NFPA 1006 Rope Rescue Course Book v2.1 [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

Page | 1

Table of Contents Table of Contents ...............................................................................................................................1 DISCLAIMER .......................................................................................................................................8 Chapter 1: Rope Rescue Techniques: A Comprehensive Guide for Safe and Effective Field Operations by AAA Safety and Field Services ............................................................................................................ 10 History and Evolution of Rope Rescue Techniques ................................................................................ 12 Different Types of Rope Rescue Scenarios ............................................................................................. 13 Importance of Training and Certification................................................................................................ 13 Continuous Learning and Improvement ................................................................................................. 13 Risk Management and Safety ................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter 2: Understanding NFPA 1983 and Canadian Standards for Technical Rescue Equipment ........ 19 NFPA 1983 ............................................................................................................................................... 20 General Use (G): .................................................................................................................................. 20 Technical Use (T): ................................................................................................................................ 20 Escape Use (E): .................................................................................................................................... 20 Case Study 1: Equipment Failure Leading to a Fall ................................................................................. 22 Case Study 2: Inadequate Risk Assessment Leading to Rescue Team Injury .......................................... 22 Case Study 3: Equipment Failure and Lesson on Inspection................................................................... 23 Applying NFPA Standards to Different Roles within a Rescue Team ...................................................... 24 Chapter 2: Understanding NFPA 1983 and Canadian Standards for Technical Rescue Equipment Quiz 26 Chapter 3: Safety Considerations In Rope Rescue Operations ............................................................ 32 Edge Safety.............................................................................................................................................. 34 The Vector Zone ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Personal Protective Equipment .............................................................................................................. 34 Quiz: Chapter 3 - Safety Considerations In Rope Rescue Operations .................................................. 36 Chapter 4: Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 5: Roles, Responsibilities, and Incident Command System (ICS) for Small to Large Scale Rescue Operations....................................................................................................................................... 48 ICS (Incident Command System) ............................................................................................................. 49 Chain Of Command ................................................................................................................................. 51 Roles & Responsibilities .......................................................................................................................... 52 Rescue Group Supervisor (Incident Commander): ............................................................................. 52 Technical Safety Officer (TSO): ............................................................................................................... 54 Rigging Team Leader (Rigger) ................................................................................................................. 55

Page | 2

Entry Team Leader (Lead Rescuer): ........................................................................................................ 56 Chapter 5: Roles, Responsibilities, and Incident Command System (ICS) for Small to Large Scale Rescue Operations Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 58 Chapter 6: Communications ............................................................................................................. 67 Common Commands .............................................................................................................................. 67 Whistle Commands: ................................................................................................................................ 68 Chapter 6: Communications Quiz...................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 7: Fall Factors & Dynamic Forces in Rescue Operations......................................................... 74 Chapter 7 - Fall Factors & Dynamic Forces in Rescue Operations Quiz ................................................ 75 Chapter 8: Ropes, Webbing & Knots Terminology ............................................................................. 79 Kernmantle Ropes................................................................................................................................... 81 Webbing .................................................................................................................................................. 83 Knots ....................................................................................................................................................... 83 Figure 8’s Family ................................................................................................................................. 85 Bowline ............................................................................................................................................... 87 In-Line Knots ....................................................................................................................................... 90 Bends....................................................................................................................................................... 90 Hitches .................................................................................................................................................... 91 Inter-Locking & Inter-Woven Long-Tail Knots......................................................................................... 92 Strength of Knots ................................................................................................................................ 93 Chapter 8: Ropes, Webbing & Knots Terminology Quiz...................................................................... 95 Chapter 9: Equipment & Hardware ................................................................................................. 103 Carabiners ............................................................................................................................................. 105 Screw Links ............................................................................................................................................ 106 Rescue Pulleys ....................................................................................................................................... 107 Descent Control Devices ....................................................................................................................... 108 Scarab®.............................................................................................................................................. 108 CMC Rescue MPD™ ........................................................................................................................... 108 Brake Rack ......................................................................................................................................... 109 Figure Eight ....................................................................................................................................... 109 Petzl I’D “L” ....................................................................................................................................... 110 540°™ Rescue Belay .......................................................................................................................... 110 Rigging Plates .................................................................................................................................... 111

Page | 3

Rescue Litter ..................................................................................................................................... 111 Miscellaneous ....................................................................................................................................... 112 Aztek ................................................................................................................................................. 112 Mechanical Ascenders ...................................................................................................................... 112 Y-Lanyards ......................................................................................................................................... 112 Evacuation Triangle ........................................................................................................................... 112 Chapter 9: Equipment & Hardware Quiz ......................................................................................... 113 Chapter 10: Equipment Care and Retirement .................................................................................. 119 Importance of Equipment Maintenance............................................................................................... 120 Lifespan of Rescue Equipment .............................................................................................................. 120 General Guidelines for Equipment Care ............................................................................................... 120 Storage Conditions ............................................................................................................................ 120 Cleaning Methods ............................................................................................................................. 120 Lubrication and Maintenance ........................................................................................................... 121 Specific Equipment Care and Retirement Guidelines ........................................................................... 121 Carabiners ......................................................................................................................................... 121 Helmets ............................................................................................................................................. 121 Harnesses .......................................................................................................................................... 122 Ropes................................................................................................................................................. 122 Retirement of Equipment ..................................................................................................................... 122 Criteria for Retirement...................................................................................................................... 122 Gear Retirement: .............................................................................................................................. 122 Disposal and Destruction of Retired Equipment............................................................................... 123 Keeping Records.................................................................................................................................... 123 Importance of Recording Equipment Usage History ........................................................................ 123 Marking and Labeling Equipment ..................................................................................................... 123 Role of Equipment Logs in Retirement Decisions ............................................................................. 124 Effect of Harsh Environments (Saltwater, Acid, Extreme Temperatures) ............................................ 124 Adjusting Care and Maintenance Routines for Different Environments .......................................... 124 Chapter 10: Equipment Care and Retirement Quiz .......................................................................... 125 Chapter 11: General Rigging Considerations.................................................................................... 131 Orientation of Carabiners in Rigging ..................................................................................................... 131 Carabiner Rigging: ............................................................................................................................. 133

Page | 4

Other Rigging .................................................................................................................................... 134 Safety Inspections ................................................................................................................................. 134 Chapter 11: General Rigging Considerations Quiz ............................................................................ 136 Chapter 12: Anchor Systems ........................................................................................................... 142 Guidelines For Anchor System Construction ........................................................................................ 142 Anchor System Definitions:................................................................................................................... 143 Anchor Selection ................................................................................................................................... 144 “SAFE-TAR” Rescue Anchor Acronym ................................................................................................... 145 Locating Anchor Focal Point.................................................................................................................. 145 Critical Angle In Anchor System ............................................................................................................ 146 Rough Estimates Of Angles ............................................................................................................... 147 Wrap 3 Pull 2 ( 7,899 lbs) ..................................................................................................................... 149 3-Bight aka Basket (8,464 lbs) .............................................................................................................. 149 The Double Loop anchor (Wrap 2 Pull 2) .............................................................................................. 150 High Strength Tie-Off ............................................................................................................................ 151 CMC Anchor Strap ................................................................................................................................. 152 Load Distributing Anchor ...................................................................................................................... 153 Load Sharing Anchor ............................................................................................................................. 155 Pre-Tensioned Tie-Back ........................................................................................................................ 155 Pre-Tensioned Front-Tie ....................................................................................................................... 158 Natural Anchors .................................................................................................................................... 159 Pickets ................................................................................................................................................... 159 Vehicle Anchors .................................................................................................................................... 160 Directionals ........................................................................................................................................... 162 Directionals & Critical Angles ................................................................................................................ 163 Chapter 12: Anchor Systems and Directionals in Rescue Operations Quiz ........................................ 164 Chapter 13: Belay Techniques......................................................................................................... 171 Tandem Prusik Belay ............................................................................................................................. 173 Proper Tandem Prusik Belay Technique ............................................................................................... 174 Considerations for Belay ................................................................................................................... 174 540 Rescue Belay .............................................................................................................................. 175 Belaying with the 540 ....................................................................................................................... 175 To Lock Off the Belay Manually ........................................................................................................ 176

Page | 5

Releasing a Locked Belay .................................................................................................................. 176 Chapter 13: Belay Techniques Quiz ................................................................................................. 177 Chapter 14: Rappelling ................................................................................................................... 183 Rappelling Techniques ...................................................................................................................... 184 Equipment Care and Maintenance ................................................................................................... 184 Communication during Rappelling.................................................................................................... 184 Rappelling in Different Environments: .............................................................................................. 184 Rescue Techniques:........................................................................................................................... 184 Rappelling Safety: ............................................................................................................................. 185 Training and Practice: ....................................................................................................................... 185 The Scarab Repelling ............................................................................................................................. 186 Chapter 14 Rappelling Quiz ............................................................................................................ 190 Chapter 15: Ascending ................................................................................................................... 196 Two Points of Contact ........................................................................................................................... 196 Ascending Tips: ................................................................................................................................. 197 Ascending Change-overs: ...................................................................................................................... 197 Building Your Ascending Purcells .......................................................................................................... 198 Chapter 15: Ascending Quiz ............................................................................................................ 199 Chapter 16: Lowering ..................................................................................................................... 205 Lowering................................................................................................................................................ 206 The Scarab For Lowering ....................................................................................................................... 207 Soft Tie and Hard Ties in Rappelling ..................................................................................................... 207 The Brake Bar Rack ............................................................................................................................... 208 MPD....................................................................................................................................................... 209 MPD Usage and Operation ............................................................................................................... 209 Operating the MPD: .......................................................................................................................... 209 Chapter 16 Lowering Quiz .............................................................................................................. 211 Chapter 17: Mechanical Advantage and Pulley Systems .................................................................. 218 Pulley Systems....................................................................................................................................... 219 Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA) ................................................................................................... 219 Theoretical Mechanical Advantage (TMA)........................................................................................ 219 Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) ............................................................................................... 219 Pulley System Rigging ........................................................................................................................... 220

Page | 6

Pull System Classifications .................................................................................................................... 220 Simple Pulley System: ....................................................................................................................... 220 Compound Pulley System ................................................................................................................. 221 Complex Pulley System: .................................................................................................................... 221 Calculating Mechanical Advantage ....................................................................................................... 222 T-Method .............................................................................................................................................. 223 How to calculate the T-Method ............................................................................................................ 223 Mechanical Advantage Systems ........................................................................................................... 228 Haul Factor ............................................................................................................................................ 230 Chapter 17: Mechanical Advantage and Pulley Systems Quiz ........................................................... 232 Chapter 18: Changeover Technique-Rescue Load ............................................................................ 239 Lowering to Raising ............................................................................................................................... 240 Raising to Lowering ............................................................................................................................... 240 Knot Passing During Lowering .............................................................................................................. 242 Knot Passing – During Raising ............................................................................................................... 243 Edge Protection..................................................................................................................................... 244 Chapter 18: Changeover Technique-Rescue Load Quiz..................................................................... 247 Chapter 19: High Angle Rescue ....................................................................................................... 254 High Angle/Low Angle ........................................................................................................................... 255 Low Angle/Slope Rescue ....................................................................................................................... 258 Vertical and Suspended Rescue Rigging ............................................................................................... 260 Pick-Offs ................................................................................................................................................ 264 Rappelling Pick-Off ................................................................................................................................ 266 Guiding Line Technique......................................................................................................................... 268 Chapter 19: High Angle Rescue Quiz ............................................................................................... 272 Chapter 20: Patient Packaging ........................................................................................................ 278 Victim Harnesses ................................................................................................................................... 279 Pick Off Hasty Harness .......................................................................................................................... 279 Litter Patient Packaging ........................................................................................................................ 279 Litter Patient Packaging ........................................................................................................................ 280 Steps to package a patient for transport: ......................................................................................... 280 Chapter 20: Patient Packaging Quiz ................................................................................................ 283 Chapter 21: Artificial High Directionals, Highlines, Towers ............................................................... 289

Page | 7

Artificial High Directionals..................................................................................................................... 290 Arizona Vortex Tripod System .......................................................................................................... 296 The Highline Evolution .......................................................................................................................... 298 Highline System Assignments ............................................................................................................... 299 Track Line(s): ..................................................................................................................................... 300 Single Track Lines: ............................................................................................................................. 300 Double Track Lines: ........................................................................................................................... 300 Anchoring and tensioning of Track Lines: ......................................................................................... 300 Control Lines ..................................................................................................................................... 301 Rescue Carriage:................................................................................................................................ 302 Attachment of a litter on a Reeving Line: ......................................................................................... 302 Highline System components: .............................................................................................................. 304 Tower Rescue ........................................................................................................................................ 306

Page | 8

DISCLAIMER The information presented in this book is intended to provide general guidance and should not be construed as definitive or exhaustive. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the content, the authors and publishers make no guarantees regarding the completeness or applicability of the information to all situations. The techniques, procedures, and equipment described in this book may vary depending on specific circumstances, and it is imperative to exercise professional judgment and discretion when applying them. Rope rescue operations inherently involve risks, and neither the authors nor the publishers assume any liability for the consequences of using the information provided in this book. Readers are strongly advised to seek additional sources of information, consult with qualified professionals, and comply with applicable laws, regulations, and standards in their respective jurisdictions. The authors and publishers disclaim any responsibility for errors, omissions, or inaccuracies in the content and shall not be held liable for any damages or injuries arising from the use of this information. It is important to note that technology, techniques, and industry standards may evolve over time, and the information in this book may become outdated. Readers are strongly encouraged to stay informed about the latest developments in rope rescue practices and adapt their approaches accordingly. The authors and publishers cannot guarantee the continued accuracy or relevance of the content as new information becomes available. The information provided in this book is not intended to replace professional training, experience, or judgment. Each rescue scenario is unique, and readers should exercise caution, critical thinking, and sound decision-making based on their own assessment of the situation. The authors and publishers shall not be held responsible for any loss, injury, or damage resulting from the application or misapplication of the concepts, techniques, or procedures discussed in this book. By using this book, readers acknowledge and accept that they assume all risks associated with rope rescue operations and agree to hold the authors and publishers harmless from any claims, liabilities, or damages arising from the use or misuse of the information contained herein. If any provision of this disclaimer is found to be invalid or unenforceable, the remaining provisions shall remain in full force and effect.

Page | 9

Chapter 1

Rope Rescue Techniques A Comprehensive Guide for Safe & Effective Field Operations

Page | 10

Chapter 1: Rope Rescue Techniques: A Comprehensive Guide for Safe and Effective Field Operations by AAA Safety and Field Services Chapter Learning Objectives: 1. Understand the importance of proper training and certification in rope rescue techniques. 2. Recognize the risks of attempting rope rescue techniques without certified instruction. 3. Appreciate the history and evolution of rope rescue techniques. 4. Identify different types of rope rescue scenarios and their challenges. 5. Emphasize the importance of continuous learning and improvement. 6. Highlight the significance of risk management and safety in rope rescue operations. 7. Analyze case studies illustrating the practical application of rope rescue techniques. 8. Introduce the NFPA 1670 standard and its levels of operational capability. 9. Understand the roles and responsibilities within a rescue team. 10. Stress the importance of teamwork, coordination, and adherence to standards. 11. Emphasize the need for proper training and certification before applying techniques. 12. Reinforce the commitment to safety and the guidance of certified professionals.

Welcome to the AAA Safety and Field Services Rope Rescue Manual, a comprehensive resource designed to support students as they embark on their rope rescue training journey. This manual is intended to complement the certified instruction provided in our field-based Rope Rescue program, and should not be considered a standalone text. We want to emphasize that it is crucial for users of this manual to seek proper training, education, and guidance in the application of rope rescue techniques. Attempting to perform these techniques without the supervision of a certified instructor can pose significant risks. As such, we strongly discourage engaging in these techniques without the appropriate training and guidance from a certified professional. In our Rope Rescue program, students are encouraged to approach the skills taught with an open mind, understanding that there are often multiple ways to achieve a specific objective. Our highly skilled and certified instructors are dedicated to equipping students with the necessary knowledge and expertise to carry out rope rescue operations safely and effectively. While we trust that this manual will prove to be an invaluable resource for our students, we also want to stress the importance of obtaining proper training and certification before attempting to apply these techniques in real-life situations. Safety is our top priority, and we are committed to helping our students succeed in their rope rescue endeavors.

Page | 11

In this introductory chapter, we also aim to provide some context for our discussion of rope rescue techniques. To this end, we delve into the history and evolution of rope rescue, analyzing the different scenarios where these techniques are applied, from urban environments to wilderness settings and industrial contexts. We also emphasize the importance of continuous learning and improvement, acknowledging that mastery of rope rescue techniques is a journey, not a destination. Risk management is a critical aspect of this journey, as we aim to ensure the safety of both the rescuers and those they aim to help. Throughout this manual, you will find case studies that highlight the real-world application of the techniques discussed. These examples serve not only to illustrate the techniques but also to help you understand the importance of the standards and guidelines we adhere to. Finally, we also introduce you to the NFPA 1670 standard, which outlines technical rescue standards for fire service agencies responding to various rescue scenarios, including rope rescue. This standard defines three levels of operational capability for rescue organizations: Awareness Level: The Awareness Level as defined by the NFPA 1670 standard is the minimum capability required for organizations to respond to technical search and rescue incidents. Organizations operating at this level are expected to: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Identify the type of rescue situation: Personnel should be able to recognize the nature of the incident and its potential risks. For example, in the context of a rope rescue, they should identify high angle environments, potential hazards, and whether specialized rope rescue techniques will be necessary. Initiate the appropriate emergency response: Once the situation is identified, personnel should be able to initiate the correct emergency response. This might involve calling for additional resources, such as a technical rescue team, or implementing immediate safety measures. Establish a secure area: Personnel should be able to secure the area to prevent further harm to the victim or to bystanders. This might involve cordoning off hazardous areas, controlling traffic, or evacuating people from dangerous situations. Provide support to higher-level responders: Awareness level personnel may assist higher-level responders (Operations or Technician level) by helping to transport equipment, preparing for the arrival of additional resources, or carrying out other supportive tasks as directed.

Remember, Awareness Level responders are not expected to directly perform technical rescue tasks. Instead, their role is primarily one of recognition, response initiation, area security, and support to higher-level responders. They should have a basic understanding of the risks and challenges associated with technical rescue situations, but they do not perform the actual rescue operations themselves. Operations Level: The Operations Level, as defined by the NFPA 1670 standard, is the next level of capability where organizations can respond to technical search and rescue incidents. Organizations operating at this level are expected to: 1.

2.

3.

Identify and assess the situation: Similar to the Awareness Level, Operations Level personnel should be able to recognize the nature of the incident, its potential risks, and the need for specialized rescue techniques. However, at this level, they also conduct a more detailed hazard risk assessment, and are capable of implementing more advanced safety measures. Use equipment and apply rescue techniques: Operations Level personnel are equipped to use technical equipment and apply specific techniques as outlined in the NFPA 1670 standard. This could include setting up simple rope systems, executing low-angle rescues, or providing initial patient care. Participate in a support role in rescue operations: Operations Level personnel can actively participate in rescue operations under the supervision of Technician Level personnel. They support the execution of the rescue plan by assisting with tasks such as rigging, patient packaging, or system operation.

Page | 12

4.

Implement and operate within an incident command system: At this level, personnel are expected to understand and work within an established incident command structure, ensuring effective coordination and communication during rescue operations.

It's important to note that while Operations Level personnel have a greater level of skill and responsibility than Awareness Level personnel, they are not typically expected to perform high-angle rescues or operate independently in complex rescue scenarios. Those tasks are reserved for Technician Level personnel. However, Operations Level personnel play a critical role in supporting and enabling effective and safe rescue operations.

Technician Level: The Technician Level, as specified by the NFPA 1670 standard, represents the highest level of operational capability for rescue organizations. Organizations operating at this level are capable of performing the most complex and demanding technical rescue operations. Here are some key responsibilities and capabilities of Technician Level personnel: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Comprehensive Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment: Technician Level personnel are proficient in recognizing potential hazards associated with a wide range of technical rescue incidents. They can perform a comprehensive risk assessment, identifying risks not only to the subject of the rescue, but also to the rescuers and bystanders. Advanced Equipment Use and Rescue Techniques: Personnel at this level are skilled in using a variety of advanced equipment and can apply complex techniques outlined in the NFPA 1670 standard. This includes setting up high-angle rope rescue systems, performing confined space rescues, and executing rescues in hazardous environments. Coordination and Supervision of Rescue Operations: As the most skilled personnel in a rescue operation, Technician Level rescuers often take on leadership roles. They can coordinate rescue efforts, supervise other personnel, and make critical decisions during the operation. Incident Command and Safety Officer Roles: In addition to performing rescue operations, Technician Level personnel may also serve as Incident Commanders or Safety Officers, ensuring that the operation is conducted according to established protocols and safety measures. Complex Patient Care: Technician Level personnel are often trained in advanced medical care, enabling them to manage complex patient conditions in challenging environments until further medical assistance can be provided.

It's important to note that while Technician Level personnel have the skills and knowledge to perform complex rescue operations, they also understand the importance of teamwork and coordination. They work closely with other team members at the Awareness and Operations levels to carry out rescue operations safely and effectively. Adherence to the NFPA 1670 standard ensures that rescue organizations have the necessary training, knowledge, and equipment to respond effectively to technical rescue incidents. By defining operational capabilities at different levels, this standard helps organizations prepare for and respond to technical rescue incidents appropriately. We hope this manual will serve as a valuable resource throughout your rope rescue training journey. Remember, while the information provided here is comprehensive, it is not a substitute for hands-on training and certification. Always prioritize safety and seek guidance from a certified professional when attempting to apply these techniques. History and Evolution of Rope Rescue Techniques Our exploration into the fascinating world of rope rescue begins with a journey through history. Understanding the origins and evolution of rope rescue techniques provides valuable context for the procedures and methodologies we utilize today. Rope rescue's roots are intertwined with mountaineering and caving, where ropes were fundamental for exploration and self-rescue. Over time, these rudimentary techniques were honed and evolved to

Page | 13

adapt to a wide array of scenarios, from urban high-rises to remote wilderness landscapes. Today, the field continues to innovate, fueled by advancements in technology and materials science that have given us stronger, lighter ropes and more efficient mechanical devices. Different Types of Rope Rescue Scenarios A successful rope rescue operation requires a thorough understanding of the unique challenges each scenario presents. The urban landscape, for example, often involves rescues from tall structures such as buildings, bridges, or cranes. Wilderness rescues, on the other hand, grapple with remote locations, unpredictable weather, and rugged terrain. Industrial settings present their own set of challenges, with potential complexities such as confined spaces or hazardous materials. Our course will delve into these unique scenarios, equipping you with the knowledge to respond effectively and safely. Importance of Training and Certification The cornerstone of effective and safe rope rescue operations is robust training and certification. These not only ensure that rescuers possess the requisite skills and knowledge to carry out rescues but also provide a benchmark of proficiency. Certification plays a critical role in maintaining standards within the industry and helps rescue organizations evaluate and understand the capabilities of their personnel. Continuous Learning and Improvement In the dynamic field of rope rescue, learning never ceases. The landscape of best practices, techniques, and equipment is constantly shifting and evolving. Therefore, an integral part of your journey as a rope rescue technician will be a commitment to continuous learning and improvement. Regular training, recertification, and staying updated with current research and developments are essential to maintaining proficiency and enhancing your skills. Risk Management and Safety At the heart of every rope rescue operation lies a steadfast commitment to safety. Every operation carries inherent risks, and effective risk management is key to ensuring the safety of all involved. This commitment to safety permeates every aspect of rope rescue, from meticulous planning and comprehensive risk assessments to the selection and use of appropriate equipment and techniques. Safety culture, an integral part of any rescue organization, is also crucial, promoting a shared responsibility towards maintaining safety standards.

Page | 14

Rope Rescue Fundamentals - Review Test 1. What is the primary purpose of this manual? a) To provide certified instruction for rope rescue techniques. b) To serve as a standalone resource for rope rescue training. c) To complement certified instruction provided in the Rope Rescue program. d) To replace the need for proper training and certification.

2. Why is it crucial to seek proper training and guidance in the application of rope rescue techniques? a) It allows you to perform rope rescue techniques independently. b) It minimizes the risks associated with rope rescue operations. c) It eliminates the need for certification in rope rescue. d) It ensures you are legally protected in case of accidents.

3. What does the NFPA 1670 standard define? a) Safety guidelines for industrial rope rescue scenarios. b) Technical rescue standards for fire service agencies. c) Guidelines for wilderness rope rescue operations. d) Safety regulations for urban rope rescue environments.

4. What is the role of Awareness Level responders in rope rescue operations? a) Directly perform technical rescue tasks. b) Coordinate and supervise rescue operations. c) Recognize and initiate emergency response. d) Assess and manage complex patient care.

5. What is the highest level of operational capability for rescue organizations, according to NFPA 1670? a) Awareness Level b) Operations Level c) Technician Level d) Supervisor Level

Page | 15

6. What is the purpose of continuous learning and improvement in rope rescue? a) To maintain the same level of skills over time. b) To enhance proficiency and stay updated with best practices. c) To avoid the need for recertification. d) To meet the minimum requirements for rope rescue operations.

7. What is the key aspect of risk management in rope rescue operations? a) Eliminating all risks involved in the operation. b) Selecting the most advanced equipment available. c) Ensuring the safety of all personnel involved. d) Following standardized rescue techniques without deviation.

8. What does the history and evolution of rope rescue techniques provide? a) Context and understanding for current procedures. b) Outdated methods that are no longer relevant. c) Guidelines for wilderness rope rescue operations. d) Techniques specific to industrial rope rescue scenarios.

9. What is the purpose of analyzing case studies in rope rescue training? a) To illustrate the importance of theory over practical application. b) To highlight the risks associated with rope rescue techniques. c) To provide real-world examples of technique application. d) To discourage students from attempting rope rescue techniques.

10. What is the main emphasis of this chapter regarding safety? a) Safety is the responsibility of the certified instructors. b) Safety is a secondary concern in rope rescue operations. c) Safety should be prioritized in all aspects of rope rescue. d) Safety is only important in high-angle rescue scenarios.

Page | 16

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 17

Answer Key: 1. c) To complement certified instruction provided in the Rope Rescue program. 2. b) It minimizes the risks associated with rope rescue operations. 3. b) Technical rescue standards for fire service agencies. 4. c) Recognize and initiate emergency response. 5. c) Technician Level 6. b) To enhance proficiency and stay updated with best practices. 7. c) Ensuring the safety of all personnel involved. 8. a) Context and understanding for current procedures. 9. c) To provide real-world examples of technique application. 10. c) Safety should be prioritized in all

Page | 18

Chapter 2

Understanding NFPA 1983 & Canadian Standards for Technical Rescue Equipment

Page | 19

Chapter 2: Understanding NFPA 1983 and Canadian Standards for Technical Rescue Equipment After studying this chapter, learners should be able to: 1. Understand the purpose and scope of NFPA 1983: • •

Explain the role of NFPA 1983 in governing the performance, testing, and certification of life safety rope, system components, and auxiliary equipment used in technical rescue operations. Differentiate between NFPA 1983's intended audience (equipment manufacturers) and rescue personnel.

2. Identify labeling designations under NFPA 1983: • •

Define and differentiate between the General Use (G), Technical Use (T), and Escape Use (E) labeling designations. Understand the characteristics, performance criteria, and intended applications of equipment labeled under each designation.

3. Recognize the importance of equipment selection and training: • • •

Emphasize the need for rescue personnel to choose equipment that meets applicable Canadian standards (e.g., CGSB, ISO) for technical rescue operations. Highlight the significance of considering operational needs, capabilities, and specific demands when selecting equipment. Stress the requirement for proper training and understanding of the safe use of selected equipment.

4. Analyze case studies on the consequences of non-compliance: • • •

Evaluate real-world incidents where failure to adhere to equipment standards resulted in accidents or near-miss situations. Understand the potential risks and grave consequences of equipment failure or misuse in rope rescue operations. Recognize the importance of using compliant and well-maintained equipment to ensure the safety of rescuers and individuals being rescued.

5. Comprehend the need for equipment inspection and maintenance: • • •

Emphasize the importance of thorough equipment inspection to identify hidden damage, wear, or degradation that could compromise safety. Understand the role of regular maintenance and adherence to manufacturer recommendations in ensuring the reliability and strength of rescue equipment. Recognize the significance of retiring or downgrading equipment that shows signs of deterioration or damage to prevent equipment failure during critical moments.

6. Appreciate the application of NFPA standards to different roles within a rescue team: • • •

Understand how NFPA 1670, NFPA 1006, and NFPA 1561 standards apply to rescuers, team leaders, and incident commanders in technical rescue operations. Recognize the importance of adhering to these standards for maintaining safety, effective coordination, and successful outcomes. Acknowledge the need for continuous training and professional development to stay updated with revisions or additions to the NFPA standards.

