnous (2006, p.27) affirms that in 1865, Senior Antoine Alshawwa introduced the violin to the takht. While a few years later, Sami Alshawwa (1887-1960) known as the prince of the violin, founder of the Contemporary Arab Violin School, became known as the first introducer of the instrument (Tnnous, 2006 & Jubrail, 2010). While Mohammed Ibrahim (1984, p.14) alleges that the violin was firstly introduced by Hassan al-jaheli then Ibrahim al-salhoon (1840-1920) who taught violin to Sami Al-shawwa who latterly became well known as the founder of the violin in the Arab music tradition.

2.2

The Tuning of the Violin in Arab Music

Since the emergence of the violin in the Arab Takht, the instrument has been set to different tasweyyat (tunings). However, political, social and artistic

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conditions that the Arab region particularly in al-mashriq has gone through could have reflected on the use of the instrument especially after the Ottoman’s occupation (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.25). The different tunings used in Arab music in al-mashriq are: 1. Western Tuning:

Figure(2.2.1): Western Violin Tuning (Madi,2011).

The violin in western music is a string instrument with four strings tuned in consecutive perfect fifths, G3 D4 A4 E5 (Ammer, 2004, p. 464). This is the tuning used by students who are learning the basic techniques of violin playing before progressing to the Arab art of performing (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.25). Western tuning is valued for its brilliant tone and its wide range of techniques (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.25). However, from my interviews with Jordanian violinists, I concluded that a number of classical educated violinists who play Arab music prefer western tuning since they became accustomed to it, achieving a high level of technical skill which enables them to express music freely. Nevertheless, many still use the GDgd tuning because it gives a different resonance to the instrument (interviews: Smairat & Tahboub, 2011).

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George Jubrail (2010, p.143) says that those who have advanced technical skills do not care what tuning is being used especially since the role of the violin has changed in the last few years, from a heterophonic doubling of the vocal line to an accompanying counter-melody. 2. Turkish Tuning:

Figure(2.2.2): Turkish Violin Tuning (Madi,2011).

The four strings are tuned in perfect consecutive fifths with a perfect fourth between the two upper strings, G3 D4 A4 D5 (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.27). This tuning has been used during the Ottoman colonization of al-mashriq that brought different artistic backgrounds to the Arab musical culture. However, the Arab performers could not maintain it since it does not fit into the structure of the modal system (maqamat) they use (Abdel Rahman, 1993, p.1). 3. Old Arab Tuning:

Figure(2.2.3): GDgc Arab Violin Tuning (Madi,2011).

The four strings are tuned in perfect fifth and consecutive perfect fourths, G3 D4 G4 C5 (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.28). This tuning was popular in the takht

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at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.28). Hassan al-jaheli and Ibrahim al-salhoon are among the first musicians who used the GDgc Arab tuning (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.28). 4. GDgd Arab Tuning:

Figure(2.2.4): GDdg Arab Violin Tuning (Madi,2011).

It is the most popular and vivid tuning and often called the Egyptian tuning (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.30). The four strings are tuned to a perfect fifth, a perfect fourth and perfect fifth, G3 D4 G4 D5 (Abdel Rahman, 1986, p.29). Later in this paper, I will talk about why the performers prefer this tuning.

2.3

Learning the Arab Violin

In the records of the meetings held in 1932 at the Congress of Arab Music (2007, p.345) in Cairo, scholars confirmed the necessity of studying the violin through western classical methods with western tuning. Learning violin in most of the Arab music curriculum often depends on western classical violin methods, including exercises and performing techniques (Abdel Razzaq, 2007, p.135). Nevertheless, a number of distinguished Arab violin performers have

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never played or been educated on the classical tuning, among them Abdo Dagher (Interview: Feras Hattar, 2011). George Jubrail (2010, p.6) affirms that studying western methods makes the performer capable of imitating different music genres which he could benefit from; yet the performer must maintain the identity of the Arab music. Furthermore, Jubrail adds that a number of distinguished violinists such as Anwar Mansi, Abboud Abd Al-aall and Mahmoud Al-gersha have benefited from integrating western violin methods into Arab violin techniques. After reaping the fruits of western techniques, the performer needs to learn the style of performing Arab music on the violin. As Amr Abdel Rahman (1986, p.9) observes, a classically educated performer would find that Arab music needs fewer technical skills than western classical music and it requires a different style of performance. The style is based on embellishing the given lines with ornaments, slides, trills, wide vibrato, and double stops, and often using an open string as a drone (Abdel Razzaq, 2007, p.137). In an interview with Feras Hattar (2011), he claims that a violinist would learn those embellishments by copying experienced performers, listening to recordings of different Arab instruments, not only violin, spending a long time with an expert under his supervision, and frequent practice.

