Pig Production Technology For Piggery Farmers [PDF]

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PIG PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR PIGGERY FARMERS

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National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services Ahmadu Bello University,

Zaria.

Extension Bulletin No. 25 Livestock Series No.1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Since the release of the Pig Bulletin Booklet in 1976, small scale pig production has continued to be popular in the country. The increasing demand for information on improved practices especially with regards to the use officially available feedstuffs has necessitated the production of this edition which was completely rewritten and enlarged. We wish to acknowledge the extensive contributions of Professor T. S.B. Tegbe, leader of the Swine Programme of the National Animal Production Research Institute and the suggestions/contributions of Professors T.F. Balogun and A. O. Aduku of the Department of Animal Science, all of Ahmadu Bello University. Information has also been drawn from the 1995 National Pig Production Workshop held at Ibadan which was attended by many of Nigeria’s leading swine scientists. Their contributions which are contained in the training manual have been pooled to make this bulletin a complete pig production technology package for small scale producers. The cooperation of Dr. M. Umaru, Programme Leader, Livestock and Fisheries Technology Transfer and Mal. 1. O. Yusuf, Progrannne Leader, Publications and Publicity are highly appreciated, without their support, the publication of this bulletin would not have been possible. Ikani I.E. and I.I Dafwang

TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents

Page

INTRODUCTION................................................................. Advantages of Pig Production.............................................

6 6

PIG Production SYSTEMS ............................................... Extensive or Free Range.................................................... Semi Intensive System....................................................... Intensive Production System............................................... Piggery Enterprises............................................ ................

8 8 9 10 12

PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT...................................... Choice of Site...................................................................... Flooring .............................................................................. Walls.................................................................................... Roofing................................................................................ Space Requirement............................................................. Multipurpose Pens............................................................... PigHouse Equipment..........................................................

13 13 14 14 14 15 16 16

BREEDS AND BREEDING ................................................ Breeds ................................................................................ Breeding.............................................................................. Selection of Breeding Stock ............................................... Management of Breeding Boars and Gilts ........................ Purchasing breeding stock.................................................. Artificial Insemination...........................................................

20 20 25 26 28 28 28

PIG MANAGEMENT........................................................... Daily routines....................................................................... Management of pregnant Sows .........................................

30 30 32

2

Farrowing and Care of Newborn Piglets ............................ Weaning.............................................................................. Early Weaning..................................................................... Record Keeping...................................................................

33 36 37 38

FEEDS AND FEEDING....................................................... Nutrients Required by Pigs ................................................ Feedstuffs........................................................................... Ration Formulation.............................................................. Feeds for Different Classes of Pigs.....................................

38 39 41 47 48

HEALTH MANAGEMENT .................................................. Parasites............................................................................. Hog Cholera........................................................................ African Swine Fever............................................................ Swine Influenza................................................................... Transmissible Gastroentivitis ............................................. Enteric Colibacillosis............................................................ Erysipelas............................................................................ Salmonellosis......................................................................

56 56 57 57 58 58 58 58 58

MARKETING ANDPROCESSING...................................... Marketing............................................................................. Kafanchan Pig Market......................................................... Sources of Piglets............................................................... Processing.......................................................................... Transportation .................................................................... Carcass and Meat Quality .................................................. Meat Hygiene......................................................................

60 60 61 62 62 62 63 66

3

APPENDICES.................................................................... Summary of Management Practices .................................. Glossary.............................................................................. An individual Sow Record .................................................. Boar Performance Record Sheet........................................ Herd Performance Record ................................................. Examples of Pig Production Record .................................. Life Time Record for Sow....................................................

4

67 67 69 70 71 72 73 74

INTRODUCTION Pig meat (pork) is a very important source of animal protein in human diets. In fact, the F.A.O. Quarterly bulletin of Statistics, 1989 reported that there is a greater output of meat from pigs (63.9 million metric tonnes/year) than the combined output of meat from cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats (58.9 million metric tonnes/year). Pig rearing is popular in many parts of Nigeria, which has the highest pig population in Africa (Adebambo, 1982). Even in the far North, it has been demonstrated that pigs can be reared successfully as exemplified by the existence of the biggest pig farm in the world in Kano between 1955-1965 (Mckay 1963). In the areas where pigs are reared on tree range, they are most valued as a kind of “savings” to the farmer trom where he can tap in times of cash shortage and emergency needs. Commercial production under semi-intensive conditions is becoming more popular because of its favourable rate of return on investments. Advantages of Pig Production The popularity of pig production is because of the following advantages: 1.

Short generation interval and rapid fecundity as can be seen in table 1.

2.

The pig has 15,000 taste buds as against 9,000 in humans enabling it to eat everything edible to man and other animals including forage. Recent information which indicates that the pig can tolerate a higher level of dieta1yfibre than has been previously recognised has greatly expanded the range of feed resources for pigs. This is particularly important since the high 5

cost and scarcity of grains and concentrates have been major constraints to poultry and pig production in the tropics. 3. Pigs are the most efficient animals for converting kitchen wastes and other non-conventional feedstuffs into meat. 4.

The pig is a more efficient carcass yielder than cattle, sheep or goats, dressing out at about 70% compared to between 5055% for cattle and about 50% for sheep and goats. In addition, pig carcasses have a smaller proportion of bones and higher proportion of edible meat.

5.

Pig carcasses are easier to dress and have superior curing qualities, an obvious advantage for processing and marketing.

6.

Pigs adapt readily to most environmental conditions. They are also very adaptable to intensified or diversified agriculture.

7.

Because the pig. possesses a large cecum, the dropping from pigs is rich in nutrients. Pig faeces make good fertilizer for crops and can also be recycled into livestock feeds.

In view of these obvious advantages, the need to promote pig production cannot be over-emphasized. The purpose of this bulletin is to provide infonnation on management practices that will assist pig producers improve on the productivity of their herds and therefore increase their income as well as making more animal protein available for human consumption in Nigeria.

6

PIG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS The common systems of keeping pigs include the following: 1. Extensive or Free-Range (Scavengers) The tree-range system is the traditional method of rearing pigs in most parts of the world. The system is cheap as it requires little investment. It also requires minimal management. Each family keeps a few (one to three) sows per herd which are allowed to scavenger or wander freely and pick up food when and where they can. Feed costs on range system may be about 20-25% less than with intensive rearing method. No special housing other than for night shelter is required and there is minimum disease control (Fig. 1 ).

Fig. 1: Scavenging Village Pigs 7

Pigs under this system are given supplementary feeds. This makes them have attachment to their owners. Examples of feeds given are kitchen wastes, farm by-products such as cassava peels, brans of cereals,fiuit pulps and maize cobs. This technique of supplementary feeding to pigs makes them come back home daily to the farmer. Local breeds of pigs predominate the free range system because they are more highly adapted. The disadvantages of the system though are numerous, losses are high and productivity is low with the erratic and often seasonal food supplies. This can result in irregular breeding of sows, slow growth rate and high piglet mortality. Breeding is indiscriminate as no particular attention is paid to selection of pigs on desirable traits. They are particularly susceptible to infestation by parasites from various sources. 2. Semi-Intensive In this system, the animals are restricted to a limited area and therefore the farmer takes the whole responsibility of feeding them. Once in ‘- while, the pigs are allowed into the fenced larger yard to graze, wallow and exercise. Housing is mainly of very simple construction and made from simple and inexpensive materials like mud, bamboo and elevated thatched roof (fig 2). The animals are fed on kitchen wastes, food by-products etc, and some level of managerial skills are required. Productivity is better than under the free range and therefore the herd sizes are bigger. Indigenous breeds are still prevalent in this system but crosses between local and exotic breeds are more commonly available. Many small holder pig fanners practice the extensive system during the cby season and the semi-intensive system during the rainy season to prevent damage to crops. In this regard therefore, no fenced yards are provided. 8

The housing provided for night shelter during the dry season is the same as that used during the wet seasons. The semi-intensive system can be recommended for small holders and beginning pig farmers. The fanner can expand herd size and grow into a more intensive management system with experience and a conducive marketing environment. It is also easier to cut down should the prevailing conditions demand a reduction in herd size.