Page | 20

NFPA 1983 NFPA 1983 is a standard that governs the performance, testing, and certification of life safety rope, system components, and auxiliary equipment used in technical rescue operations. It is important to note that this standard is intended for equipment manufacturers rather than for rescuers themselves. In Canada, technical rescue personnel should ensure that any equipment they use meets the applicable Canadian standards, such as the Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB) or International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards. NFPA 1983 provides three labeling designations that manufacturers can use to label rescue component equipment as compliant with the standard, which are: General Use (G): ❖ General Use (G) is a classification under NFPA 1983, and it pertains to rescue equipment designed for the most demanding technical rescue operations. This label is assigned to equipment that has passed the strictest performance and testing criteria outlined in the NFPA 1983 standard. ❖ Equipment labeled as General Use (G) is typically robust, reliable, and intended for heavy-duty use in a variety of rescue scenarios. This category includes equipment such as life safety ropes, harnesses, carabiners, and other system components. ❖ When selecting General Use (G) equipment, rescue personnel should carefully consider the nature of their operations and the specific demands that will be placed on the equipment. This is crucial as equipment in this category is designed for operations involving high loads and where maximum strength and durability are required. ❖ Remember, the General Use (G) designation does not indicate suitability for all types of rescue operations. It is still incumbent upon rescue personnel to ensure they have received the appropriate training and are familiar with the safe use of such equipment. Always select and use equipment based on the specific requirements of your operational context and the training you have received Technical Use (T): ❖ The Technical Use (T) classification, as defined by NFPA 1983, refers to rescue equipment that is designed to be used in less demanding situations compared to those that require General Use (G) equipment. Even though the requirements for Technical Use (T) equipment are less stringent than those for General Use (G), this equipment still must meet rigorous standards for safety and reliability. ❖ Equipment labeled as Technical Use (T) includes life safety ropes, harnesses, carabiners, and other system components that are designed for situations where lower loads are expected. This equipment is typically lighter and more compact than General Use (G) equipment, making it suitable for operations that prioritize mobility and speed. ❖ Despite being designed for less severe conditions, Technical Use (T) equipment still requires proper training for safe handling and operation. Technical rescue personnel must fully understand the capabilities and limitations of their equipment to ensure its appropriate use. As always, the selection of Technical Use (T) equipment should be based on the specific demands of the rescue scenario, the operational capabilities of the rescue team, and the team's training and experience. Escape Use (E): ❖ The Escape Use (E) classification, as designated by the NFPA 1983 standard, refers to equipment that is specifically designed for emergency escape situations. This category typically includes smaller and more lightweight equipment such as personal escape ropes, harnesses, and descent control devices. It's important to note that this equipment is intended for single-person use, often in self-rescue scenarios. ❖ Escape Use (E) equipment is typically carried by individual rescuers or firefighters and is designed to provide a last-resort means of escape from life-threatening situations, such as a rapidly deteriorating fire condition or a situation where traditional exit routes are blocked. Due to the very specific and critical use-

Page | 21

case, this type of equipment is subject to its own set of rigorous testing standards and performance requirements, though they differ from those applied to General Use (G) and Technical Use (T) equipment. ❖ Training is essential when utilizing Escape Use (E) equipment. It's important for individuals to be thoroughly trained on the correct usage, limitations, and potential risks associated with their personal escape equipment. Despite the dire situations in which these devices might be used, safety and proper usage remain paramount. Technical rescue personnel should choose equipment based on their operational needs and capabilities, while ensuring that the equipment meets the applicable Canadian standards. It is important to note that some misconceptions have arisen regarding the intent of NFPA 1983 among technical rescue personnel, especially with the interpretation of earlier versions of the document. These misconceptions include beliefs that only metal connectors and components constructed of steel are permitted, or that only single use of a rope for emergencies is permitted prior to disposal. These are not accurate as components can be constructed of various metals, and single-use requirements were removed from the standard in 1995. By adhering to the appropriate Canadian standards and understanding the labeling designations of rescue equipment, technical rescue personnel can ensure they have the necessary equipment to perform rescue operations safely and effectively. Manufacturers can also ensure that their equipment meets the necessary safety requirements and provides reliable performance during technical rescue operations. The impact of not adhering to these standards can be grave. To highlight the importance of equipment standards, we will analyze case studies of accidents or near-misses where failure to meet standards played a significant role. These cases underscore the importance of using compliant and well-maintained equipment in all rescue operations. The impact of not adhering to equipment standards in rope rescue operations can be severe, and in some cases, catastrophic. It is crucial to understand that these standards exist to ensure the safety of both the rescuers and the individuals being rescued. They provide a benchmark for quality and reliability that all manufacturers and users of rescue equipment should strive to meet or exceed. These examples reveal instances where equipment failure or misuse, often resulting from a lack of adherence to standards, led to accidents or near-miss situations during rescue operations. Through these case studies, we aim to emphasize that not meeting the standards can lead to equipment failure, increased risk of injury, and even loss of life. It is our hope that these cases will underline the gravity of the situation and stress the importance of using only compliant and well-maintained equipment in all rescue operations.

Page | 22

Case Study 1: Equipment Failure Leading to a Fall On June 12, 20XX, a specialized rope rescue team from Summitville Fire Department responded to an emergency call at the historic Summitville Clock Tower. The team, comprising experienced rescuers trained in high-angle rope rescue techniques, was tasked with rescuing a maintenance worker who had become stranded on the exterior of the clock tower due to equipment malfunction. Incident: Upon arrival at the scene, the rescue team initiated their operations. They began setting up the rope system, utilizing certified ropes, harnesses, and other necessary equipment. The plan was to ascend the tower using a combination of fixed anchor points and dynamic rope systems to safely reach and retrieve the stranded worker. However, during the rescue operation, a tragic and fatal accident occurred due to a critical equipment failure. One of the carabiners used as a connecting point in the rope system, which was not compliant with the required strength standards, unexpectedly gave way under the load. As a result, one of the rescuers, who was suspended in mid-air, experienced a sudden fall before the safety backup system engaged. Despite the prompt activation of the backup system, the rescuer tragically succumbed to their injuries upon impact, highlighting the devastating consequences of the equipment failure. Investigation Findings: In the subsequent investigation conducted by the Summitville Fire Department's Safety and Training Division, it was determined that the carabiner used by the rescuer was a non-compliant piece of equipment. The carabiner's failure under load was directly attributed to its inadequate strength and inability to withstand the forces involved in the rescue operation. It was discovered that the carabiner did not meet the necessary strength requirements outlined by the relevant safety standards for rope rescue operations. Lessons Learned: This tragic incident serves as a stark reminder of the critical importance of using properly certified and compliant equipment in rope rescue operations. The investigation findings underscore the urgent need for rescue teams to rigorously adhere to equipment standards, conducting thorough inspections and selecting gear that meets the required safety criteria. The case study emphasizes the gravity of non-compliance with safety standards and highlights the devastating consequences that can result from equipment failures in high-risk rescue scenarios. As a result of this tragic accident, the Summitville Fire Department initiated comprehensive changes within their operations. These changes included reinforcing equipment inspection protocols, implementing stringent gear selection procedures, enhancing training programs to prioritize safety, and fostering a culture of accountability to prevent future incidents. Case Study 2: Inadequate Risk Assessment Leading to Rescue Team Injury On September 18, 20XX, a rope rescue team from Smithville County Search and Rescue responded to a distress call in the remote and rugged terrain of the Smithville Mountain Range. The team, consisting of highly trained and experienced rescuers, was tasked with performing a wilderness rope rescue to extract an injured hiker from a steep and treacherous cliffside. Incident: During the rescue operation, an unforeseen event occurred that resulted in injuries to multiple members of the rescue team. As the rescuers were navigating the challenging terrain and preparing for the technical rope descent,

Page | 23

a sudden rockfall was triggered by their movement. Large rocks tumbled down the cliff, striking several members of the team and causing injuries ranging from minor to severe. Investigation Findings: Following the incident, a thorough investigation was conducted by the Smithville County Search and Rescue Incident Review Committee. The investigation revealed that the rescue team had not adequately assessed the risk of rockfall in the area prior to initiating the rope descent. Although the team was equipped with proper helmets and personal protective equipment (PPE), their failure to recognize the potential danger and establish appropriate safety measures significantly increased the risk of injuries during the rescue operation. Lessons Learned: This case study serves as a powerful reminder of the critical role of risk management and safety in rope rescue operations, especially in wilderness environments. The investigation findings highlight the importance of conducting comprehensive risk assessments before initiating any rescue operation, taking into account potential hazards and implementing appropriate control measures. In this case, a thorough assessment of the cliffside for loose rocks and other potential hazards could have mitigated the risk of a rockfall event. Rescue teams must prioritize continuous training and emphasize the importance of situational awareness, hazard identification, and communication within the team. Establishing effective communication channels and employing risk mitigation strategies, such as establishing exclusion zones or implementing rope protection systems, can greatly enhance the safety of rescuers and minimize the risk of injury during rope rescue operations. The incident led the Smithville County Search and Rescue to revise their standard operating procedures, placing greater emphasis on comprehensive risk assessments, enhanced communication protocols, and continuous training in risk management strategies. By incorporating these changes, the rescue team aims to ensure the safety and well-being of both rescuers and the individuals they assist during future rope rescue operations.

Case Study 3: Equipment Failure and Lesson on Inspection Scenario: On August 10, 20XX, a group of experienced mountaineers embarked on a challenging expedition to conquer the treacherous slopes of Glacier Peaks in the Canadian Rockies. As they ascended a steep ice wall, a critical equipment failure occurred, prompting a rescue operation involving the Canadian Mountain Rescue team. Incident: During the climb, a rope failure occurred due to a deteriorated rope that had not been properly inspected. The lead mountaineer's main climbing rope, stored in a bag and used extensively over the years, had experienced hidden damage and wear that went unnoticed. As the lead mountaineer made a crucial ascent, the weakened rope suddenly gave way, leading to a sudden fall. The fall triggered an emergency response, and the Canadian Mountain Rescue team swiftly initiated a high-angle rope rescue to safely extract the fallen mountaineer and provide immediate medical attention. Investigation Findings: An investigation conducted by the Canadian Mountain Rescue team revealed that the rope used by the lead mountaineer had deteriorated significantly due to hidden damage and wear. Over time, exposure to the elements and previous use had compromised the integrity of the rope. Unfortunately, the mountaineer had not conducted a thorough inspection, failing to identify the signs of deterioration, which ultimately led to the use of compromised equipment.

Page | 24

Lessons Learned: This case study serves as a powerful reminder of the critical importance of equipment inspection and maintenance in rope rescue operations, especially in challenging environments like the Canadian Rockies. Proper inspection protocols, including regular checks for hidden damage, wear, and degradation, are essential to detect any potential issues that could compromise the safety of climbers and rescuers. Climbing ropes, harnesses, carabiners, and other critical equipment must undergo meticulous inspection and maintenance to ensure their reliability and strength. Any signs of hidden damage, including core damage, internal fraying, or weakened sections, should be promptly addressed. Ropes that show signs of deterioration or damage should be downgraded or retired from active use to prevent equipment failure during critical moments. As a result of this incident, the Canadian Mountain Rescue team has strengthened their equipment inspection procedures, emphasizing the importance of regular maintenance and adherence to manufacturer recommendations and industry best practices. They also conduct educational programs and workshops to raise awareness among mountaineers about the significance of equipment inspection, encouraging them to develop a culture of safety and vigilance in their mountaineering pursuits. Remember, a thorough inspection and maintenance regime is vital for identifying and addressing potential equipment issues before they lead to accidents or equipment failure. By prioritizing equipment inspection, mountaineers and rescue teams can mitigate risks, enhance safety, and ensure successful and safe mountaineering experiences in the challenging terrain of the Canadian Rockies. Each of these case studies serves as a stark reminder of the potential consequences when standards are not strictly adhered to. They illustrate the potential for harm and emphasize the importance of proper equipment selection, regular maintenance, and rigorous testing. It's important to remember that these standards are not just guidelines or recommendations — they are a critical part of ensuring safety in every aspect of rope rescue operations. Lastly, we will discuss how NFPA standards apply to different roles within a rescue team. Whether you are a rescuer, team leader, or incident commander, understanding and applying these standards is integral to ensuring the safety of the team and the success of the rescue operation. By understanding the standards associated with your role, you can contribute effectively to your team's overall safety and success. Applying NFPA Standards to Different Roles within a Rescue Team In any rope rescue operation, the adherence to NFPA standards is crucial for maintaining safety and ensuring successful outcomes. These standards provide a framework for the training, equipment, and operational capabilities required for effective rescue operations. Let's explore how NFPA standards apply to different roles within a rescue team: Rescuer: As a rescuer, it is essential to have a solid understanding of the NFPA 1670 standard, which outlines the operational capabilities and requirements for technical rescue incidents. By adhering to this standard, rescuers can ensure they possess the necessary knowledge, skills, and equipment to safely and effectively respond to rope rescue situations. Rescuers should receive comprehensive training that aligns with the NFPA 1670 standard to develop the expertise needed for successful rescue operations. Team Leader: The role of a team leader in a rope rescue operation is crucial for coordinating and supervising the rescue efforts. Team leaders should have a deep understanding of the NFPA 1006 standard, which addresses the professional

Page | 25

qualifications for technical rescue personnel. This standard outlines the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for team leaders to perform their duties effectively, including incident management, risk assessment, and decisionmaking. Team leaders should ensure that their team members are trained to the appropriate level of competency and that the rescue operation complies with the NFPA 1006 standard. Incident Commander/Rescuer: In many rope rescue operations, it is common to have a minimum of three rescuers present. One of the rescuers can assume the role of incident commander while still actively participating as a rescuer. The incident commander is responsible for overseeing and managing the entire rescue operation. They should have a comprehensive understanding of the NFPA 1561 standard, which addresses incident management in the fire service. While not specific to rope rescue, this standard provides guidance on incident command systems, including establishing command, managing resources, and ensuring the safety of all personnel involved. The incident commander should apply the principles outlined in NFPA 1561 to effectively manage rope rescue incidents and coordinate with other emergency response agencies. By understanding and applying the relevant NFPA standards associated with their roles, rescuers, team leaders, and incident commanders can contribute effectively to their team's overall safety and success. These standards provide a common framework for training, equipment, and operational procedures, ensuring that rescue teams operate in a consistent and standardized manner. Regular training and professional development should be conducted to stay updated with any revisions or additions to the NFPA standards, allowing rescue teams to continuously improve their knowledge and skills. It is important to note that the specific composition and responsibilities of a rope rescue team may vary depending on the nature of the rescue operation, available resources, and local protocols. The coordination and communication among team members, regardless of their designated roles, are critical for maintaining safety and achieving successful outcomes. Remember, adhering to NFPA standards not only promotes the safety of rescue personnel but also enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of rope rescue operations. By following these standards, rescue teams can work cohesively, minimize risks, and ensure the successful resolution of technical rescue incidents. Disclaimer: This information is provided for illustrative purposes and is not an exhaustive analysis of the NFPA standards or the specific roles within a rescue team. It is essential to consult the relevant NFPA documents and seek professional guidance to ensure accurate and up-to-date compliance with the standards.

Page | 26

Chapter 2: Understanding NFPA 1983 and Canadian Standards for Technical Rescue Equipment Quiz Instructions: Select the best answer for each question. Choose only one option that you believe to be correct.

1. NFPA 1983 is a standard that governs the performance, testing, and certification of: a) b) c) d)

Life safety ropes and system components Technical rescue personnel Incident commanders All of the above

2. NFPA 1983 is primarily intended for: a) b) c) d)

Equipment manufacturers Rescuers and team leaders Incident commanders All emergency response personnel

3. In Canada, technical rescue personnel should ensure that their equipment meets the applicable: a) b) c) d)

NFPA standards CGSB or ISO standards ANSI standards OSHA standards

4. NFPA 1983 provides three labeling designations for rescue component equipment, which are: a) b) c) d)

General Use (G), Technical Use (T), and Emergency Use (E) Heavy Duty (HD), Lightweight (LW), and Compact (CP) Heavy Load (HL), Light Load (LL), and Medium Load (ML) General Use (G), Technical Use (T), and Escape Use (E)

5. General Use (G) equipment under NFPA 1983 is designed for: a) b) c) d)

High loads and demanding rescue operations Low-intensity rescue operations Self-rescue scenarios Single-person use only

6. Technical Use (T) equipment under NFPA 1983 is designed for: a) b) c) d)

High loads and demanding rescue operations Low-intensity rescue operations Self-rescue scenarios Single-person use only

Page | 27

7. Escape Use (E) equipment under NFPA 1983 is specifically designed for: a) b) c) d)

High loads and demanding rescue operations Low-intensity rescue operations Self-rescue scenarios Single-person use only

8. NFPA 1983 standards require equipment inspection and maintenance to: a) b) c) d)

Ensure compliance with Canadian standards Enhance the durability of equipment Identify potential equipment issues and prevent failures Streamline rescue operations

9. Case studies are used in NFPA 1983 to: a) b) c) d)

Highlight the importance of equipment standards Identify the strengths and weaknesses of different equipment manufacturers Provide guidelines for equipment selection Evaluate the performance of rescue personne

10. The impact of not adhering to equipment standards in rope rescue operations can be: a) b) c) d)

Negligible Catastrophic Insignificant Unknown

11. NFPA 1983 applies to which of the following roles within a rescue team? a) b) c) d)

Rescuers Team leaders Incident commanders All of the above

12. Rescuers should be trained according to which NFPA standard? a) b) c) d)

NFPA 1983 NFPA 1561 NFPA 1006 NFPA 1670

13. The role of a team leader in a rope rescue operation is addressed by which NFPA standard? a) b) c) d)

NFPA 1983 NFPA 1561 NFPA 1006 NFPA 1670

Page | 28

14. The incident commander in a rope rescue operation should follow the principles outlined in which NFPA standard? a) NFPA 1983 b) NFPA 1561 c) NFPA 1006 15. NFPA 1983 ensures safety in rope rescue operations by providing a framework for: a) b) c) d)

Equipment inspection and maintenance Risk assessment and hazard identification Training and professional development All of the above

Page | 29

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 30

Answer Key: a) Life safety ropes and system components a) Equipment manufacturers b) CGSB or ISO standards d) General Use (G), Technical Use (T), and Escape Use (E) a) High loads and demanding rescue operations b) Low-intensity rescue operations c) Self-rescue scenarios c) Identify potential equipment issues and prevent failures a) Highlight the importance of equipment standards b) Catastrophic d) All of the above d) NFPA 1670 b) NFPA 1561 b) NFPA 1561 d) All of the above

Page | 31

Chapter 3

Safety Considerations In Rope Rescue Operations

Page | 32

Chapter 3: Safety Considerations In Rope Rescue Operations Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Understand and prioritize the key safety considerations in a rescue operation, including the protection of yourself, your fellow rescuers, the subject of the rescue, and bystanders at the scene. 2. Recognize the importance of routine safety checks on all equipment and comprehend the role and responsibility of a technical safety officer in a rescue operation. 3. Grasp the essential safety reminders, such as maintaining controlled urgency, ensuring proficiency among rescuers, performing regular safety checks, establishing system redundancy, communicating effectively using standard terminology, and employing appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for all incident hazards, environments, and tasks. 4. Comprehend the concept of 'Edge Safety', including the need to establish a marked hazard zone when working near the edge of a cliff or hazardous drop, and the safety measures required to prevent accidental falls. 5. Understand the potential dangers of 'The Vector Zone'—an area of potential rope recoil or snapback hazard— and learn strategies to prevent injury from such incidents. 6. Recognize the critical role of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in ensuring rescuer safety, and become familiar with various industry standards (CSA and ANSI) and regulations regarding the design, use, and maintenance of PPE. 7. Discern the appropriate type of harness required for different rescue operations, and understand the necessity of various personal equipment during technical rescue activities. 8. Learn the correct method for organizing gear on a personal harness to ensure safety and efficiency during operations. Mastering these learning objectives will provide you with a robust foundation in safety considerations, which are indispensable for successful and safe high angle rescue operations.

Page | 33

In any technical rescue operation, safety is of paramount importance. As such, it's essential to prioritize operational safety and remember the following priorities: 1. 2. 3.

You are number one. Your fellow rescuers are your second concern. The subject of the rescue is your third priority. It is also the responsibility of the rescue team to protect bystanders at the scene. If you see anything that you believe is unsafe, stop the operation. Anyone can stop the operation, but it takes a technical safety officer to proceed.

Before using any system, perform a safety check on all equipment, especially the anchors. When a helmet is required, always wear it with the chin strap secured. Remember that no one is infallible, and the worstcase scenario is having a rescuer injured, resulting in two patients. Don't create an incident within an incident. It's essential to emphasize the following safety reminders: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Speed: Do not rush! Maintain a sense of "controlled urgency." Proficiency: Use well-trained, competent rescuers for the core of the team. Safety Checks: Do a thorough visual and tactile rigging safety check prior to using a system. Recheck equipment during use. Redundancy: Create a system with backups. Communication: Use standard terminology. PPE: Aggressively employ appropriate PPE for all incident hazards, environments, and tasks (e.g. gloves, footwear, helmet, harness, hearing protection, high visibility clothing, safety glasses, sunscreen, personal flotation device, etc.).

By being well-organized, communicating effectively, and breeding efficiency in their emergency response efforts, a rescue team can perform their tasks without rushing or yelling. Team members should know what to do and be trained to the level of competency required for the operation. Remember, "smooth is fast" - by taking a measured and methodical approach to rescue operations, teams can achieve their objectives more efficiently and with fewer errors or mishaps. The goal is to prioritize safety while working as efficiently as possible to complete the task at hand.

Page | 34

Edge Safety When working near the edge of a cliff or hazardous drop, it is important to establish a marked hazard zone to prevent individuals from tripping and falling. The setback distance for this zone should be a minimum of six feet, although sites with a downward incline, rolling, or stair-stepped edge may require a greater setback distance. All personnel entering this hazard zone must be secured by a safety line that restricts their travel to the edge of the drop. In addition to securing personnel, equipment positioned inside the hazard zone (such as an artificial high directional tripod) should also be secured with a tether or safety line. To minimize the risk of rockfall, it is recommended to limit the number of personnel working near the edge. It's important to note that in British Columbia, Alberta, and the Northwest Territories, there are specific rules regarding fall arrest and the distance from an unprotected edge. In BC, for example, fall arrest is required if working within two meters (6.6 feet) of an unprotected edge. It is essential to understand and adhere to the applicable regulations and guidelines for your location to ensure the safety of all personnel working near the edge of a cliff or hazardous drop. The Vector Zone The Vector Zone is an area where the potential for rope recoil or snapback hazard exists. When a tensioned rope breaks or a component forming a rope bight fails, the energy within the rope can cause it to recoil back in unpredictable directions with great force. This can result in severe injury to anyone in the path of the recoiling rope. To prevent injury, it's essential to avoid having personnel standing or working in the potential path of a rope bight under tension. This includes anyone working in the Vector Zone, where the risk of rope recoil or snapback hazard is high. By identifying and marking the Vector Zone and ensuring that personnel do not stand or work within it, the risk of injury due to rope recoil can be significantly reduced. It's crucial to educate all personnel involved in rope rescue operations about the dangers of the Vector Zone and the importance of maintaining a safe distance from ropes under tension to ensure everyone's safety. Avoid standing inside a bight of rope (vector zone) under tension, such as inside of a pulley system.

Personal Protective Equipment Personal protective equipment (PPE) is essential to ensuring the safety of rescuers during technical rescue operations. CSA and ANSI standards provide guidance on the design and use of PPE, setting important regulations and guidelines for the industry. For example, CSA Z259.10-06 outlines the requirements for full-body harnesses used in fall protection, while ANSI Z359.11-2014 sets the criteria for energy-absorbing lanyards and personal energy absorbers. These standards provide guidance on the design and testing of PPE to ensure its effectiveness and safety.

Page | 35

In addition to these standards, WorkSafeBC and Alberta OHS require rescuers to wear flame-resistant clothing, respiratory protection, high-visibility clothing, and fall protection gear during technical rescue operations. When it comes to harnesses, a Class II harness (also known as a seat harness) is typically worn in recreational climbing. However, in more complex rescue operations, such as technical rope rescue, a Class III full-body harness is required per the WSH regulations. This type of harness should be used when the potential for becoming inverted exists, and must meet the appropriate CSA and ANSI standards. Rescuers must also carry a range of personal equipment to ensure their safety during technical rescue operations. This equipment includes trauma scissors (to avoid using a knife around tensioned ropes, the radio), and hearing protection (to be employed when working around helicopters). When organizing gear on a personal harness, it's crucial to keep the equipment organized and avoid having any gear suspended on the harness that hangs below mid-thigh. Rescuers should carry a set of Purcell Prusiks, an additional set of Tandem Prusiks, supple and well-fitting leather gloves, a half dozen locking carabiners, and a webbing runner on their personal harness. All equipment must meet the appropriate CSA and ANSI standards, and must be regularly inspected and maintained to ensure its safety and effectiveness. By following these guidelines, rescuers can work safely and effectively during technical rescue operations, confident in the knowledge that they have the necessary PPE to keep them safe from harm.

Page | 36

Quiz: Chapter 3 - Safety Considerations In Rope Rescue Operations 1. What are the three main priorities in a rescue operation, in order of importance? a) Team, Self, Victim b) Self, Team, Victim c) Victim, Self, Team d) Victim, Team, Self

2. What is the role of a technical safety officer in a rescue operation? a) To command the operation b) To decide when to proceed with the operation c) To provide first aid to victims d) To communicate with the media

3. Why is maintaining a sense of "controlled urgency" important during a rescue operation? a) To keep everyone on edge b) To hurry and finish the operation quickly c) To ensure safety while working efficiently d) To make sure everyone is stressed

4. What should you do before using any system in a rescue operation? a) Give it a quick glance b) Perform a thorough safety check c) Use it without checking, as it should already be safe d) Check only if there is time

5. What is the minimum setback distance for a marked hazard zone near the edge of a cliff? a) 1 foot b) 3 feet c) 6 feet d) 9 feet

Page | 37

6. What is the Vector Zone in a rescue operation? a) The area of highest safety b) The area where rope recoil or snapback hazard exists c) The area where victims are found d) The area where the team rests

7. What is the purpose of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in a rescue operation? a) To look professional b) To ensure the safety of rescuers c) To make the operation more difficult d) To show off the latest gear

8. Which safety regulations and guidelines should you adhere to during a rescue operation? a) The ones you learned in school b) The ones that seem easiest to follow c) The ones specific to your location and operation d) The ones you find on the internet

9. What type of harness is typically required in more complex rescue operations? a) Class I harness b) Class II harness c) Class III full-body harness d) Class IV full-body harness

10. Why should gear not hang below mid-thigh when organized on a personal harness? a) It looks unprofessional b) It can cause the harness to tip over c) It can hinder movement and operation efficiency d) There is no specific reason

Page | 38

11. What should rescuers carry as part of their personal equipment during technical rescue operations? a) Only what they feel comfortable with b) Just a radio and a knife c) A range of equipment including trauma scissors, a radio, and hearing protection d) As much equipment as possible to be prepared for any situation

12. What is the main purpose of using redundancy in a rescue system? a) To make the system more complicated b) To have backups in case of a system component failure c) To ensure everyone is busy d) Redundancy has no purpose in a rescue system

13. Why is the use of standard terminology important in rescue operations? a) To sound professional b) To avoid confusion and enhance effective communication c) To make the operation seem more difficult d) To confuse those not involved in the operation

14. What is the main risk associated with the Vector Zone? a) Risk of rope slippage b) Risk of equipment failure c) Risk of injury due to rope recoil d) Risk of falling over the edge

15. What is the consequence of failing to perform a safety check on equipment before use? a) There are no consequences b) The equipment might not work as expected c) Increased risk of an incident within an incident d) The operation will take longer to complete

Page | 39

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 40

Answer Key 1. b) Self, Team, Victim 2. b) To decide when to proceed with the operation 3. c) To ensure safety while working efficiently 4. b) Perform a thorough safety check 5. c) 6 feet 6. b) The area where rope recoil or snapback hazard exists 7. b) To ensure the safety of rescuers 8. c) The ones specific to your location and operation 9. c) Class III full-body harness 10. c) It can hinder movement and operation efficiency 11. c) A range of equipment including trauma scissors, a radio, and hearing protection 12. b) To have backups in case of a system component failure 13. b) To avoid confusion and enhance effective communication 14. c) Risk of injury due to rope recoil 15. c) Increased risk of an incident within an incident

Page | 41

Chapter 4

Definitions

Page | 42

Chapter 4: Definitions ACCESSORY CORD: Cordage in sizes smaller than the main line, typically 8mm. There is a wide variety available in static & dynamic, sheath composition and thickness. ANCHOR: An object to secure a rope system to. An anchor may be manmade or natural. Pad any edges to protect the webbing or rope. Always keep in mind the thought that “your system is only as good as your weakest link”. ANCHORING PLATE: A tool used to gather multiple anchor points or multiple pieces of hardware. Also known as Gathering Plate or Bear Paw. ASCENDER: A device used to grip a rope, which is then used to ascend. This maybe a mechanical device or soft material such as a Prusik. In this class we will be using Purcell Prusiks because a mechanical ascender can damage or destroy a rope when shock loaded. AZTEK: (Set of Fours) One end of this kit is used as a Personal Mechanical Advantage system in either a 4:1 or 5:1 MA. The other end can be used for a personal travel restraint system. Other uses include but are not limited to, Litter scoop jiggers, tensioned tie backs, pick off attachments, and dynamic high directional. BELAY: To protect a person with a rope. Sometimes referred to as a safety. BELAY LINE: A back-up system to protect the mainline in case of failure. It also assists in the event the mainline jams up. This system is totally separate from the main line and should be on a separate anchor. BELAYER: Operator of the belay system. The belayer provides a back-up system, able to catch a fall. The belayer must be mentally prepared to catch a fall at any time during the operation. BRAKE BAR RACK: A variable friction device used for lowering and/or rappelling, sometimes referred to as a rappel rack. Two ropes can be run through the larger models, side-by-side. Friction is adjusted by adding or subtracting bars and by squeezing the bars together. CARABINER (‘biner): Carabiners are metal objects in oval or D shape with a gate to allow a rope to be installed or removed without untying the rope. They come in a wide variety of shapes, metals, and strength ratings. All have a gate, long axis, and short axis. The D shape is stronger than oval because it puts most of the load along the spine instead of loading across the gate area. Locking carabiners come with a knurled rotating knob, which locks the gate closed. Older models are prone to jamming when locked under load. They must be re-loaded to be unlocked. Carabiners of more recent design have non-jamming gates. CATASTROPHIC FAILURE: Failure of the system. The equipment, or anchor system failed, causing the load to drop. The most common cause of catastrophic failure is the human element not properly using the equipment. Technical rescue requires education, regular training, teamwork, and extreme attention to detail. CHANGE OVER: The act of changing a system from a lowering operation to a hauling operation. It can be done under tension or slacked and usually requires the same operation for the belay line. DESCENDER: Any device used for rappel. A device that creates friction such as, figure eight devices or brake racks. DYNAMIC ROPE: A rope designed to stretch and reduce the impact on a fall EDGE PROTECTION: Something placed over the edge to protect the rope and assist its movement. This may be a roller or canvas. EDGE PERSON (OR TENDER): The person that works at the edge during rescue operations. They assist with the litter or help communicate between rescuer and hauling team. The Edge attendant may have to go over the edge to assist with litter edge transition.