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2.4

The Role of the Violin in Arab Music

The violin has had a central role in Arab music ensembles since its introduction. Its role includes a heterophonic doubling of the vocal line, performing independent instrumental forms, solo parts in both instrumental and vocal music, preludes and interludes as a part of a song (Tnnous, 2006, p.30). Performing techniques in instrumental music are based on simulating vocal techniques as well (Hassan, 2002, p.402). Therefore, the majority of performers merely follow a musical score (Touma, 1996, 39), as they memorize the vocal part then enhance the line by improvising embellishments using different techniques (Jubrail, 2010, p. 136). Moreover, the violin and the other takht instruments are often tuned a semitone or a whole tone lower to suit singers’ register (Tnnous, 2006). In the mid-twentieth century, the violin was more common in Arab compositions and a number of instrumental pieces have been written specially for violin (Tnnous, 2006, p.30). Famous works for violin include; a number of compositions for Abdo Dagher (1936) among them Al-nile, Longa Nahawand and Neda’ (Abdel Ghaffar, 2006, p.15).

As well as the traditional heterophonic doubling of the vocal line, in the last decade the violin has taken on an accompanying role. The accompanying line is an independent prewritten counter melody, which is often complex in

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comparison to the vocal line (Jubrail, 2010, p. 153). However, violinists performing these lines are often classically educated who have achieved high skills and techniques, at the same time gained familiarity with the modal system (maqamat) (Jubrail, 2010, p. 157).

The violin has also been introduced as an Arab instrument to fusion bands that combine Arab music with jazz, rock and roll, or rap in the last decade as in Salam Band in Jordan and Eftikasat band in Egypt (interview: Smairat, 2011).

After presenting the central importance of the violin in Arab music and before going on to discuss its tuning, it is necessary to gain an understanding of Arab Music Theory. The next chapter will be devoted to an overview of this theory, including the rules that govern practical techniques, and strategies of executing modulations in Arab music.

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3.

Arab Music Theory

Theorists have developed several traditions for understanding and explaining the modal system (Maqamat) used in Arab music. However, the contemporary theory is the simplest of all; therefore, it is taught in musical institutions and can be found in recently published theory books. The theory became predominant between 1930s-1970s, having been developed in the first half of the twentieth century (Marcus, 2002, p.38). It is circumscribed to a presentation of modes and an analysis of pitch, melodic intervals, and tetrachordal structure (Marcus, 2002, p.34).

3.1

Accidentals and Pitch in Arab music

Beside the flat, sharp and natural notes, many maqamat (modes) include quartertones, which are a rarely precise quarters falling halfway between two semitones and the intonation of the same quartertone may vary with each maqam (mode) (Farraj, 2007). These quartertones are referred to by using accidentals, the most common are the half-flat sign (nisf bemol) ( ) for the notes falling between a note and its corresponding flat or the half-sharp sign (nisf diyaz) ( ) for the notes falling between a note and its corresponding sharp. Moreover, these symbols are usually used in the key signature just as in Western Classical music (Mohamed, 1984, p 22). However,

the most

frequently used quartertones are: E , A , B , F and C (Mohamed, 1984, p 1)(Marcus, 2002, p.34) (Farraj, 2007). 19

Figure(3.1.1) Quartertones. (figure 3, Marcus, 2002, p.35)

Each note in Arab music has a specific Persian name that differs from one octave to another as shown in figure (3.1.2) (Mohamed, 1984, p 11-12). Since each tone is divided into four quarters, every quarter carries a new name often used in naming the maqamat and the ajnas. In classical music, enharmonic tones are tones that have the same pitch but different letter names. In Arab music, enharmonic tones have the same pitch and the same name; G-sharp and A-flat For instance, are named Qarar Husar. Nevertheless, there is an exception for every rule; F-sharp and G-flat are the only notes that do not share the same name because their pitch is slightly different (Mohamed, 1984, p 11-12-13). G