Fig. 2: Local Pig House 3.

Intensive Production System This is the commercial method of pig production under which economic considerations are the sole determinant of herd size. The farmer grows or buys feed especially for his pig enterprise. Housing is generally more expensive with concrete floor, and zinc/asbestos roofing. Adequate shade, pen space, feed and water facilities are provided to meet requirements of the pigs. There is an absolute requirement for skilled management including veterinary protection against parasites and diseases to optimize output Higher performance exotic or crosses between exotic and indigenous breeds are used. 9

Fig. 3: A Well Constructed Pig House. Access to credit facilities are favourable. Cost benefit estimates are often the primary motivating factors for farmers to invest in commercial pig production. These factors also determine the level of herd size and capital intensiveness of the enterprise. Intensive pig production may be small scale (5 sow herd or up to 100 stock/year), medium scale (10 sow herd or up to 200 stock/year) or large scale (greater than 200 stock. year) in most developing countries. A survey of136 commercial pig farms in Nigeria in 1980 showed that 69% were small scale, while only 200fc» were large scale (Ogunfowora et al. 1980). This system of pig farming can be combined with fish farming and vegetable production. Such an operation enhances efficiency of resource use to increase output. Fish ponds can be fertilized with pig manure, generating algal growth which can then be utilized by fish.

10

Pig houses can be constructed above the ponds so that the manure can drop straight into the fish ponds. T1lapia species offish are most commonly used, often mixed with small population of carp and cat fish. Pig manure can be used as organic manure to enrich soil for vegetable gardening. While residues from vegetable products are in turn fed to pigs. 4. Piggery Enterprises Since profit motivation is the major determinant for commercial pig production, it is always better to start on a small scale and then expand as more experience is gained. Essentially, there are four pig production enterprises. a.

Farrow-to-finish operations - The farmer keeps a sow herd and produces his own growers for a finishing operation which he also owns.

b. Farrow only - The farmer keeps a sow herd which produces weaners which he sells to growing and finishing operators. c.

Finishing operation - Farmer buys piglets either as weaners or growers and fatten them for the pork market.

d. Breeding - The production of breeding stock is a very specialized enterprise reserved only for the experienced pig breeders and requires heavy capital investment. The beginning farmer or pig producer who wants to expand must take stock of the market needs of his environment and the level of resources available to him to decide which of these enterprises to invest in as wen as the level of investment. 11

PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT The most productive pigs are likely to be those confined in athermally neutral environment, where the pig neither uses feed energy to keep warm nor reduces feed intake to keep cool. The purpose of housing for pigs is to provide an environment that will enable the pig to grow or breed optimally. Pig housing must therefore aim at: a. Protection from climatic extremes e.g. direct solar adiation, rain, wind. etc. b. Allowing for inherent behaviour patterns of the pigs and minimize over crowding. c. Provision of dry bedding conditions that do not predipose the pig to diseases. d. Allowing accessibility to food and clean water. e. Ensuring easy movement of the stockman. f. Effective disposal of effluent. g. Cost effectiveness in housing construction. Adequate considerations must be given to factors that will check effects of excess heat and humidity. It is important to minimize temperature variations by keeping the pigs cool on hot days and warm on cold nights. Also, the rapid growth of pigs emphasizes the need for a specific environment for each class of pigs for optimum growth and development. The pig producer must have access to expert information on appropriate housing designs and investment costs for pig housing in his environment. 1. Choice of Site The location of a pig unit should ensure that there is free air movement and good natural ventilation. This can be achieved by facing the building north-south, to avoid excessive penetration of sun light into the pens, preventing problems of sun burns, scorching and heat stress. 12

Also, the site should preferably not be too exposed to cold. The buildings should be on a slight slope to allow drainage and disposal of eft1uent. The slope also makes it easier to design a pig-flow with the farrow house at the top of slope and the fattening pens at the lower end. This prevents cross-infection trom effluent between piglets and the adult pigs. Again access road, water sources and space for expansion must be put into consideration. 2. Flooring Hard concrete or similar floors are recommended even in low cost buildings made of local materials. This prevents the pigs from rooting and digging up the ground and also permits cleaning which minimizes the build-up of diseases and parasites. The floor should provide insulation against both cold and damp. Also the nature of the floor surface is important. If the surface is too smooth and slippery the animals fall and can cause injuries. If it is too rough or abrasive, this can result in damage to feet and udders. 3. Walls The walls should be of strong materials to restrain the pig and ensure protection. Suitable materials include mud, wood, bamboo sticks, stones and cement blocks. Provision should be made for suitable flaps, windows and doors which can be opened to allow maximum ventilation during hot periods and closed to contain warmth at colder times. Smooth walls are most ideal. 4. Roofing This is for shade and protection of the pigs from rain, sun, etc. They can be made of traditional materials such as grass, reeds, leaves, straws, thatch etc, which are ideal in the tropics from an insulation view point. 13

They do have the advantage of keeping the house cooler. Unfortunately however, they are very prone to tire hazards, and are of low durability. They can become breeding ground for rats and other pests. Aluminum or corrugated iron sheets can be used but they should be sufficiently high that there is room for plenty of air movement. On an apex roof provide raised bridge or other arrangement to allow for the escape of hot air and air movement. 5. Space Requirement Over-crowding is a common cause of depressed performance and low productivity in pigs. Therefore, this must be considered in pig house design. Weight, number of pigs per group, air temperature, methods of feeding, ventilation and floor design are factors that affect space requirement. About 10-30 animals per group is desirable during weaning to market weight. See space recommendation in tables 2A and 2B.

14

Table 2A: Space requirement for various categories of Pigs. Liveweight

Floor Area per Pig

20-50kg (Growers)

1m2

50-100kg (Finishers)

2m2

Dry sow

2.5m2

Lactating sow and (Finisher)

10m2

Boar

9m2

Source: O. M. Osaro (1995). Generally, a collective pen with dimension of 4m x 5m may house 20 piglets, 10 fattening pigs or sows.

'Table 2B: Space requirement for Pigs in Building with Outside Apron Space per pig Stage of Production Inside Outside Growing-Finishing Pig

O.6m2(6.sq.1\)

O.6m6.sq. 1\)

Sows

1.0m2( 1l.Osq. ft)

1.Om2(1l.0sq. ft)

Boars

3.7m2(40sq.1\)

3.7m2(40sq.1\)

Source: O.O.Tewe and A.O.K. Adesehinwa (1995)

15

6. Multipurpose Pig Pens Although there are advantages in providing separate housing for the different categories of pigs, a multipurpose pig house may be used. They can be cheaper and more flexible. Removable structures such as creep barriers and farrowing rails provide protection for the piglets and make the pens suitable for farrowing. At weaning, these are removed, leaving a fattening pen in which the weaners can be fattened through to slaughter. (Fig. 4).