Page | 43

FALL FACTOR: Rope length in use divided by fall distance equals Fall factor. A fall of 1 or greater will likely result in serious injury or death. EIGHT PLATE: A personal rappel tool resembling a sea anchor. They come in various sizes and materials. The ears assist in tying off and in avoiding an unintentional lock-off. The figure- eight descender is widely used in rescue as a personal rappel tool. They have minimal friction adjustment ability and friction cannot be easily changed once they are loaded. Figure-eight descenders put twists and kinks in the rope and are NOT to be used for rappel-based pick offs. They are also intended for a single person load only. FRICTION: The resistance of an object to the medium through which or on which it is traveling. In rope rescue, friction on the rope occurs in relation to other equipment and the environment. Generally speaking, friction is our friend when lowering a load, and our enemy when raising. GIBB’S CAM: An ascending device used to form an attachment point to the rope. Gibb's cams work in the same way as toothed ascenders but with one major difference. The cam has dull teeth as opposed to sharp teeth. Gibb's cams are pull tested to 1,000 pounds. Gibb's cams come in various sizes and materials. They can be spring loaded or free running. NOT to be used within Zone One. GUIDING LINE: A rope used to deviate a load from a direct “fall line” during a raise or lower. HARDWARE: Metallic tools used in technical rescue (carabiner, brake racks, pulleys etc.). Types of metals in use include cast iron, cold rolled steel, extruded aluminum, cast aluminum, titanium, zircon, and heat-treated steel. HAUL PRUSIK: A system Prusik used as a grab to attach a pulley to when using a mechanical advantage. HAUL TEAM: A team assigned to pull on the load. HIGH ANGLE: Refers to an environment in which the load is predominately supported by the rope rescue system. At this angle you are employing a mainline and belay line. KERNMANTLE: A method of rope construction composed of a core (kern) surrounded by a sheath (mantle). The core accounts for approximately 75% of the strength and the sheath 25%. Can be either static or dynamic. KILO NEWTON: A measure of force. One Kilo Newton (KN) equals 224 pounds of force. KNOT PASS: The act of moving a knot (on either a main line or belay line) past a device in that line, such as a change of direction pulley, brake bar rack or any other piece of critical hard or software. This is commonly done under a live load. LEAD CLIMBING: The process in which a rescuer must climb in an upward, downward, or horizontal direction to access an injured or stranded civilian. During a lead climb, the rescuer is either self-belayed or belayed by a person qualified to do so. Scenarios that may require lead climbing includes cranes, power or communication towers, bridge girders, industrial settings, or even in trees not accessible by other means. LOAD RELEASE HITCH: An assembly of two carabineers and 33’ of accessory cord tied with a Munter hitch, typically used to introduce slack in a belay system to unlock tensioned prusiks. The Radium Release Hitch is a version of the Load Release Hitch. LOW ANGLE: Refers to an environment in which the load is predominately supported by itself and not the rope rescue system. (e.g., flat land or mild sloping surface). Where the angle of the slope, and the exposures to hazards for the rescuers and patient are low. For low angle rescues, litter attendants can literally walk the litter with patient up the hill. A belay line may be incorporated and, on some occasions, a 2:1 mechanical advantage to overcome minor obstacles and slope variations. MAIN LITTER ATTACHMENT POINT: The ring, carabineer, or screw link where the main and belay line attach to the litter; the gathering point.

Page | 44

MAIN LINE: The primary load carrying rope in the system. MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE: This is the ratio between a given load and the force required to move it. MUNTER HITCH: A friction hitch used for belay. A munter-hitch belay is only good for a 1 person load. NYLON: The primary software material used in technical rescue. Nylon is strong, durable, does not mildew, and comes in many forms for many uses. Nylon is damaged by ultraviolet light and hard surfaces. While strong, nylon products must be treated with care. PERSONAL PRUSIK: Used for personal fall protection, can be double wrapped. Usually made from 6mm or 7mm nylon cord. Found on AZTEK, and edge kits. May be used for Ascending and back up purposes. ( single person loads only) PIGGYBACK SYSTEMS: This is a separate mechanical advantage system attached to an existing mainline system. POLYESTER: Polyester ropes have very low stretch making them excellent for guying applications. They are excellent in both chemical and ultraviolet resistance. PRE-RIG: A system of rope or webbing, usually with a gathering point to attach a rope system to a litter. Sometimes referred to as a spider or bridle. PRUSIK: A device used to form an attachment point to the rope. The Prusik hitch is a software interface point of attachment, which will lock in either direction. Prusik loops (being a diameter of 60-80% of the main line) will normally fail before they damage the rope. System Prusiks shall be a minimum of 8mm in diameter when using 12.5mm rope. PULLEYS: Pulleys are used to redirect the forces or for mechanical advantage. They are made of various materials and utilize either sealed ball (90-95% efficient) or oilite (85-90% efficient) bearings. The wheel should be steel, and the side plates should swing open. Pulley diameter should be four times that of the rope to be used to maximize efficiency and less damaging to the rope, i.e. 1/2" rope = 2" pulley or larger. PURCELL PRUSIK: A personal Prusik system designed for many uses but mainly used in ascending and attaching to a rope system. These are adjustable. RATCHET PRUSIK: or progress capture prusik, used in a haul system to hold the load when resetting the pulley system. This Prusik should be placed at the last anchor pulley nearest the load. RESCUE LOAD: This is the total weight which is supported by the rope. According to NFPA this is 600 lbs. or 270 kgs. (this includes rescuer, victim and equipment). RESCUE ROPE: Rescue rope has a “two person” 600 pounds or 270 kilogram working load capacity. It usually is ½” or 12.7 mm in diameter, in order to meet NFPA 1983 rescue rope standards. Rope should have an ultimate tensile strength of at least 9000 pounds or greater. Rope used for both main and belay lines shall be low stretch kernmantle. RESULTANT FORCE: A resultant force is the single force which represents the vector sum of two or more forces. REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Student verbally explains a basic understanding of theory or concept, this may be shown through a series of questions and answers REQUISITE SKILL: Student demonstrates a skill or technique through a manipulative exercise ROPE CARE: New ropes should be inspected for flaws before use and washed to remove any soap products used during manufacture. Ropes should be stored in rope bags or coiled and hung on wooden pegs in a cool, dry place.

Page | 45

They should be inspected and washed after every use. Each rope will have tip tags identifying this itself. Each rope shall have a log indicating purchase date, date put into service, and use. ROPE INSPECTION: Visually inspect the sheath for damage and look for signs of the core showing through. Start at one end and feel for kinks in the core. Bend the rope back and forth between thumb and finger while working your way up the rope. ROPE MARKING: Mark only the tips of your rope, never mark the middle. The product "Whip- end Dip" is useful for marking the tips of software. The primary ingredient is poly vinyl chloride (PVC) and will not harm nylon. However, there is a solvent used to keep the PVC in liquid form. The solvent harms nylon. ROPE WASHING: There are several accepted methods for washing a rope. The simplest method is to fill a bathtub with cool water and flake your rope into the tub. A new toilet plunger purchased and tagged for ropes makes a nice agitator. Do not use chemicals such as detergent or Downey Softener, since their only purpose is beautification or to make the rope more pliable. An alternative is to use a commercial rope washer. The rope washer is designed to fit on the end of a hose. The rope is pulled up stream against the flow of water. The rope can be run through the rope washer as many times as needed to remove surface dirt. SIT HARNESS: A commercially sewn harness designed to fit the user and keep them in an upright position. Technical rescue harnesses differ from sport models by having a lower point of attachment, often by use of a large D ring. We recommend that you wash your harness using the bathtub method and inspect the stitching on a regular basis. SOFTWARE: Non-metallic rescue equipment. Edge pads, rope bags, equipment packs, sit and chest harnesses, foot stirrups, rope, webbing, etc. SOFT INTERFACE: Utilizing software at high-load points. A current trend within the rescue community. Examples: Tandem Prusiks and Guide's Rappel Back-up. STATIC ROPE: Low stretch. Low energy absorbing capability. In order to provide high load carrying ability, our rescue ropes are of static construction. Static rope, while strong, has little ability to absorb the forces of a fall. It's like working with steel cable. Static ropes should not be used for climbing. STEEL RINGS, RESCUE RATED: The use of large steel rings has become popular in technical rescue. They are most often used as the main litter gathering point. In physics the round shape is not designed to be pulled in opposite directions. The fact that these particular rings carry a very high breaking strength (40,000 lbs) means that they have been over- engineered. We have incorporated these tools into our litter rigging. SYSTEM PRUSIK: Made from 8mm cord in lengths of 54’’ and 65’’. Any system Prusik used on a main or belay line shall be triple wrapped. TANDEM PRUSIK BELAY: This is the traditional method of belay throughout the fire service, It is made up of two Prusiks, one approximately 135 cm long and the other approximately 165 cm long. TOWER RIG: A tower rig is a means for the rescuer to be self-belayed and allows the rescuer to move rapidly to access a patient while being protected from a fall. Most Tower Rigs are purchased from a commercial manufacturer and consist of two large carabiners or locking “claws” on two short lanyards terminating at a shock absorbing component. VECTOR: A force applied to a system in order to control the initial movement of a load. An edge person may apply a vector to the system while assisting the litter over the edge. WEAK LINK: The point most likely to fail. Identification of the weak link in a system requires intimate knowledge of the equipment. It also requires the ability to identify all critical angles in the system and limit them to 90 degrees

Page | 46

or less. In technical rescue, we must be able to see each individual piece of the puzzle while maintaining a view of the overall system. WEBBING: There are many types of nylon webbing. We use one-inch tubular spiral weave and flat webbing. The advantage to spiral weave is, if the webbing is damaged, it will not unravel. Unfortunately, many manufacturers are discontinuing the spiral weave process and are now making tubular by taking 2-inch webbing, folding it in half, and stitching one side. Tubular webbing comes only in solid colors, rated at 4000#. Flat weave is rated at 6000#. WHISTLE TEST: The whistle test is a way to confirm that your operation is as safe as possible. When performing the whistle test, in theory if everyone let go of what they are holding onto when they hear the whistle blow…what happen to the load? Your answer should be…NOTHING! It stopped where it was. Z-RIG: A common name for a 3:1 simple pulley system.

Page | 47

Chapter 5 Roles, Responsibilities, and Incident Command (ICS) For Small to Large Scale Rescue Incidents

Page | 48

Chapter 5: Roles, Responsibilities, and Incident Command System (ICS) for Small to Large Scale Rescue Operations By the end of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand the roles and responsibilities of the Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS), including communication with the Incident Commander, maintaining team accountability, conducting hazard analysis and risk assessment, assigning team roles, creating action plans, ensuring safety and scene security, and managing incident communications. 2. Explore the duties of the Technical Safety Officer (TSO), focusing on scene safety, use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), maintaining passport accountability, safety checks, equipment approval, and providing for medical care needs. 3. Comprehend the responsibilities of the Rigging Team Leader, with a focus on their contribution to the selection of rope systems, supervision of the Rigging Team, communication of the action plan, and their role in the engineering, construction, and operation of rope systems. 4. Understand the role of the Entry Team Leader in a rescue operation, including the supervision of the Entry and Backup Team, communication and implementation of the action plan, safety and equipment management, team monitoring and awareness, and authority over rope system movement. 5. Learn how each of these roles collaborate and work together to achieve a successful and safe rescue operation. 6. Gain knowledge on the importance of safety checks, accountability, and effective communication in rescue operations. 7. Understand the importance of contingency planning in rescue operations and how each role contributes to these plans. 8. Learn the importance of correct usage of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in rescue operations and the responsibilities of each role in ensuring their proper use. 9. Understand the role of Basic Life Support (BLS) in rescue operations and how it is managed by the different roles. 10. Learn about the process of safety checks and equipment approval in a rescue operation and how it contributes to overall operational safety.

Page | 49

ICS (Incident Command System) The Incident Command System (ICS) is a standardized approach to the command, control, and coordination of emergency response. It provides a common hierarchy within which responders from multiple agencies can be effective. ICS has been established by the NIMS (National Incident Management System) and it outlines a standardized organizational structure for incident management while allowing for a flexible, scalable response. The Incident Command System (ICS) is a standardized approach to the command, control, and coordination of emergency response. It provides a common hierarchy within which responders from multiple agencies can be effective. Here are the key steps to follow ICS: 1. Establish Incident Command: The first responder on the scene should establish command. The command can be transferred to a higher-ranking or more qualified individual as they arrive on the scene. 2. Assess the Situation: Gather as much information as possible about the incident. This includes the type and size of the incident, potential hazards, safety concerns, and available resources. 3. Establish Incident Objectives: Determine what needs to be achieved based on the situation assessment. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). 4. Develop an Incident Action Plan (IAP): The IAP outlines the incident objectives and the strategies and tactics to achieve them. It should be communicated to all responders and updated as the situation evolves. 5. Assign Resources: Allocate available resources to carry out the IAP. This includes personnel, equipment, and supplies. 6. Establish an Incident Command Post (ICP): The ICP is the location from which the Incident Commander oversees all incident operations. The ICP should be located in a safe area close to the incident site. 7. Establish Sections as Needed: Depending on the size and complexity of the incident, the Incident Commander may establish additional sections (Operations, Planning, Logistics, and Finance/Administration) and appoint Section Chiefs to manage them. 8. Maintain Incident Documentation: All decisions and actions should be documented for accountability, legal, and learning purposes. 9. Demobilize: Once the incident objectives have been achieved, resources should be demobilized, and the incident command should be terminated. 10. Conduct an After-Action Review (AAR): After the incident, conduct an AAR to identify what went well, what could be improved, and lessons learned for future incidents. Remember, the main goal of ICS is to ensure the safety of responders and others, achieve incident management goals, and ensure the efficient use of resources.

Page | 50

1. Incident Commander (IC): The IC is the overall leader of the incident response. They are responsible for all aspects of the response, including developing incident objectives and managing all incident operations. 2. Safety Officer (SO): The SO monitors operational activities and ensures that safety protocols are being followed. They have the authority to stop or prevent unsafe acts during the incident response. 3. Information Officer (IO): The IO is responsible for communicating with the public, media, and other agencies. This includes providing updates and answering questions about the incident. 4. Liaison Officer (LO): The LO is the point of contact for representatives of other governmental agencies, NGOs, and/or the private sector. 5. Operations Section: This section is responsible for all tactical operations related to the incident. This includes the Rescue Team, Medical Support, and Logistics Support. 6. Rescue Team: This team is responsible for performing the actual high angle rescue. They work under the direction of the Team Leader. 7. Team Leader (TL): The TL is responsible for the direct management and oversight of the Rescue Team. They coordinate the team's activities and ensure that tasks are carried out safely and effectively. 8. Rescuer: These are the individuals who perform the actual rescue. They work under the direction of the Team Leader. 9. Medical Support: This group provides medical care as needed during the incident. This could include treating injured victims or providing care to rescue workers. 10. Logistics Support: This group is responsible for providing logistical support to the operation. This could include equipment supply, transportation, food, and other supplies. 11. Planning Section: This section is responsible for collecting, evaluating, and disseminating operational information related to the incident. They are also responsible for preparing and documenting Incident Action Plans. 12. Logistics Section: This section provides support to meet the incident needs, including resources supply, facilities, transportation, and services.

Page | 51

13. Finance/Admin Section: This section is responsible for all financial aspects of the incident response. This could include tracking costs, accounting, and procurement. Each role is crucial for the successful resolution of the incident and the safety of all involved. In larger operations, each of these roles may be delegated to multiple individuals to ensure that each aspect of the incident is adequately managed. For example, the Operations Section Chief might have several deputies or may have several Branch Directors reporting to him, each managing a different geographical area of the operation or a different technical aspect of the rescue. The ICS structure is designed to be flexible. It expands to meet the needs of the incident, but it can also contract when those needs decrease. The goal is always to maintain clear command and control and to ensure the most effective use of resources. The ICS structure applies regardless of the scale of the incident or the number of agencies involved in the response. It ensures that there is always one person in charge - the Incident Commander and that everyone else in the system has a clear reporting relationship and a clear set of responsibilities.

Chain Of Command

The chain of command is a principle used in many organizational structures, including the Incident Command System (ICS). It refers to the line of authority and responsibility along which orders are passed within the organization, from the highest rank, down to the lowest. Here's how it works: 1. Direction: Orders and instructions flow down the chain of command from higher-ranking officials (like the Incident Commander) to lower-ranking personnel (like the Rescuer). This ensures that everyone knows what they're supposed to do. 2. Communication: Information, feedback, and reports flow up the chain of command. This allows higher-ranking officials to stay informed about what's happening on the ground. 3. Authority: Each person in the chain of command has authority over the people below them. This means they can give orders and make decisions within their area of responsibility.

Page | 52

Here's how to use it: 1. Follow the Chain: Always communicate with and take orders from your immediate superior. If you're a Team Leader, for example, you should be communicating with your Section Chief, not the Incident Commander. 2. Respect the Hierarchy: Don't bypass the chain of command without a good reason. If you do need to bypass levels, it's generally considered polite to inform your immediate superior. 3. Communicate Effectively: Make sure to pass information up and down the chain of command as necessary. If you're a Rescuer and you notice a problem, report it to your Team Leader so they can pass the information up the chain. Here's why it's important: 1. Efficiency: The chain of command helps to organize the flow of communication and orders, which increases efficiency and ensures that everyone knows their role. 2. Accountability: The chain of command creates a system of accountability. Each person in the chain is responsible for a certain task and reports to the person above them 3. Decision Making: The chain of command facilitates decision making. Decisions are made at various levels, and each person in the chain has authority within their area of responsibility. In summary, the chain of command is a crucial tool for maintaining order, ensuring clear communication, and facilitating decision-making in complex operations.

Roles & Responsibilities Rescue Group Supervisor (Incident Commander): The Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS) holds a critical leadership role as the Incident Commander overseeing the rescue team operations. Reporting directly to the on-scene Incident Commander, the RGS is responsible for the coordination and execution of the rescue mission. Here are the key roles and responsibilities of the Rescue Group Supervisor: 1. Reporting and Accountability: • •

Reports directly to the on-scene Incident Commander, providing updates on the rescue team's operations and progress. Ensures passport accountability, maintaining a continuous awareness of the location and condition of all team members.

2. Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment: • •

Determines whether the rescue operation is in RESCUE or RECOVERY mode based on a continuous hazard analysis and risk assessment. Identifies potential hazards and assesses risks to ensure the safety of personnel involved in the operation.

3. Personnel Assignments: •

Makes key personnel assignments, including the Technical Safety Officer, Rigging Team Leader, Entry Team Leader, Support Team Leader, and Back-Up Team (as required).

Page | 53

•

Ensures that each assigned team leader understands their roles and responsibilities within the rescue operation.

4. Action Plan and Contingency Planning: • • •

Develops an action plan that outlines the approach, objectives, and strategies for the rescue operation. Communicates the action plan to all team members and ensures its adherence throughout the operation. Develops a back-up contingency plan to address unforeseen circumstances or emergencies that may arise during the rescue mission.

5. Safety and Scene Security: • • •

Provides and maintains a safe and secure scene for all personnel involved in the rescue operation. Ensures that the appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is utilized by all team members to mitigate potential hazards. Ensures that equipment necessary to protect personnel from known and potential hazards is provided.

6. Incident Communications: • •

Initiates, maintains, and controls incident communications to facilitate effective coordination among team members. Ensures that all communication channels are operational and that clear and concise communication is maintained throughout the operation.

7. Medical Care and Pre-entry Briefing: • •

Ensures that at least basic life support (BLS) medical care is available and provided to personnel during the rescue operation. Conducts a pre-entry briefing with the Entry Team, ensuring that all necessary information and safety considerations are communicated.

8. Safety Checks and Equipment Approval: • • •

Ensures that all rope systems have been safety checked by the Technical Safety Officer and Rigging Team Leader prior to their operation. Understands and approves the safety checks conducted by team leaders to ensure the readiness and compliance of equipment and personnel. The Rescue Group Supervisor plays a vital role in orchestrating the rescue operation, ensuring the safety of personnel, and maintaining effective communication and coordination among team members. By fulfilling these responsibilities, the RGS ensures a well-organized and efficient rescue mission that maximizes the potential for success while prioritizing the safety of all involved.

Page | 54

Technical Safety Officer (TSO): The Technical Safety Officer (TSO) plays a crucial role in overseeing the safety aspects of a rescue operation. As an integral part of the rescue team, the TSO works directly under the supervision of the Rescue Group Leader (RGL). The TSO's primary responsibility is to ensure the overall safety of personnel involved in the rescue operation. Here are the specific duties and responsibilities of the Technical Safety Officer: 1. Reporting and Scene Safety: • • •

Reports directly to the Rescue Group Leader. Performs a continuous hazard analysis and risk assessment to identify potential dangers and risks at the scene. Ensures scene security to prevent unauthorized access and maintain a safe environment for all personnel involved.

2. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and Equipment Safety: • •

Ensures that all personnel are equipped with the appropriate PPE to provide protection from the hazards they may encounter during the rescue operation. Provides direction and guidance on the proper use of equipment to ensure the safety of personnel.

3. Personnel Accountability and Safety Awareness: • • • •

Ensures passport accountability, maintaining an ongoing awareness of the location and condition of all team members. Monitors the safety and well-being of personnel throughout the operation. Approves the action plan developed for the rescue operation and ensures that it is adhered to. Approves the backup contingency plan to address potential emergencies or unforeseen circumstances.

4. Medical Care and Preparedness: • •

Ensures that at least basic life support (BLS) medical care is available and provided to personnel during the rescue operation. Is present at the pre-entry briefing with the Entry Team to address any medical concerns or considerations.

5. Safety Checks and Equipment Approval: • • •

Ensures that all rope systems have been safety checked by the Rigging Team Leader and verifies their compliance with safety standards. Double-checks the safety of the Entry Team, conducted by the Entry Team Leader, to ensure their readiness and compliance with safety protocols. Ensures that the Entry Team is properly equipped and secured, and that all necessary equipment and medical supplies for the treatment and packaging of patients are present and secured.

The Technical Safety Officer's expertise and oversight contribute to the overall safety and success of the rescue operation. By fulfilling these responsibilities, the TSO ensures that safety measures are in place, potential hazards are mitigated, and personnel are equipped to respond effectively to the challenges of the rescue operation.

Page | 55

Rigging Team Leader (Rigger) The Rigging Team Leader, also known as the Rigger, plays a critical role in ensuring the proper setup and safe operation of rope systems during rescue operations. As a key member of the rescue team, the Rigging Team Leader works closely with the Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS) to oversee the Main Line Team and Belay Line Team. Here are the specific responsibilities and duties of the Rigging Team Leader: 1. Reporting and Assistance: • • • •

Reports directly to the Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS). Assists the RGS in determining the type of rope system(s) to be utilized for the operation. Provides input on the selection of anchor points, considering their location and type. Determines the most suitable location for setting up the rope system(s).

2. Direct Supervision and Safety: • •

Assumes direct supervision and ensures the safety of all personnel assigned to the Rigging Team, including the Main Line Team and Belay Line Team. Ensures that all rope systems undergo thorough safety checks, and that these checks are double-checked by the Technical Safety Officer (TSO) prior to operation.

3. Communication: • •

Understands the action plan developed for the rescue operation and effectively communicates it to all personnel assigned to the Rigging Team. Ensures that team members are aware of their roles and responsibilities within the action plan.

4. Engineering and Construction: • •

Takes responsibility for the engineering, construction, and operation of all rope-based systems utilized during the rescue operation. Visualizes the integrity of the rope system(s) in motion and assesses its impact or potential effect on all personnel who rely on the rope system(s) for their safety, as well as those working on or around the rope system(s).

5. Contingency Plan: • •

Develops a contingency plan before the initial operation of the rope system(s), addressing the utilization of additional rope systems in case of emergencies or unforeseen circumstances. Collaborates with the Rescue Group Leader (RGL) to establish and approve the contingency plan, ensuring it aligns with the requirements set by the Technical Safety Officer (TSO).

The Rigging Team Leader's expertise in engineering and operating rope systems is crucial to the successful execution of rescue operations. By fulfilling these responsibilities, the Rigging Team Leader ensures the safety and effectiveness of the rope systems, providing a solid foundation for the entire rescue operation.

Page | 56

Entry Team Leader (Lead Rescuer): The Entry Team Leader, also known as the Lead Rescuer, plays a crucial role in ensuring the safe and efficient execution of rope rescue operations. This position holds significant responsibilities and works closely with the Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS) or Incident Commander to coordinate and oversee the Entry Team and Backup Team. The following are the key responsibilities and duties of the Entry Team Leader: 1. Reporting and Supervision: • •

Reports directly to the Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS) or Incident Commander. Assumes direct supervision and ensures the safety of all personnel assigned to the Entry Team and Backup Team.

2. Communication and Action Plan: • •

Understands the action plan for the rescue operation and effectively communicates it to personnel on the Entry Team and Backup Team. Ensures that all team members are aware of their roles and responsibilities within the action plan.

3. Safety and Equipment: • • • •

Ensures that all personnel on the Entry Team and Backup Team are equipped with proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) specific to the rescue scenario. Verifies that team members have the means to communicate effectively with the Entry Team Leader or RGS in case of an emergency. Ensures that the Entry Team is securely connected to the designated rope system(s) before deployment. Checks and confirms the availability and secure placement of necessary PPE and medical equipment for the patient.

4. Team Monitoring and Awareness: • •

Maintains constant awareness of the location and condition of all Entry Team members throughout the operation. Monitors team members' well-being, ensuring their safety and readiness during the rescue process.

5. Safety Checks and Approvals: •

Ensures that the Entry Team's PPE and attachment to the rope system have undergone thorough safety checks and received approval from the Technical Safety Officer (TSO) prior to deployment.

6. Line of Sight and Communication: • •

Positions themselves strategically to maintain a continuous line of sight with the Entry Team, Main Line Team, and Belay Line Team Facilitates clear and effective communication regarding the starting, stopping, re-setting, and speed control of the rope systems.

7. Authority and Control: • •

Holds the authority to initiate motion of the rope system or restart it if necessary. Is the only person at the rope rescue incident with the authorization to control the movement of the rope systems.

Page | 57

8. Additional Duties: •

In the absence of sufficient qualified rope rescue-based technicians, the RGS may assume the duties of the Entry Team Leader to ensure proper support and supervision in all critical positions.

By fulfilling these responsibilities, the Entry Team Leader plays a pivotal role in maintaining the safety and success of rope rescue operations. The Entry Team Leader's leadership, expertise, and ability to coordinate with other team members contribute to the overall effectiveness of the rescue mission.

