Research Methodology and Statistics [PDF]

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Unit II STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS: Research process contains a series of closely related activities which has to carry out by a researcher. Research process requires patients. There is no measure that shows your research is the best. It is an art rather than a science. Following are the main steps in social or business research process. 1. Selection of Research Problem 2. Extensive Literature Survey 3. Making Hypothesis 4. Preparing the Research Design 5. Sampling 6. Data collection 7. Data Analysis 8. Hypothesis Testing 9. Generalization and Interpretation 10. Preparation of Report Selection of Research Problem The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. When we select a title or research statement, then other activities would be easy to perform. So, for the understanding thoroughly the problem it must have to discuss with colleagues, friend, experts and teachers. The research topic or problem should be practical, relatively important, feasible, ethically and politically acceptable. Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey After the selection of research problem, the second step is that of literature mostly connected with the topics. The availability of the literature may bring ease in the research. For this purpose academic journals, conference and govt. reports and library must be studied. Making Hypothesis The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis narrows down the area of a research and keep a researcher on the right path. Preparing the Research Design After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to prepare by the researcher. It may draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of research design may be made, depend on the nature and purpose of the study. Daring R. Design the information about sources, skill, time and finance is taken into consideration. Sampling The researcher must design a sample. It is a plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas or universe. The sample may be of two types: 1. Probability Sampling 2. Non-probability Sampling Data collection Data collection is the most important work, is researcher. The collection of information must be containing on facts which is from the following two types of researcher. Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following. 1. Experiment 2. Questionnaire 3. Observation 4. Interview Secondary data collection: it has the following categories: 1. Review of literature 2. Official and non-official reports

3. Library approach Data Analysis When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis which is the most technical job. Data analysis may be divided into two main categories. Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following. Data editing, Data coding, Data classification, Data tabulation, Data presentation, Data measurement Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-categories. Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions Hypothesis Testing Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or not? To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. Generalization and Interpretation The acceptable hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at the process of generalization or to make & theory. Some types of research has no hypothesis for which researcher depends upon on theory which is known as interpretation. Preparation of Report A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is his work. He must keep in his mind the following points: Report Design in Primary Stages The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the problem and background followed by acknowledgement. There should be a table of contents, grapes and charts. Main Text of the Report It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and methodology of the research. It must be divided into chapters and every chapter explains separate title in which summary of the findings should be enlisted. The last section would be clearly of conclusions to show the main theme of the Rstudy. Closing the Report After the preparation of report, the last step in business research process contains of bibliography, references, appendices, index and maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose the information should more clearer.

Identification of Problem and Problem Formulation Research Problem 1. A research problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer, or a problem that a researcher wants to solve. 2. A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. 3. Identification & Formulation of research problem is a first step in the research process. 4. It is believed that most of the good research studies needs lot of time for selection of a research problem.

Steps in Problem Identification 1. 2. 3. 4.

Statement of the problem in general way Understanding the nature of the problem Surveying the available literature Developing the ideas through discussions

5. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. Statement of the problem in general way Define the problem in general way 1 .Ex: Does negative news interest people more than positive news? Narrow it down by rethinking over the problem. (Consider feasibility of problem) 2.Ex: Does negative news such as robbery, corruption interest people more than positive news like country economic growth? How to define in general way? Study the related subject thoroughly Do preliminary survey or pilot survey Understanding the nature of the problem 1. Best way to understand the problem is through discussion. 2. Discussion with the people who has good knowledge about that problem. Surveying the available literature Survey all the research which are already undertaken in related problem. It helps to : 1. Narrow down the problem 2. To identify research gaps 3. Gives new ideas in related area 4. Helps for research design Developing the Ideas through discussions 1. Discussion always produces useful information. 2. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. 3. Researcher must discuss his/her problem with his/ her colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is known as experience survey. Rephrasing the Research Problem 1. Rephrase the research problem in to operational term. 2. Initial research question: Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India? 3. After, the problem has understood, available literature has taken place and discussion over the problem has taken place, the question has rephrased. 4. Rephrased Research question: What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s manufacturing industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries?

Formulation of a Problem Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic into a scientifically researchable question. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the: 1. WHO 2. WHAT 3. WHERE 4. WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation A problem well defined is a problem half solved Ill defined problem may create hurdles like: 1. What data are to be collected? 2. What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? 3. What relations are to be explored? 4. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? WHY IS A GOOD PROBLEM FORMULATION IMPORTANT?

1. Formulating a Problem formulation is the first and most important step of a research process. 2. The problem formulation is like an identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. 3. The research problem serves as a foundation of a research study; like a building and its foundation. 4. If it is well formulated, you can expect a good study to follow.