Fig 4: Plan View of Multipurpose Pen 7. Pig House Equipment a. Farrowing Crates: These are specially made and normally incorporated into the farrowing unit. The sow is restricted in the crate while piglets have access to a small surrounding area equipped with creep feeding facilities and water supply. This ensures both sow comfort and farrowing efficiency (Fig. 5). Farrowing crates prevent sows from laying down quickly and crushing the baby pigs. Creep boxes are also placed close to sows. The crates allow easy handling of sow and piglets while minimizing the risk of injuries . The crates should not be made with rough or sharp edged metals to avoid injuries to the feet and legs of pigs. 16

Figure 5: A farrowing crate b. Farrowing Ran: Guard rails are constructed to about 1.5 1.7m high along sides of the farrowing pen. The rails prevent the sow from crushing the piglets. c. Weaner Cages: The young pigs weaned uom their sows and with a change in their diet may become susceptible to diseases particularly digestive diseases which can result in fairly heavy mortality of weaners. To minimise this problem, weaner cages which are made of covered solid-floor, sleeping, eating and dunging areas can be used. Pigs can huddle and generate enough heat for their comfort inside the covered kennel section of the cage. In hot weather, the pigs keep cold by laying out on the mash floors and are protected from the sun by an umbrella roof over all the cages. Dung and urine fall through the wire mesh or slats, which is easily cleaned. Pigs normally remain in the cages for 3-4 weeks before being transferred to fattening houses (Fig.6). 17

Fig. 6: A Weaner Cage d. Pig Hurdle: This can be constructed from strong medium size wooden posts or light timber of about 1.8m wide. Some hurdles may be as wide as the space between the pens. Such hurdles facilitate movement of pigs through the barn and aid in separating pigs inside the pens (Fig. 7)

18

Fig. 7: Hurdle for Separating Pigs. e. Water Troughs/Feeders: Pigs should have free access to feed and water troughs depending on the size of the operation. They can be incorporated into the building design or constructed specially. They should be easy to clean and should be washed and disinfected at least once a week. This prevents the harbouring of disease-causing agents and thus minimize infections. BREEDS AND BREEDING 1. Breeds There are over 90 recognized breeds and an estimated 230 varieties of pigs in the world. These can be grouped into indigenous and modem exotic types which through selection and breeding, have been developed for conunercial production.

19

Indigenous Breed: The indigenous pigs (fig 8)are usually of modest size with adults reaching 100kg maximum but rarely weigh more than 60kg at one year of age even under the best rearing conditions. In general the indigenous breeds have smaller and shorter legs than exotic types with the typical unimproved conformation of a large head, well developed forequarters and relatively light hind quarters. These render them more mobile and better able to forage and root for themselves. They are sexually early maturing and females may show first oestrus as early as three months of age. The skin is often black, brown or occasionally spotted but rarely white. Generally, they are adapted to traditional rearing systems in which the food consists of diverse vegetable waste products. Indigenous sows show excellent mothering ability, which results in very low piglet mortality without sophisticated housing.

Fig. 8: Indigenous Breed of Pigs. 20

ii. Exotic Breeds: Exotic breeds were first brought in from Europe and constitute the commercial herds being reared under semi-intensive and intensive management systems. The following exotic breeds have been tried and are of significance in Nigeria. a. Large White (Yorkshire): A very popular breed throughout the world. It is fast growing, strong-framed with good body length. It is renowned for its strength of legs. The females are prolific good mothers and adapt well to confinement conditions. The breed is widely distributed in Africa and is used extensively for crossbreeding. For instance, the Large White X Landrace female is the most popular cross for commercial production. The white hair and skin render the carcass more acceptable to consumers than that from the coloured breed. However, shade and wallows are essential for the breeds to prevent skin from sun bums (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Large White Breed

21

B. Danish Landrace: The breed is easily known by its forwardpointing loop ears. It is characterised by a long, smooth body with light shoulders and well developed hams (Fig. 10). The breed is prolific with excellent mothering ability and produces lean, fast-growing progeny. The landrace has a higher level of susceptibility to stress than some other breeds. It is highly favoured for cross breeding purposes.

Fig. 10. Danish Landraee Breed c. Duroc: Identification of this breed is by its deep red or rusty colour. The Duroc is a fast-growing large breed which has been selected specifically for overall muscle and meat production. It has the ability to grow into heavier weights without depositing too much fat. Litter-size and mothering ability are only average in the females (Fig. 11). The breed is well known for its hardiness and resistance to stress with lower levels of mortality. This is an important quality in the choice of breeding stock. In commercial pig production, it is frequently used as a terminal sire on white-breed females.

22

Fig. 11: Duroc Breed D. Hampshire: This is a medium sized black pig with distinct white saddle which encircles the fore-quarter. The sows are prolific, good mothers and possess above average milking ability. They thrive better on extensive conditions than white breeds (Fig. 12). The breed is meaty with well-developed muscles which show efficiency of food conversion and is also popular in cross- breeding programmes.

Fig. 12: Hampshire Breed 23

e. Berkshire: The breed is easily identified by its black coat and characteristic white feet and nose. It is a smaller, early-maturing pig which was first developed in England for the pork trade. In the tropics, it has proved very hardy and cross well with the indigenous stock. However, the Berkshire breed is on the decline on a world wide basis which may be due to its carcass that is relatively fatty. 1. Breeding The pig farmer, no matter how good, cannot do better than the animal’s genetic potential for production. Improvements in productive parameters can thus be achieved only by selection of animals with superior genetic make-up as the parents for the next generation. Since the primary objective of pig fanning is for meat production, the farmer must learn to select those animals that can be manipulated through breeding and management in order to tap that animal’s optimum potential for meat production. For maximum performance, a systematic cross breeding Programme should be followed. The primary advantage of cross breeding is in the use of the cross bred dam which farrows and weans more pigs. On the average, cross-bred pigs gain more weight and are more efficient than pure-breeds. It is not as if there is an optimum number of breeds that a fanner can use in a cross-breeding programme but a practical recommendation is three (Grummer and Giesler 1975). An example of such a cross-breeding programme is given in Fig. 13. It is advisable to select breeds that are somehow dissimilar in their characteristics for such cross-breeding.

24

Figure 13: Typicasl corss breeding programme 3. Selection of Breeding Stock Select the breeding stock when the pigs are sexually mature (i.e. about five months. of age ). Select from the same age group for their fair comparison. Good reliable indicators of the pig’s performance are traits such as growth rate and efficiency of gain. a. Growth Rate: Measured by determining the difference in weight at weaning and weight at maturity divided by the number of days. A good rule of thumb is to weigh the animals at two months and then at five months. The daily gain is the difference in weight divided by 90, the number of days in three months. At five months, the liveweight of a pig should be between 6585kg. The rate of gain should not be less than 600glday. b. Efficiency of Gain: A measure of how much feed was consumed to put on the weight gain. It is usually measured for a

25

group of pigs. Add the total feed consumption of the group that was fed together and divide by the total weight gain of all the group to get the feed efficiency of the group. c. Litter Size: Is important, but it is a low heritable trait. Select breeders from amongst large, healthy and well performing litters. d. Conformation and Sex Characteristics: Pigs selected for breeding must be physically healthy, have good strong legs, be free from any defects and must not be too fat. It is important to note that the genetic influence of the boar on the next generation is greater than that of the sow since one boar will be used to mate several sows. Boars must have two equally sized and firmly suspended testicles, exhibit sex drive and be void of bad habits. Gilts must have a good underline and udder with at least 12 well spaced, fully formed teats. e. Other Selection Criteria: For the small-scale farmer, the above four criteria are adequate but for the large scale farmer and pig breeding or testing stations, other criteria are commonly in use. These include: furrowing rate, number of still born litter, average pig birth weight, pigs weaned per litter furrowed, average weaning weight, loin muscle area, carcass length, back fat depth, fat depth, percent lean, mortality rate at weaning and in growing finishing stage. Table 3 gives performance guidelines for assessing production profile of exotic pigs under intensive management conditions. 4.

Management of Breeding Boars and Gilts Litters selected for breeding should be separated into boars and gilts at five months to prevent indiscriminate mating. In the breeding herd, the boar should be at least 7.5 months of age or about 120kg in weight when first used for breeding. Under pen mating system, a boar should effectively service 10-12 gilts/sows. 26

More females can be served if hand-mating is used. Care should be taken to avoid overworking the boar. Boars are at their best between 15 months to four years of age. The gilt should not be bred before seven months of age. The advantage of an older age is that the number of eggs ovulated increases through the third or fourth estrous period. Furthermore, signs of estrous in young gilts may be less obvious and of shorter duration especially under confinement. The number of gilts per pen should not be more than 15. 5.