Page | 58

Chapter 5: Roles, Responsibilities, and Incident Command System (ICS) for Small to Large Scale Rescue Operations Quiz 1. Who does the Rescue Group Supervisor (RGS) report to? a. The Technical Safety Officer b. The on-scene Incident Commander c. The Entry Team Leader d. The Rigging Team Leader

2. What is the role of the RGS in terms of hazard analysis and risk assessment? a. To assign this task to the Support Team Leader b. To determine whether the operation is in RESCUE or RECOVERY mode c. To ensure that all equipment is operational d. To report directly to the on-scene Incident Commander

3. Who does the RGS make key personnel assignments for? a. Only the Rigging Team Leader and Entry Team Leader b. The Technical Safety Officer, Rigging Team Leader, Entry Team Leader, Support Team Leader, and Back-Up Team c. Only the Support Team Leader d. Only the Back-Up Team

4. What is the role of the RGS in terms of action planning? a. To delegate this task to the Support Team Leader b. To develop an action plan and a contingency plan c. To ensure that all rope systems have been safety checked d. To ensure that the Entry Team is properly equipped

Page | 59

5. Who ensures that the appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is utilized by all team members? a. The Entry Team Leader b. The Rigging Team Leader c. The Rescue Group Supervisor d. The Technical Safety Officer

6. Who is responsible for initiating, maintaining, and controlling incident communications? a. The Technical Safety Officer b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Support Team Leader d. The Rescue Group Supervisor

7. Who conducts a pre-entry briefing with the Entry Team? a. The Rigging Team Leader b. The Support Team Leader c. The Rescue Group Supervisor d. The Entry Team Leader

8. Who ensures that all rope systems have been safety checked? a. The Entry Team Leader b. The Rescue Group Supervisor c. The Technical Safety Officer d. The Rigging Team Leader

9. Who does the Technical Safety Officer report to? a. The Rescue Group Supervisor b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Support Team Leader d. The Rigging Team Leader

Page | 60

10. Who approves the action plan for the rescue operation? a. The Rigging Team Leader b. The Technical Safety Officer c. The Rescue Group Supervisor d. The Entry Team Leader

11. Who approves the safety checks conducted by the Rigging Team Leader? a. The Entry Team Leader b. The Rescue Group Supervisor c. The Technical Safety Officer d. The Support Team Leader

12. Who assists the RGS in determining the type of rope system(s) to be utilized for the operation? a. The Entry Team Leader b. The Support Team Leader c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Technical Safety Officer

13. Who takes responsibility for the engineering, construction, and operation of all rope-based systems? a. The Support Team Leader b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Rescue Group Supervisor

Page | 61

14. Who reports directly to the Rescue Group Supervisor or Incident Commander? a. The Rigging Team Leader b. The Technical Safety Officer c. The Entry Team Leader d. The Support Team Leader

15. Who ensures that the Entry Team is securely connected to the designated rope system(s) before deployment? a. The Rigging Team Leader b. The Support Team Leader c. The Entry Team Leader d. The Rescue Group Supervisor

16. Who holds the authority to initiate motion of the rope system or restart it if necessary? a. The Technical Safety Officer b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Support Team Leader

17. Who is the only person at the rope rescue incident with the authorization to control the movement of the rope systems? a. The Rescue Group Supervisor b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Technical Safety Officer

18. Who can assume the duties of the Entry Team Leader in the absence of sufficient qualified rope rescue-based technicians? a. The Support Team Leader b. The Rescue Group Supervisor c. The Technical Safety Officer d. The Rigging Team Leader

Page | 62

19. Who ensures that all personnel are equipped with the appropriate PPE to provide protection from the hazards they may encounter during the rescue operation? a. The Rescue Group Supervisor b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Technical Safety Officer

20. Who checks and confirms the availability and secure placement of necessary PPE and medical equipment for the patient? a. The Support Team Leader b. The Rigging Team Leader c. The Technical Safety Officer d. The Entry Team Leader

21. Who develops a contingency plan before the initial operation of the rope system(s)? a. The Technical Safety Officer b. The Rescue Group Supervisor c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Entry Team Leader

22. Who maintains an ongoing awareness of the location and condition of all team members? a. The Rescue Group Supervisor b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Technical Safety Officer d. The Rigging Team Leader

Page | 63

23. Who positions themselves strategically to maintain a continuous line of sight with the Entry Team, Main Line Team, and Belay Line Team? a. The Technical Safety Officer b. The Entry Team Leader c. The Rigging Team Leader d. The Rescue Group Supervisor

24. Who verifies the safety of the Entry Team, conducted by the Entry Team Leader, to ensure their readiness and compliance with safety protocols? a. The Rigging Team Leader b. The Support Team Leader c. The Technical Safety Officer d. The Rescue Group Supervisor

25. Who develops a back-up contingency plan to address unforeseen circumstances or emergencies that may arise during the rescue mission? a. The Technical Safety Officer b. The Rigging Team Leader c. The Entry Team Leader d. The Rescue Group Supervisor

Page | 64

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 65

Answers:

1. B. The on-scene Incident Commander 2. B. To determine whether the operation is in RESCUE or RECOVERY mode 3. B. The Technical Safety Officer, Rigging Team Leader, Entry Team Leader, Support Team Leader, and Back-Up Team 4. B. To develop an action plan and a contingency plan 5. C. The Rescue Group Supervisor 6. D. The Rescue Group Supervisor 7. C. The Rescue Group Supervisor 8. D. The Rigging Team Leader 9. A. The Rescue Group Supervisor 10. C. The Rescue Group Supervisor 11. B. The Rescue Group Supervisor 12. C. The Rigging Team Leader 13. C. The Rigging Team Leader 14. B. The Technical Safety Officer 15. A. The Rigging Team Leader 16. C. The Rigging Team Leader 17. C. The Rigging Team Leader 18. A. The Support Team Leader 19. A. The Rescue Group Supervisor 20. D. The Entry Team Leader 21. B. The Rescue Group Supervisor 22. A. The Rescue Group Supervisor 23. C. The Rigging Team Leader 24. C. The Technical Safety Officer 25. B. The Rescue Group Supervisor

Page | 66

Chapter 6

Communications

Page | 67

Chapter 6: Communications Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Understand the importance of clear and concise communication during emergency rescue operations. 2. Identify common commands used during rescue operations and their corresponding actions. 3. Recognize the significance of using specific terminology to ensure effective communication among rescuers. 4. Understand the role of the team leader as the sole authority to give commands for proceeding. 5. Recognize the role of whistle commands as an alternative means of communication during rescue operations.

Clear and concise communication is critical during emergency rescues. Using specific terminology helps ensure that everyone understands the direction of the rescuer. For example, when referring to directions, rescuers in BC and AB use the terminology according to the direction the rescuer is facing. To the right of the rescuer is face right, and to the left of the rescuer is face left. For river and stream operations, river right is on the rescuer's right as they face downstream, and river left is on the left facing downstream. It is essential to keep the vocabulary for commands to a minimum and use only clear and concise words. The only word for "stop" is "Stop!" This term should not be substituted. For instance, "whoa" can be confused with "slow" or even worse, "go." Only the team leader gives the command to proceed. The following are common commands used during rescue operations:

COMMAND: "DOWN" "DOWN SLOW" “DOWN DOWN DOWN” "UP" "UP SLOW" "UP UP UP" "STOP!" "WHY STOP?" "BELAY READY?" "BELAY READY!" "MAIN-LINE READY?" "MAIN-LINE READY!" "ATTENDANT READY?" "ATTENDANT READY!" "STAND-BY" "SET" "RESET" "RACK TIGHT" DCD - SCARAB MPD

Common Commands CORRESPONDING ACTIONS: command to lower from controller command for a slow and easy descent command to increase the speed of descent command to raise from the controller command for a slow and easy raise command to increase the speed of raise command to stop from anyone question from controller to determine the problem question if Belay is ready to take a load response to confirm ready if loaded question if the mainline is ready to move the load response to confirm the mainline is ready to move question if the attendant is ready for the system to move response by the attendant to confirm ready response by any system piece requiring more time set systems and prepare for reset or changeover after the system is set, haul systems are reset for raising command to remove all slack in the Main Line wrap the rope around ALL four horns. engage the secondary friction post.

Page | 68

Whistle Commands: Whistle commands can also be used to communicate during rescue operations. The following are some common whistle commands: PATTERN One long blast Four short blasts Two short blasts Three short blasts Continuous

CORRESPONDING ACTIONS "STOP" "OFF ROPE" (the rope is free) "UP" “DOWN” "HELP-TROUBLE-ALERT”

Page | 69

Chapter 6: Communications Quiz 1. In BC and AB, when referring to directions, what terminology is used based on the direction the rescuer is facing? A. Front right and front left B. Face right and face left C. Right hand and left hand D. River right and river left

2. Which of the following terms should NOT be substituted for "STOP!" during rescue operations? A. Halt B. Whoa C. Freeze D. All of the above

3. Who gives the command to proceed during rescue operations? A. Entry Team Leader B. Technical Safety Officer C. Rigging Team Leader D. Rescue Group Supervisor

4. What does the command "DOWN DOWN DOWN" mean during rescue operations? A. A slow and easy descent B. A command to lower from the controller C. To increase the speed of descent D. A command to stop immediately

5. What does one long whistle blast signify during rescue operations? A. "STOP" B. "OFF ROPE" C. "UP" D. "DOWN"

Page | 70

6. What does the command "RACK TIGHT" mean during rescue operations? A. Remove all slack in the Main Line B. Set systems and prepare for reset or changeover C. Engage the secondary friction post D. Reset the system for raising

7. What does the whistle pattern of two short blasts correspond to? A. "STOP" B. "OFF ROPE" C. "UP" D. "DOWN"

Page | 71

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 72

Answer Key: 1. C. Right hand and left hand 2. D. All of the above 3. A. Entry Team Leader 4. B. A command to lower from the controller 5. B. "OFF ROPE" 6. A. Remove all slack in the Main Line 7. B. "UP"

Page | 73

Chapter 7

Fall Forces & Dynamic Forces in Rescue Operations

Page | 74

Chapter 7: Fall Factors & Dynamic Forces in Rescue Operations During rescue operations, shock forces generated during fall arrests are a critical factor to consider. The force on the system will increase in a linear manner with acceleration from longer falls for systems involving climbing/high stretch ropes. However, this is not the case for low-stretch ropes. Fall factor, which measures fall severity, is calculated from the length of the fall divided by the rope available for energy absorption. Typically, a factor 2 fall is the highest encountered in a climbing situation, where the rescuer lead climbs above the belayer. A fall factor 2 on low-stretch rope generates enough force to cause injury or death. Therefore, it is essential to build a system stronger than the intended maximum rescue load to avoid dynamic events. In the worst-case scenario (e.g., a 1m drop on 3m of rope with a rescue-sized load), the potential for a dynamic event to occur highlights the need for a stronger system. For example, a knotted lowstretch rope can fail from tension below its rated strength by the dynamic forces of a falling mass, which puts too much stress on the rope too quickly. Edge transition, either down over or up to, with a rescue-sized load and little rope in service, is one of the potential scenarios for generating the highest shock forces. To address this issue, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard- NFPA1983 recommends using dynamic ropes specifically designed for climbing when fall factors greater than 0.25 are anticipated, such as in lead climbing. Fall factors greater than 0.25 are considered to generate unacceptable impact loads. By considering these factors and utilizing the appropriate equipment, rescuers can minimize the risk of injuries and fatalities during fall arrests.

Page | 75

Chapter 7 - Fall Factors & Dynamic Forces in Rescue Operations Quiz 1. What is the fall factor and how is it calculated? 1. 2. 3. 4.

Fall distance divided by rope available for energy absorption Rope available for energy absorption divided by fall distance Fall distance multiplied by rope available for energy absorption Rope available for energy absorption multiplied by fall distance

2. In a climbing situation, what is the highest fall factor typically encountered? a) b) c) d)

Factor 0.5 Factor 1 Factor 1.5 Factor 2

3. What can happen if a knotted low-stretch rope experiences dynamic forces from a falling mass? A. B. C. D.

The rope will stretch and absorb the force The rope can fail from tension below its rated strength The rope will not be affected by the dynamic forces The rope will become more elastic

4. In which scenario can the highest shock forces be generated? A. B. C. D.

Edge transition with a rescue-sized load and little rope in service During a long fall with a high-stretch rope When the rescuer is lead climbing above the belayer When using dynamic ropes specifically designed for climbing

5. According to NFPA1983, when should dynamic ropes be used? A. B. C. D.

When fall factors greater than 0.1 are anticipated When fall factors greater than 0.25 are anticipated When fall factors greater than 0.5 are anticipated When fall factors greater than 1 are anticipated

Page | 76

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 77

Answer Key: 1. 1. D) Fall distance divided by rope available for energy absorption 2. 2. D) Factor 2 3. 3. B) The rope can fail from tension below its rated strength 4. 4. A) Edge transition with a rescue-sized load and little rope in service 5. 5. B) When fall factors greater than 0.25 are anticipated

Page | 78

Chapter 8

Ropes, Webbing & Knots Terminology

Page | 79

Chapter 8: Ropes, Webbing & Knots Terminology Learning Objectives: At the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Understand the importance and role of ropes, webbing, and knots in rescue operations. 2. Identify different types of ropes and webbing used in rescue scenarios and their characteristics. 3. Familiarize with key terminology related to ropes and webbing, such as tensile strength, diameter, and working load limit. 4. Recognize the significance of conducting inspections and maintenance of ropes and webbing for safety and reliability. 5. Identify and differentiate commonly used knots in rescue operations. 6. Understand the purposes and applications of knots in rescue scenarios. 7. Recognize the importance of proper knot tying techniques, including form, tension, and dressing. 8. Understand load-sharing and equalizing techniques when using multiple ropes or webbing. 9. Familiarize with specialized knots for specific rescue techniques. 10. Understand the importance of practicing knot tying and rope handling skills. 11. Recognize the limitations and risks associated with knots and the importance of backup systems. 12. Identify the importance of effective communication and understanding of rope, webbing, and knot terminology among rescuers. 13. Understand the need for continuous learning and staying updated with advancements in rope, webbing, and knot technology in rescue operations.

Page | 80

• • • • •

KNOT - when a strand of material is tied to itself (e.g. Figure 8) (“knot”, is a general term for all knots, bends, and hitches.) BEND - when two or more strands are tied to each other. (e.g. Flemish) HITCH - when a strand or strands are tied around another object. BIGHT - a 180° turn, U-shaped bend in a strand of rope. LOOP - a 360° turn in a strand of rope.

KNOT DEFINITIONS: ALPINE BUTTERFLY KNOT: This knot is used to form a loop in the middle of a rope. It is commonly used for attaching the rope to an anchor point. It is also useful for isolating a damaged or worn section of the rope. BACK-UP KNOT: A knot used to back-up the main load-bearing knot. Back-up knots should be nestled against the main knot to limit shock-load. Typically, a double overhand knot is used as a back-up. BOWLINE KNOT: A knot commonly used in the fire service. The advantage of this knot is that it is easy to untie after being loaded, which is why a back-up knot is required. The Yosemite finish is preferred. The variations that will be used in this class consist of long tail, interwoven, and the interlocking long tail. DOUBLE OVERHAND BEND: Also known as a double fisherman’s knot. Used to join two ends of rope together, commonly used for joining the ends of Prusik loops. DOUBLE OVERHAND KNOT: Preferred back-up knot. DIRECTIONAL EIGHT OR IN-LINE EIGHT: This knot is used for redirecting a rope. Used for tensioning or securing a system. The directional knot enables the rope to stay in line while securing the load. FIGURE EIGHT FOLLOW THROUGH: Used extensively in rope rescue, this knot is used to tie around an object. FIGURE EIGHT ON A BIGHT: Used to tie a loop in the end of a rope. ALPINE BUTTERFLY KNOT: This knot is used to form a loop in the middle of a rope. It is commonly used for attaching the rope to an anchor point. It is also useful for isolating a damaged or worn section of the rope. MUNTER HITCH: A simple and versatile knot used to belay a climber or lower a load. It can also be used as a self-braking knot while rappelling. The knot is easy to tie and untie, and can be loaded in either direction.

Page | 81

Kernmantle Ropes Rope rescue techniques rely on the use of specialized ropes that are designed for specific purposes. One of the most commonly used types is the kernmantle rope. This rope consists of a high-strength inner core (kern) covered by a protective, braided outer sheath (mantle). The core bears the majority of the load, while the sheath offers protection and also supports a portion of the load. There are three main classifications of kernmantle ropes: static, lowstretch, and dynamic. •

Static ropes were first manufactured by cavers in 1966 for rappelling and ascending purposes. These ropes have minimal stretch (about 2% with a 300lb load) and do not spin compared to laid rope construction. They are the most common type of rope used by rope rescue teams. Static ropes should not be used when a leader fall is possible, as they have a maximum elongation of 6% at 10% of their minimum breaking strength.

•

Low-stretch ropes have an elongation between 6% and 10% at 10% of their minimum breaking strength. These ropes have parallel core fibers to minimize elongation. Like static ropes, low-stretch ropes should not be used when a leader fall is possible.

•

Dynamic ropes are high-stretch ropes used primarily for lead climbing. They can stretch up to 60% of their breaking load. Due to their stretching properties, dynamic ropes should not be used for rescue loads.

In the fire service, 12.5 mm (1/2 inch) static ropes are commonly used, with a minimum breaking strength of 40 kN (9,000 lbf) as required by NFPA 1983. Rescue teams often have preferred rope lengths based on their local operating area. While there is no industry standard, common working rope lengths include 150, 200, 300, and 600 ft (46, 61, 91, and 183 m). Longer lengths can be used, but transportation to remote sites may be difficult. Short 50 ft (15.2 m) sections, known as "anchor ropes," are often used for topside rigging applications, such as edge lines, back-ties, and anchor point extensions. For recreational climbing or situations requiring dynamic ropes, lengths typically range from 30 to 80 m (98-262 ft), with the most common length being 60m (195 ft).

Page | 82

Ropes should be stored in a protective bag to facilitate easy deployment and safeguard them from the elements and abrasion. They must be kept in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area, away from harmful chemicals and solvents. Direct sunlight exposure should be avoided, as synthetic fibers can deteriorate under ultraviolet light. For life safety rope, ½-inch diameter kernmantle ropes that meet NFPA 1983 standards are generally used. The following minimum information must be affixed to both ends of the rope: • • • • •

An identifier linking the rope to its bag Rope length Date the rope was put into service "A" and "B" designators on each end Whether the rope is dynamic

A rope log should be maintained throughout the rope's service life, including at least the following details: • • • • • • • • • •

Manufacturer Lot number Manufacture date and service start date Rope color Diameter and length Static or dynamic designation Minimum breaking strength Rope usage history Inspection information Inspector's name and inspection date

Adhere to the manufacturer's recommendations for proper care, use, inspection, and maintenance. All life safety ropes must be inspected after purchase and before being placed in service, as well as after each use and at least semi-annually.

Page | 83

Webbing Webbing, specifically tubular webbing, is commonly used in rescue operations due to its ease of tying. There are two types of tubular webbing: edge-stitched and spiral weave. Edge-stitched webbing is created from flat webbing that is folded and sewn together, while spiral weave webbing is formed by weaving the tube as a whole unit. One-inch nylon tubular webbing is frequently employed in rescue scenarios, with a minimum breaking strength of 4,000 lbs. Common lengths of this webbing are colorcoded for easy identification: • • • • •

Green: 5 feet Yellow: 12 feet Blue: 15 feet Red: 20 feet Black: 25 feet

8mm low-stretch static kernmantle ropes have a breaking strength of 2,875 lbs, although this can vary depending on the manufacturer. Common lengths for a "Match Set" are 54 inches (untied) for the short and 65 inches (untied) for the long. When using a double overhand knot, the tails should extend a minimum of 2 inches. It is essential to test the compatibility of prusik sheath material with ropes from different manufacturers, as they may not perform as designed when used together. The prusik cord used for a Radium Release Hitch is commonly cut at 33 inches. Since prusik cords in a system experience above-average wear, they should be inspected after each use and semi-annually. Sewn prusik loops have the same minimum breaking strength (2,875 lbs) as their knotted counterparts. The manufacturer's sewing process replaces the double overhand knot. Rope logs should be maintained for these sewn prusik loops.

Knots Knots play an essential role in rescue operations, and certain factors make some knots or ties superior to others. These factors include the knot's ability to remain securely tied, the ease of untying, and its relative strength. Generally, a knot in a rope reduces the rope's strength by one-third. For tubular webbing, a knot decreases the strength by at least 45%. This reduction in strength is due to the sharp bends created by the knot within the rope.

Page | 84

The knot's strength is influenced by the sharpness of these bends and the angle at which the rope exits the knot. It is important to note that adding more knots to a line does not decrease the rope's strength by another one-third for each additional knot.

Page | 85

Figure 8’s Family The Figure 8 Family of Knots has long been a mainstay in the world of rope rescue and climbing, thanks to their exceptional strength, stability, and ease of use. The origin of figure-eight knots can be traced back to the early 19th century, with the first documented appearance in the 1841 book "A Treatise on Rope-Making" by Robert M. Ropes. Throughout history, these knots have proven to be an essential part of various applications, from sailing and caving to climbing and rescue operations.

At the core of the Figure 8 Family is the basic figure-eight knot, which forms a strong and easily adjustable loop. The knot's unique structure allows it to maintain its shape even under heavy loads, making it a popular choice for situations where reliability is paramount. Additionally, the figure-eight knot is relatively easy to untie after being loaded, a valuable trait in rescue scenarios where time is of the essence.

Over the years, the Figure 8 Family has expanded to include various specialized knots tailored for specific applications. Some of the most notable members of this family include the figure-eight on a bight, figure-eight follow-through, and the figure-eight bend. These knots have been adapted to suit the unique needs of rope rescue operations, providing versatile solutions for anchoring, connecting ropes, and creating secure attachment points.

The enduring popularity of the Figure 8 Family of Knots is a testament to their reliability and practicality in the field of rope rescue. By mastering the various knots within this family, rescuers can ensure they have a dependable set of tools at their disposal when faced with challenging and time-sensitive situations.

Page | 86

Figure 8 Knot - This knot serves as a stopper knot that can be easily untied when needed. Figure 8 On A Bight - This knot creates a bight at the end of a rope that can be attached to an anchor point. Figure 8 Follow Through "Bend" - This knot is useful for joining two rope ends together securely. Double Loop Figure 8 - This knot creates two bights at the end of a rope for rigging purposes. The bights can be identically sized or different, depending on the rigging requirements.

Page | 87

Bowline The Bowline knot is one of the most well-known and versatile knots used across various industries, including rope rescue, sailing, and climbing. Its history can be traced back thousands of years, with evidence of its usage dating back to ancient Egyptian times. The name "bowline" itself is believed to have originated from the maritime industry, where the knot was often used to create a secure loop at the end of a rope, called a "bow line."

The Bowline knot is favored for its ability to create a fixed loop that does not slip or tighten under load, providing a reliable anchor point or attachment point for various applications. Furthermore, the knot is relatively easy to tie and untie, even after being subjected to heavy loads, making it a practical choice in rescue scenarios where quick adjustments are necessary.

Though the traditional Bowline knot is widely recognized for its strength and stability, various adaptations have been developed over the years to suit specific needs. Some of the most notable variations include the Double Bowline, Water Bowline, Yosemite Bowline, and Bowline on a Bight. These variations offer increased security, ease of tying, or adaptability for specific applications.

In the context of rope rescue, the Bowline knot and its variations are used for creating secure attachment points, anchoring systems, or connecting ropes in a reliable and easily adjustable manner. By mastering the Bowline and its variations, rescuers can be confident that they have a dependable and time-tested knot in their toolbox, ready to be employed in a wide range of situations.

Page | 88

1. Bowline: The Bowline is a simple, reliable knot that creates a fixed, non-slipping loop at the end of a rope. It is widely used in sailing, climbing, and rope rescue operations for creating attachment points, securing loads, or anchoring systems. The Bowline is easy to tie and untie, even after being subjected to heavy loads.

2. Bowline with Double Overhand Backup: This variation of the Bowline adds a double overhand knot (also known as a strangle knot) as a backup to the original knot. The backup knot is tied around the standing part of the rope with the tail end, adding an extra layer of security to prevent the Bowline from slipping or accidentally coming undone under certain conditions. This variation is used when additional safety measures are required or when the rope is prone to slippage.

3. Bowline with Half Hitch Backup: The Bowline with a half hitch backup is another variation where a single half hitch is tied around the standing part of the rope using the tail end. This backup is generally considered less secure than the double overhand backup, as it is more prone to loosening or slipping under load. Due to its lower reliability, it is not recommended for use in critical situations where safety is paramount.

4. Double Loop Bowline: The Double Loop Bowline, also known as the Bowline on a Bight, creates two fixed loops at the end of a rope. This variation is useful when two attachment points are needed, such as for rescue operations involving multiple anchors or securing loads with multiple points of contact. The Double Loop Bowline shares many of the same characteristics as the standard Bowline, including its ability to be easily tied and untied.

5. Bowline with Yosemite Finish: The Bowline with a Yosemite finish is a variation that adds an extra wrap around the standing part of the rope and back through the original loop, effectively locking the tail in place. This modification increases the knot's security and reduces the risk of it accidentally coming undone, making it suitable for situations where higher levels of safety are required. The Yosemite finish is particularly popular among climbers and is sometimes referred to as the Yosemite Bowline.

Page | 89

Each of these Bowline variations has its specific uses and advantages, depending on the context and the desired level of security. By mastering these knots, rescuers and other rope users can be better equipped to handle various situations and ensure the safety and effectiveness of their rope systems.

The Bowline is an efficient knot, but it may work itself loose under repeated loading. To ensure its security, it is essential to tie a backup knot to secure the tail. A Double Overhand Knot is recommended as a backup, as a single Overhand Knot has been known to come loose in some instances. One advantage of the Bowline is that it is easier to untie after being tensioned.

Page | 90

In-Line Knots

In-Line Figure 8 - This knot creates a load-bearing loop in the middle of a rope, designed to take a load in only one direction. Alpine Butterfly - This knot is used to form a fixed loop in the middle of a rope without requiring access to either end of the rope. It handles multi-directional loading well and features a symmetrical shape, making it easy to inspect. If there is a need to isolate a damaged section of rope during an operation, the damaged section can be incorporated into an in-line knot, such as an In-Line Figure 8 or an Alpine Butterfly, to effectively remove it from the load-bearing portion of the rope.

Bends Double Fisherman's Bend - This bend is used to join two lengths of rope together. The knot is formed by tying a Double Overhand Knot with each end around the standing part of the opposite line.

Water Knot (also known as Tape Knot, Ring Bend, Grass Knot, or Overhand Follow-Through) - This knot is used to join two ends of webbing together, constructing a sling. It is tied by forming an Overhand Knot in one end and then following it with the other end, feeding it in the opposite direction. Before use, the knot should be "set" by tightening it under tension.

Page | 91

Hitches Clove Hitch - This hitch

consists of two successive Half Hitches around an object and is useful when the length of the running end needs to be adjustable. Girth Hitch - Also known as Cow Hitch, this hitch is used to attach a rope to an object. It consists of a pair of Half Hitches tied in opposing directions, unlike the Clove Hitch, where the Half Hitches are tied in the same direction. Münter Hitch - Also known as the Italian Hitch or HMS (Halbmastwurfsicherung), this hitch can be used for belaying or lowering in emergencies but provides limited holding power. HMS stands for the German term meaning half Clove Hitch Belay. Prusik Hitch - For rescue load applications, use three wraps, which form six coils. The hitch is applied to a host rope. To ensure proper movement and grip, the diameter relationship between the standing line and the Prusik loop cord diameter should follow a 60-80% ratio. Be aware that not all manufactured Prusik cords behave the same way, and new cords should be tested before field use. Avoid using Prusik cords that are too stiff. To ensure the Prusik Hitches will grab, check them before putting the belay into service, and use a "pinch test" for optimal cordage. When pinched between two fingers in a bight, it should leave a gap half the diameter of the material. A secure Prusik loop is formed by joining the ends of the cordage with a Double Fisherman's Bend.

Page | 92

Inter-Locking & Inter-Woven Long-Tail Knots Interlocking Long-Tail Bowlines - These knots connect the main line and belay line. First, a Bowline is tied with a small loop and extra-long tail. Then, another rope is tied through the loop of the initial Bowline. The connection point creates a redundant attachment for rescue loads, and the long tails serve as secondary attachment points for rescuers and subjects. This method works with a Bowline or an Inline Figure Eight. Interwoven Long-Tail Bowlines - These knots also connect the main line and belay line by tying both lines together as a single line. Advantages include tying just one knot, saving time, and removing the need to distinguish between main and belay lines once interwoven. The long tails function as both simultaneously. Interwoven Bowlines perform better in pull tests for ring loading. However, the knot may be difficult to tie, and needing both lines for tying could delay rigging if one line is unavailable.

Page | 93

Both methods, Interlocking Long-Tail Bowlines and Interwoven Long-Tail Bowlines, are acceptable for connecting the main line and belay line in rescue operations. Each technique has its advantages and disadvantages, so choosing the most suitable method depends on the specific situation and individual preferences.

Strength of Knots Knot Strength Analysis In 2016, Thomas Evans of SAR3 presented a comprehensive analysis of knot strength at the International Technical Rescue Symposium. His research compiled data from 1,440 knot strength tests and 114 sources. The table below shows the combined results of these tests. Knot Bowline Figure 8 On a Bight Inline 8 Alpine Butterfly Scaffold Knot Double Fisherman Figure 8 Bend

Low % 41.8 64.8 62.5 60.7 68.5 73.5 56.8

Median % 56.3 75.6 68.6 70.7 74.9 76.9 68.8

The following table is from the CMC Rope Rescue Manual (4th Edition, 2013):

High % 70.7 86.3 74.7 80.6 81.3 80.3 80.7

Page | 94

Knot No Knot at All High Strength Tie-Off Figure 8 Alpine Butterfly Scaffold Knot Double Overhand Bend (Double Fisherman’s) Bowline Figure 8 Bend Water Knot (in webbing) *Source: James A. Frank, 2013 CMC Rope Rescue Manual*

% 100 100 77 75 69 68 67 51 64

Note: these values may vary depending on the rope type and are based on static pull testing, not dynamic loading. Field Rule: It is generally believed that a knot will reduce rope strength by one third (33%) and webbing strength by 45%.