Steps in problem formulation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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Developing Title Building a conceptual model Defining the Objective of the study Setting investigative Questions Formulation of Hypotheses Operational definition of Concepts Delimiting the scope of the Study.

Types of Hypothesis First, we must take a moment to define independent and dependent variables. Simply put, an independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect. The independent variable can be changed whereas the dependent variable is what you're watching for change. For example: How does the amount of makeup one applies affect how clear their skin is? Here, the independent variable is the makeup and the dependent variable is the skin. The six most common forms of hypotheses are:       

Simple Hypothesis Complex Hypothesis Empirical Hypothesis Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO") Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1") Logical Hypothesis Statistical Hypothesis

simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the independent variable and the dependent variable. Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity. complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables. Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely than other adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a more regular sense of joy. null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship between the two variables, or there is a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. This is something to attempt to disprove or discredit. There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green tea only or root beer only. This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis. 

My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to root beer only.

Logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally, you want to turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or postulations to the test. 

Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're able to test plant growth in Mars' ground for an extended period of time, the evidence for this claim will be limited and the hypothesis will only remain logical.)

empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is being put to the test, using observation and experiment. It's no longer just an idea or notion. It's actually going through some trial and error, and perhaps changing around those independent variables.

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Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid Vitamin E. (Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)

statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population. 

If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannians, you would want to examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical hypothesis, or a sample of the Savannian population.

Characteristics of good hypothesis Power of Prediction One of the valuable attribute of a good hypothesis is to predict for future. It not only clears the present problematic situation but also predict for the future that what would be happened in the coming time. So, hypothesis is a best guide of research activity due to power of prediction. Closest to observable things A hypothesis must have close contact with observable things. It does not believe on air castles but it is based on observation. Those things and objects which we cannot observe, for that hypothesis cannot be formulated. The verification of a hypothesis is based on observable things. Simplicity A hypothesis should be so dabble to every layman, P.V young says, “A hypothesis wo0uld be simple, if a researcher has more in sight towards the problem”. W-ocean stated that, “A hypothesis should be as sharp as razor’s blade”. So, a good hypothesis must be simple and have no complexity. Clarity A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. It should be clear from ambiguous information’s. The terminology used in it must be clear and acceptable to everyone. Testability A good hypothesis should be tested empirically. It should be stated and formulated after verification and deep observation. Thus testability is the primary feature of a good hypothesis. Relevant to Problem If a hypothesis is relevant to a particular problem, it would be considered as good one. A hypothesis is guidance for the identification and solution of the problem, so it must be accordance to the problem. Specific It should be formulated for a particular and specific problem. It should not include generalization. If generalization exists, then a hypothesis cannot reach to the correct conclusions. Relevant to available Techniques Hypothesis must be relevant to the techniques which is available for testing. A researcher must know about the workable techniques before formulating a hypothesis. Fruitful for new Discoveries It should be able to provide new suggestions and ways of knowledge. It must create new discoveries of knowledge J.S. Mill, one of the eminent researcher says that “Hypothesis is the best source of new knowledge it creates new ways of discoveries”. Consistency & Harmony Internal harmony and consistency is a major characteristic of good hypothesis. It should be out of contradictions and conflicts. There must be a close relationship between variables which one is dependent on other.

Research Design Definition

Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed – this can be done with research design. The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. Hence, the market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design. The design of a research topic is used to explain the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study). There are three main sections of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis. The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. Variables, designated tools to gather information, how will the tools be used to collect and analyze data and other factors are decided in research design on the basis of a research technique is decided. An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least margin of error in experimental research can be touted as the best. The essential elements of research design are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Accurate purpose statement of research design Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for research Method applied for analyzing collected details Type of research methodology Probable objections for research Settings for research study Timeline Measurement of analysis

Features of a Good Research Design The features of good research design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems. A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

the means of obtaining information; the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any; the objective of the problem to be studied; the nature of the problem to be studied; and the availability of time and money for the research work.