Purchasing Breeding Stock In purchasing breeding stock it is important to buy trom a reliable supplier who can give authentic information on the performance traits discussed. On purchase, they should be kept apart for about 30 days to make sure that they are tree from any obvious disease and also to enable them acclimatize to the new environment before put to use. However; care must be taken to keep boars within sight and sound of the female pig! in order to enhance stimulation. He should also be exercised generously. 6. Artificial Insemination (A.I) This involves collection of semen from a boar and then introducing it into a sow or gilt at a later stage by means of catheter. This differs from the natural service where a boar mounts the sow and introduces his semen. a. It allows for wider use and distribution of boars of high genetic merit. Artificial insemination offers several potential advantages to the pig producers and can be used more extensively when producers are experienced. The advantages of artificial insemination are as follows: up to 25 sows. 27

C.

It prevents transmission of diseases from farm to farm by the sale of boars d. It helps to overcome the practical problems of differences in size of males and females. On occasions, this problem can severely limit the use of heavy boars of high genetic caliber. e. It eliminates the need to purchase, house and feed a boar especially on small scale pig farming. f. It reduces the farmer’s risk of handling boars for natural service. Estrous control, heat detection and timing of insemination are very essential for any successful A.I. These allow for precise scheduling of breeding and farrowing. Both natural and artificial methods can be used for lactating sows .Estrous (mating reflex) will occur within 4 to 7 days after the litter is weaned. Thus several litters could be weaned on the same day and the sows bred at the earliest opportunity. To attain good conception rate in gilts/sows, accurate heat detection must be carried out to ensure that the timing of insemination is correct To over come wrong timing in detection of the start of estrous and the natural variations in the time of ovulation two inseminations approximately 12 hours apart are recommended. During the heat period, the following signs may be observed: i. Sows/gilts will allow themselves to be mounted by the boar or other sows. ii. Sow in heat stands rigid when pressure is applied to the region of the loin, i.e. exhibits “standing reflex”. iii, There is swelling and reddening of the vulva.

28

V. Sows become restless and give characteristic ‘grunt’. Recently, devices have been developed which measure the electrical resistance of the vaginal mucosa. As this varies in relation to honnonal levels, it can be used to predict more accurately the timing of ovulation and hence the optimum timing of insemination. This will reduce the likelihood of sows returning to service or producing small litters. There is also the practice of inducing estrous and ovulation by judicious administration of certain hormonal or honnone -like substances. Sows in which estrous is induced during lactation do not show strong signs of heat as do those coming into estrous normally. Therefore, more careful observations for estrous must be made. PIG MANAGEMENT Good stocksmanship is a basic requirement for successful livestock production. The animals must be given adequate care before the farmer can expect his animals to produce to optimum capacity. 1. Daily Routines a. Animal Inspection: Inspect animals early in the morning and watch out for any abnormal behaviour. Observe their general stage of health, check for parasites and injuries. Inspect at other times for same parameters.

29

30

be given in quantities that pigs can consume within 20 - 30 minutes. Left-over feed tends to get sour and become a breeding ground for parasites. Watch out for any abnormal feeding habits. In order to avoid competition for feed between piglets and dam, provide a creep where the pigs can feed without being disturbed by the dam.

f

c.

Cleaning: After watering and feeding, clean up the pens. Remove moist bedding and replace with a dry one. Wood shavings can be used for young animals and sawdust for older ones. If a pen is vacated it should be washed, disinfected and allowed to rest for at least one to two weeks before other animals can be brought in.

d.

Wallows: Strongly recommended for replacement gilts, boars and sows. The wallowing facility should be refilled with fresh water frequently, wallows and shades help to cool the pigs and therefore important in the tropics.

e.

Exercise: Provide areas for daily exercise. A fenced lot with either grass or sand will serve. Daily exercise is good for breeding stock and prevents lameness. Fat animals are poor breeders. Animal Grouping: For effective management, group young pigs together by age, gilts and boars separately.

2. Management of Pregnant Sows: Once the gilt/sow has been successfully served, conception will occur. The . gestation period is 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days).

31

All sows should be checked periodically to detect any one that has returned to estrous so that they can be served again. The sows should be kept in small groups to ensure that they all have access to adequate feed. The feeds should be well fortified in order to meet the needs of both the dam and foetuses. Feeding of green leaves and vegetable is particularly important. Heat stress has been recognised to be a major source of embryo losses especially during early pregnancy. It is therefore important that pregnant sows should be shielded from extremes of heat especially during the hottest months of the year through the provision of shades and wallows. 3.

Farrowing and care of new born Piglets The pregnant animals should be dewormed 2-3 weeks prior to farrowing to reduce the possibility of the dam passing worms to the new born piglets. Also the sow should be in the farrowing unit 4 to 5 days prior to expected farrowing time to allow for adjustment to the environment. Constipation in the sow must be avoided at all cost as this interferes with farrowing process. Supplements of bran and green stuff during the last week of pregnancy are recommended. When the pregnant sow is about to farrow, the signs to watch for are: increased restlessness as opposed to the peaceful animal of late pregnancy and making of nest by arranging her bedding. Management is especially critical since most baby-pig losses occur during the first 72 hours after birth. It is recommended that for sows farrowing under confinement conditions, each farrowing should be supervised by a trained stocksman, in case of any farrowing problem such as delayed farrowing and still-births. With special care and attention to dam and her litter, up to 7()”95% survival of piglets to 8 weeks of age can be realized.

32

Many losses of newborn piglets are caused by stress due to chilling. The stockman must be ready to prevent this by providing extra source of heat. Also, piglets must be encouraged to obtain their first successful .suckle of colostrum within 45 minutes after birth. Colostrum is the most important food a piglet takes in during the first few hours ofits life, because it is a source of both essential energy and antibodies. Failure to obtain colostrum will invariably result in susceptibility to diseases and death of the newborn baby pig. Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable system (Fig 14). It is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this reduces the possibility of navel infections colostrum will invariably result in susceptibility to diseases and death of the newborn baby pig. Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable system (Fig 14). It is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this reduces the possibility of navel infections .

Fig. 14: Ear Notching System. Since sow milk (Fig 15) is very low in iron, oral or injectable iron preparations are administered to the piglets in confinement to reduce the development of iron deficiency anemia. In the absence of iron preparation.1 a shovel of red (iron rich) soil thrown into the pen has been known to source of iron for piglets under Nigerian conditions, but this may not adequate for optimum growth. Injections are made prior to 5 days of age, while oral preparations to the piglets are usually given continuously in soluble form. Male piglets not retained for big should be castrated after one month of age. The piglets can gradually be introduced to creep feed after two weeks.

Fig. I5 Dam Suckling Piglets 4. Weaning: Weaning is the practice of separating the young pigs from their mother. It usually exerts stress on the young. Weaning is normally accomplished when pigs are from 6-9 weeks of age, when they should be capable of subsisting on solid feeds and fending forthemse1ves. Body weight and health condition are better criteria than age per se. Exotic breeds should be weaned at weights of 5-6kg. It must be emphasised that superior management, rigid environment control and continuous attention to minute details are essential for success in this phase of growth. Other changes should be gradually effected at weaning. Do not abruptly change the ration, but for a few days, continue feeding creep feed mixed with weaner ration and then finally eliminate the creep feed completely at about two weeks after weaning.