Page | 95

Chapter 8: Ropes, Webbing & Knots Terminology Quiz 1. What is the primary purpose of a knot? a) b) c) d)

To create an obstacle in the rope To change the color of the rope To create attachment points, secure loads, or connect ropes To make the rope look more interesting

2. How much does a knot typically reduce a rope's strength? a) b) c) d)

10% 20% 33% 45%

3. How much does a knot typically reduce tubular webbing strength? a) b) c) d)

10% 20% 33% 45%

4. Which knot family is known for its exceptional strength, stability, and ease of use? a) b) c) d)

Figure 8 Family Bowline Family Alpine Butterfly Family Water Knot Family

5. Which knot is commonly used as a stopper knot? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Figure 8 Knot Alpine Butterfly Double Loop Figure 8

6. What is the primary purpose of a Figure 8 On a Bight? a) b) c) d)

To create a bight at the end of a rope To join two rope ends together securely To create a fixed loop in the middle of a rope To create two bights at the end of a rope

Page | 96

7. Which knot is useful for joining two rope ends together securely? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Figure 8 Knot Figure 8 Follow Through "Bend" Double Loop Figure 8

8. What is the main advantage of the Bowline knot? a) b) c) d)

It creates a fixed, non-slipping loop at the end of a rope It can change the color of the rope It is difficult to untie It is not very versatile

9. Which backup knot is recommended for the Bowline knot? a) b) c) d)

Single Overhand Knot Double Overhand Knot Half Hitch Double Loop Figure 8

10. Which knot is used to form a fixed loop in the middle of a rope without requiring access to either end of the rope? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Figure 8 Knot In-Line Figure 8 Alpine Butterfly

11. Which bend is used to join two lengths of rope together? a) b) c) d)

Double Fisherman's Bend Water Knot Girth Hitch Münter Hitch

12. Which knot is used to join two ends of webbing together? a) b) c) d)

Double Fisherman's Bend Water Knot Girth Hitch Münter Hitch

13. Which hitch consists of two successive Half Hitches around an object? a) b) c) d)

Clove Hitch Girth Hitch Münter Hitch Prusik Hitch

Page | 97

14. What is the primary purpose of a Prusik Hitch? a) b) c) d)

To create a fixed loop in the middle of a rope To join two rope ends together securely To apply a load-bearing hitch to a host rope To create two bights at the end of a rope

15. What is the purpose of Interlocking Long-Tail Bowlines and Interwoven Long-Tail Bowlines? a) b) c) d)

To connect the main line and belay line To create a fixed loop in the middle of a rope To join two rope ends together securely To create two bights at the end of a rope

16. Which knot can be used to form a loop in a rope with minimal reduction in strength? a) b) c) d)

Bowline on a Bight Figure 8 on a Bight Alpine Butterfly Loop Clove Hitch

17. What is the main purpose of a Tensionless Hitch? a) b) c) d)

To create a fixed loop at the end of a rope To connect two ropes together To secure a rope to an anchor without tension To create a loop in the middle of a rope

18. Which knot is used to create an adjustable loop in a rope? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Adjustable Grip Hitch Girth Hitch Water Knot

19. Which knot is commonly used to form a loop around a post or tree? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Adjustable Grip Hitch Girth Hitch Clove Hitch

20. Which knot is used to create a loop at the end of a rope that will not slip under load? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Figure 8 Knot Alpine Butterfly Loop Double Loop Figure 8

Page | 98

21. What is the main purpose of a Double Fisherman's Bend? a) b) c) d)

To create a fixed loop at the end of a rope To join two ropes together securely To create a loop in the middle of a rope To tie a stopper knot

22. What is the primary advantage of an In-Line Figure 8 knot? a) b) c) d)

It is easy to tie and untie It creates a loop in the middle of a rope without access to the ends It is a strong and secure knot It is used to join two ropes together

23. Which hitch is used to attach a rope to an anchor point, such as a carabiner or a ring? a) b) c) d)

Girth Hitch Clove Hitch Münter Hitch Prusik Hitch

24. What is the main purpose of a Figure 8 Bend? a) b) c) d)

To create a fixed loop at the end of a rope To join two ropes together securely To create a loop in the middle of a rope To tie a stopper knot

25. Which knot is commonly used as a backup knot for the Figure 8 On a Bight and the Figure 8 Follow-Through? a) b) c) d)

Bowline Overhand Knot Half Hitch Double Loop Figure 8

26. Which knot can be used as a directional pull? a) b) c) d)

Figure 8 on a Bight Bowline In-Line Figure 8 Alpine Butterfly Loop

27. Which knot is commonly used for tying off the end of a rope to prevent it from slipping through a belay device? a) b) c) d)

Figure 8 Knot Overhand Knot Double Overhand Knot Alpine Butterfly Loop

28. What is the primary purpose of a Figure 8 Loop? a) b) c) d)

To create a fixed loop at the end of a rope To join two ropes together securely To create a loop in the middle of a rope To tie a stopper knot

Page | 99

29. What is the main advantage of a Double Loop Figure 8 knot? A) B) C) D)

It creates two fixed loops at the end of a rope It is easy to tie and untie It is a strong and secure knot It is used to join two ropes together

30. Which knot can be used to secure a rope to an object, such as a carabiner or a ring, and is easily adjustable? A) B) C) D)

Girth Hitch Clove Hitch Münter Hitch Prusik Hitch

Page | 100

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 101

Answer Key: 1. c) To create attachment points, secure loads, or connect ropes 2. a) 10% 3. c) 33% 4. a) Figure 8 Family 5. b) Figure 8 Knot 6. c) To create a fixed loop in the middle of a rope 7. c) Figure 8 Follow Through "Bend" 8. a) It creates a fixed, non-slipping loop at the end of a rope 9. b) Double Overhand Knot 10. d) Alpine Butterfly 11. a) Double Fisherman's Bend 12. b) Water Knot 13. a) Clove Hitch 14. c) To apply a load-bearing hitch to a host rope 15. b) To create a fixed loop in the middle of a rope 16. c) Alpine Butterfly Loop 17. c) To secure a rope to an anchor without tension 18. b) Adjustable Grip Hitch 19. c) Girth Hitch 20. a) Bowline 21. b) To join two ropes together securely 22. c) It is a strong and secure knot 23. a) Girth Hitch 24. b) To join two ropes together securely 25. b) Overhand Knot 26. c) In-Line Figure 8 27. a) Figure 8 Knot 28. a) To create a fixed loop at the end of a rope 29. c) It is a strong and secure knot 30. a) Girth Hitch

Page | 102

Chapter 9

Equipment & Hardware

Page | 103

Chapter 9: Equipment & Hardware

Page | 104

Learning Objectives: By the end of this chapter, students will be able to: 1. Understand the origins, design, and application of carabiners in rope rescue operations. 2. Understand the types of carabiners based on their locking styles, their benefits and drawbacks, and the standards they adhere to. 3. Learn about screw links, their shapes, materials, and the specific safety instructions related to their usage in rescue operations. 4. Understand the functioning, design, and application of rescue pulleys in rope rescue operations, with a focus on the importance of tread diameter. 5. Gain knowledge about the knot passing pulley, its design specifics, and its application in highline operations. 6. Understand the functioning, design, and application of various descent control devices such as the Scarab®, CMC Rescue MPD™, Brake Rack, Figure Eight, Petzl I’D “L”, and the 540°™ Rescue Belay in rope rescue operations. 7. Learn about rigging plates, their role in organizing multiple tasks or connections at a single anchor point, and safety precautions when using them. 8. Understand the evolution, design, and application of rescue litters in technical rescue. 9. Learn about the Aztek personal travel restraint system and its components, including the Purcell and the "Set of 4's." 10. Understand the design and use of mechanical ascenders in rope ascending during long ascents. 11. Learn about the Y-lanyards, their design, and their application in fall protection when moving horizontally from one area to another while staying continuously attached. 12. Understand the design and application of evacuation triangles in pick-off situations, with an emphasis on proper balance and positioning.

Page | 105

Carabiners Metal connectors with spring-loaded gates, called carabiners, are used to attach components in rigging. The term "carabiner" comes from the German word "Karabinerhaken," meaning "spring hook." Rescue applications necessitate stronger carabiners than those used in recreational climbing. Carabiners are made from aluminum, alloy steel, and stainless steel, with steel variants being stronger and more durable but heavier than aluminum ones. Carabiners consist of a body, spine, gate, nose, hinge, and sleeve. The major axis refers to the orientation end-to-end along the spine, while the minor axis refers to the side-to-side alignment across the carabiner. Locking Styles: 1. 2. 3.

Non-locking: Used in limited rescue operations for non-life-safety loads, such as securing edge protection and attaching equipment to a harness or litter. Screw Lock: Features a threaded sleeve for manual operation, with fewer moving parts and lower malfunction risk. However, it is more time-consuming to operate than twist-lock. Auto-Locking (Twist Lock): Features a security sleeve that disengages with a spring-loaded collar, automatically closing upon release. Various proprietary auto-locking mechanisms exist. However, dirt, ice, or other contaminants can inhibit their proper functioning.

NFPA Standard 1983 (2017) defines two classes of rescue carabiners: technical use (T rating) and general use (G rating). Major Axis "T" - Technical Use "G" - General Use

Minor Axis: Gate Open 27 kN (6,069 lbf) 40 kN (8,992 lbf)

Major 7 kN (1,574 lbf) 11 kN (2,473 lbf)

Page | 106

Screw Links Screw links are a compact and lightweight option compared to carabiners, making them ideal for semi-permanent attachments in rescue situations. Maillon Rapide, made by the French company Péguet, is the industry standard for secure life-safety connections in rescue operations. It's important to avoid using low-quality screw links found in hardware stores for rescue purposes. The most common shapes for rescue screw links include oval, demiround (D-shape), and delta (triangular). Maillon Rapide links bear the brand name and come in materials like zinc-plated steel, stainless steel, and zicral (an aluminum and zinc alloy). Make sure not to exceed the working load limit (WLL) marked in kilograms on the screw link. The gate of the screw link requires several turns to close securely, and for semi-permanent connections, a wrench can be used for extra security. Screw links are designed to handle loads from multiple directions. For climbing and mountaineering applications certified under CE EN 362 and EN 12275, the minimum breaking strength in the closed and locked position is 25 kN for the major axis and 10 kN for the minor axis.

Page | 107

Rescue Pulleys Rescue pulleys consist of rotating side plates and a sheave (wheel) mounted on either a bearing or bushing. Pulleys with sealed bearings are more efficient and better suited for handling rescue loads than those with bushings. When using a pulley for direction, remember that the force on the pulley anchor may be twice the force on the rope. The pulley sheave's tread diameter, where the rope lies, is an important factor to consider. For optimal efficiency in a rescue pulley, the tread diameter should be at least three times the diameter of the rope being used. Some manufacturers may provide the outside diameter (OD), which can be misleading. Focus on the tread diameter, as it directly affects the pulley's performance.

The Knot Passing Pulley, like the Kootenay Ultra by Rock Exotica, has a broad sheave that enables knots to pass and a locking sheave for a secure tie-off. Specially designed for highlines, it provides distinct connection points for taglines and hoist-lines and a sheave wide enough to accommodate multiple track-ropes.

Page | 108

Descent Control Devices Scarab® The Scarab® is a compact, variable friction descent control device (DCD) designed by Rick Lipke of Conterra Technical Systems. Unlike the rappel rack, the Scarab doesn't twist the rope during use and is more compact. You can attach a rope to the device without unclipping it from the anchor, and you can adjust the friction by adding or removing wraps around individual horns on the frame. The Scarab is capable of easily lowering a 600 lb. rescue load and can be locked off effortlessly during an operation. It is available in stainless steel or titanium models. The Scarab FR is made from stainless steel and works with 9mm to 13mm ropes, weighing 385g (13.8 oz). The Scarab TI is machined from solid titanium and works with 6mm to 11mm ropes, weighing 185g (6.6 oz). The Scarab model SFR-1 is NFPA 1983 General Use certified for 12.5mm ropes. According to Conterra, the frame and crossbar have a strength greater than 40kN (8,992 lbf). However, during destructive testing, nylon ropes failed at the nose of the Scarab close to their knotted strength. When testing a 12.7mm (1/2 inch) rescue rope on a locked-off Scarab, the rope broke at about 27kN (6,070 lbf), surpassing the 22kN (4,946 lbf) strength rating that NFPA requires for a class "G" DCD.

CMC Rescue MPD™ The CMC Rescue MPD™ (Multi-Purpose Device) is a versatile piece of equipment manufactured by Rock Exotica and sold exclusively by CMC Rescue. It functions as a high-efficiency pulley, descent control device (DCD), and belay device, allowing for an immediate switch from lowering to raising without changing hardware. The MPD pulley features an integrated rope-grab mechanism, making it suitable for use as a lowering device on the main line or for belaying on belay line systems. The device enables a swift transition from lowering to raising systems without the need to replace hardware. The MPD is available in two sizes, and it is essential to use a rope with a diameter compatible with the device. Be aware that wet, icy, or muddy ropes can impact the device's proper function, and the operator may need to apply additional friction as necessary.

Page | 109

Brake Rack Brake Rack, also known as the Rappel Rack or Rescue Rack, was invented by John Cole in 1966 to allow variable friction during a descent. A very popular device among cavers and a very efficient tool for rescue loads. The Brake Rack does not twist the rope during use as it applies friction in an "in-line" fashion. Two Brake Rack styles include the standard inverted "J". shape (open style), which has an attachment eye along one of the legs of the inverted "U" frame. The second popular style is the closed rack, which is also "U" shaped, but the base of the "U" serves as the attachment point. The amount of friction can be easily adjusted during use, and the device dissipates heat well. Always have a minimum of four bars in the system. Start with all bars incorporated and reduce the number of bars after getting past the edge.

Figure Eight The Figure Eight, also known as the "Rescue Eight," was once a popular friction device in technical rescue. However, it has lost its acceptance as a rescue descent control device due to the development of more versatile and appropriate tools. While efficient as a personal descender, it lacks the utility required to handle a rescue load. To load the device, a bight of rope is fed through the large hole and looped down around the outside of the small end until it rests on the "neck" of the Figure Eight. The bottom small hole is then clipped to the rescuer or anchor. The device incorporates protruding ears to prevent the rope from sliding up to the top and forming a Girth Hitch during a rappel, which could cause the user to stop suddenly. However, a significant drawback of the Figure Eight is that it twists the rope during use, limiting its overall usefulness. While it can be double wrapped during setup to increase friction, it cannot be varied during an operation. Therefore, the Figure Eight is no longer recommended for use as a rope rescue tool.

Page | 110

Petzl I’D “L” The Petzl I'D is a self-braking descender/braking device that controls descent by pulling on the control handle while holding onto the rope with the opposite hand. The handle has various positions, including stop for work positioning, descent, and panic stop. The I'D comes in two models, the "S" for technical use and the "L" for general use. Its multi-function handle allows the user to unlock the rope and control descent with the brake hand on the free end of the rope. The anti-panic function activates if the user pulls too hard on the handle, braking and stopping descent automatically. There's also an anti-error catch to reduce the risk of accidents due to incorrect installation of the device on the rope. The I'D can lower heavy loads up to 272 kg, but only for expert users. The device is designed for ropes with a minimum diameter of 11.5 mm and a maximum diameter of 13 mm, and is NFPA 1983 General Use certified.

540°™ Rescue Belay The 540 Rescue Belay is a self-locking device manufactured by Traverse Rescue and designed by Kirk Mauthner of Basecamp Innovations Ltd. It is designed to quickly hold a falling rescue load while limiting the peak force applied to the rope. The device has a symmetrical internal design that allows for bi-directional loading and features a built-in release lever that eliminates the need for a release hitch. The 540 Rescue Belay comes in two sizes: small (GREEN) for ropes 10.611.5mm and large (BLUE) for ropes 11.5-13mm.

Page | 111

Rigging Plates Rigging plates are useful tools to organize multiple tasks or connections at a single anchor point, allowing for greater orderliness of lines. Commercially available in various sizes and configurations, they provide flexibility to meet different needs. It's important to note that rigging plates are rated between two holes, and the safe working load of a single hole should never be exceeded. During use, be mindful of the potential for the rigging plate to lever against a carabiner, especially when tension is released and then reestablished. Keep a watchful eye on all rigging to prevent failure.

Rescue Litter Rescue litters, also known as stretchers, are an essential tool in technical rescue. The original Stokes Stretcher, developed by Dr. Charles F. Stokes in 1905, paved the way for the evolution of basket-style litters in North America. Today, there are various types of litters available, each with its own unique specifications. For example, a stainless-steel CMC litter has a vertical minimum breaking strength (MBS) of 30.2 kN, a horizontal MBS of 14.1 kN, weighs 31 lbs (14.1 kg), and has a load rating of 11 kN (2,473 lbf). When selecting a litter, it's important to consider the specific needs of the rescue operation and choose a litter that meets those requirements.

Page | 112

Miscellaneous Aztek is primarily used as a personal travel restraint system and uses 30-50 feet of 9mm rope as the primary support mechanism. The device addresses energy absorption using a shock absorber called a Purcell, made from 8 feet of 6mm accessory cord hitched to the 9mm rope. The five-wrap, 3 over 2 prusik at all connection and adjustment points provides effective energy absorption. The second tool of the AZTEK is a pre-rigged 5:1 pulley system or "Set of 4's," which uses two mini double-sheave pulleys rigged on 9mm rope at the opposite end of the travel restraint system. The nickname "Set of 4's" comes from the lineman industry.

Mechanical Ascenders Mechanical ascenders are tools designed for efficient personal rope ascending during long ascents, and they outperform Prusiks. These devices are designed to be easily attached to and removed from a fixed rope, providing a reliable and efficient way to climb. However, it is important to note that manufacturers rate mechanical ascenders only for one-person loads, and they should not be used to support more weight than intended.

Y-Lanyards The double tie-off lanyard, commonly known as the Y-lanyard, is a versatile fall protection equipment designed for working on structures like towers. It features two lanyard legs attached to a shock absorber to limit the force of a fall to 8kn and is recommended for "Leading." Fall factors of .25 are deemed unacceptable. The Ylanyard is ideal for rescuers who need to move horizontally from one area to another while staying continuously attached.

Evacuation Triangle The Petzl Bermude or Pitagor are triangular devices used for evacuation, specifically when the person being evacuated will be suspended rather than climbing. They are designed to quickly secure around a person during a pick-off situation. The Pitagor model has shoulder straps to prevent it from slipping down to the ankles when not supported under tension. The three connection rings should be joined together with a wide (HMS style) locking carabiner and should be positioned just above the line between the person’s armpits for proper balance. The Pitagor model weighs 1.29 kg (2.84 lbs).

Page | 113

Chapter 9: Equipment & Hardware Quiz 1. What is the origin of the term "carabiner"? a) b) c) d)

Italian German French Spanish

2. Which type of carabiner is more time-consuming to operate but has fewer moving parts and a lower risk of malfunction? a) b) c) d)

Non-locking Screw Lock Auto-Locking (Twist Lock) None of the above

3. Which of the following materials is NOT used in the production of carabiners? a) b) c) d)

Aluminum Alloy steel Titanium Stainless steel

4. Which company is known for making industry-standard screw links used in rescue operations? a) b) c) d)

Rock Exotica CMC Rescue Péguet Conterra Technical Systems

5. What is the ideal tread diameter for a rescue pulley relative to the diameter of the rope being used? a) b) c) d)

Equal to the diameter of the rope Twice the diameter of the rope Three times the diameter of the rope Four times the diameter of the rope

6. Who designed the Scarab® descent control device (DCD)? a) b) c) d)

John Cole Rick Lipke Kirk Mauthner Charles F. Stokes

Page | 114

7. What is one disadvantage of the Figure Eight as a rescue descent control device? 1. 2. 3. 4.

It cannot be locked off It twists the rope during use It cannot handle heavy loads It is too bulky for efficient use

8. The Petzl I’D "L" has an anti-panic function that activates when: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The rope is not properly installed The user pulls too hard on the handle The descent speed exceeds a certain limit The control handle is released

9. What is the purpose of rigging plates in rescue operations? 1. 2. 3. 4.

To provide a pulley system for hoisting To serve as an anchor point for the rescue rope To organize multiple tasks or connections at a single anchor point To provide an attachment point for carabiners

10. What was the first type of rescue litter, or stretcher, developed? 1. 2. 3. 4.

CMC litter Stokes Stretcher Basket-style litter Pitagor model

11. The AZTEK device is primarily used as a: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Personal travel restraint system Descent control device Ascending device Belay device

12. Mechanical ascenders are typically rated for: 1. 2. 3. 4.

One-person loads Two-person loads Three-person loads Four-person loads

Page | 115

13. The Y-lanyard is a fall protection device designed for: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Vertical ascents Vertical descents Horizontal movements Diagonal movements

14. The Petzl Bermude and Pitagor are types of: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Mechanical ascenders Descent control devices Evacuation triangles Carabiners

15. For what purpose is the 540°™ Rescue Belay primarily designed? 1. 2. 3. 4.

To quickly hold a falling rescue load To increase friction during descent To serve as a primary anchor point To aid in rope ascending during

Page | 116

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 117

Answer Key: 1. C. French 2. A. Non-locking 3. C. Titanium 4. C. Péguet 5. C. Three times the diameter of the rope 6. B. Rick Lipke 7. B. It twists the rope during use 8. B. The user pulls too hard on the handle 9. C. To organize multiple tasks or connections at a single anchor point 10. B. Stokes Stretcher 11. A. Personal travel restraint system 12. B. Two-person loads 13. C. Horizontal movements 14. C. Evacuation triangles 15. A. To quickly hold a falling rescue load

Page | 118

Chapter 10 1110110

Equipment Care & Retirement

Page | 119

Chapter 10: Equipment Care and Retirement Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Explain the importance of regular care and maintenance of rescue equipment for its longevity and safety. 2. Identify the typical lifespan of rescue equipment made from different materials (plastic, textiles, metal). 3. Locate and interpret the year of production and lot number on rescue equipment that meets EN (CE) requirements. 4. List the conditions under which rescue equipment should be retired and the necessity of destroying retired equipment. 5. Describe and demonstrate basic care routines for rescue equipment, including carabiners, helmets, harnesses, and ropes. 6. Identify signs of wear and tear on rescue equipment and determine when equipment should be retired based on these signs. 7. Explain how environmental factors, such as exposure to saltwater or salt air, impact the condition and care requirements of rescue equipment. 8. Describe the proper care and maintenance of ropes, including protection from abrasion, temperature considerations, and cleaning procedures. 9. Understand which cleaning products are safe to use with different types of rescue equipment and why certain products should not be used. 10. Describe ideal storage conditions for different types of rescue equipment to maximize their lifespan and maintain their effectiveness.

Page | 120

Importance of Equipment Maintenance Proper care and maintenance of rescue equipment is not just an optional protocol, but a critical requirement. The reliability and effectiveness of rescue gear are heavily dependent on the state of the equipment. A well-maintained piece of gear can mean the difference between a successful rescue operation and an unfortunate failure. Regular cleaning, inspection, and repair ensure the equipment can perform at its optimal level when it's needed the most. It's essential to adhere to the manufacturer's guidelines for equipment maintenance. Manufacturers have specific protocols for maintaining their products based on thorough testing and understanding of their material properties and performance characteristics. Adhering to these guidelines helps prolong the equipment's lifespan, maintain its functionality, and, most importantly, ensure the safety of the users.

Lifespan of Rescue Equipment Rescue equipment, like all material things, has a finite lifespan. Even with meticulous care and maintenance, there will come a point when gear will need to be retired. Recognizing this fact is an important part of equipment management. The lifespan of rescue equipment varies depending on its material composition and usage conditions. According to Petzl, one of the leading manufacturers of rescue gear, plastic and textile products generally have a maximum lifespan of up to ten years from the date of manufacture, while metal products can last indefinitely with proper care. However, it's crucial to remember that these are maximum values. The actual lifespan of equipment can be significantly shorter due to factors such as the type and intensity of use, exposure to harsh environments, or experience of unusual events such as a major fall or impact force. Retiring equipment at the appropriate time, as per the manufacturer's specifications, is a fundamental part of maintaining rescue safety standards. In the following sections, we will delve into specific care, maintenance, and retirement guidelines for different types of rescue equipment.

General Guidelines for Equipment Care Storage Conditions The way rescue equipment is stored when not in use significantly impacts its lifespan and functionality. To maintain equipment in its response-ready state, it should be stored in a well-ventilated area away from direct sunlight, corrosive substances, and damp places. Factors such as ultraviolet light, acid, or moisture can degrade the equipment, rendering it unsafe for use.

Cleaning Methods Keeping rescue equipment clean is fundamental for its longevity. The recommended cleaning methods can vary depending on the type of gear and the manufacturer's guidelines. However, as a general rule, most gear can be cleaned with mild soap and warm water, and then air-dried in a well-ventilated area. It's important not to use harsh chemicals, solvents, or abrasive tools that can damage the equipment.

Page | 121

Special care should be taken when cleaning gear that has been used in salty environments. Salt can have a corrosive effect on many materials, so any gear exposed to saltwater or salt air should be rinsed thoroughly with fresh water and cleaned as soon as possible.

Lubrication and Maintenance Regular lubrication is necessary for many types of rescue equipment, particularly those with moving parts such as carabiners and pulleys. Lubrication reduces friction, allows smooth operation, and minimizes wear and tear. A general-purpose lubricating oil or a Teflon-based (PTFE) lubricant is usually suitable for most rescue gear. However, certain products like WD-40 should be avoided as they can dry out certain parts, accelerating aging. Similarly, graphite-based lubricants can promote corrosion in aluminum gear and should not be used. Always refer to the manufacturer's specifications for suitable lubrication products. Maintenance should also involve regular inspections for wear and tear, damage, or any signs of malfunction. If a piece of equipment shows signs of excessive wear or doesn't function as it should, it might need repair or replacement. The decision should be based on the manufacturer's guidelines and a professional assessment of the equipment's condition.

Specific Equipment Care and Retirement Guidelines Carabiners Cleaning: Carabiners should be cleaned by blowing dust and dirt from the hinge area. For a sticky gate, wash in warm soapy water, rinse thoroughly, and allow to dry. Lubrication with a general-purpose lubricating oil or a Teflon-based (PTFE) lubricant is recommended around the hinge area, the spring hole, and the locking mechanism. Avoid using WD-40 or graphite-based lubricants. Inspection for Wear and Tear: Regularly check all carabiner surfaces for cracks, sharp edges, corrosion, burrs, or excessive wear. Additionally, inspect the gate to ensure it opens and closes quickly and easily. Retirement Indications: Carabiners should be retired if the gate does not function properly or is out of alignment. Additionally, if they have been dropped from a significant distance or subjected to extreme conditions, retirement is advised.

Helmets Cleaning and Care: Helmets can be cleaned with household soap and rinsed with water. Avoid using solvents, stain removers, degreasers, etc., that can degrade the helmet. For ABS helmets, the shell can be cleaned with a cloth moistened with rubbing alcohol. Handling and Storage: Do not compress a helmet inside a pack or sit on it. Handle it with care to avoid any potential impact damages. Retirement Indications: Helmets should be retired if there are signs of significant impact or if the helmet no longer fits correctly. Furthermore, helmets that have been subjected to extreme temperatures or chemicals should also be retired.

Page | 122

Harnesses Cleaning and Care: After use in a salty environment, rinse the harness with fresh water. Wash in lukewarm soapy water, then rinse thoroughly. Use a small brush to remove stubborn spots. Harnesses can also be cleaned in a washer on a delicate setting, without a spin cycle. Inspection for Wear and Tear: Regularly inspect the stitching and condition of the straps on a clean harness. Look for signs of fraying, tears, or any indications of material degradation. Retirement Indications: Retire a harness if there is visible damage, frayed stitching, or if the harness has been subjected to a major fall or impact force.

Ropes Cleaning and Care: Do not walk or stand on ropes. Wash ropes in lukewarm soapy water and rinse thoroughly with fresh water. Store ropes uncoiled in a bag to protect them from dirt. After use in a salty environment, rinse with fresh water. Protection from Abrasion: Aggressively protect ropes from edge abrasion, by using rope protectors and rollers. Avoid descending too fast on a rope as this heats the sheath and accelerates wear. Retirement Indications: Retire a rope if there are signs of severe abrasion, discoloration, inconsistencies in the rope's diameter, or if the rope has been exposed to chemicals or extreme temperatures.

Retirement of Equipment Criteria for Retirement The decision to retire equipment is based on various factors. These include, but are not limited to: 1. Age: According to Petzl, plastic and textile products have a maximum lifespan of up to ten years from the date of manufacture, while metal products have an indefinite lifespan. However, unusual events or harsh environments can require you to retire a product earlier. 2. Physical Condition: Visible signs of wear and tear such as cracks, corrosion, burrs, sharp edges, or excessive wear warrant retirement. Equipment that has been subjected to a major fall, impact force, or extreme temperatures should also be retired. 3. Reliability: If the reliability of the equipment is in question, it is safer to retire it. 4. Usage History: Equipment with an unknown usage history, such as missing rope log or unmarked gear, should be retired. 5. Obsolete Design: Changes in standards, techniques, or equipment compatibility can make a product obsolete and therefore, should be retired. Gear Retirement: Retire gear when necessary, including: • • • • • • •

Over ten years old and made of plastic or textiles When subjected to a major fall or impact force When it fails to pass an inspection If the reliability of the equipment is in question The usage history is unknown (e.g. not marked, missing rope log, etc.) Obsolete design due to changes in standards, technique, or equipment compatibility Destroy any retired equipment to prevent further use in a life safety application

Page | 123

•

•

Check all carabiner surfaces regularly for cracks, sharp edges, corrosion, burrs, or excessive wear. Check carabiner gates to make certain they open and close quickly and easily. Retire any carabiner if the gate does not function properly or is out of alignment. Carabiners that have been dropped a significant distance should be retired.

Disposal and Destruction of Retired Equipment Once a decision has been made to retire a piece of equipment, it is crucial to ensure that it is disposed of correctly and cannot be used again in a life safety application. 1. Destroy the equipment: You can physically destroy it to prevent any further use. This could mean cutting ropes or harnesses into small pieces or rendering carabiners and other metal gear unusable with a cutting tool. 2. Disposal: Follow local waste disposal guidelines to ensure you are disposing of your equipment in an environmentally friendly way. This might involve recycling some parts of the equipment, or it might mean sending it to a specific disposal facility. Remember, the safety of yourself and others depends on the reliability of your equipment. Regular inspections, proper care, and timely retirement of equipment are all crucial steps in maintaining a safe environment.

Keeping Records Importance of Recording Equipment Usage History Documenting the usage history of your equipment is crucial for several reasons: 1. Life Cycle Tracking: Knowing how long and how intensively a piece of equipment has been used can help you determine when it's time for retirement. 2. Identifying Patterns of Wear and Tear: Regularly noting the condition of your equipment can help identify patterns or issues that may not be immediately apparent, helping you anticipate potential failures. 3. Accountability and Safety: In the case of a team or organization, maintaining accurate records ensures that everyone knows the history of the equipment they're using. This can prevent misuse of old or worn-out equipment. Marking and Labeling Equipment Properly marking and labeling equipment is an essential part of keeping accurate records: 1. Initials and Date: At the very least, each piece of equipment should be marked with the in-service date. Some rescuers also like to add their initials or another unique identifier. 2. Information Labels: Labels or adhesive tape can be used to record additional information such as the length and diameter of ropes, or any special considerations for the piece of equipment.

3. Heat-Shrink Tubing: To protect labels or adhesive tape, a heat-shrink tubing can be used. However, it is important to ensure that the heat does not exceed 176°F or 80 °C during this process.

Page | 124

Role of Equipment Logs in Retirement Decisions Equipment logs play a crucial role in making informed decisions about equipment retirement: 1. Condition Over Time: By comparing the current condition of a piece of equipment to its logged history, you can assess how much it has degraded over time. 2. Intensity of Use: The usage log also provides an idea about the intensity of use the equipment has been subjected to. More intense or frequent use may necessitate earlier retirement. 3. Inspection Records: Logs should also record any inspections and their results. These records can provide valuable information when deciding whether or not to retire a piece of equipment. **VI. Impact of Environment on Equipment Care**

Effect of Harsh Environments (Saltwater, Acid, Extreme Temperatures) Environmental conditions can greatly affect the lifespan and functionality of your rescue equipment: 1. Saltwater: Saltwater can cause corrosion, especially on metal components. After any exposure to saltwater, equipment should be thoroughly rinsed with fresh water and allowed to dry completely. 2. Acid: Acidic substances can degrade both metal and textile equipment, compromising their strength and functionality. Avoid contact with such substances, and if contact is inevitable, clean the equipment thoroughly afterwards. 3. Extreme Temperatures: Both very high and very low temperatures can damage rescue equipment. High temperatures can cause materials like nylon to melt or become brittle, while low temperatures can make certain materials brittle and prone to cracking. Store your equipment in a moderate, stable temperature whenever possible.