Types of Research Design There are different types of research design depend on the nature of the problem and objectives of the study. Following are the four types of research design. 1. Explanatory Research Design 2. Descriptive Research Design 3. Diagnostic Research Design 4. Experimental Research Design Explanatory Research Design In explanatory research design a researcher uses his own imaginations and ideas. It is based on the researcher personal judgment and obtaining information about something. He is looking for the unexplored situation and brings it to the eyes of the people. In this type of research there is no need of hypothesis formulation. Descriptive Research Design In descriptive research design a researcher is interested in describing a particular situation or phenomena under his study. It is a theoretical type of researcher design based on the collection designing and presentation of the collected data. Descriptive research design covers the characteristics of people, materials, Scio-economics characteristics such as their age, education, marital status and income etc. The qualitative nature data is mostly collected like knowledge, attitude, beliefs and opinion of the people. Examples of such designs are the newspaper articles, films, dramas, and documentary etc. Diagnostic Research Design Here researcher wants to know about the root causes of the problem. He describes the factors responsible for the problematic situation. It is a problem solving research design that consists mainly: 1. Emergence of the problem 2. Diagnosis of the problem 3. Solution for the problem and 4. Suggestion for the problem solution Experimental Research Design In this type of research design is often uses in natural science but it is different in social sciences. Human behaviour cannot be measured through test-tubes and microscopes. The social researcher use a method of experiment in that type of research design. One group is subjected to experiment called independent variables while other is considered as control group called dependent variable. The result obtained by the comparison of both the two groups. Both have the cause and effect relationship between each other.

Case study Meaning: The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.

Case study method of Data Collection According to H. Odum, “The case study method of data collection is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other in the group.” Thus, a fairly exhaustive study of a person (as to what he does and has done, what he thinks he does and had done and what he expects to do and says he ought to do) or group is called a life or case history. Burgess has used the words “the social microscope” for the case study method.” Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social

unit be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.” In brief, we can say that case study method is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation of an individual or a situation or an institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every aspect of the concerning unit in minute details and then from case data generalisations and inferences are drawn.

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The important characteristics of the case study method are as under: Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences. In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. As such, case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, under this method we not only study how many crimes a man has done but shall peep into the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man as a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of causal factors. Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning unit is studied directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and thus it enables the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalised social science may get handicapped. Evolution and scope: The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in sociology these days. The credit for introducing this method to the field of social investigation goes to Frederic Le Play who used it as a hand-maiden to statistics in his studies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer was the first to use case material in his comparative study of different cultures. Dr. William Healy resorted to this method in his study of juvenile delinquency, and considered it as a better method over and above the mere use of statistical data. Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems pertaining to their areas of interests. Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to several management problems. In brief, case study method is being used in several disciplines. Not only this, its use is increasing day by day. Assumptions: The case study method is based on several assumptions. The important assumptions may be listed

as follows: The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behaviour may vary according to situations. 2. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned. 3. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned. 1.

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Major phases involved: Major phases involved in case study are as follows: Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated or the unit of attention. Collection of data, examination and history of the given phenomenon. Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment. Application of remedial measures i.e., treatment and therapy (this phase is often characterized as case work). Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.

Advantages: There are several advantages of the case study method that follow from the various characteristics outlined above. Mention may be made here of the important advantages. 1. Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand fully the behaviour pattern of the concerned unit. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “case study deepens our perception and gives us a clearer insight into life…. It gets at behaviour directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.”

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Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal experiences which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing them. Case studies, thus, enable the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer. The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not possible if we use either the observation method or the method of collecting information through schedules. This is the reason why case study method is being frequently used, particularly in social researches. Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the task of constructing the appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough knowledge of the concerning universe. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case study method depending upon the prevalent circumstances. In other words, the use of different methods such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports of individuals, letters, and the like is possible under case study method. Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be studied along with the nature of the universe. This is the reason why at times the case study method is alternatively known as “mode of organising data”. This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit because of its emphasis of historical analysis. Besides, it is also a technique to suggest measures for improvement in the context of the present environment of the concerned social units. Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they represent a real record of personal experiences which very often escape the attention of most of the skilled researchers using other techniques. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his analysing ability and skill. This method makes possible the study of social changes. On account of the minute study of the different facets of a social unit, the researcher can well understand the social change then and now. This also facilitates the drawing of inferences and helps in maintaining the continuity of the research process. In fact, it may be considered the gateway to and at the same time the final destination of abstract knowledge. Case study techniques are indispensable for therapeutic and administrative purposes. They are also of immense value in taking decisions regarding several management problems. Case data are quite useful for diagnosis, therapy and other practical case problems.

Limitations: Important limitations of the case study method may as well be highlighted. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies is often not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his own words, logical concepts and units of scientific classification have to be read into it or out of it by the investigator. Read Bain does not consider the case data as significant scientific data since they do not provide knowledge of the “impersonal, universal, non-ethical, non-practical, repetitive aspects of phenomena.” Real information is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher does enter in the collection of information in a case study. The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are followed in collection of the information and only few units are studied. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed under case study method since one studies the natural history cycles of social units and that too minutely. The case data are often vitiated because the subject, according to Read Bain, may write what he thinks the investigator wants; and the greater the rapport, the more subjective the whole process is. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times, and as such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in case of a big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method. He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer about it. In case the same is not true, then consequences follow. In fact, this is more the fault of the researcher rather than that of the case method.