5. Early Weaning Recent developments in the commercial industry are in favour of early weaning at about 4 weeks. The advantages are: a. Losses in piglets due to overlying and starving are significantly reduced. b. Pigs can be adequately fed, and lack of uniformity in a litter can be overcome. c. Cost in sow feed can be slashed. d. The sow looses less weight during nursing. e. The dam can be rebred sooner to produce more litters. f. Better producing sows can be retained for longer period. g. Early weaning allows for streamlining of the production and market supply; both weaners and market hogs can be sold. A very high level of management is required for early weaning and therefore it is not in general practice. However, a technique of ‘split’ weaning can be beneficial, whereby the large piglets are weaned first and the small ones are left with the dam and weaned later. 6. Weaners and Growers The 3 week period immediately after weaning is a critical one for the young pigs because a number of stresses may be encountered. After pigs have overcome the stress of weaning and are feeding properly, deworm them for the first time. Group the pigs according to age and size. Large litters should be grouped together. This provides an opportunity to record their feed consumption up to the time of selection (at 5 months of age) and enhances the determination of feed efficiency. Sick pigs should be separated for treatment. If there is need, some weaner pigs can be sold at two months of age. Others (not for sale) can be raised on self-fed rations until the finishing stage. At the age of five months, the live weight of a fully grown pig should be 6480kg.

This means the pig is expected to gain 0.55 to O.68kg per day over a period of three months. By then a healthy pig should be sexually matured. Separate gilts and boars because the boars usually start ranting. This is the time to select which pigs should be kept as replacements in the breeding herd and which should be finished for market. 7.

Record Keeping The keeping of accurate records is absolutely essential for the success of any pig enterprise. It gives a clear picture of the type of operations, so that the exact degree of success can be measured. Therefore, a good record of the number of pigs in herd, feed consumption, mortality, medication’ and sales, should be kept. Also on reproduction, details of boar performance, sow productivity, weaners growth and grower/finisher efficiency should be recorded. Examples of pig records are given in Appendices 3,4 and 5. FEEDS AND FEEDING Feed accounts for 55-85% of the cost of commercial pig production depending on the level of intensification of the production system. Feed is therefore the major operational cost item in a pig enterprise. Pigs require feed to meet biological needs for maintenance, growth and reproduction. The feed supplies nutrients which are extracted through the digestive system of the pig and converted into the metabolites (products) that are used to meet these biological needs. There are six classes of nutrients required by the pig: Water, energy, protein, vitamins, minerals and lipids. These nutrients can be supplied by a wide variety of feedstuffs. Feeding pigs for optimum production requires that feedstuffs be combined in proportionate amounts that will provide the quantities of nutrients needed by the animals. The feed so pre Fats contain 2.25 times the energy of carbohydrates but

pared must be given to the pig in the right quantity and quality. The cost factor must also be used to determine the choice o feedstuffs that supply them and how rations can be formulated for the different classes of pigs. 1. a.

b.

c.

Nutrients Required by Pigs Water: Next to air, water is the most essential nutrient for life. It should be supplied clean and daily. Most feeds and feedingstuffs especially green leaves, contain appreciable quantities of water. Sixty-five percent of the pigs body is water. Water is of particular importance to pig production in the tropics as the pig requires water to enable it maintain body temperature. Lack of water quickly leads to a rise in body temperature and death. Also suboptimal amount of water will have a major effect on food intake and pig performance Energy: Can be defined as the capacity to do work. It provides the driving force for all the biochemical reactions that go on in the body. The energy requirement of the pig is usually given in terms of Digestible Energy or Metabolisable Energy. Energy is measured in Kilo calories (Kcal) or Megajoule (Mj). The bulk of energy in pig rations in supplied by carbohydrates which are the major components of cereal grains such as maize, guinea com, millet and root crops such as yams, cassava and potato. Fats contain higher levels of energy than carbohydrates. Fats commonly used in pig rations include palm oil, groundnut oil, soyabean oil and tallow. Lipids: Although fats are used primarily as energy sources, it has been known that the pig has a requirement for one essential fatty acid; linolenic acid. However, the requirement is so small that it can be met in normal! rations formulated to meet required energy standards are generally more expensive.

d.

f

Protein: Provides the primary blocks for building the animal’s body, i.e meat, collagen, hair and nails. Protein is usually broken down into amino acids by the body and these are the actual building blocks. Out of the twenty known amino acids, ten are described as essential because the pig’s body cannot synthesize them internally and therefore they must be supplied in the diet. Of these, Lysine and Methionine have been found to be the most limiting in practical rations. The synthetic products are available commercially and can be added in pig rations directly to overcome any deficiencies. Because protein sources are expensive, they are often the most limiting in commercial feeds. The most commonly used protein containing feedstuf1S in Nigeria are: Groundnut cake, soyabean (full fat), soyabean meat, cottonseed cake, palm kernel meal and blood meal. e. Minerals: These are the nutrients found in bones. They also perform extremely diverse functions in the body ranging from structural formations to regulatory functions inmost body tissues. There are 13 essential inorganic elements known to be required by the pig. The minerals that must be provided for in practical pig rations in sizeable quantities are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and chlorine. Iron is very important to the piglet. So much so that it has to be injected directly, even if the piglet does have access to iron in the soil. Bonemeal, oyster shell and limestone are the most common sources of Calcium and Phosphorus in pig rations. Vitamins: These are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal growth, reproduction and health maintenance. Vitamins A,D, E and K are fat soluble while the B vitamins are water soluble. Common sources of Vitamins for swine include green leaves and vegetables.

2.

Nutrient Requirements The nutrient requirement for exotic breeds reared under Nigerian conditions are given in Tables 4, 4A, 4B and 4C. 3. Feedstuffs Most natural feedstuffs contain more than one nutrient. A knowledge of feedstuffs locally available to the farmer or pig feed producer is therefore most useful. Because it is very important to cut down on cost of feeds, there is constant search for cheaper sources of alternative’ feedstuffs to the conventional ingredients. Table SA gives a list of ingredients and their nutrient composition while Table SB gives the list of some local feedstuffs that have been extensively researched with limitations on their uses. It is important to recognise that growth rate on feed made from low quality feedstuffs is often less than that obtained on feeds formulate from conventional ingredients as shown in Fig. 16. The farmer must carefully consider the economic benefits of using one feedstuff or the other before using them.

Fig. 16: Good quality feed makes the difference

Table 4: Feed Requirement for Pigs in a Tropical Environment Age

Daily Feed

Weight Gain

Total Feed

Total Gain

Required

(Kg/head)

(Kg/head)

(Kg/head)

(Kg/head) 1-8 weeks (creep)

1.5

0.3

24.5

14.7

8-16 weeks (Growers)

1.5

0.5

84.0

28.0

16-24 weeks (Finishers

2.5

0.7

248.5

81.9

Source. O.A. Adebambo (1995)

4. i. ii. iii

Ration Formulation To formulate a ration, the farmer needs: The nutrient requirement of the animal; The nutrient composition of the feedstuffs available. A calculator

For pigs kept under extensive production system, the farmer may wish to give only some kind of concentrate supplement e.g. groundnut cake. If however, he has access to a crop like soyabean cheaply, he may wish to mix a ration using soyabean with a cereal by-product such as rice offal. How can such a farmer prepare a 15% protein ration from roasted/boiled soyabean and rice offal? The first thing is to find out: i. The requirement for the nutrient which in this case is 15% ii.The nutrient composition of the ingredient which is 40% protein for soyabean, 5% protein for rice offal. iii. Let’s assume that the quantity of feeds to be mixed is 100kg. The calculation of the proportion of soyabeans and rice offal that will be mixed to give 100kg of 15% protein ration can be done by: a. Algebraic Method:- Which is as follows: Let Soyabean (SB) be ingredient A and Rice Offal (RO)B. Step 1: We can write this statement (or equation) as: (A x 40%) + (B x 5%) = 15Kg of protein. Step 2: Multiply out to give equation 2 (OAA) + (0.05B) =15kg of protein

Step 3: Since the quantity offeed to be mixed = 100kg, it is true that A+ B = 100kg (equation 3). Step 4: Now we have to solve for A and B. This can be done by eliminating either A or B trom equation 2 and 3. In order to do this, multiply equation 3 by a figure from equation 2, (e.g.OA.) OAA + OAB = (100 x 0.4) = 40 (equation 4). Step 5: Now subtract equation 2 from 4 (OAA + OAB = 40) -(OAA + 0.058 = 15) Answer =0 + 0.35B = 25 Step 6: Now calculate the value ofB since 0.35B = 0.25 (Le. from step 5). Therefore B = ~

=

7l.4kg 0.35

Step 7: Since B (Le. Rice Offal) = 7104, the proportion of ingredient A (i.e. Soyabean) in the 100kg feed is 100 - 71.4 = 28.6kg. Conclusion: Mix 29kg of roasted soyabean (after crushing) and 71kg of rice offal to get 100kg of 15% protein ration. b. Pearson square: A second method of doing the same calculation is to use the Pearson Square.