Adjusting Care and Maintenance Routines for Different Environments Different environments require different care and maintenance routines: 1. Dusty or Sandy Environments: In these conditions, equipment may need to be cleaned more frequently to prevent accumulation of dust or sand in moving parts. For example, carabiner gates may become sticky if dust or sand gets into the hinge area. 2. Wet Environments: Equipment used in wet conditions should be dried thoroughly before storage to prevent mildew and corrosion. In saltwater environments, freshwater rinsing is essential after each use. 3. Hot Environments: In hot or sunny environments, store equipment out of direct sunlight to prevent UV damage. Plastic and textile products are particularly susceptible to UV degradation. 4. Cold Environments: Cold can make certain materials brittle. After use in cold conditions, allow equipment to return to a normal temperature before inspecting or storing it.

Page | 125

Chapter 10: Equipment Care and Retirement Quiz 1. Why is proper care and maintenance of rescue equipment crucial? a) b) c) d)

To make it look good To ensure its longevity and safety To impress other rescuers It's not important

2. What is the maximum lifespan of plastic and textile products, according to Petzl? a) b) c) d)

5 years 10 years 15 years Indefinite

3. What environmental factors can degrade rescue equipment? a) b) c) d)

Direct sunlight Acid Moisture All of the above

4. What information should be marked on equipment by manufacturers who meet EN (CE) requirements? a) b) c) d)

The year of production and lot number The price The color The weight

5. When should you retire a piece of gear? a) b) c) d)

After 10 years of use When it fails an inspection When the usage history is unknown All of the above

6. How should you clean a carabiner with a sticky gate? a) b) c) d)

Wash in warm soapy water, rinse thoroughly, and allow to dry Soak in vinegar overnight Wipe with a dry cloth Rinse with cold water

7. What lubricants should not be used on carabiners? a) b) c) d)

WD-40 Graphite-based lubricants Both a and b Neither a nor b

Page | 126

8. How should helmets be stored? a) b) c) d)

Compressed inside a pack Sat on for convenience In a well-ventilated area away from direct sunlight, corrosive substances, and damp places Under a bed

9. What should you do if you spot a sharp burr on a carabiner? a) b) c) d)

Ignore it Sand it using fine grit sandpaper File the carabiner to remove the burr Paint over it

10. How should a harness be cleaned after use in a salty environment? a) b) c) d)

Rinse with fresh water Wipe with a dry cloth Soak in vinegar overnight Wash with laundry detergent

11. What can cause damage to ropes? a) b) c) d)

Walking or standing on ropes Rapid descents that cause overheating Contact with sharp objects All of the above

12. What information should be marked on each rope end? a) b) c) d)

In-service date, diameter, and rope length The color The price The manufacturer's name

13. What should you do with a rope after use in a salty environment? a) b) c) d)

Rinse with fresh water Dry in the sun Soak in vinegar overnight Wash with laundry detergent

14. How should retired equipment be disposed of? a) b) c) d)

Tossed in the trash Recycled Donated Destroyed to prevent further use in a life safety application

15. Why is it important to record equipment usage history? a) b) c) d)

To remember which equipment you have To track the age and usage of the equipment for retirement decisions To impress other rescuers It's not important

Page | 127

16. How can harsh environments, like salt water, acid, or extreme temperatures, affect the care and maintenance of rescue equipment? a) b) c) d)

They require more frequent cleaning and maintenance They reduce the lifespan of the equipment They can cause physical damage to the equipment All of the above

17. Why should you avoid using laundry detergent to clean harnesses and ropes? a) b) c) d)

It can degrade nylon It doesn't clean effectively It's too expensive It's not necessary

18. How can dust or sand affect equipment used in such environments? a) b) c) d)

It can make the equipment look dirty It can get into moving parts and affect their function It can make the equipment smell bad It doesn't affect the equipment

19. What should you do with equipment after use in wet conditions? a) b) c) d)

Leave it wet Dry it in the sun Dry it thoroughly before storage Soak it in water

20. How can high temperatures affect rescue equipment? a) b) c) d)

They can make materials like nylon brittle or cause them to melt They can make the equipment too hot to touch They can cause the equipment to shrink They don't affect the equipment

Page | 128

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 129

Answer Key: 1. b) To ensure its longevity and safety 2. b) 10 years 3. d) All of the above 4. a) The year of production and lot number 5. d) All of the above 6. a) Wash in warm soapy water, rinse thoroughly, and allow to dry 7. c) Both a and b 8. c) In a well-ventilated area away from direct sunlight, corrosive substances, and damp places 9. b) Sand it using fine grit sandpaper 10. a) Rinse with fresh water 11. d) All of the above 12. a) In-service date, diameter, and rope length 13. a) Rinse with fresh water 14. d) Destroyed to prevent further use in a life safety application 15. b) To track the age and usage of the equipment for retirement decisions 16. d) All of the above 17. a) It can degrade nylon 18. b) It can get into moving parts and affect their function 19. c) Dry it thoroughly before storage 20. a) They can make materials like nylon brittle or cause them to melt

Page | 130

Chapter 11

General Rigging Consideration

Page | 131

Chapter 11: General Rigging Considerations Learning Objective By the end of this chapter you will have learned: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Understand the importance of consistent carabiner orientation in rigging for secure connections and potential hazards with diagonal rigging of the carabiner. Learn the critical considerations for carabiner rigging, including the handling of locking carabiners, avoiding three-way loading, and understanding the gate-open strength. Gain knowledge about rigging techniques that prevent friction between nylon components, and the potential risks associated with nylon-on-nylon friction. Understand the importance of systematic safety inspections after completing rigging tasks and the key steps involved in these inspections: Looking, Touching, and Talking. Recognize the potential risks and failure modes associated with fast movement of nylon across stationary nylon and the rigging practices to prevent such scenarios.

Orientation of Carabiners in Rigging

To ensure a secure connection point during rigging, it's crucial to consistently orient carabiners in the same manner. Proper orientation helps minimize the risk of unintentional load shifting and ensures the carabiner is being used within its designed strength parameters. The following guidelines can help you achieve the correct orientation: 1. Hook a carabiner into a connection point in a downward motion, ensuring the gate is fully closed and engaged with the connection point. 2. Rotate the carabiner body around so that the gate is facing upward. This orientation makes it easier to monitor the gate and reduces the risk of unintentional opening due to contact with other objects or the environment. 3. Ensure the nose of the gate is oriented away from the connection point. This position helps prevent the carabiner from being loaded on the gate, which can significantly reduce its strength and increase the likelihood of failure.

Page | 132

4. Place the spine of the carabiner against the ground or another solid surface. This arrangement keeps the spine in a more stable position and maximizes the carabiner's strength by aligning the load along its major axis. 5. Visually inspect the carabiner to ensure that the orientation is correct and the gate is functioning properly. Regular inspections help identify any potential issues before they become critical. 6. Practice consistent carabiner orientation across all rigging scenarios. Consistency allows for easier identification of potential issues and ensures that all team members are familiar with the same rigging practices, reducing the risk of errors. By following these guidelines, you can achieve proper carabiner orientation in your rigging, ensuring efficiency and reliability. Keep in mind that appropriate orientation is only one aspect of rigging safety; always make sure to follow other safety practices such as regular inspections, proper equipment care, and appropriate rigging techniques for your specific rescue scenarios.

Important Note: While consistently orienting carabiners in the same manner during rigging can provide efficiency and reliability for a secure connection point, it's crucial to be cautious that this manner of rigging, when untensioned and then tensioned again with a suspended carabiner, can promote diagonal rigging of the carabiner, leading to a significant loss of strength (50-60%). In such cases, it may be appropriate to rotate the heavier gate downward, but it should be done away from the terrain to avoid potential hazards.

Page | 133

Carabiner Rigging: The carabiner is an integral tool in rigging operations, providing versatility and strength. However, its effectiveness is largely dependent on the correct usage. Here are some expanded guidelines to ensure proper carabiner rigging: 1.

Locking vs. Non-Locking Carabiners: For safety at a critical rig point, consider using one locking carabiner or two non-locking carabiners placed with their gates opposite and opposed. Locking carabiners are generally more secure, but two non-locking carabiners used correctly can provide a comparable level of safety. This method, known as 'opposite and opposed', significantly reduces the risk of simultaneous gate opening. 2. Carabiner Loading: Tension carabiners along the spine and avoid three-way loading of carabiners. When carabiners are loaded in three directions, the force distribution changes and can significantly reduce the carabiner's strength. Load along the major axis, across the spine, is the safest and most efficient way to use a carabiner. Diagonal or cross-loading, as well as loading along the minor axis (across the gate), can drastically reduce the carabiner's strength and increase the risk of failure. 3. Keeping the Gate Clear: Ensure that straps, lanyards, and other carabiners do not interfere with the gate. Any interference can potentially lead to accidental gate opening or damage. 4. Gate Strength: Be aware that a carabiner's gate-open strength is usually less than half of its gate-closed strength. Always ensure the gate is fully closed before loading the carabiner. 5. Locking Carabiner Checks: Locking carabiners can unintentionally unlock themselves due to vibrations, contact with other equipment, or improper use. Regularly check them during use to ensure they remain locked. 6. Rope and Locking Sleeve Interaction: Avoid allowing the rope or any other part of your rigging system to run against the locking sleeve of a locking carabiner. This can potentially open the carabiner or cause wear and tear on the sleeve, affecting its locking mechanism. 7. Over-tightening Concerns: Do not overtighten a locking carabiner while it is loaded. Once the tension is released, it may become difficult to unlock. If a carabiner becomes "stuck," you may need to reapply tension to loosen the gate. 8. Avoid Carabiner Chains: Linking carabiners in a chain is not recommended as it can lead to unpredictable load orientations, increase the chances of gate interference, and reduce overall system strength. 9. Avoid Sharp Edges: Sharp edges can damage a carabiner, potentially leading to failure. Always look for smooth, rounded surfaces to connect your carabiner to, and use edge protection if necessary. Note: Be aware that diagonal rigging of a carabiner, as described in the previous section, can result in significant strength loss.

Page | 134

Other Rigging When nylon components move across stationary nylon, it creates a lot of friction, which generates heat. This heat can melt through a piece of nylon in a short amount of time, causing the stationary component to fail. To prevent this, it's important to avoid rigging in a way that allows nylon components to rub against each other. Instead, use a carabiner or another intermediate rigging component to separate the nylon items and prevent friction.

Safety Inspections After completing a rigging task, a safety officer or another rescuer should conduct a complete inspection. Safety inspections should also be performed on newly constructed rigging or systems that have been re-rigged. All rescuers must receive a safety inspection before entering a hazard zone at an exposed edge. This process provides redundancy for safety and can catch natural rigging errors that may occur. Inspections should be conducted systematically, such as from head-to-toe or from anchor point to rescue load. If an inspector is interrupted during a safety inspection, the inspection should start over to ensure thoroughness for complete safety.

Page | 135

For thoroughness, the actual safety inspection should involve three distinct actions by the inspector: looking, touching, and talking. •

•

•

LOOK: Visually inspect all rigging to ensure it meets acceptable techniques. Verify that knots are correctly tied and dressed, carabiners are locked, buckles are secure, PPE is being fully utilized, and that housekeeping of all rigging has been addressed. TOUCH: Physically touch and trace the rigging. Squeeze carabiners to verify security with a "press check" and pull on harnesses, anchor points, and systems for confirmation. TALK: Verbally talk (even if it is only to oneself) about what is being inspected. State what is observed and what is being looked for. Ask questions of the rigger.

Nylon should not be allowed to move quickly across stationary nylon, as this generates tremendous friction that results in heat. This heat can quickly melt through a piece of nylon in a short amount of time, resulting in failure of the stationary component. Rigging should be performed in a manner that separates nylon items to avoid rubbing against one another. An intermediate rigging component, such as a carabiner, can be used to achieve this separation. When it comes to rope rescue, speaking out loud about your actions can make a significant difference. In this section, we'll explore why verbalizing your actions is so important from a psychological perspective. By understanding the benefits, even the average person can improve their performance, decision-making, and teamwork during rescue situations. Thinking Clearly: Speaking out loud helps you think more clearly and make better decisions. When you talk through your actions, it engages your brain in a more focused and organized manner. It's like having a conversation with yourself that helps you assess the situation and come up with effective solutions. Staying Focused: Verbalizing actions helps you stay focused on the task at hand. By speaking out loud about what you're doing, it acts as a reminder to keep your attention on the rescue. With so much happening in a high-stress situation, verbalization helps prevent distractions and reduces the chances of making mistakes. Teamwork and Communication: Effective teamwork is crucial in rope rescue, and verbalizing your actions plays a key role in that. When you speak about what you're doing, it helps others understand your intentions, progress, and any challenges you might be facing. This open communication promotes teamwork, situational awareness, and avoids misunderstandings among team members. Boosting Confidence: Speaking out loud reinforces your confidence and control over the situation. By verbalizing your actions, you affirm your competence and remind yourself of the steps you need to take. This boosts your confidence, helping you maintain composure in stressful moments. Learning and Skill Development: Verbalizing actions supports your learning and skill development in rope rescue. When you narrate your actions, it solidifies your knowledge and helps you remember the steps involved. Additionally, verbalizing allows others to provide feedback, facilitating continuous improvement in your rescue skills.

Page | 136

Chapter 11: General Rigging Considerations Quiz 1. Why is it crucial to consistently orient carabiners in the same way during rigging? a) It helps to change the carabiner's color. b) It minimizes the risk of unintentional load shifting and ensures the carabiner is used within its designed strength parameters. c) It makes the carabiner look better. d) It increases the chances of carabiner failure. 2. What is a potential risk associated with diagonal rigging of a carabiner? a) b) c) d)

It reduces the carabiner's strength by 10%. It causes the carabiner to change color. It leads to a significant loss of strength (50-60%). It makes the carabiner easier to use.

3. In terms of carabiner rigging, which of the following is a critical consideration? a) b) c) d)

Choosing the color of the carabiner. Avoiding three-way loading. Making the carabiner look more attractive. Using the carabiner for other activities beyond rigging.

4. What does the gate-open strength of a carabiner usually represent? a) b) c) d)

More than its gate-closed strength. Exactly the same as its gate-closed strength. Less than half of its gate-closed strength. Twice the gate-closed strength.

5. Why is it important to prevent friction between nylon components? a) b) c) d)

To prevent the nylon from changing color. To prevent friction-induced heat, which can melt nylon and cause failure. To make the nylon components look better. To prevent the nylon components from shrinking.

6. Which of the following is a key step in safety inspections after rigging? a) b) c) d)

Looking, Touching, and Talking. Smelling, Hearing, and Shouting. Running, Jumping, and Climbing. Eating, Sleeping, and Relaxing.

7. What is a potential risk associated with fast movement of nylon across stationary nylon? a) It changes the color of the nylon. b) It generates tremendous friction that results in heat, potentially causing failure of the stationary component. c) It makes the nylon components look less attractive. d) It shrinks the nylon components.

Page | 137

8. What is the recommended practice when hooking a carabiner into a connection point during rigging? a) b) c) d)

In an upward motion. In a sideways motion. In a downward motion. There is no recommended practice.

9. What is the appropriate orientation for the nose of the gate of a carabiner during rigging? a) b) c) d)

Towards the connection point. Away from the connection point. Towards the ground. Towards the sky.

10. What is the role of the spine of the carabiner during rigging? a) b) c) d)

It should face the sky. It should be placed against the ground or another solid surface. It should face the person doing the rigging. It has no specific role.

11. Why is it important to use one locking carabiner or two non-locking carabiners placed with their gates opposite and opposed? a) b) c) d)

It makes the carabiners look more attractive. It helps to change the color of the carabiners. It provides safety at a critical rig point. It makes the carabiners easier to handle.

12. Which of the following statements is true regarding carabiner loading? a) b) c) d)

Three-way loading across the major axis has no effect on strength. Diagonal tensioning of a carabiner results in about a 5% loss in strength. Three-way loading across the minor axis can result in up to an 80% loss in strength. Loading along the major axis reduces the carabiner's strength significantly.

13. Why is it crucial to keep straps, lanyards, and other carabiners away from the gate of a carabiner? a) b) c) d)

To prevent accidental gate opening or damage. To make the carabiner look more attractive. To change the color of the carabiner. To make the carabiner lighter.

14. Why should you regularly check locking carabiners during use? a) b) c) d)

To make sure they remain locked. To check for color changes. To ensure they remain shiny. To admire their design.

Page | 138

15. What should you avoid when using a locking carabiner? a) b) c) d)

Allowing the rope to run against the locking sleeve. Using the carabiner for rigging purposes. Inspecting the carabiner. Closing the gate.

16. Why should you not overtighten a locking carabiner while it is loaded? a) b) c) d)

It will become difficult to unlock once the tension is released. It will make the carabiner more secure. It will change the color of the carabiner. It will make the carabiner lighter.

17. Why is linking carabiners in a chain not recommended? a) It increases the overall system strength. b) It leads to unpredictable load orientations, increases the chances of gate interference, and reduces overall system strength. c) It makes the carabiners look more attractive. d) It changes the color of the carabiners. 18. What should you look for when connecting a carabiner to a surface? a) b) c) d)

Sharp edges. Smooth, rounded surfaces. A surface that matches the carabiner's color. A surface that is easy to clean.

19. How can you prevent friction between nylon components during rigging? a) b) c) d)

By using a carabiner or another intermediate rigging component to separate the nylon items. By allowing the nylon components to rub against each other. By using a lubricant. By using only one nylon component.

20. Which of the following actions should be performed during a safety inspection of rigging equipment? a) b) c) d)

Visually inspect all rigging to ensure it meets acceptable techniques. Ignore any knots, carabiners, or buckles. Avoid touching any part of the rigging. Conduct the inspection without talking or asking questions.

Page | 139

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 140

Answer Key: 1. b) To minimize the risk of unintentional load shifting and ensure the carabiner is used within its designed strength parameters. 2. c) It leads to a significant loss of strength (50-60%). 3. b) Avoiding three-way loading. 4. c) Less than half of its gate-closed strength. 5. b) To prevent friction-induced heat, which can melt nylon and cause failure. 6. a) Looking, Touching, and Talking. 7. b) It generates tremendous friction that results in heat, potentially causing failure of the stationary component. 8. c) In a downward motion. 9. a) Towards the connection point. 10. b) It should be placed against the ground or another solid surface. 11. c) It provides safety at a critical rig point. 12. c) Three-way loading across the minor axis can result in up to an 80% loss in strength. 13. a) To prevent accidental gate opening or damage. 14. a) To make sure they remain locked. 15. a) Allowing the rope to run against the locking sleeve. 16. a) It will become difficult to unlock once the tension is released. 17. b) It leads to unpredictable load orientations, increases the chances of gate interference, and reduces overall system strength. 18. a) Sharp edges. 19. a) By using a carabiner or another intermediate rigging component to separate the nylon items. 20. a) Visually inspect all rigging to ensure it meets acceptable techniques.

Page | 141

Chapter 12

Anchor Systems

Page | 142

Chapter 12: Anchor Systems Learning Objectives: 1. Understand the Purpose and Construction of Pre-Tensioned Back-Ties and Front-Ties: By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to explain the purpose of pre-tensioned back-ties and front-ties in a rescue system. They should be able to describe the process of constructing and tensioning these elements and understand the importance of regular inspection and maintenance. 2. Identify Suitable Natural Anchors and Evaluate Their Integrity: Learners should be able to identify potential natural anchors such as trees and boulders, and assess their suitability based on factors such as size, stability, and overall health. They should also be familiar with protective measures for ropes and webbing when using natural anchors. 3. Understand the Use of Pickets as Anchor Points: Learners should be able to describe how to install and secure pickets in various soil conditions, and understand the importance of regular inspection and maintenance of picket systems. 4. Understand the Use of Vehicles as Anchor Points: By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to identify suitable points on a vehicle for use as anchors, understand the importance of vehicle positioning, and know the precautions to take when using a vehicle as an anchor. 5. Understand the Role and Use of Directionals in a Rescue System: Learners should be able to explain how directionals are used to guide the path of a rope under tension, and understand the importance of adjustability in the placement of directionals. They should also be able to discuss the potential forces at play on a directional and its associated anchor system. 6. Apply Safety Precautions and Maintenance Practices to all Aspects of Anchor Systems: Across all topics, learners should be able to discuss the importance of regular inspection and maintenance, and understand how to apply safety precautions in the construction and use of rescue anchor systems. Guidelines For Anchor System Construction When constructing a rescue anchor system, it's crucial to have a solid understanding of sound anchor rigging concepts. This doesn't necessarily require an engineering degree, but it does require careful consideration and attention to detail. As a team leader, there are several important considerations to keep in mind when arriving at a rescue scene to help maintain efficient scene management. In the fire service, single point anchors are typically used. These anchors must be "solid" on their own, whether they're rocks, bollards, columns, beams, cars, trees, or any other type of anchor point. Whatever is used as an anchor point, it must be bombproof beyond doubt to ensure maximum safety. It's also important to check the edges where webbing or rope will be up against and confirm that there are no sharp edges that could damage the nylon under great loads. Cars, for example, can slide if they're on ice or loose gravel, while rocks can roll and trees can break or topple over, especially if they're under wind or snow load. It's essential to evaluate whether the anchor point is live, in good soil, saturated, or if the roots are exposed, as these factors can affect the anchor's reliability.

Page | 143

Anchor System Definitions: ANCHOR POINT - A single connection point such as a tree, boulder, or camming device. ANCHOR SYSTEM - Multiple anchor points rigged together to create a redundant system. DEVIATION - A rigging technique that redirects the natural fall line of the rope on the rock face. The deviation point may or may not be subjected to the same force as the primary anchor point. DIRECTIONAL - A rigging technique that uses a carabiner or pulley attached to an alternative anchor to change the natural line of a rope. FOCAL POINT - A location, either floating or fixed, where all rigging is directed for anchor points. This concept helps rescuers construct rigging that efficiently joins together at a central point, rather than using the length of material to determine the knot that joins all anchor points, which can result in awkward rope handling.

Page | 144

Anchor Selection When selecting anchors, the first consideration should be where you need to go. Here are some things to consider: • •

• • • • • • •

Select an efficient fall line in order to reach the victim. Avoid rappelling directly down on top of the victim in a non-pickoff situation in a way that could cause rockfall injury. It's usually better to descend adjacent to the patient's location and package the patient at their resting point before traversing the litter to the raising or lowering system. Choose a lowering route that avoids additional hazardous terrain if possible. Consider whether a deviation pulley is needed to redirect the fall line of the rope. Think about what rescue tasks need to be accomplished (e.g., edge management, lowering, raising, or a traverse) and where the anchor focal point should be located. Raising the focal point off the ground increases the efficiency of the belayer/attendant. Consider whether a floating focal point is necessary. Determine whether the focal point requires pretensioned back-ties or front-ties. Remember that the focal point prevents extension of an anchor point in a load-sharing anchor system.

When choosing anchor points, keep these guidelines in mind: • • • • •

Pad anchor points with sharp edges. Evaluate the integrity of the anchor points being utilized. Ensure that the anchor point is not hot to the touch or exposing the rope to Haz-Mat. Seek system-wide redundancy by using more than one anchor point to avoid overreliance on a single feature or placement of one piece of artificial protection (e.g., bolt or camming device). Attach at the base of an anchor point to prevent a leverage situation.

Finally, consider the directionals available and whether they are needed: • • •

A directional may be needed for the use of certain anchor points. Consider whether an artificial high directional is needed at the edge. Rig the focal point high to take advantage of any natural high directional (e.g., stair-stepped edge) and allow for more efficient edge management with a litter.

Page | 145

“SAFE-TAR” Rescue Anchor Acronym Constructing a safe and effective rescue anchor system involves considering multiple important factors. To guide this process, Rigging for Rescue has adapted an acronym known as SAFE-TAR.

S - Symmetrical: Anchor points should be arranged symmetrically to evenly distribute the load. A - Adequate: Ensure that the anchor points and components used are strong enough to hold the anticipated load. F - Fail-safe: Use redundant components in case one or more fails. E - Efficient: Construct the anchor system with minimal slack and in a timely manner. T - Tight: Remove any slack in the anchor system through pre-tensioning. A - Aligned: Ensure that all components are properly aligned to prevent shock loading. R - Reliable: Regularly inspect and maintain the anchor system to ensure its reliability.

Locating Anchor Focal Point To ensure a safe and effective rescue operation, locating the anchor focal points is a crucial initial step. During the size-up phase, it is necessary to identify the focal point locations for both rope systems, the main line, and the belay line. Mental projection of the rope lines' direction before setting up can assist in avoiding rigging nightmares. It is essential to strategize carefully at the outset to avoid having to de-rig later due to poor selection. The focal points should be situated far enough from the edge to allow for the construction of a haul system, if required, without placing the haul team inside the hazard zone. In constricted locations, such as the top of a cliff, a change of direction can provide the required distance from the edge. It is beneficial to position both focal points side by side. Communication between the two rope systems is far better, allowing each rope operator to more easily monitor what the other rope system is doing. This facilitates onthe-job detection and correction of techniques, leading to better results. Ultimately, both focal points must be situated outside the hazard zone to ensure safety and avoid hazards.

Page | 146

Critical Angle In Anchor System When connecting two or more anchor points to support a load, it is crucial to consider the critical angle. This angle is formed by the connection of the anchor points and the applied load and can act as a force multiplier. As the angle increases, the force directed along each anchor leg also increases. At a critical angle of 120 degrees, the force on each anchor leg is equal to the load. However, for tensioned highline systems, the critical angle must be taken into account, as the force applied to each leg of the anchor can rapidly increase beyond this point. This can result in excessive force being directed along each anchor leg, potentially leading to anchor failure and compromising the safety of the entire system. To prevent this, it is important to use proper rigging techniques and ensure that the critical angle does not exceed the manufacturer's specifications. Equalizing the anchor points and using proper placement can also help to minimize the risk of a critical angle failure. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system is also crucial to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Page | 147

Rough Estimates Of Angles

Page | 148

Page | 149

Wrap 3 Pull 2 ( 7,899 lbs) The Wrap 3 Pull 2 anchor provides friction around an object to hold it in place when tensioned or unweighted. This type of anchor is ideal when there is expected movement from the carabiner, such as in a change of direction, because the carabiner can slide freely on the nylon while the friction helps to keep the anchor webbing in place. However, building this type of anchor takes a little longer. Additionally, it is important to note that the Technical Safety Office (TSO) expects the knot to be facing the load to ensure proper load distribution and prevent any potential failure. Despite these drawbacks, the Wrap 3 Pull 2 anchor can be a reliable and effective option in certain situations where movement and friction are factors to consider. It is essential to follow proper rigging techniques and regularly inspect and maintain the anchor system to ensure its continued safety and reliability. The 3-Bight anchor, also known as the Basket anchor, is a fast and relatively strong option with a weight capacity of 8,464 lbs. However, it may not be the best choice for directional or change of direction applications as the carabiner cannot slide, causing the webbing to rub against the object as it pendulums from being loaded and relaxed repeatedly.

3-Bight aka Basket (8,464 lbs) Another potential drawback is that the 3-Bight anchor is subject to tri-loading if it is not positioned far enough from the object, even when the angle is at 90 degrees. This can lead to excessive force being directed along one leg of the anchor, compromising the safety and stability of the entire system. Despite these limitations, the 3-Bight anchor can be an effective option when used in the right circumstances. It is essential to follow proper rigging techniques and ensure that the anchor is positioned and loaded correctly. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system is also crucial to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Page | 150

The Double Loop anchor (Wrap 2 Pull 2) The Double Loop anchor, also known as the Wrap 2 Pull 2 anchor, is the strongest of the three options with a weight capacity of 8,716 lbs. It is also relatively quick to tie, making it a convenient option in many situations. This type of anchor is ideal when movement from the carabiner is expected, such as in a change of direction, because the carabiner is free to slide on the nylon. However, one potential drawback is that the Double Loop anchor provides no friction around the object. As a result, it is likely to slide down when unweighted, which may not be ideal in certain situations. Despite this limitation, the Double Loop anchor can be a reliable and effective option in certain scenarios where strength and movement are the primary considerations. Proper rigging techniques, including load distribution and regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system, are essential to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Page | 151

High Strength Tie-Off The high strength tie-off, also known as a Tensionless Hitch, is a method of attaching a line to an anchor point that preserves most of the original rope strength. This technique involves wrapping the end of the line at least three times around the anchor point and then attaching it back to the main line at a 90° angle. The number of wraps required depends on the anchor point and the amount of friction provided by the surface. To protect the bark of a tree from damage, a canvas can be wrapped around the trunk before wrapping the line. This also helps to protect the line from tree sap. Previously known as a tensionless anchor, the high strength tie-off is a reliable and effective method for securing a line to an anchor point while preserving the strength of the rope. Proper rigging techniques, including the use of protective gear when necessary, are essential to ensure the safety and reliability of the system.

Page | 152

CMC Anchor Strap The CMC Anchor Strap has different weight capacities depending on its configuration. In the Basket (U) Configuration, it has an impressive weight capacity of 85 kN (19,108 lbf). However, it is important to note that this configuration is also subject to tri-loading if it is not positioned far enough from the object, even at a 90-degree angle. In the End-to-End Configuration, the CMC Anchor Strap has a weight capacity of 46 kN (10,341 lbf), while in the Choker Configuration, it has a weight capacity of 48 kN (10,790 lbf). Regardless of the configuration used, it is essential to follow proper rigging techniques when using the CMC Anchor Strap to ensure the safety and reliability of the system. This includes positioning the anchor far enough from the object, using the proper angle for load distribution, and regularly inspecting and maintaining the anchor system.