G3

Yakah

G4

Nawa

A

A 3

Qarar Husar

A 4

Husar

A

A3

Oushayran

A4

Husaini

B

B 3

Ajam Oushayran

B 4

Ajam

B

B 3

Ouraq

B 4

Awj

B

B3

Kawasht

B4

Mahour

C

C4

Rast (middle C)

C5

Kerdan

D

D 4

Zerkolah

D 5

Shahinaz

20

G5

Sahem

D

D4

Dokah

D5

Muhayyar

E

E 4

Kord

E 5

Sunbula

E

E 4

Seka

E 5

Bazork

E

E4

Bosalik

E5

Jawab Bosalik

F

F4

Jaharkah

F5

Mahouran

F#

F#4

Hijazz

F#5

Jawab Hijazz

G

G 4

Saba

G 5

Jawab Saba

Figure(3.1.2): the Persian nomenclatures for the notes most used. (Madi, 2011)

3.2

The Intervals of Arab Music (al-bo’d al-sawti)

Arab music is mostly melodic and it rarely includes harmony and chords (Marcus, 2007, p.16). However, the melodic aspect of that musical culture is either monophonic

17

or heterophonic

18

(Marcus, 2002 & 2007), for

that reason, intervals in Arab music are only melodic intervals. In contrast to western music, where the whole tone is divided into two half tones, a tone in Arab music is divided into four quarters. There are four types of melodic intervals (al-bo’d al-sawti): the whole tone containing four quarters, the quartertone containing three quarters, the half tone containing two quarters, and the augmented tone containing six quarters (Mohamed, 1984, p. 5-6) (Marcus, 2002, p.36). 17

a single melodic line. a single melodic line presented by different instruments playing simultaneously with a slight different execution of the melodic line. 18

21

Figure (3.2.1): Whole tone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5).

Figure (3.2.2): Quartertone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5).

Figure (3.2.3): Half tone (Mohamed, 1984, p 5).

Figure (3.2.4): Augmented tone (Mohamed, 1984, p 6).

3.3

The Tetrachords of Arab Music (Jinss)

Jinss (plural ajnas) comes from the Latin word "genus," meaning gender, type or nature of something (Farraj, 2007). As a term used in Arab music it is used to refer to the sequence of notes that include microtonal variations such as tones, half tones, quartertones and augmented tones. Ajnas are the foundation elements which set up the Arab Maqam for which a combination of two ajnas constitute a maqam (Mohamed, 1984) (Farraj, 2007). There are four types of Jinss:

22

1. Tabe’ (trichords): a sequence of three notes consisting of a sum of seven quarters. As in Tabe’ Seka (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). 2. Jinss (tetrachords19): a sequence of four notes consisting of a sum of ten quarters. As in Jinss Bayati (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). 3. Jinss Naqes (diminished tetrachords): an exceptional sequence of four notes consisting of a sum of eight quarters. As in Jinss Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). 4. Eqd (pentachords): a sequence of five notes consisting of a sum of fourteen quarters. As in Eqd Nawa Athar (Mohamed, 1984, p 16). The nine main ajnas In Arab music that construct the main nine maqamat: 1. Jinss Rast (tetrachords) A sequence of four notes which start with a whole tone followed by two quartertones. Usually starting on middle C (Mohamed, 1984, p 14).

Figure(3.3.1): Jinss Rast (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). [CD Track 01]

2. Jinss Bayati (tetrachords) A sequence of four notes which start with two quartertones followed by a whole tone. Usually starting on D (Mohamed, 1984, p 14).

19

A series of four notes that form the intervals of whole tone, whole tone, half tone, with the top and bottom notes forming the interval of a perfect fourth or a four-note scale (Ammer, 2004, p.426-7).

23

Figure(3.3.2): Jinss Bayati (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). [CD Track 02]

3. Jinss Nahawand (tetrachords) The nahawand tetrachord sounds similar to the first four notes of a minor scale in western classical music (Farraj, 2007). It is a sequence of four notes which start with a whole tone, half tone followed by a whole tone. Usually starting on middle C (Mohamed, 1984, p 14).