Step 1 - Draw a square Step 2 - Place the nutrient content of the diet required in the middle of the square. Step 3 - Place the nutrient content of the two ingredients on the let hand side of the square. Step 4 - Subtract the figures diagonally and put the difference at the comers on the right hand side of the square. Step 5 - Add the differences vertically to get a total Step 6 - Use the value horizontally opposite each ingredient to calculate the proportion of that ingredient to be incorporated in the ration. For the above example, the square is as follows: 88.40

RO.OS

0.10

0.25 Total=0.35

QuantIty of Soyabean = 0.10 x 100 = 28.6kg. 0.35 Quantity of Rice offal= 0.25 x 100 = 71.4kg 0.35

The Algebraic and Pearson Square methods are most useful when only two ingredients are involved. They are most conunonly used for: 1. Preparation of supplementary feeds 2. Combining two ingredients that are to be added to a third ingredient in the preparation of a supplement 3. Combining concentrates with home grown grains and by products. Many feed companies do sell concentrates that a fanner can mix with locally available grains and by-products to produce a complete feed. If these are available cheaply, it can save the fanner feed costs significantly. The formulation of a complete diet from several ingredients that contain all the nutrients in the right proportions is a complex procedure (Table 6). Any farmer who wishes to do so should consult an animal nutritionist for expert advice and assistance. In general, the approximate proportions of feed ingredients to meet pig nutrient requirement, based on conventional diets (rations) are known to be: Energy Sources ......................................65-75% Protein Sources.......................................20-25% CalciumlPhosphorus ..............................2-3% MineralMtamin plus salt............ ..............1.5-2%

Table 6: Some Ration Formulations from Feedstoffs for Pigs

5.

Feeds for Different Classes of Pigs As earlier stated, the nutrient requirement of the pig depends on such factors as age, sex, productive status and environmental conditions. A discussion of the specific feeding needs of different classes of pigs is necessary. Table 4 gives a guide on feed requirements for different classes of pigs based on local experiences in Nigeria. i. Creep Ration When the piglets are between 7-10 days old, provide them with creep feed from a separate trough to which the dam has no access. Feed them in very small amounts, fresh “little and often” at first for the piglets to be accustomed, then it can be increased according to appetite. This should continue till the young pigs are at weaning age of 6-9 weeks. Creep ration though expensive, is necessary for a good start and should be supplied freely to piglets. An allowance ofO.2kg per animal per day is considered adequate. Creep feed supplements the declining milk yield of the sow as her lactation advances. The ration should contain a crude protein level of about 24% and metabolizable energy (ME) of 3,1 OOKcal/kg. The quality of protein is of prime importance, for instance the essential amino acids like lysine, methionine, cystine, etc must be adequately available. ii. Weaner Ration This ration should be gradually introduced before the pigs are completely weaned at the age of 5 - 8 weeks. The practice allows for smoother transition. The pigs should have free access to the ration at all times. The protein content of the weaner ration is slightly lower than that of creep ration (18-22%) with metabolizable energy at 3,OOOKcalI kg. The fibre content should be higher than that of creep rations. An allowance of 1.Okg per animal per day is adequate if fed quality feed.

Weaners should be on this ration till the liveweight of about 34. Okg 45kg when they should be gradually introduced to grower ration. iii. Growing Finishing Pig Rations By the time the growing pig is over with the stress of weaning, its digestive system will be competent to deal with a wider range of protein and energy feed sources. About 800./0 of feed used in a pig unit is consumed by the growing and finishing pigs, therefore the efficiency of feed utilization during this phase is a crucial factor affecting profitability. The grower/finisher ration should have a higher fibre content than creep and weaners’ rations. The crude protein content should be lowered to 16-18% while the energy should be about 3,OOOKcaJ/kg. Palatability of feeds should be maintained and liberal feeding is still recommended since the pigs must grow actively and put on muscle. An allowance of2. D-2.5kg offeed per animal per day is adequate. On commercial farms, the main categories of slaughter pigs are: · Porken: which are slaughtered at live weights of up to 65kg · Baconen: which are slaughtered at live weights of 70-90kg · Heavy bogs: which are slaughtered at 9O-140kg live weight. IV. The Fatteners Ration At about 57kg live weight, pigs have deposited much of their muscle tissues and are beginning to deposit fat. However, excessive fat is not desirable in the carcass. Rations fed at this time should be d~ signed to avoid putting on excessive fat, but must not restrict growth. Such ration is made up of 15-16% crude protein and is usually high in fibre, while the energy require ment of3,000Kcal/kg is adequate. The ration should be less expensive than the ones above. Feeding allowance of2.0-2.5g per animal per day is recommended. Fattening is best achieved under total confinement.

V. Breeden Ration Breeder ration is usually prepared to meet the requirement of the breeding stock. Good litter size and healthy newborn piglets start with the correct feeding of the sow at breeding time. Like the boar, she should be in thrifty condition, neither thin nor fat when bred. This helps the sow to conceive larger number of piglets when bred. Over fatness impairs the reproductive capacity of sows and reduces sexual drive in boars. Crude protein level should be between 15-16% and should be high in fibre. vi. Flushing This is the practice of increasing the level of feed about one week before mating in order to stimulate an increase in number of ova shed in sows. This ration should have a higher energy. However, once bred, the pregnant sow should be returned to the normal ration so as to gain weight steadily through pregnancy. Feed the breeding stock an amount of feed equal to 1.5-2% of the body weight. This means a 150 kg sow should receive between 2.25-3kg of feed daily. The energy intake of breeding stock can be reduced either by diluting the ration with fibrous-low energy stuffs (e.g. rice bran, cassava peels, pulps) or by feeding smaller amounts. Feeding diluted feeds is preferred because it satisfies the appetite. Breeder ration should be well fortified with vitamins and minerals as deficiencies can cause reproductive failures. The breeding stock should also have access to plenty of green leaf herbage-grass and legumes. Sows on pasture also get good exercise which is vital for their health and easy farrowing. Silage can also be a good source of vitamins, minerals and unidentified growth and reproductive factors.