It is

important to avoid using a Girth Hitch or a tied single loop of webbing as an attachment to an anchor point due to the significant reduction in rated strength. These types of attachments can weaken the anchor system and increase the risk of failure, compromising the safety and stability of the entire system. Instead, it is recommended to use a proper anchor system that is designed to support the weight and forces involved. This may include using specialized anchor webbing or other equipment designed specifically for this purpose. Proper rigging techniques, including load distribution and regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system, are essential to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Page | 153

Load Distributing Anchor Load distributing anchor systems are designed to evenly distribute the weight of a load between two or more anchors. These systems are typically used in situations where a single anchor point is not strong enough to support the entire load. One of the main advantages of load distributing anchor systems is that they can redistribute the load in the event of a shift in direction or a failure of one of the anchor points. This helps to prevent excessive force from being directed along a single anchor point, reducing the risk of anchor failure and improving the overall safety and stability of the system. Proper rigging techniques are essential when setting up load distributing anchor systems, including the use of specialized equipment designed for this purpose. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system is also crucial to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

To ensure the effectiveness and safety of a load distributing anchor system, it is important to tie it in a manner that keeps the actual "load distributing" portion as small as possible. This is achieved by extending from each anchor point to the small load distributing system, usually represented by green webbing. If a leg were to fail in a load distributing system, the load will drop the length of the slack in the collapsed leg, creating a large dynamic force that can impact the remaining anchor points. By keeping the load distributing portion small, you can minimize the impact caused by the collapsed leg and reduce the risk of anchor failure. It is also important to keep all interior angles in a load distributing system less than 90 degrees to ensure proper load distribution and prevent excessive force from being directed along a single anchor point. Proper rigging techniques and regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system are essential to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Page | 154

When setting up an anchor using a loop of webbing or cord, it is important to make a twist in the loop so that the carabiner can be clipped through it. This twist helps to ensure that the carabiner remains captured in the loop, even if one of the legs were to fail. By keeping the carabiner captured in the loop, you can prevent it from becoming dislodged and potentially compromising the safety and stability of the entire system. Proper rigging techniques, including load distribution and regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system, are essential to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Page | 155

Load Sharing Anchor Load sharing anchor systems are designed to distribute the weight of a load between two or more anchor points. Unlike load distributing anchor systems, load sharing systems have fixed-length legs that do not adjust once rigged. As a result, load sharing systems are superior for rigging rescue anchor systems as they provide for no extension of the focal point in the event one leg or single point fails, reducing the potential for a shock force to be generated within the anchor system. However, it is important to note that load sharing anchor systems may not distribute the load precisely evenly, and any shift in the direction that the load applies to the anchors can result in the entire weight of the load shifting to one of the anchors only. A load-sharing anchor system, also known as a "cordelette," is easily constructed using a ten-meter (33 feet) length of 8 mm cord or nylon webbing. Once all anchor points are clipped in and the load is distributed evenly, the middle of the load-sharing anchor is tied off with a Figure Eight Knot or Overhand Knot. Proper rigging techniques and regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system are essential to ensure its continued safety and reliability.

Pre-Tensioned Tie-Back A pretensioned back-tie is used to provide redundancy in the anchor system and prevent movement in the main anchor point. It is constructed to back up the main anchor point and is interwoven with at least one wrap of the webbing connecting to the back-tie connection to ensure integrity.

Page | 156

If the objective is to create a solid and rigid link between the focal point and the rear anchor point, then a threestranded back-tie is used. This creates a 3:1 mechanical advantage system between the front and rear anchor points using carabiners instead of pulleys. To construct the back-tie, the webbing is wrapped around the rear anchor point and then woven through the focal point webbing. The line can be constructed with one end starting at the rear anchor and finished at the front anchor, leaving the remaining line flaked nearby and available for use if needed. Proper tensioning of the back-tie is crucial to ensure its effectiveness and safety in the anchor system. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system are also essential to ensure its continued reliability.

To tension the back-tie using a 3:1 hauling system, at least two people must pull the system tight until the bundle of strands is sufficiently taut. After this step, push sideways on the rigging to "vector" it for additional tensioning, in order to remove any remaining stretch from the rope.

Page | 157

Once the back-tie is sufficiently tensioned, it should be locked off using a prusik knot and then "dogged" to the anchor point. In the absence of a prusik, two half hitches may be used to lock off the back-tie. Proper tensioning of the back-tie is essential to ensure its effectiveness and safety in the anchor system. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system are also necessary to ensure its continued reliability.

The alignment of the front and rear anchor points in a pretensioned back-tie should be within 15° on either side of in-line to the fall line, creating a total width of 30°. If the angle of offset is greater than 15°, two pretensioned back-ties should be employed to balance the offset forces. This creates a separate back-tie on either side of the horizontal alignment line. Two pretensioned back-ties can be constructed with a single rope if the distances are not too great. To do this, start at the focal point and split the rope, using half the line rearward on each back-tie. Proper alignment and balancing of offset forces in a pretensioned back-tie system are crucial to ensure its effectiveness and safety in the anchor system. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system are also necessary to ensure its continued reliability.

Page | 158

Pre-Tensioned Front-Tie A pre-tensioned front tie is necessary when anchor points have been extended a significant distance to a focal point, where substantial slack can be generated in the anchor system when it is not tensioned. The purpose of a front tie is to "pre-tension" the system and remove any slack. The front tie needs to be constructed strong enough to apply tension to the focal point, but it does not need to bear a life safety load. A weaker anchor point and smaller cordage can be used if required. However, it is important to note that the front tie tends to pull the focal point down into the ground, which is not an ideal location to manage a rescue load. To address this issue, an object, such as a pack, can be placed under the focal point to allow it to float and create a better working environment for rescuers. Proper pre-tensioning and management of the anchor system is essential to ensure its effectiveness and safety in the rescue operation. Regular inspection and maintenance of the anchor system are also necessary to ensure its continued reliability.

Page | 159

Natural Anchors Natural anchors, such as trees and boulders, are often referred to as "BFT" and "BFR" (Big Friendly Trees and Rocks). When using natural anchors, it is important to protect ropes from sharp edges and sap by using padding and canvas. When relying on a single anchor point, it is crucial to evaluate it for potential failure. Boulders lying on slabs or partially buried in soil may not be as sturdy as they appear, and many trees have shallow root systems that may compromise their strength and integrity. Research conducted by PNW local SAR, John Morton, and presented at an international technical rescue symposium suggests that an acceptable tree anchor diameter could range from 6-10 inches. To simplify, a tree anchor, whether it is a main, belay, or directional anchor, should be at least 10 inches in diameter, which is approximately the size of a helmet. It is important to exercise caution and consider various factors when utilizing natural anchors such as trees and boulders. These factors include wind and snow loading, soil conditions, as well as the health and root system of the natural anchor. Sharp edges should be padded and ropes should be protected from sap with canvas. It is also important to evaluate the potential for a single anchor point to fail and question the strength and integrity of boulders or trees with shallow root systems. For tree anchors, a minimum diameter of 10 inches is recommended, as per research by PNW local SAR presented at an international technical rescue symposium.

Pickets Pickets are often used as anchor points when natural anchors, such as rocks, are not available. However, it is important to note that the strength of a picket system is dependent on the soil conditions. In light, dry soils, a picket system may pull out easily and not be able to support a rescue load, while an anchor in heavy, dense soil may have a larger safety factor. To ensure the safety and reliability of a picket system, it is important to understand the existing soil conditions. Soil moisture content and compactness can affect the holding power of the picket. Quality steel stakes, at least 3 feet in length with 3/4 of the length driven into the ground, should be used instead of steel rebar, which can bend.

Page | 160

The common configuration for a picket system is three pickets oriented in a straight line away from the direction of the load, with each picket spaced one picket length away from the other. Pickets should be driven into the ground at a 20° angle away from the load. The top of the front picket should be lashed to the base of the rear picket. To tension the picket cordage, a Trucker's Hitch or a Spanish Windlass can be used. The Spanish Windlass is constructed by placing a smaller stake between the multiple strands of connecting cordage and twisting to create tension. The smaller stake is then driven into the ground to secure it. Eye protection and gloves should be worn when pounding steel stakes. It is important to regularly inspect and maintain the picket system to ensure its continued reliability and safety.

Vehicle

Anchors

Vehicles can serve as highly effective anchor points in rescue operations, as they can be positioned strategically to optimize rigging at the scene. The orientation of the rigging will depend on the vehicle's size and intended use, whether on its long axis or short axis. It's important to ensure that the vehicle's weight and the surface it's on provide sufficient friction to prevent it from sliding when a rescue load is applied. The frame and axle are typically the most reliable points for connection. Care must be taken to keep ropes clear of hot or greasy areas, avoid tangling with brake lines when rigging to wheels, and check the mounting bolts and connection points of hooks or brackets for tightness and corrosion.

The image shows three different examples of vehicle anchor points. From left to right: an open hook that requires continuous tension to prevent detachment, a welded bracket with a connection point, and an attachment directly to a wheel rim at a right angle, while avoiding brake lines.

Page | 161

When using vehicles as anchors, it's important to set the brake and chock the wheels, especially when the direction of pull is in the long axis. In addition, to prevent accidental movement of the vehicle, the ignition keys should be removed and secured. Here's an example of vehicles positioned for rigging placement as anchors in a slope rescue:

Page | 162

Directionals Forces placed on change of direction pulleys or directional pulleys often compound the force on the pulley and its associated anchor or anchor system. This force is usually greater than we would expect on the basis of the weight of the load. The force on the pulley is a function of the interior angle of the lines feeding into and out of the pulley. A directional provides a means of redirecting the path of a rope under tension. This may be necessary to avoid contact with vegetation or a large rock, as well as providing better alignment at a cliff edge.

If a pulley is rigged on a fixed tether to a separate anchor point, it does not allow for any adjustment if the distance has been miscalculated or misjudged. In such a scenario, the entire system would have to be reset, potentially causing delays and posing risks to the rescue operation.

When constructing a directional with a tether, it is recommended to make it adjustable using a jigger or adjustable hitch. This allows for greater flexibility and permits the pulley to be placed in the proper point of alignment. With a double-sheave directional pulley, both the main and belay can be directed for alignment. This ensures the rescue load is properly aligned and reduces the potential for shock loading on the anchor points.

Page | 163

Directionals & Critical Angles

Page | 164

Chapter 12: Anchor Systems and Directionals in Rescue Operations Quiz 1. What is the purpose of a pre-tensioned back-tie? a) To provide redundancy in the anchor system b) To provide a solid and rigid link between the focal point and the rear anchor point c) Both a and b d) None of the above 2. The alignment of the front and rear anchor points in a pretensioned back-tie should be within how many degrees of in-line to the fall line? a) 5° b) 10° c) 15° d) 20° 3. What is the minimum recommended diameter for a tree to be used as a natural anchor? a) 6 inches b) 8 inches c) 10 inches d) 12 inches 4. What is the recommended length of a steel stake for a picket system? a) 2 feet b) 3 feet c) 4 feet d) 5 feet 5. What is the purpose of a directional in a rescue system? a) To avoid contact with vegetation or a large rock b) To provide better alignment at a cliff edge c) Both a and b d) None of the above

Page | 165

6. The frame and axle are typically the most reliable points for connection on a vehicle used as an anchor point. a) True b) False 7. Which of the following is an acceptable natural anchor? a) BFT (Big Friendly Tree) b) BFR (Big Friendly Rock) c) Both a and b d) None of the above 8. In a pre-tensioned front-tie, the front tie tends to pull the focal point into what direction? a) Upwards b) Downwards c) Sideways d) Backwards 9. What is the purpose of a pre-tensioned front-tie? a) To remove any slack in the anchor system b) To apply tension to the focal point c) Both a and b d) None of the above 10. The common configuration for a picket system involves how many pickets? a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four 11. Which of the following is NOT a suitable anchor point for a vehicle? a) The frame b) The axle c) The tires d) A welded bracket with a connection point

Page | 166

12. In a picket system, pickets should be driven into the ground at what angle away from the load? a) 10° b) 20° c) 30° d) 40° 13. What is the angle of offset that necessitates the use of two pre-tensioned back-ties? a) More than 10° b) More than 15° c) More than 20° d) More than 25° 14. What type of knot is used to lock off the back-tie once it's sufficiently tensioned? a) Square knot b) Prusik knot c) Double half hitch d) Both b and c 15. When using a vehicle as an anchor, which of the following should be done to prevent accidental movement? a) Set the brake b) Chock the wheels c) Remove and secure the ignition keys d) All of the above 16. When using natural anchors, what should be used to protect ropes from sharp edges and sap? a) Padding and canvas b) Leather and plastic c) Metal and rubber d) Foam and nylon 17. What is used to tension the picket cordage? a) Trucker's Hitch b) Spanish Windlass c) Both a and b d) Neither a nor b

Page | 167

18. What is the advantage of making the directional adjustable in a rescue system? a) It allows for greater flexibility b) It permits the pulley to be placed in the proper point of alignment c) Both a and b d) None of the above 19. In a pre-tensioned back-tie, what creates a 3:1 mechanical advantage system between the front and rear anchor points? a) Pulleys b) Carabiners c) Both a and b d) None of the above 20. What is the primary concern when using natural anchors like boulders? a) Their size b) Their weight c) Their stability d) Their color

Page | 168

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 169

Answer Key: 1. c) Both a and b 2. c) 15° 3. c) 10 inches 4. b) 3 feet 5. c) Both a and b 6. a) True 7. c) Both a and b 8. b) Downwards 9. c) Both a and b 10. c) Three 11. c) The tires 12. b) 20° 13. b) More than 15° 14. d) Both b and c 15. d) All of the above 16. a) Padding and canvas 17. c) Both a and b 18. c) Both a and b 19. b) Carabiners 20. c) Their stability

Page | 170

Chapter 13

Belay Techniques

Page | 171

Chapter 13: Belay Techniques Learning Objectives: By the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to: 1. Understand the importance of employing a separate belay line when ascending or descending during rescue work, according to the guidelines of the WAC and NFPA. 2. Identify the exceptions when single rope technique (SRT) may be used, such as when a solo rescuer needs to reach a stranded subject in immediate danger, or during helicopter hoist or short-haul operations. 3. Distinguish between the different types of belaying techniques including Independent belay, Self-belay, Conditional belay, and Auto belay. 4. Explain the most reliable techniques for belaying a rescue load, specifically the 540° Rescue Belay and Tandem Prusik Belay Technique. 5. Understand the practicality and reliability of the Tandem Prusik Belay Technique, its set-up, operation, and potential risks. 6. Implement the Tandem Prusik Belay Technique in a rescue scenario, ensuring the safety of all involved and proper equipment use. 7. Understand the considerations for belay, such as planning for releasing tension back onto the Main Line if the belay is activated, and the importance of never leaving the belay system unattended. 8. Understand the operation of the 540° Rescue Belay, including how to correctly load the belay device, considerations during its use, and how to manually lock off the belay. 9. Implement the 540° Rescue Belay in a rescue scenario, ensuring the safety of all involved and proper equipment use. 10. Understand how to release a locked belay, and the additional steps needed if the device has caught a rescuesized load and received significant shock force.

Page | 172

To ensure safety in rescue work, a separate belay line is usually employed when ascending or descending, as per the guidelines of the WAC and NFPA. However, there are some exceptions where single rope technique (SRT) may be used, such as when a solo rescuer needs to reach a stranded subject in immediate danger, when a rescue team is travelling past a slot canyon or pour-off that requires rappelling and pulling the rope, or during helicopter hoist or short-haul operations. The decision to use SRT should be based on the likelihood and consequences of a mainline failure. There are different types of belaying techniques, including: Independent belay - where a separate rope is managed by someone other than the attendant. Self-belay - where the rescuer themselves move their connection point along a fixed rope using a device like Prusik or autoblock. Conditional belay - where fall protection is provided through the use of a rope that is already under tension from part or all of the load. Auto belay - which uses a positive auto locking device that doesn't require a positive action to engage it. Currently, the most reliable techniques for belaying a rescue load are the 540° Rescue Belay and Tandem Prusik Belay Technique.

Page | 173

Tandem Prusik Belay

The Tandem Prusik Belay is a reliable rescue load belay technique that was developed as a practical alternative. During tests, the Prusik Hitches settled in with a slipping clutch effect and glazed the host rope, but they consistently held falls of one meter on three meters of rope without damage to the main line and almost no damage to the prusik. This technique utilizes two triple-wrapped Prusik Hitches attached between the belay anchor and the belay rope, with the short Prusik of the pair typically catching first and the longer one providing redundancy and better heat dissipation. However, Prusik Hitches require constant monitoring and attention to keep them snug but free-running, and a mini 4:1 unit must be present to resolve a stuck set of Prusiks on the belay line. It is also important to note that a prusik minding pulley should no longer be used to belay a package up, as it has led to complacency in the belayer and several near-miss situations.

Page | 174

Proper Tandem Prusik Belay Technique

During a lowering operation, the belayer should hold both hitches behind one hand while using the other hand to pull out some slack in the belay rope to "feel the load." As the load takes up the slack, the back hand should remain perpendicular and stationary, while the other hand rotates and slides back to pull another bight of slack. The Prusik Hitches should be held perpendicular to the plane of the belay line, with fingers open in case the belay needs to be activated. This position provides a better chance for the Prusik Hitches to grab compared to an in-line position. The belayer should also coordinate their actions with the Edge Manager and slow down the movement if necessary. Considerations for Belay • Have a plan for releasing tension back onto the Main Line if the belay is activated. • Assign an assistant for rope management and relief. • Be an attentive belayer and do not leave the belay system unattended. • Do not wrap your thumb around the belay line when using a Tandem Prusik belay. • Maintain a twist of the wrist (S shape) when belaying with tandem Prusiks to ensure some slack (less than 1 meter) in the belay line. • Build the belay system at a comfortable, efficient, and safe height and position for the belayer. • Constantly tend the Prusiks and verify they are properly functioning and not too loose. • Never use metal cammed ascenders in any part of a belay system for rescue loads. • Do not let go of the rope with either hand. Instead, slide your hands along the rope when moving. If the main line fails, let go of the belay rope.

Page | 175

540 Rescue Belay To load the 540º TM Rescue Belay, begin by removing the front plate. This can be done by depressing the push-pin. Once the front plate is removed, you can begin wrapping the rope around the obround pulley. The rope should be wrapped one-and-a-half (1 1/2) times, which is equivalent to 540 degrees. The 540º is symmetrical and bi-directional in design, which means that the wraps may start from either side of the pulley. It is important to ensure that the 1 1/2 wraps are divided by the rope guide pins, which are located on each side of the pulley. This is because the device will not work if only half of a wrap is placed over the pulley. After wrapping the rope around the pulley, replace the front plate and confirm that the push-pin balls have completely seated correctly in their locked position. It is also important to ensure that both the running end (free or loose end) and the standing part (load-side rope) are in-between the two stationary wedges and exiting below the pulley. The keeper cord connecting the front and back plates must be in-between the two ropes exiting. Finally, use a locking carabiner to attach the 540º to an anchor system. By following these steps carefully, you can load the 540º TM Rescue Belay safely and effectively.

Belaying with the 540 Self-Locking will occur with sudden drops. It is important to understand that a “slow” fall on a supple rope will require resistance being applied to the running end of the rope in order to ensure locking. Self-locking for “slowfalls” can be improved by clipping the running end of the belay rope through a separate carabiner attached to the anchor, behind the 540°™. Do not belay a load using the Release Lever to manage the feed, as this may prevent rope-locking if the load were to suddenly drop. While lowering or raising, feed the rope straight into the 540º™, in order to prevent accidental locking of the device. This is especially important with wet, dirty, muddy, fuzzy or stiff ropes. While lowering with a gloved hand, provide resistance to the standing part (load-side and with the other hand, simultaneously feed the running end of the rope into the device (During a raising, do not attempt to pull the belay line through the device with both hands hauling on the From the product manual, a carabiner must be added on the “brake hand” side to assist with the whistle test during “slow” fall scenarios. running end opposite of the loaded side. This will only result in a lock-up of the device. While raising, with each hand on separate strands, pull up on the standing part and feed it into the device, while pulling out the running end with the opposite hand.

Page | 176

To Lock Off the Belay Manually If the belayer needs to manually lock off the 540º™, they can do so by firmly holding the running end and sharply tugging on the standing part with the opposite hand. To achieve additional security, they can tie a bight of the running end around the standing part with a Half Hitch and an Overhand Knot. This should be done anytime the device will be left unattended. Releasing a Locked Belay If the belay rope is only lightly locked, then a quick reversing of the direction of rope feed can return the pulley to its neutral, or centered position. If this cannot be accomplished, first confirm the main line is locked off. Using the release lever, slowly transfer tension back to the main line. If the 540º catches a rescue-sized load and receives significant shock force, the rope within the device may “stiffen” during fall arrest. Initially releasing the device handle may be more problematic. Traverse Rescue recommends threading a webbing sling through the top of the Release Handle to make pulling easier. Once the load is released remove the webbing.

Page | 177

Chapter 13: Belay Techniques Quiz 1. According to the guidelines of the WAC and NFPA, when is it recommended to employ a separate belay line in rescue work? A. When descending only B. When ascending only C. Both when ascending and descending D. Neither ascending nor descending 2. Under what circumstance might a Single Rope Technique (SRT) be used in a rescue operation? A. When a solo rescuer needs to reach a stranded subject in immediate danger B. When a rescue team is going past a slot canyon C. During helicopter hoist or short-haul operations D. All of the above 3. What type of belay involves the rescuer moving their connection point along a fixed rope using a device like Prusik or autoblock? A. Independent belay B. Self-belay C. Conditional belay D. Auto belay 4. What are the two most reliable techniques for belaying a rescue load? A. Independent belay and Self-belay B. 540° Rescue Belay and Tandem Prusik Belay Technique C. Conditional belay and Auto belay D. 540° Rescue Belay and Auto belay 5. What is one of the benefits of using the Tandem Prusik Belay Technique? A. It requires less equipment B. It does not require monitoring C. It catches falls without damaging the main line D. It can be set up by one person

Page | 178

6. In a Tandem Prusik Belay setup, what is the purpose of the longer prusik? A. To catch first B. To provide redundancy and better heat dissipation C. To provide a better grip D. None of the above 7. When using the Tandem Prusik Belay Technique, what should you NOT do? A. Wrap your thumb around the belay line B. Tend the Prusiks constantly C. Build the belay system at a comfortable, efficient, and safe height and position for the belayer D. Assign an assistant for rope management and relief 8. What should you do to load the 540º TM Rescue Belay? A. Wrap the rope around the obround pulley one-and-a-half times B. Ensure the wraps start from one side of the pulley only C. Place half of a wrap over the pulley D. Do not use a locking carabiner to attach the 540º to an anchor system 9. When belaying with the 540, what should you avoid doing? A. Belay a load using the Release Lever to manage the feed B. Feed the rope straight into the 540º™ C. Provide resistance to the standing part while lowering with a gloved hand D. Clip the running end of the belay rope through a separate carabiner attached to the anchor, behind the 540°™ 10. How can the belayer manually lock off the 540º™? A. By firmly holding the running end and sharply tugging on the standing part with the opposite hand B. By releasing the device handle C. By threading a webbing sling through the top of the Release Handle D. None of the above 11. How can a lightly locked belay rope be released? A. By quickly reversing the direction of rope feed B. By using the release lever C. By removing the front plate of the 540º™ D. None of the above

Page | 179

12. What should the belayer do if the 540º catches a rescue-sized load and receives significant shock force? A. Quickly reverse the direction of rope feed B. Use the release lever to slowly transfer tension back to the main line C. Remove the front plate of the 540º™ D. None of the above 13. What happens when the Prusik Hitches in a Tandem Prusik Belay system are activated? A. They slide along the rope B. They settle in with a slipping clutch effect C. They release the rope D. They tighten the rope 14. In which belaying technique is a positive auto locking device used that doesn't require a positive action to engage it? A. Independent belay B. Self-belay C. Conditional belay D. Auto belay 15. What is a crucial factor to consider when deciding to use a Single Rope Technique (SRT) in a rescue operation? A. The availability of equipment B. The likelihood and consequences of a mainline failure C. The number of rescuers available D. The physical condition of the rescuer

Page | 180

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 181

Answer Key: 1. C. Both when ascending and descending 2. D. All of the above 3. B. Self-belay 4. B. 540° Rescue Belay and Tandem Prusik Belay Technique 5. C. It catches falls without damaging the main line 6. B. To provide redundancy and better heat dissipation 7. A. Wrap your thumb around the belay line 8. A. Wrap the rope around the obround pulley one-and-a-half times 9. A. Belay a load using the Release Lever to manage the feed 10. A. By firmly holding the running end and sharply tugging on the standing part with the opposite hand 11. A. By quickly reversing the direction of rope feed 12. B. Use the release lever to slowly transfer tension back to the main line 13. B. They settle in with a slipping clutch effect 14. D. Auto belay 15. B. The likelihood and consequences of a mainline failure

Page | 182

Chapter 14

Rappelling

Page | 183

Chapter 14: Rappelling RAPPELLING IS DANGEROUS! Learning Objectives: 1. Understand the key safety considerations related to rappelling and demonstrate the ability to adhere to these precautions during practical applications. 2. Recognize the importance of friction management during rappelling, and illustrate how to adjust it based on changes in the weight of the rope and the approach to a sharp edge. 3. Demonstrate the correct method for loading a Scarab rappelling device, explaining the importance of the correct threading sequence for safe load management. 4. Apply a Soft Lock and a Hard Lock on a Scarab during a rappel, and distinguish when each type of lock should be used. 5. Identify potential risks associated with misuse of rappelling equipment and emphasize the significance of equipment checks before initiating a rappel. 6. Understand the functions and proper use of other common pieces of rappelling equipment, including harnesses, helmets, gloves, carabiners, autoblocks, Prusik cords, and additional safety gear. 7. Discuss the importance of regular equipment maintenance and inspection, and identify common signs of wear or damage on rappelling equipment. 8. Identify and use proper communication protocols during rappelling operations to ensure safety and coordination among the rescue team. 9. Exhibit the ability to resolve common rappelling issues or malfunctions with the equipment during a rescue operation.

Page | 184

Rappelling Techniques Rappelling, also known as abseiling, is a controlled descent down a rock face using a rope. The technique was first developed by mountaineers, but it's also widely used in various fields such as caving, canyoning, and in industrial applications like construction or window cleaning, where workers need to access high, steep locations. There are different techniques for rappelling, some of which include the traditional Dulfersitz method, the carabiner brake method, and the figure eight method. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method will depend on the situation, the equipment available, and the user's expertise.

Equipment Care and Maintenance Regular inspection and maintenance of rappelling equipment is crucial to ensure safety. This includes checking for any signs of wear and tear, such as frayed ropes, cracks in carabiners, or worn-out belay devices. It's also important to clean the equipment regularly, especially after use in harsh conditions like salty or sandy environments. Always store your gear in a dry, cool place, away from direct sunlight, chemicals, and sharp objects. Equipment that shows signs of significant wear or damage should be replaced immediately.

Communication during Rappelling Communication is vital during rappelling operations. Team members should establish a set of clear, unambiguous commands for use during the descent. These commands should cover starting the rappel, stopping, increasing or decreasing speed, and emergency situations. This can be especially challenging in noisy environments or over long distances, so teams may need to use radios or develop a set of hand signals. Rappelling in Different Environments: The environment in which you're rappelling can significantly impact the techniques and equipment you use. For instance, rappelling in a cave might require more focus on avoiding loose rocks, while rappelling in a canyon might involve dealing with water hazards. It's important to familiarize yourself with the specific challenges of your environment before beginning your descent.

Rescue Techniques: Understanding how to safely execute a rescue during a rappelling operation is crucial. This might involve ascending the rope to reach an injured person or using a tandem rappel to bring them down. Rescue techniques require additional training and practice to perform effectively and safely.

Page | 185

Rappelling Safety: Safety should always be the top priority during rappelling. This means double-checking your gear, using a backup belay system, and never rappelling alone. Also, make sure you have the skills and fitness level required for the descent. Don't push beyond your limits; it's always better to back out if you're not sure you can handle it.

Training and Practice: Rappelling is a skill that requires regular practice to maintain proficiency. Even experienced rappelers should regularly refresh their skills, learn new techniques, and keep up to date with the latest equipment and safety standards. Regular training sessions, ideally under the supervision of a qualified instructor, are the best way to ensure that you're ready to handle any situation that might arise during a rappel. Rappelling is a complex activity that requires a high level of skill, a deep understanding of the equipment and techniques involved, and a serious commitment to safety. By understanding the principles outlined in this chapter and regularly practicing your skills, you can enjoy the thrill of rappelling while minimizing the risks. The following are important safety considerations relating to rappelling: • • • • • • • • • •

Verify that the rope reaches the target before rappelling Double-check all your equipment and rigging before rappelling. Ensure carabiners are locked and not cross-loaded NEVER release your brake hand while rappelling Keep hair and clothing away from the descending device. Avoid dislodging rocks with the rope Do not bounce during a rappel, as it can dangerously shock the rappel anchor Descend slowly and avoid excessive heat buildup Have your rigging checked by another technician who did not participate in the rigging Always use a belay, either a self-belay with a Prusik on a second belay line, or if permitted by the agency having jurisdiction, a Single Rope Technique for emergency access, with the Prusik attached to the rappel line.

During a rappel, it is recommended to begin with more friction than you think you will need and then reduce it as necessary. As you descend, you may need to increase friction towards the bottom of a long rappel as the weight of the rope below you decreases. It is important to maintain a proper stance while rappelling by leaning back perpendicular to the rock with your feet spread and your legs straight but flexible. This will allow you to maintain control and balance during the descent. When approaching a sharp roof edge while rappelling, it is important to proceed with caution. Avoid dropping over the edge suddenly, as this can cause injury due to the abrupt change in momentum. Instead, slowly sit down and rotate into position while keeping the rappel line under tension. This technique is preferred to avoid what is commonly referred to as "edge trauma." Throughout the rappel, it is important to keep your hand on the rope below the descent control device (DCD). This hand is commonly known as the "brake hand" and should remain in place on the rope at all times, unless the DCD has been properly locked off. This ensures that you have full control over your descent and can stop or slow down if necessary.

