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Speaking is a complex skill that requires the development of a number of sub-skills. Here are some of those sub-skills: Vocabulary Students need to increase their range of vocabulary use to include words and expressions that are used more frequently in spoken English than in written English. Grammar In addition to mastering grammatical structures, students need to be aware of how grammatical rules are generally less formal in speech than in writing. Social language In addition, they need to learn the formulaic language that indicates social intent such as greetings, encouragement, interruption, etc. Register In speaking, students need to be able to shift formality according to who they are talking to and the social situation. Pronunciation In order to express themselves clearly, students need to be aware of key pronunciation features that, if not addressed, can interfere with communication. Listening comprehension Because speaking is a social function, students need to be interactive listeners and pay attention to other speakers. Fluency A large part of the development of the speaking skill involves building confidence so that students can express themselves more spontaneously. Body language PEARSON ©
Speaking also involves gestures and movement, including the use of facial expressions to let the other speaker know you are paying attention. Meaningful contexts It is important to provide meaningful contexts for speaking practice. When practice is relevant to our students and their lives, they are more motivated to speak. If students are not motivated, they quickly become bored and stop participating. Ultimately, learners want to know how to talk about themselves, to find out about others, to discuss what's going on in the world, and to be able to express their feelings and opinions. Speaking tasks should revolve around these goals so students can personalize this new language and immediately see its practical value. Look at these two tasks and then answer the question below. Communicative language teaching (CLT) Communicative language teaching is an approach that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the goal of learning a new language. It is based on the principle that learning a language successfully involves meaningful communication rather than simply memorizing rules. In a communicative language teaching approach, the primary focus is on building oral fluency and developing communicative competence. Grammar, vocabulary, and social language are all taught as the building blocks of successful communication. Social language includes language functions (the social purpose for using specific language) and conversation strategies (how conversations are managed successfully). In CLT, the receptive skills of reading and listening are used as stepping stones to the productive skills of speaking and writing. A student achieves communicative competence through the ability to use all language elements effectively and appropriately. Language functions Every time we communicate something, we do so for a social purpose. This purpose or reason is called a language function. For example, if friends are chatting about what to do on the weekend and someone says, "How about PEARSON ©
a movie?" the function of this statement in this context is making a suggestion. If someone responds with "That sounds great!" it functions in this context as accepting a suggestion. Formulaic expressions Spoken language is filled with formulaic expressions – language chunks that are used to communicate language functions. We can teach students formulaic expressions that students can use to communicate a variety of functions. When we teach expressions according to their function, students learn how to use language appropriately in different social situations. Here are some examples of different functions conveyed with the formulaic expression How about…? If we approach language through language functions, our focus remains on the social use of language. Balancing fluency and accuracy The development of fluency and accuracy are both important in a communicative language approach. An ideal lesson balances accuracy and fluency practice. When we focus on building fluency, students will focus on communicating ideas more than on using correct forms. The more that the learner focuses on communicating ideas, the more that errors will naturally occur. Errors are a normal part of fluency practice. Because most teachers naturally tend to focus on accuracy, it is important to make a special effort to emphasize fluency practice if we want our students to become confident speakers. Students need to have lots of opportunities to speak, and we have to allow them to make mistakes. The more speaking practice we give our students in the classroom, the more confident and fluent they become. The biggest obstacle to learning to speak English is not speaking enough. Accepting errors as natural Focusing exclusively on correcting errors can have a negative effect on classroom communication. Speaking involves spontaneous communication, and errors are a natural part of speaking practice. We PEARSON ©
should not expect 100% accuracy from our students. Students need to take risks when they speak. They need to be able to experiment with new language, which means they will make mistakes. Students should be allowed to make errors as long as they are successfully communicating. However, this does not mean that we need to completely ignore errors. Addressing errors In an activity in which the students' focus is on practicing new language, the teacher can use correction techniques that don't interfere with communication, but which address errors right away. However, error correction should be applied to errors with the language being taught, rather than on every error the student makes. During activities in which students are concentrating on developing fluency, we can focus on the message and let more errors go unaddressed. However, we can take note of frequent errors and address them after the activity with the entire class. Fluent speakers of English frequently monitor their own speech to repair errors, misstatements, or slips. We can develop our students' ability to self-monitor as well. Here are some basic techniques for error correction that minimize interference with communication: Using confirming questions, pauses, and gestures With confirming questions, teachers simply restate correctly what the student said, but as a confirmation question. This models the corrected error for the student. With the pausing technique, instead of correcting the error, teachers restate what the student said, but pause at the place the error occurred. As with pausing, teachers restate what the student said, and use gestures to indicate where the error occurred. For example, the teachers could count fingers for each word and stop at the error. Delayed correction Teachers may want to delay addressing errors until after a speaking activity is completed. They can make note of any errors during the activity. If the error is a common one, teachers can use it as an opportunity to PEARSON ©
review the language point with the whole class. Teachers can also write sentences on the board with these errors and then invite students to find and correct the errors. Peer-correction If the student is unable to self-correct, the teacher can use the same techniques to get other students to make the correction. However, students should not feel like they stand out or that you are being critical of them in front of the class. Use this technique only if your class environment is supportive and encouraging of cooperation and communication. Repair strategies One of the first things to interfere with student interaction in the classroom is a breakdown in communication caused by not understanding or not hearing something the other speaker said. Students can be taught basic repair strategies for avoiding these breakdowns and misunderstandings during conversation practice: Everyday classroom expressions Teachers can also teach formulaic expressions that encourage students to use English during everyday classroom interaction. By encouraging students to use these expressions, teachers can begin to get students habituated to interacting in English rather than their native language.
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