After each farrowing (at least 2 days) sows should be fed 1kg of rice bran to prevent constipation. The sow can be given less fibrous and more digestive lactation rations a week after farrowing. Rushing the sow back into full feed after farrowing is a major cause of low milk yield 6. Methods of Feeding Pigs Age and productive function of the animal dictate methods that are available. Examples are as follows: a. Full Feeding: For maximum daily gain, it is usually necessary to allow the pig access to feed at all times. Many different designs of feeders can be used, but to minimize feed wastage, constant attention to feeder adjustment is required. One feeder should be provided for 4—6 pigs. b. On-Floor Feeding: This is suited particularly to controlled feeding of finishing swine or the breeding herd. Feeding of pigs in their sleeping are~ on solid floors encourages cleanness, since pigs are less inclined to dung in their eating and sleeping areas. c. Internal Feeding: Allowing breeding animals, especially during gestation. access to a self-feeder every third day is a labour saving technique. The number of times the animals should have access to a feeder will depend on the condition and gain of the animals. Regularity of schedule is important to prevent undue concern and condition of animals. d. Liquid Feeding: This usually involves mixing predetermined amounts of feed and water prior to or at the time of feeding This method can eliminate feed dust in the feeding area and minimize wastage.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT A disease outbreak in a piggery can have disastrous consequences The management practices already described, if carefully followed, will minimize the occurrence of diseases. That prevention is better than cure is very relevant in the pig industry. A clean, sanitary environment provides the best prevention for internal and external parasite which can be serious problems. Confinement prevents pigs from contaminated fields and dirty lots. Antihelmintics and other drugs, when properly used, aid in elimination of parasites. Antibiotics also protect pigs against disease proliferations and reduce disease outbreaks. They can also promote growth in pigs when given at recommended levels. For diseases that can be prevented through vaccination, a Veterinarian should be contacted to provide such services routinely. A basic knowledge of the main diseases which may affect a pig herd is necessary so that a producer can diagnose the condition and implement control measures as quickly, as possible. Some of the common parasites and diseases that affect pigs are highlighted below: 1. Parasites: These are organisms which live on and obtain food from the body of another, known as the host. They can live on the body ( external parasites) or within the internal tissues and organs (internal parasites) of the animals. External parasites mainly cause irritation to the skin surface, often leading to wounds and increased susceptibility to other infections. Some of the common external parasites are flies, ticks, lice, mangemites, etc. The internal parasites are more common to pigs on free-range.. An example is the round worm (Ascaris Lumbricoides) which causes lots of damage to pig herds. The round worm can grow up to 300mm long and 6mm thick in the small intestine. Heavy infestation leads to inherit in piglets, weakness and loss of weight.

The other harmful worms include tapeworms, e.g. Taenia So/ium, which has the pig as its intermediate host, while the adult wonn lives in man. Pigs become infected by picking up eggs from human faeces and the larvae then encyst in the pig’s muscle. To prevent worm infestation in pig herds, avoid contaminated water and feeds. Clean and remove faeces always, deworm with broad spectrum antihelminthics as recommended by your Veterinarian. 2. Hog Cholera: This is a highly contagious and acute viral disease of pigs and is frequently fatal. The spread is by animal contact, contaminated urine and faeces or other body secretions. Symptoms: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.

Loss of appetite in affected animals. Inflammation of the eyes. High body temperature. Severe diarrhea. Discharge in the eye causing eyelids to stick together. Trembling and incoordination. Death often results after 7-8 days.

Control: There is no effective treatment except vaccination progranune to be instituted if there is danger of hog cholera infection. Avoid contact with infected animals. 3. African Swine Fever: This is also a very contagious viral disease which in acute fonn can cause up to 100% mortality. Symptoms: i. Pigs are found huddling together. ii. Loss of appetite.

iii. iv.

Small purplish blotches found on the skin. Incoordination and laboured breathing. Hemorrhages at the trotters which can lead to lameness. The disease is spread by bush pigs and warthog which are carriers of the virus though are themselves immune to the disease. Infection occurs by contact with other sick pigs or through contaminated food or water. This disease almost wiped out pigs in Nigeria between 1996 - 2000. Control: Infected pigs should be destroys and properly disposed off. There is no effective vaccine as at now. 4. Swine Influenza: It is a respiratory disease that is highly contagious, caused by the influenza virus. Stress due to rapid changes in temperature triggers off the disease. Mortality is normally low but it is of great economic importance due to stunting and reduced live weight gains. Symptoms: Jerky breathing, cough, high temperature, loss of appetite and rough hair coat appearance. Secondary infection with bacteria complicates the condition. Control: No treatment or preventive vaccine available, but good farm management and avoidance of stress can limit outbreak. 5. Transmissible Gastroenteritis (TGE): This viral disease is characterised by acute diarrhoea., vomiting and early death in young piglets. The disease can also affect older pigs but rarely results in death. Control: There is no known effective treatment, but infected pigs can be isolated or killed and buried. The herd is normally immuned after infection. 6. Enteric Colibacillosis: This is the most common cause of death in baby pigs, especially within the first ten days. The bacterium Enteric Colibacilosis (E. Coli) commonly found in the intestinal tract causes the disease.

Toxins are produced which stimulated a massive fluid loss into the small intestine leading to scours and dehydration. Symptoms: i. Scouring. ii. Dehydration. iii. High mortality rate. iv. Staggering movement. Control: i. Avoid stressful condition. ii. Give oral administration of antibiotic immediately. iii. Ensure good farm management. iv. Proper feeding of balanced ration. v. Piglets must be given colostrum. 7. Salmonellosis: It is a disease of the intestinal tract caused by salmonella Spp. of bacteria. Pigs of about two months are most affected. Heavy worm infection triggers it off. Symptoms: i. Foul smelling diarrhoea. ii. Pigs become gaunt. iii. High temperature in affected pigs. iv. Some deaths usually occur in a group of infected pigs. Control: i Ensure good management. ii. Practice high level of sanitation. iii. Feeding of antibiotics and sulpha drugs. 8. Erysipelas: This is caused by a bacterium agent which lives in the soil. Pigs can pick up the agent from soil or by animal contact and even humans. In the acute form, sudden death is common.

Symptoms: i. Sick pigs show marked constipation. ii. High temperature (41-420C). iii. Reddish - purplish discoloration of the earst abdomen and legs. iv. Chronic stage leads to arthritis swollen joints, stiffness and heart damage. Control: Routine vaccination programme is recommended and once the disease is diagnosed treat immediately with antibiotics. MARKETING AND PROCESSING 1. Marketing: The ability to market pigs at the right time is a major determining factor to the success of commercial pig production. A recent international conference on pig production in Nigeria identified marketing as the number one constraint to increased commercial pig production. It is true that the small holder who owns less than ten pigs and sells only one occasionally does not have a marketing problem but once you have to sell many animals at a time marketing considerations must be paramount. The bulk of pigs in the tropics are marketed live. There are basically, four market outlets as listed below: a. Private Sales: These involve selling of one or more pigs to localconsumers, other pig producers, butchers or middlemen. The pig~ are sold live and prices are normally subject to bargaining. This method is most common among rural small-scale producers. It has the advantage of being the simplest. To ensure adequate prices for pig farmers, marketing cooperatives are recommended.

b. Public Sales: In these methods, pigs are taken to a central p l a c e , where they are sold by auction on live basis to the highest bidder. c. Direct Sales to Butcher: Here, the pigs are sold to the butcher directly by the producer without middle men. The method is more applicable to the large scale producers. Fluctuations in prices can be serious problem in this system of pig marketing. d. Contract Sales: Under this system, contract is entered into with an abattoir to supply a certain number of pigs over a period of time at a set price. This condition allows the producer to plan his production strategy over a fairly long period of time. Fluctuation in input prices however, can be a problem in this system. 2. Kafanchan Pig Market The Kafanchan pig market is the largest of its kind in Nigeria. The market is located in Aduwan and Katsit on the outskirt of Kafanchan town. The position of the market is centrally located to serve the surrounding towns of Kwoi, Manchok, Kagoro, Zonkwa, Kachia, etc. in the southern part of Kaduna State. This region is known for its high pig production in Nigeria. The pig market holds every Thursday of the week, starting from as early as 6.30 a.m. till sun set. Pigs are usually transported a day before the market day. Transportation of pigs could either be by trekking with the pigs roped and carried along or by vehicle where and when available. Pig owners ensure that transportation of their animals is done late in the evening or early hours of the day to avoid heat stress. Pig selling is the sole business of the market except for food items to meet the needs of traders. Purchase of pig or pigs is done by bargain pricing. The highest bidder buys the pig. Traders to this market come from as far as the Eastern and Southern parts of Nigeria.