Figure(3.3.3): Jinss Nahawand (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). [CD Track 03]

4. Jinss Ajam (tetrachords) The ajam tetrachord sounds similar to the first four notes of a Major scale in western classical music. A sequence of four notes which start with two whole tones followed by a half tone. Usually starting on B (Mohamed, 1984, p 15).

Figure(3.3.4): Jinss Ajam (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). [CD Track 04]

24

5. Jinss Kurd (tetrachords) It took its name from the E-flat (Kurd) which differentiates it from the Bayati. A sequence of four notes which start with a half tone followed by two whole tones. Usually starting on D (Mohamed, 1984, p 14).

Figure(3.3.5): Jinss Kurd (Mohamed, 1984, p 14). [CD Track 05]

6. Jinss Hijazz (tetrachords) It took its name from the F-sharp (Hijazz) which differentiates it from Kurd and Bayati. It is a sequence of four notes which start with a half tone, an augmented tone followed by a half tone. Usually starting on D (Mohamed, 1984, p 15).

Figure(3.3.6): Jinss Hijazz (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). [CD Track 06]

7. Jinss Saba (exception) It took its name from the G-flat (Saba) which differentiates it from Bayati. And it is an exceptional diminished tetrachord with eight quarters. A sequence of four notes which start with two quartertones followed by a half tone. Usually starting on D (Mohamed, 1984, p 15).

25

Figure(3.3.7): Jinss Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). [CD Track 07]

8. Tabe’ Seka (trichords) It took its name from the E-half flat (Seka). However, it consists of a sequence of three notes which start with a quartertone followed by a whole tone. Usually starting on E (Mohamed, 1984, p 15).

Figure(3.3.8): Tabe’ Seka (Mohamed, 1984, p 15). [CD Track 08]

9. Eqd Nawa Athar (pentachords) This pentachord is often called Nikrez. However, it is a combination of a Jinss Nahawand and a Jinss Hijazz. It is a sequence of five notes which start with a whole tone, a half tone, an augmented tone followed by a half tone. Usually starting on middle C (Mohamed, 1984, p 16).

Figure(3.3.9): Eqd Nawa Athar (Mohamed, 1984, p 16). [CD Track 09]

26

Moreover, each Jinss has a specific root position that may occur in a number of common transpositions (Marcus, 2002, p.36). For instance, Jinss Bayati has its root position on D; it also may occur commonly on G and C. These transpositions -which will be clarified later on in this chapter- are used to form a new maqam or in modulating between maqamat. Each maqam is created by joining two main ajnas called the Lower Jinss (Jinss al-‘asel) and Upper Jinss (Jinss al-fere’). The lower jinss is used to group or classify the maqam in a family titled after the jinss’s name or the tonic of the mode (Marcus, 2002, p.37) (Mohamed, 1984, p 19).

3.4

The Maqam

Maqamat (singular maqam) is a system of modes; that is sets of notes and melodic structure associated with specific moods, tone colours, etc. (Marcus, 2007, p.18). However, a maqam is a mode set of two main ajnas; lower and upper along with other ajnas called secondary ajnas, which overlap them, and can be utilized during modulation

ii

(Mohamed, 1984, p.19-20)

(Farraj, 2007). For musicians, modes are generally understood by the way they occur in practice or in existence in recorded compositions and improvisations whether those recordings are old or new. Ali Jihad Racy (1976, 1977) observes that those recordings introduce the musician to unique features such as characteristical ways for beginning a piece of music or improvisation; 27

accidentals that give a special characteristic to the motif; or common or less common modulations to other modes (Marcus, 2002, p.33). There are nine main maqamat based on the main nine ajnas. While each maqam has a unique character which conveys a mood, similar to the mood which a major or minor scale sets, even though that mood is subjective (Mohamed, 1984, p 23). The main nine maqamat are: 1. Maqam Rast

Figure(3.4.1): Maqam Rast (Mohamed, 1984, p 24). [CD Track 10]

2. Maqam Bayati

Figure(3.4.2): Maqam Bayati (Mohamed, 1984, p 28). [CD Track 11]

3. Maqam Nahawand The Nahawand is the typical C harmonic minor scale in western classical music.

Figure(3.4.3): Maqam Nahawand (Mohamed, 1984, p 26). [CD Track 12]