3. Sources of Piglets: For purchase of piglets, the farmer stands at an advantage if he buys from accredited farms such as University Farms, colleges of Agriculture, Animal Research institutes or other private pig producers. If this is not possible, piglets then can be bought from open markets like the one in Kafanchan. 4. Processing: The ability of the pig industry to market large quantities of pork is a necessary condition for the commercial growth of the industry. Processing outfits are capable of buying many animals at a time, process them into different products and distribute these products to any part of the world. Furthermore, processing makes it possible to harness all the by-products and convert to other uses as: * Brisdes - for use in shaving and paint brushes. * Intestines - for use as sausage casings. * Blood - can be processed into human food or animal feed. * Slaughter house by-products - processed into animal feed. * Hoofs-used for gelatin and glue products. All these are usually wasted under the prevailing pig marketing and slaughtering conditions in the tropics. 5. Transportation: Care must be taken while transporting pigs to the market or slaughter house. Excessive stress on the pig can lead to mortality in transit. a. Pigs to be transported should not be fed 12 hours before loading b. Provide a loading ram if many pigs are to be transported at once to the market. The loading ram should be properly designed to be at the same height with the cart, truck or trailer.

c. Handle pigs with uttermost care d. Spray with cold water before loading, if possible. e. L o a d a n d travel early in the morning for short journeys or in the evening for all night journeys. This is to ensure that journeys are made during the cooler parts of the day. f. The truck to be used should be covered but with provision for adequate ventilation and bedding on the floor. g. Avoid mixing pigs of different sizes, ages and herds. Similar considerations should also apply at the lairage (i.e. where pigs are held prior to slaughter). The pigs should be handled and driven with care. 6. Slaughtering: The standard slaughtering procedure involves: i. Stunning - Mechanical with a captive bolt pistol or electrical which involves passing a 1.25 amps current and 300-600 volts for one second through the brain of the animal. ii. Bleeding - The stunned animal is hanged on its hind leg on a hoist. The neck is cut in such a way as to severe all veins. Blood can then be collected in a clean vessel. iii. Scalding -Immerse in hot water at 65-75 Degree Centigrade. Once the hair is loosened, it is cramped with a knife. Excess hair is singed off with a flame. iv. Evisceration - To remove the gut, a long cut is made down the belly of the animal. The entire length of the gut should be removed intact to avoid contaminating the rest of the carcass. The gut is eviscerated away from the carcass. 7. Carcass and Meat Quality: The commercial pork industry has standards for carcasses which may vary from country to country. However, the basic criteria involve the following considerations:

i

Conformation - This refers to the shape of the carcass. It is desirable to have a carcass that is well developed in the more valuable meat areas such as the ham and loins. ii. Lean Content - The amount of lean meat is a very Im portant quality factor. iii Fattiness - Too much fat in pork is generally not valued. Fat thickness can be measured even in the live pig and is one of the criteria often used in selecting animals for breeding. iv. Colour and Texture - very pale watery meat is undesirable. This can occur and is associated with a condition known as pale soft exudate (PSE) which can result ftom a genetic cause or poor pre-slaughter handling. v. Flavour and Odour-Otf-flavour and odours can arise from feeding high fishmeal diets or rancid fats. Boar taint can also occur in the meat of entire males. 8. Pig Meat Products: The wholesale parts of a carcass are shown in figure 17. In most tropical countries, all the parts are valuable meat, including the head and trotters. However, the more meaty portions usually fetch higher prices e.g. the leg and the chump chop. The meat can be further processed into the following products: i. Cured - These constitute the bacons and hams which are cured in brine. Further flavouring is enhanced by smoking. These processes increase the shelf-life of the product and therefore should be promoted in the tropics where refrigeration facilities are often non-existent.in rural areas.

ii.

Sausages and Pies - These are derived mainly from trimming and offal that are left after cutting up whole parts.

iii.

Pig Skin - Can be processed into leather or surgical strings.

Fig. 17 Pig carcass showing wholesale parts.

9. Meat Hygiene: It is important that slaughtering facilities maintain high sanitary conditions because the products of slaughtered animals provide an ideal breeding ground for bacteria. The carcass should be chilled immediately after slaughter. Refrigeration trucks in good working conditions should be used in transporting meat over long distances. It is necessary to provide for meat inspection in slaughter houses in order to ensure that only healthy meat is approved for sale to the public. Meat slaughtered on the farm should also be wholesome and measures taken that no disease is circulated from the dead to the living.

Appendices. Appendix 1: Summary of Management Practices. During Pregnancy: * Control energy intake, but feed adequate protein. * De-worm pigs and allow good exercise. * Pasture with shelter preferred over total confinement. Breeding Pigs: * Purchase breeding pigs trom accredited farms. * Use pigs selected for good genetic potentials. * Do not use injured animals or those with deformities. * Keep pigs cool in warm weather and provide dry place to sleep at night. * Boars can be used for service trom eight months of age. * Carry out routine de-worming. * Sows and gilts should have normal teats of 12 or more. * Select gilts based on mother’s performance. * Treat pigs for external parasites and isolate sick ones* Mate sows or gilts at least twice (24hrs. apart) at breeding time.

Farrowing Time: *Prepare farrowing house in advance, clean and disinfect at least 7 days before gilts are moved in. *Allow rest period between farrowing. *Keep farrowing unit warm. Keep farrowing unit draft-tree i.e. no air intakes allowing draft directly on pigs. *Do not feed on the farrowing day. Wash and spray gilts or sows with disinfectant prior to far rowing. *As part of pre-farrowing care, feed limited feed and laxative feed. * *Give iron injection to piglets within 2-3 days. * Provide rail guards and keep record of farrowing. Lactating Period: Ø Keep pigs in confinement for good observation and management. Ø Maintain strict hygiene and keep predators away. Ø Observe schedule for castration and vaccination, spread over2-3 weeks. Deworm pigs at weaning. Ø Wean pigs at 7-9 weeks. Under good management 5-6 weeks could serve. Ø Feed good creep feed to ensure: fast growth, heavy weaning weight and uniform litters. Ø Provide for medication Growing-finishing Pigs. Feed balanced ration Provide adequate housing free of drafts, dampness and dust Deworm against internal parasites. Confinement or pasture is good. Schedule for vaccination should be observed. * Install facilities for cooling pigs in hot weather.

APPENDIX 2 GLOSSARY: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Ad Libitum (Ad lib):- Unrestricted feeding to appetite. Artificial Insemination (AI):- Collection of semen from boar and introduction of it at a later stage into sow or gilt by means of a catheter. Antihelmintic:- Dewormer; a chemical destructive to intestine worms. Bacon:- Pig meat which has been cured in brine with or without smoking. Castrate:- To remove the testicles of the pig. Colostrum:- First milk secreted after sow gives birth, usually higher in protein and antibodies needed for immunity in newborn pigs. Dam:- A female pig. Farrow:- Process of giving birth to a litter of pigs by a mother sow. Flushing:- Increasing the level of feed just before mating , in order to stimulate and increase number of eggs shed. Gestation:- The period from conception to birth of the young. Gilt:- A young female pig up to the time she produces her first litter. III.thrift:- Failure to thrive nonnal1y, i.e. showing poor condition. Lactation:- Period when the sow is producing milk for her young Libido:- Sexual drive and energy. Litter:- Set of young pigs born at one time to the mother pig. Oestrous:- The period during which the female will stand and permit the male to mate. Also called heat period. Parturition:- Process of giving birth. Scour:- Watery diarrhea in pig. Sire:- The male parent of an animal. Udder:- A large pendulous milk secreting gland provided with nipples or teats for baby pigs to suck. Wallow: To roll about in mud or dirty water to keep cool. Weaning:- The act of separating the young pigs !Tom their mother.

Appendix 3: An Individual sow record Sow No……………. Date served ……….. Boar No…………… ……………………………………………………………………… Due to farrow …………….. Farrowed…………………………. Total born …………………..Born alive………………………… Pigs fostered off…………….. Pigs fostered on ……………….. Date iron injection………………………… No. pigs weaned …………. Date weaned…………………… Total litter wt weaned …………………………………………. Average /weaning wt…………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… Remarks…………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………

Appendix 4: A boar performance record sheet Born No………… Date of birth……………Breed…………….. Sow Service Return No. No. Total litter No Date to born weaned mass service weaned

Remarks

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