28

4. Maqam Ajam The Ajam is the typical B-flat major scale in western classical music.

Figure(3.4.4): Maqam Ajam (Mohamed, 1984, p 33). [CD Track 13]

5. Maqam Kurd Maqam Kurd sounds like Phrygian starting on D.

Figure(3.4.5): Maqam Kurd (Mohamed, 1984, p 29). [CD Track 14]

6. Maqam Hijazz Maqam Hijazz sounds like a Phrygian dominant scale starting on D (a harmonic minor perfect fifth below). It sounds like double harmonic major scale in western classical music, which is the natural major but with a chromatically lowered second and sixth.

Figure(3.4.6): Maqam Hijazz(Mohamed, 1984, p 30). [CD Track 15]

7. Maqam Saba Maqam Saba is an exception since it ends on D-flat that is not the same tonic (Mohamed, 1984, p 31).

29

Figure(3.4.7): Maqam Saba (Mohamed, 1984, p 31). [CD Track 16]

8. Maqam Seka

Figure(3.4.8): Maqam Seka (Mohamed, 1984, p 32). [CD Track 17]

9. Maqam Nikrez Maqam Nikrez is the typical C double harmonic minor scale in western classical music. Moreover, the double harmonic minor is the natural minor but with a chromatic rise for the fourth and seventh degree20.

Figure(3.4.9): Maqam Nikrez (Mohamed, 1984, p 27). [CD Track 18]

According to Arab music theory, the various maqamat are presented in terms of modes with a recognized tonic pitch (Marcus, 2002, p.38). It can be transposed when needed to fit the register of the singer or to vary the mood in instrumental pieces. However, they are rarely transposed in classical forms iii

.

20

some theorists mention Maqam Nawa Athar as the ninth maqam (Farraj, 2007). That is the same mode without raising the B-flat whilst the secondary jinss becomes Jinss Kurd instead of Jinss hijazz.

30

Generally, the upper jinss starts from a note called ghammaz (the dominant note) which on the contrary to western classical music does not mean the fifth note in a scale but rather dominant as in powerful being the second most important note in the maqam after the qarar (tonic). The ghammaz serves as the pivot note during modulation, and it could be the fourth note of the maqam like in Bayati, Hijaz and Kurd or the fifth like in Rast, Nahawand, Ajam and Nikrez (Mohamed, 1984, p 24) (Farraj, 2007). Take notice that G4 is the common connecting note that links the upper jinss and the lower jinss in some maqamat or the note that the upper jinss starts with in others.

3.5

Modulation and Families

Scott Marcus (1992, p.171) affirms: “Although modulation…is widely recognized as one of the most important aspects of Arab modal practice, the subject has been all but ignored in written Arab music theory.” Further, he adds, “With few exceptions, theorists over the centuries have concentrated on describing the modes as individual and distinct entities rather than discussing movement among the modes.” Also, he notes, “there is no universally recognized Arab term for modulation.” Nevertheless, Marcus clarified three terms usually used by Arab musicians to identify the modulation; intiqal, tahwil, and taghyir, which translate to; to shift, to relocate, or to transfer from one to another. 31

Modulation is a very important technique that shows the true richness and beauty of the maqam system. However, it requires a lot of experience and knowledge of the Arab music theory along with a musical performing artistry (Farraj, 2007 & Marcus, 1992). Nevertheless, rules that govern modulation in practical realms exist most commonly in oral traditions rather than written expositions (Marcus, 1992, p.171). In western classical music, modulation is the technique of changing from one key to another within a composition or a part of it (Ammer, 2004, p.246). However, in Arab music it is a technique used during the melodic development of a piece. It means shifting the emphasis from one Jinss to another. The new jinss may start on the same note (common-tone modulation), or on a different note usually ghammaz (the dominant) (Farraj, 2007 & Marcus, 1992). These shifts could happen suddenly, gradually, or by a passing accidental which is titled a passing modulation (Marcus, 1992, p.179). According to the choices of ajnas or maqamat used in modulation and the transitions to which one can modulate, Marcus (1992, p.175) describes each maqam as “a part of a fabric” that includes all the maqamat, and a musician must learn all its options. The simplest and the most common way to modulate is to develop the upper jinss of the maqam through the ghammaz (Farraj, 2007 & Mohamed, 1984 & Marcus, 1992). You can establish a modulation on Maqam Rast by

32

shifting Jinss Rast to Jinss Kurd in the upper jinss for example. However, there are well-established maqamat combinations that sound very pleasant based on changing the upper jinss and keeping the same lower jinss (Marcus, 1992, p.176). For example: Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Rast on G (Maqam Rast). [CD Track 19] Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Hijazz on G. [CD Track 20] Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Nahawand on G. [CD Track 21] Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Bayati on G. [CD Track 22] Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Ajam on G. [CD Track 23] Lower Jinss Rast on C, Upper Jinss Kurd on G. [CD Track 24]

Figure(3.5.1): Rast Family (Madi,2011).

These combinations are what we call the (Rast Family), and each of the combination carries a new maqam name. For instance, the combination of lower Jinss Rast on C4 and upper Jinss Hijazz on G4 is called Maqam Rast Soznak (Mohamed, 1984 & Marcus, 1992).

33

On the other hand, modulation would be achieved by keeping the upper jinss and replacing the lower jinss with another one of the same type. Therefore, this would modulate to a different maqam in a new family (Farraj, 2007). For instance, replacing the lower Jinss Hijazz in Maqam Hijazz with Jinss Bayati modulates it to Maqam Bayati.

Figure(3.5.2): lower Jinss modulation (Madi,2011).

Furthermore, modulation may occur by emphasizing a new maqam which starts on the same tonic by replacing a jinss with another one that differs only by a note. As in Maqam Kurd and Maqam Bayati for example, where the second note of the tetrachord is different; the E flat and the E halfflat, sharing the same upper jinss iv (Farraj, 2007). Nevertheless, a musician may keep on switching from one Maqam to the other, although it is common to return to the first Maqam unless the purpose of the modulation was to end up on a new Maqam (Farraj, 2007). In other words, Shiloah (1981) writes, "a skilled musician distinguishes himself by excelling in the modulatory progressions that allow him to move away from and back to the main Maqam.” (Marcus, 1992, p.175)

34

Now that the foundations of Arab music theory have been presented, I will discuss in the next chapter analytical concepts that exist mainly in oral rather than written realms, about the use of the Arab violin tuning and performers' strategies for executing specific techniques.

35

4.

The Reasons for the Use of GDgd Tuning

From my readings, interviews and dissection, I concluded that the reasons behind using the Arab violin tuning (GDgd) could be divided into three main aspects: historical, theoretical, and technical aspects.

4.1

The Historical Aspects

The oud, as the most important instrument in Arab music, could have influenced the structure of tuning used for the Arab violin, since the oud is tuned in perfect fourths between the upper four strings (FADGC or GADGC) (interview: Amer Madi, 2008). However, Ibn Al-munajim, a scholar from the tenth century, observed that the old four-stringed oud used to be tuned in (ADGC) (Shawqi, 1976), which is close to the old Arab violin tuning (GDGC) that has been adjusted into the current GDgd tuning to accommodate the musical structure of Arab music. Perhaps the first violinists might have borrowed the oud performing techniques since the violin lacked its own character in Arab music (interview: Amer Madi, 2008). A number of sources assert that the violin was derived from the rebab21, and to other sources assert that the rebab replaced the violin in the Arab takht. Although none of these sources determines the tuning that was used for the rebab, it seems likely that the earliest violinists may have tuned the

21

an old two-string fiddle-like instrument

36

upper two strings in G and D to resemble the tuning of the rebab assuming that its two strings were tuned to G and D.

4.2

The Theoretical Aspects

The theory of Arab music is closely associated with the use of the Arab violin tuning. As has been explained in detail in chapter three, G4 is the common ghammaz in seven of the nine main maqamat (see: Maqam Bayati, Hijaz, Kurd, Rast, Nahawand, Ajam and Nikrez in chapter three). It is the pivot note during modulation and a port to create new maqam families (see: example of Rast family in chapter three) by navigating different applications for those maqamat. The maqamat are often presented with a stationary tonic pitch that could be transposed in certain circumstances to other common pitches that apply around G4. Therefore, the application of maqamat when transposed could be applied more fluently to the Arab tuning as in Maqam Bayati when transposed in G for example, since the A-half-flat is applied on the first finger on the first position rather than playing it with the second finger on the third position as Figure (4.2.1) and Figure (4.2.2) show.

Figure(4.2.1): fingering used on western tuning – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, an excerpt from bar 5. [CD Track 25]

37

Figure(4.2.2): fingering used on GDgd tuning – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, an excerpt from bar 5. [CD Track 26]

4.3

The Technical Aspects

Alfred Gamil’s (interview, 2010) observation concerning Arab tuning is that most of the maqamat are based on key signatures with flats and/or half-flats, which make the application of the maqamat with three or four flats more fluent, especially those with half-flats. In other words, quartertones are more in tune and freely embellished when played with the first or second finger in first position (also listen to tracks 25 and 26). Khaled Mohamed Ali (interview, 2011) claims, motifs and tunes in Arab music rarely exceed the octave, which could be because of the limited register in other takht instruments (Farraj, 2007). Gamil (interview, 2010) confirms Ali and adds; this tuning provides the opportunity to perform the same motif an octave higher or lower using the same fingering presenting an identical style of embellishments, which could be desirable in many compositions.

Figure(4.2.3): original pitch – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, bar 1. [CD Track 27]

38

Figure(4.2.4): octave higher with the same fingering and embellishments – Amer Madi, Samaai Zarafat, bar 1. [CD Track 28]

As well as the historical, theoretical, and technical aspects, the tuning is associated with the timbre of the instrument. The majority of the interviewees, violinists and scholars, confirm that the resonance of the instrument is different and more desirable describing the sound as “warm”, “round”, “majestic”, “tuneful”, and “intimate”. Moreover, Amr Abdel Rahman (interview, 2010) alleged, when the upper two strings are tuned to G and D, the strings are loosened. This makes techniques of embellishment, such as glissandi, easier to execute and more resonant.

39

Conclusion and Future Debates The violin was adopted and adapted from the western musical heritage and has become a crucial part of Arab music, a pillar in the Arab takht since the end of the nineteenth century. Its tuning has gone through several development stages throughout history, which served in crafting and sculpting its character until it settled on the Arab tuning of GDgd. However, as outlined in this paper, this tuning is associated with a range of historical, theoretical, and technical aspects in addition to supporting changes in the timbre of the instrument. Finally, the recent research presented here could provide the foundation for further research in related areas. If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of the impact of being a classically educated violinist performing Arab music needs to be developed and further investigated. It would also be interesting to assess the effects of the Arab tuning on the resonance and timbre of the instrument from the physical aspects. Moreover, further research might explore the embellishments and ornamentations used in Arab music performance on the violin. To enrich the library of the United Kingdom, future research should concentrate on the presentation of a method to teach non-Arab violinists to perform Arab music illustrating

exercises

that

emphasise

embellishments and ornamentations.

40

the

Maqamat

in

addition

to

Appendix

The modal system (Maqamat) used in singing has been infused in Muslims

i

acts of worship throughout history although it is forbidden in some cases. The athan (call to prayer) for instance has been associated with music since the mo’athen (the one who gives the call) uses the fixed text of the call with his own interpretation of the melodic line (Marcus, 2007, p.13). Moreover, music is integrated in the tajwid (The recitation of Koran) that is a melodic reading for the verses of the Koran (the holy book of Islam) that should be executed with attention to the meaning of the text; therefore, a reciter’s musical artistry is important because it engages the listeners more fully and emotionally in the significance of the text (Daves, 2002, p158&160).

ii

There are dozens of different maqamat in Arab music (Marcus, 1989&2007),

some theory books say there are more than two hundred modes whilst others claim that the number is close to three hundred and sixty maqamat (Mohamed, 1984, p 23).

iii

The names of the makamat change when transposed to other tonics such as

in Maqam Yakah, which is the same as Maqam Rast but starting from G3 or the maqam might be named after the tonic it starts from as in Maqam Rast Sol for example.

iv Sami al-Shawwa developed a theory of aqarib (relative notes) that indicates that the performer can modulate on the fourth, fifth, and in some cases third and sixth degrees of the maqam not only the tonic. However, only an expert performer who has a wide understanding of maqamat could execute these shifts (Marcus, 1992, p.177).

41

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