Page | 186

The Scarab Repelling The proper threading sequence of a rope into the Scarab is crucial for creating sufficient friction to safely manage a rescue load. Improper loading, such as failing to follow the correct sequence, can result in inadequate friction and potential injury or death. To ensure proper loading, the rope should be wrapped in a bight back around the crossbar, and threaded diagonally under the Scarab to the opposite side where the horn is captured. This should provide adequate friction for a 200 kg (441 lbs) load. For heavier rescue loads of up to 280 kg (617 lbs), additional friction can be achieved by tracing the rope through the remaining empty horn. It's important to note that proper loading of the Scarab is just one aspect of safe rescue operations, and rescuers must also be well-trained in rigging, anchoring, and belaying techniques. By following established safety protocols and regularly practicing rescue scenarios, rescuers can minimize risks and improve their ability to safely rescue those in need.

Page | 187

Tying Off with a Scarab In situations where a prolonged stop is required, a Scarab can be locked off by wrapping all four hyper-horns and then placing a bight with a twist over a forward horn. This method, known as a "Soft Lock", is suitable for non-emergency scenarios. Once the lock has been applied, the user can release their grip on the rope and safely take a break or perform other tasks. It is important to note that the Scarab should never be left unattended while locked off, as unexpected changes in load or other factors may compromise the lock and result in dangerous conditions. The Soft Lock should only be used as a temporary measure, and the user should always be prepared to release the lock and continue the descent or ascent as necessary. Overall, the Scarab offers a reliable and versatile option for rope management in rescue situations. By following proper loading and threading procedures, using appropriate friction for the load, and employing the Soft Lock when necessary, rescuers can safely and effectively navigate difficult terrain and perform vital rescue operations.

Page | 188

A hard lock is essential for extended stops during emergency operations or when the attention of the rescuer is focused elsewhere. Once the soft lock is completed, continue the rope around the horn and tie an overhand knot around the main line. This will prevent the Scarab from slipping or loosening, providing additional security for the rescuer and the patient. It is important to note that a hard lock should only be used in emergency situations or when there is a need to leave the device unattended for an extended period of time. During normal rappelling operations, a soft lock is sufficient for short periods of rest or breaks. Rescuers should always use proper techniques and adhere to established safety guidelines when using the Scarab for rappelling or lowering operations.

Page | 189

Page | 190

Chapter 14 Rappelling Quiz 1. What is another term for rappelling? a) Scaling b) Abseiling c) Ascending d) Traversing 2. Which of the following is not a technique for rappelling? a) Dulfersitz method b) Carabiner brake method c) Figure eight method d) Prusik knot method 3. What is the primary purpose of regularly inspecting and maintaining your rappelling equipment? a) To improve its performance b) To extend its lifespan c) To ensure safety d) All of the above 4. How should you store your rappelling gear when not in use? a) In direct sunlight b) In a dry, cool place c) In a humid environment d) Near chemicals 5. Why is communication important during rappelling operations? a) To coordinate movements b) To alert team members to hazards c) To manage emergencies d) All of the above 6. Which of the following factors could affect the techniques and equipment used for rappelling? a) The type of rock face b) The weather conditions c) The presence of water hazards d) All of the above

Page | 191

7. What might a rescue during a rappelling operation involve? a) Ascending the rope to reach an injured person b) Using a tandem rappel to bring them down c) Calling for help d) Both a and b 8. Which of the following should you always do for safety when rappelling? a) Double-check your gear b) Use a backup belay system c) Never rappel alone d) All of the above 9. Which of the following is not a recommended practice when rappelling? a) Pushing beyond your limits if you're not sure you can handle the descent b) Using a backup belay system c) Regularly refreshing your skills and learning new techniques d) Regular training sessions under the supervision of a qualified instructor 10. Why is regular practice important for rappelling? a) To maintain proficiency b) To learn new techniques c) To keep up to date with the latest equipment and safety standards d) All of the above 11. What is one of the potential risks when rappelling in a cave? a) Getting lost b) Running out of oxygen c) Dislodging loose rocks d) Encountering wildlife 12. Why might a team use radios or develop a set of hand signals during a rappelling operation? a) To communicate over long distances b) To communicate in noisy environments c) To communicate complex instructions d) Both a and b

Page | 192

13. Which of the following is not a common use of rappelling? a) Mountaineering b) Caving c) Hunting d) Construction 14. What kind of knot is recommended for creating a backup belay system during rappelling? a) Clove hitch b) Prusik knot c) Bowline d) Figure eight 15. What is the main advantage of using the figure eight method for rappelling? a) It's faster than other methods b) It's easier to learn than other methods c) It provides more control over the descent d) It requires less equipment than other methods

Page | 193

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 194

Answer Key: 1. b) Abseiling 2. d) Prusik knot method 3. d) All of the above 4. b) In a dry, cool place 5. d) All of the above 6. d) All of the above 7. d) Both a and b 8. d) All of the above 9. a) Pushing beyond your limits if you're not sure you can handle the descent 10. d) All of the above 11. c) Dislodging loose rocks 12. d) Both a and b 13. c) Hunting 14. b) Prusik knot 15. c) It provides more control over the descent

Page | 195

Chapter 15

Ascending

Page | 196

Chapter 15: Ascending By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Explain the principles of friction hitches and how they are used for ascending in rope rescue scenarios. 2. Identify and describe the function of various types of ascenders including closed ascenders and handled ascenders. 3. Understand and follow the manufacturer's instructions for attaching an ascender to a rope. 4. Understand the importance of maintaining two points of contact at or above the waist level during ascending operations. 5. Describe the process of ascending a rope using a Purcell Prusik system. 6. Understand the process and safety considerations for changing over from ascending to rappelling while partway up a rope. 7. Describe the process of ascending a fixed rope rigged with intermediate connection points. 8. Understand the safety considerations and techniques when conducting an ascending to descending changeover. 9. Understand how to build an Ascending Purcell system and the safety considerations involved.

Friction hitches, such as the Purcell Prusik System, are widely used in rope rescue for ascending. They work by creating friction between the rope and the hitch, allowing the user to climb up the rope. Closed ascenders, like the Gibbs or Rock Exotica Rescucender, are designed with a cam that clamps onto the rope and prevents the device from slipping. Handled ascenders, such as those made by Petzl, CMI, Clog, and ISC, have a handle that the user holds onto, allowing them to easily ascend the rope. When using an ascender, it is important to follow the manufacturer's instructions and ensure that the device is properly attached to the rope. The user should also be aware of the weight limit of the ascender and make sure that it is appropriate for the load being lifted. In addition, it is important to maintain proper form and technique while using an ascender to prevent injury. Two Points of Contact An ascending system must maintain two points of contact at or above the waist level. These may consist of: • •

Separate top belay Prusik backup

Ascending Rope with a Purcell Prusik: 1. 2.

Attach a Purcell Prusik to the main line, either directly or with a mechanical ascender. Attach a long Prusik to the main line, either directly or with a mechanical ascender, above the Purcell Prusik.

Page | 197

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Clip the long Prusik into your harness's attachment point using a carabiner. Slide the long Prusik attached to your harness up the rope until snug, then sit back into your harness. Stand on the Purcell Prusik to relieve tension on your harness, and slide the long Prusik attached to your harness up the rope until snug. Sit back into the harness. Slide the Purcell Prusik up the rope, then stand on it again, allowing you to slide the long Prusik further up the rope. Alternate sliding the Purcell Prusik and long Prusik up the rope by placing your weight onto one or the other, thus allowing the non-tensioned member to slide freely up the rope. Before ascending the rope, the rescuer should be equipped with proper personal protective equipment (PPE) and undergo a safety check.

Ascending Tips: When ascending a fixed rope rigged with intermediate connection points to the rock or other obstacles, the rescuer needs to remove the top ascender and replace it above the obstacle. The process is then repeated with the lower ascender. Two points of contact can be maintained with the rope through the use of a Quick Attach Safety (QAS) or tying in short.

Ascending Change-overs: Changing over from ascending to rappelling while partway up a rope requires the rescuer to follow a logical sequence of steps to ensure personal safety. Maintain two points of attachment during this changeover process. A knotted bight achieved by tying in short can be used for a point of security in lieu of one of the ascenders. Do not open any attachment carabiner to the harness while it is supporting a load during a changeover. Use separate attachment carabiners for ascending and rappelling components. The steps for conducting an ascending to descending changeover include: 1. Position the upper ascender to nearly full extension. 2. Ensure an additional secure attachment (e.g., separate belay, tie in short, or QAS). 3. Remove the lower ascender. 4. Attach the Descender Control Device (DCD) to the fixed rope below the upper ascender. 5. Tension the DCD to the harness and lock it off with a secure tie. 6. Remove the upper ascender. 7. If the attachment includes tying in short, release this connection from the harness. 8. Release the lock-off on the DCD and initiate the rappel.

Page | 198

Building Your Ascending Purcells The traditional Purcell Prusik Ascending System does not fulfill the requirement for two points of attachment. Consequently, a belay line is necessary. If a separate belay is not feasible and a Single Rope Technique (SRT) is employed, then a second attachment point must be added to your harness and connected to the rope using a Prusik knot.

Page | 199

Chapter 15: Ascending Quiz 1. What does a friction hitch, such as the Purcell Prusik System, do in rope rescue? a. Prevents the rope from tangling b. Creates friction between the rope and the hitch for ascending c. Cuts the rope in case of an emergency d. Acts as a weight for the rope

2. What is one key safety measure to remember when using an ascender? a. It should only be used in dry weather b. It should be attached to the rope following the manufacturer's instructions c. It should be used with gloves only d. It should only be used with a specific type of rope

3. When using an ascending system, how many points of contact must be maintained at or above the waist level? a. One b. Two c. Three d. Four

4. When ascending a fixed rope rigged with intermediate connection points, what should the rescuer do? a. Attach an additional ascender to the rope b. Remove the top ascender and replace it above the obstacle c. Attach a weight to the rope to maintain tension d. Remove all ascenders and climb manually

5. When changing over from ascending to rappelling while partway up a rope, what should you ensure? a. The rope is loose b. There is an additional secure attachment c. The rope is wet for better grip d. There is only one point of attachment

Page | 200

6. The steps for conducting an ascending to descending changeover do NOT include: a. Removing the lower ascender b. Attaching the Descender Control Device (DCD) to the fixed rope below the upper ascender c. Increasing the tension on the DCD d. Opening any attachment carabiner to the harness while it is supporting a load

7. What is one key feature of handled ascenders? a. They have a handle that the user holds onto, allowing them to easily ascend the rope b. They automatically lock when weight is applied c. They are not affected by weather conditions d. They can be used without a harness

8. How should the user stand when ascending the rope with a Purcell Prusik system? a. On one foot b. With knees bent c. On both feet d. There is no specific stance

9. What is the first step when using a Purcell Prusik system for ascending? a. Attach a long Prusik to the main line b. Slide the long Prusik attached to your harness up the rope until snug c. Attach a Purcell Prusik to the main line d. Stand on the Purcell Prusik 10. What is NOT a type of ascender mentioned in the chapter? a. Gibbs b. Petzl c. CMI d. Clampster

Page | 201

11. Before ascending the rope, the rescuer should be equipped with: a. Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) b. An extra rope c. A map of the area d. A first aid kit

12. What is a Quick Attach Safety (QAS) used for? a. To quickly attach the rope to the anchor point b. To maintain two points of contact with the rope c. To attach the rope to the harness d. To quickly detach from the rope in case of an emergency

13. The traditional Purcell Prusik Ascending System: a. Requires a separate belay line b. Can be used without any other attachment points c. Requires three points of attachment d. Does not need any safety checks

14. What is the weight limit consideration when using an ascender? a. There is no weight limit b. The ascender can hold any weight as long as it is used properly c. The user should be aware of the weight limit of the ascender and make sure it is appropriate for the being lifted d. The weight limit is only a suggestion and not a strict rule

15. Why do you need to ensure an additional secure attachment when changing over from ascending to rappelling? a. To increase the speed of the descent b. To help with balance c. To ensure personal safety d. It is not necessary

load

Page | 202

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 203

Answer Key: 1. A) Purcell Prusik System 2. C) Both of the above 3. B) False 4. B) Gibbs or Rock Exotica Rescucender 5. C) Two 6. B) False 7. A) Separate top belay 8. C) Both steps 2 and 4 9. C) Both of the above 10. D) All of the above 11. D) Tie in short 12. C) Attach the Descender Control Device (DCD) to the fixed rope below the upper ascender 13. A) True 14. B) False 15. C) Both of the above

Page | 204

Chapter 16

Lowering

Page | 205

Chapter 16: Lowering Learning Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter, learners will be able to: 1. Explain the role and importance of lowering in high-angle rescue. 2. Identify and describe the function of the key equipment used in lowering operations, including the Scarab, Brake Bar Rack, and Multi-Purpose Device (MPD). 3. Understand the operational mechanics of the Scarab, including the function and manipulation of its four cleats. 4. Execute the process of starting a lowering operation with the Scarab, including the steps to achieve "Main Line Ready." 5. Distinguish between Soft Lock and Hard Lock, and demonstrate how to implement each using the Scarab. 6. Describe the functionality of the Brake Bar Rack, including its role in managing friction and heat. 7. Perform the necessary adjustments to the Brake Bar Rack during lowering operations to maintain optimal system functioning. 8. Understand the versatility of the Multi-Purpose Device (MPD) and its use in lowering operations. 9. Demonstrate the proper usage and operation of the MPD, including safety checks, application of friction, use of the release handle, and management of the Secondary Friction Post. 10. Adjust the lowering speed with the MPD by manipulating the friction applied to the V-Groove. 11. Apply the correct procedure to secure a loaded MPD when it is left unattended. 12. Implement safe and efficient practices in managing the MPD during rescue operations.

Page | 206

Lowering Lowering is a vital aspect of high-angle rescue, requiring precise control and understanding of the equipment used. This chapter will deepen your understanding of the Scarab, Brake Bar Rack, and Multi-Purpose Device (MPD), focusing on their operations and safety checks. We'll also delve into Soft Tie and Hard Ties, methods for securing your system during extended stops or unattended periods.

Best Industry Practices for Lowering According to the best industry practices, the top options for lowering devices include a brake rack, Scarab, and MultiPurpose Device (MPD). These devices provide effective and safe control during the lowering process.

Page | 207

The Scarab For Lowering The Scarab is a versatile tool for high-angle rescue, offering controlled lowering with its four cleats. Understanding how to properly engage and disengage these cleats is vital for smooth operations. Starting the Lowering Evolution Lowering operations with the Scarab start with all four cleats engaged. As the load is applied, cleats may be disengaged to facilitate smooth operations. We'll walk through the process of ensuring "Main Line Ready" – from safety checks to taking control of the rope. Begin each lowering operation with all four cleats engaged. Once the load is applied, cleats may be disengaged to facilitate a smooth and controlled operation. "Main Line Ready" is defined as: • • • • •

Safety check is complete. All slack is removed from the system. All four cleats are engaged. Brake hand has control of the rope. You are prepared to take the load immediately upon confirming that you are ready.

Soft Tie and Hard Ties in Rappelling Whether you need a temporary stop (Soft Lock) or a long, unattended halt (Hard Lock), the Scarab provides safe and secure tie-off options. We will go through the steps for both Soft Lock and Hard Lock. 1. Soft Lock: For an extended stop, lock off a Scarab by wrapping all four hyper-horns, then place a bight with a twist over a forward horn. This creates a "Soft Lock." 2. Hard Lock: For even longer stops, when your attention is focused elsewhere, or the system must be left unattended, a "Hard Lock" is required. After completing the soft lock, continue the rope around the horn and tie an overhand knot around the main line.

Page | 208

The Brake Bar Rack The Brake Bar Rack is a powerful tool for managing friction and heat during lowering operations. We'll cover how to adjust the bars to balance control and safety. The optimal use of the Brake Bar Rack begins with all bars incorporated. As the operation progresses, bars may be reduced to enhance the system's function. This section will cover the step-by-step process of adjusting the bars. Adjusting Friction and Heat Dissipation The amount of friction in the system can be easily adjusted during use, and the device effectively dissipates heat. Always maintain a minimum of four bars in the system. Start with all bars incorporated, and reduce the number of bars after getting past the edge rope to ensure proper activation and functioning of the system.

Page | 209

MPD The Multi-Purpose Device (MPD) is a versatile tool that combines the functions of a lowering device, belay device, and mainline raising system. We'll discuss its key components and general operations.

MPD Usage and Operation Before using the Multi-Purpose Device (MPD), perform a safety check with the Parking Brake unlocked and tug on the load end of the rope. Lowering with the MPD involves a series of actions, including applying friction over the Fixed Brake V-Groove, using the release handle, and managing the Secondary Friction Post for heavier loads. We'll go through these steps in detail to ensure safe and efficient lowering.

Operating the MPD: 1. Firmly grip the rope tail entering the backside of the MPD and apply friction over the Fixed Brake V-Groove, creating an Sshaped bend by bringing the running end of the rope back toward the anchor. 2. The release handle is used to rotate the internal moving brake off the rope, allowing rope movement through the MPD to lower a load or release tension. The manufacturer specifically advises fully turning the Release Handle counter clockwise to completely unseat the moving brake from the rope and maintain control primarily with the friction of the rope applied through the Fixed Brake V-Groove on the backside. 3. For heavier loads, achieve maximum friction by using the Secondary Friction Post. To stop lowering and lock the rope in place, disengage the Release Handle. (see above image) 4. The lowering speed is controlled by the friction applied to the V-Groove. Initially, start with the running end of the rope held back toward the anchor in an aggressive S-shaped bend to maximize the range of available friction. Reduce friction by changing the entry angle of the rope into the MPD and moving it forward.

Page | 210

To activate the Release Handle of the MPD, lift it and turn counterclockwise. To maintain control during lowering, always keep an S-shaped bend in the rope. Ensure that the entry angle of the rope feeding into the MPD is not less than 90° to the load end.

When leaving a loaded MPD unattended, secure the device with a tie-off at the device using an overhand knot around the load end of the rope. Following these guidelines will help you effectively manage the MPD during rescue operations, ensuring safety and efficiency.

Page | 211

Chapter 16 Lowering Quiz 1. What is the primary function of the Scarab in high-angle rescue operations? a) Ascending b) Lowering c) Horizontal transport d) Knot tying

2. How many cleats does a Scarab device have? a) Two b) Three c) Four d) Five

3. What does "Main Line Ready" mean in the context of starting a lowering operation? a) The main line is tied to the anchor. b) All slack is removed from the system, all four Scarab cleats are engaged, and the brake hand has control of the rope. c) The main line is free of knots or damage. d) The main line is prepared for an ascent.

4. What is a Soft Lock in the context of using a Scarab? a) A lock used for long, unattended halts b) A lock achieved by wrapping all four hyper-horns and placing a bight with a twist over a forward horn c) A lock created when you tie an overhand knot around the main line d) A lock that is only partially engaged

5. The Brake Bar Rack is mainly used for what? a) Controlling the speed of ascent b) Locking the rope in place for long periods c) Managing friction and heat during lowering operations d) Connecting multiple ropes together

Page | 212

6. How many bars should always be maintained in the Brake Bar Rack system for safety? a) Two b) Three c) Four d) Five

7. The Multi-Purpose Device (MPD) combines the functions of what three devices? a) Lowering device, belay device, and mainline raising system b) Ascender, descender, and belay device c) Carabiner, pulley, and lowering device d) Anchor, carabiner, and descender

8. What is the first step when operating the MPD? a) Rotate the internal moving brake off the rope a) Firmly grip the rope tail entering the backside of the MPD and apply friction over the Fixed Brake V- Groove c) Use the Secondary Friction Post d) Lock the rope in place

9. Which direction should the Release Handle of the MPD be turned to activate it? a) Clockwise b) Counter clockwise c) It doesn't matter d) The MPD doesn't have a Release Handle

10. What should be done with the running end of the rope to maximize the range of available friction when starting to lower with the MPD? a) It should be held forward toward the load b) It should be held back toward the anchor in an aggressive S-shaped bend c) It should be kept straight and parallel to the load end of the rope d) It should be looped around the Secondary Friction Post

Page | 213

11. What is the minimum angle at which the rope feeding into the MPD should intersect with the load end? a) 45° b) 60° c) 90° d) 180°

12. What should be done when leaving a loaded MPD unattended? a) Release the Release Handle b) Secure the device with a tie-off at the device using an overhand knot around the load end of the rope c) Remove all slack from the system d) Nothing, the MPD can be left as is

13. What is a Hard Lock? a) A lock used for short breaks b) A lock achieved by wrapping all four hyper-horns and placing a bight with a twist over a forward horn c) A lock created after completing the soft lock, continuing the rope around the horn, and tying an overhand knot around the main line d) A lock that is fully engaged, but can be easily released

14. In what situation would you disengage cleats on the Scarab? a) When you want to increase friction b) When you are ascending c) Once the load is applied to facilitate a smooth operation d) Never, the cleats should always be engaged

15. The Brake Bar Rack is adjusted by: a) Adding or removing carabiners b) Tightening or loosening the anchor knot c) Starting with all bars incorporated, then reducing the number of bars as the operation progresses d) Switching between different types of ropes

Page | 214

16. How is maximum friction achieved for heavier loads when using the MPD? a) By using a thicker rope b) By using the Secondary Friction Post c) By increasing the number of people managing the rope d) By decreasing the angle of the rope feeding into the MPD

17. What does the release handle on the MPD do? a) It locks the rope in place b) It increases friction on the rope c) It rotates the internal moving brake off the rope, allowing rope movement through the MPD d) It adjusts the anchor point

18. The speed of lowering with the MPD is controlled by: a) The weight of the load b) The angle of the Release Handle c) The friction applied to the V-Groove d) The number of people managing the rope

19. What is the main difference between a Soft Lock and a Hard Lock? a) A Soft Lock uses an overhand knot, while a Hard Lock uses a figure-eight knot b) A Soft Lock is for short stops, while a Hard Lock is for longer or unattended stops c) A Soft Lock uses two cleats, while a Hard Lock uses all four d) A Soft Lock is used with the Brake Bar Rack, while a Hard Lock is used with the MPD

20. What is the first step before using the Multi-Purpose Device (MPD)? a) Attach the MPD to the anchor point b) Perform a safety check with the Parking Brake unlocked and tug on the load end of the rope c) Apply friction over the Fixed Brake V-Groove d) Rotate the internal moving brake off the rope

Page | 215

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 216

Answer Key 1. b) Lowering 2. c) Four 3. b) All slack is removed from the system, all four Scarab cleats are engaged, and the brake hand has control of the rope. 4. b) A lock achieved by wrapping all four hyper-horns and placing a bight with a twist over a forward horn 5. c) Managing friction and heat during lowering operations 6. c) Four 7. a) Lowering device, belay device, and mainline raising system 8. b) Firmly grip the rope tail entering the backside of the MPD and apply friction over the Fixed Brake V-Groove 9. b) Counter clockwise 10. b) It should be held back toward the anchor in an aggressive S-shaped bend 11. c) 90° 12. b) Secure the device with a tie-off at the device using an overhand knot around the load end of the rope 13. c) A lock created after completing the soft lock, continuing the rope around the horn, and tying an overhand knot around the main line 14. c) Once the load is applied to facilitate a smooth operation 15. c) Starting with all bars incorporated, then reducing the number of bars as the operation progresses 16. b) By using the Secondary Friction Post 17. c) It rotates the internal moving brake off the rope, allowing rope movement through the MPD 18. c) The friction applied to the V-Groove 19. b) A Soft Lock is for short stops, while a Hard Lock is for longer or unattended stops 20. b) Perform a safety check with the Parking Brake unlocked and tug on the load end of the rope

Page | 217

Chapter 17

Mechanical Advantage & Pulley Systems

Page | 218

Chapter 17: Mechanical Advantage and Pulley Systems Learning Objectives for Pulley Systems: 1. Understand the Concept of Mechanical Advantage: Learn how the mechanical advantage in a pulley system is determined by the ratio of the load to the force needed to move it. Realize that while mechanical advantage reduces the force needed, it requires more effort as the force must be applied over a greater distance. 2. Learn about Pulley Efficiency: Understand how factors like friction loss and the bending and unbending of the rope affect pulley efficiency. Learn to calculate pulley efficiency. 3. Know the History of Pulleys: Learn about the origins of the pulley system, and how its design has remained consistent over thousands of years. 4. Comprehend Force Multiplication in Pulleys: Understand how the forces exerted on the pulley's attachment point are doubled when the two weighted legs of the rope passing through a pulley are kept parallel. 5. Understand Different Types of Mechanical Advantage: Learn about Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA), Theoretical Mechanical Advantage (TMA), and Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA), and how they are related to pulley systems. 6. Distinguish between Different Types of Pulleys: Learn the difference between traveling pulleys and stationary or standing pulleys and understand their roles in a pulley system. 7. Understand the Basics of Pulley System Rigging: Learn how Prusiks are used in pulley systems, and why you should not use a mechanical ascender in place of a haul or ratchet Prusik. 8. Learn about Different Pulley System Classifications: Understand the differences between simple, compound, and complex pulley systems, and learn how to calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) for each. 9. Learn How to Calculate Mechanical Advantage: Learn to use the "T-Method" to calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage in a pulley system. 10. Understand the Role of the T-Method in High-Angle Rescue: Learn how the T-Method can be used to analyze forces in complex rope rescue systems and ensure safety and efficiency. 11. Learn about the Haul Factor: Understand the rule of thumb for calculating maximum safe force in a mechanical advantage system based on the number of team members and the system ratio. 12. Understand Safe and Efficient Use of Pulley Systems: Learn how to apply mechanical advantage systems safely and efficiently, including pulling techniques and communication protocols during rescue operations.

Page | 219

Pulley Systems The mechanical advantage of a pulley system is determined by the ratio of the load to the force required to move the load. For example, if a 1 kN force is used to move a 2 kN mass, the mechanical advantage is calculated as 2:1. Although mechanical advantage reduces the force needed, it requires more endurance since the force must be applied over a greater distance. Pulley efficiency is affected by factors such as friction loss, as well as the bending and unbending of the rope. Pulley efficiency is calculated by dividing the output force by the input force and expressing the result as a percentage. For instance, if a 95 N force is required on one side of a pulley to hold a 100 N load, the pulley's efficiency is calculated to be 95% (95/100). The typical efficiency of a rescue pulley ranges from 90-95%. The origin of the pulley system is uncertain, but it is believed that people in Mesopotamia were using rope pulleys as early as 1500 BC. The overall design of a pulley has remained consistent for thousands of years. The first documented use of compound pulleys in a block and tackle system is attributed to Archimedes. Pulleys are force multipliers! When the two weighted legs of the rope passing through a pulley are kept parallel, the forces exerted on the pulley's attachment point are doubled. This is crucial for change of direction anchors! Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA) refers to the estimated mechanical advantage without considering any friction loss in the system. When we describe a pulley system as 3:1, 5:1, 9:1, etc., we are referring to the IMA.z Theoretical Mechanical Advantage (TMA) pertains to the mechanical advantage that includes some estimation of efficiency losses but is not measured. Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) represents the measured mechanical advantage that will be truly experienced or observed when taking friction loss into account.

Page | 220

In a pulley system, traveling pulleys move towards the anchor as the system is pulled to move a load. Pulleys that remain fixed and do not move during this process are called stationary or standing pulleys. When using a pulley system to move a load, it will collapse until one or more traveling pulleys come into contact with a stationary pulley. To continue hauling, the pulley system must be reset, expanding it back to its original size or throw distance.

Simple pulley system. Simple 2:1 MA with change of direction

Pulley System Rigging Prusiks are used as haul and ratchet rope connections because they can withstand shock forces without causing a catastrophic failure in the line. Do not use a mechanical ascender in a pulley system in place of a haul or ratchet Prusik. Haul Prusik- the Prusik closest to the load which serves to attach the pulley system to the main line going to the load (e.g. Prusik initially extended to achieve maximum throw distance). This Prusik can also serve as a force governor for the whole system, the canary-in-the-coalmine so to speak. Tests indicate that an 8 mm, 3-wrap Prusik, on a 1/2” rescue rope may begin to slip at between 7 and 9.5 kN (1,575- 2,125 lb.). For this reason, it is wise to task someone with keeping a watchful eye on that Prusik and instruct them to call a halt at the first sign of slippage. Remember: keep an eye on that lead Prusik!

The Ratchet Prusik, also known as a progress capture device (PCD), works in tandem with a pulley within a pulley system to move it up a line as the load is being moved. This ratchet Prusik maintains tension on the line during a reset, preventing any backward movement and ensuring no progress is lost. When used in combination with a Prusik minding pulley, the ratchet Prusik creates a self-minding ratchet that automatically tends to itself during the operation of the pulley system.

Pull System Classifications Simple Pulley System: In a simple pulley system, all the traveling pulleys on the load side move towards the anchor at the same speed, while all pulleys at the anchor remain stationary. The tension in the rope is constant throughout the system. The theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) will be an even number when the rope end is attached to the anchor (e.g., 2:1, 4:1, 6:1), and an odd number when the rope end is attached to the load (e.g., 3:1, 5:1).

Page | 221

Compound Pulley System:

A compound pulley system consists of one simple pulley system acting on another simple pulley system. Traveling pulleys in this system move towards the anchor at different speeds. Compound pulley systems can provide greater mechanical advantage than simple systems using the same number of pulleys. To calculate the TMA of a compound system, multiply the individual TMA of each simple pulley system together (e.g., 2:1 pulling on a 3:1 results in a 6:1 TMA). For the highest mechanical advantage using the least number of pulleys, construct a compounded system of multiple 2:1 simple pulley systems. As each pulley is added, the mechanical advantage increases exponentially (e.g., 2:1, 4:1, 8:1, 16:1, 32:1). Complex Pulley System: Complex pulley systems do not fit the definition of simple or compound systems. Instead, they involve more variables in rigging and may have pulleys moving towards both the load and the anchor simultaneously. Complex pulley systems are less frequently used in rescue, as the same objectives can be achieved with simple or compound systems, which are easier for rescuers to understand and rig.

Page | 222

Calculating Mechanical Advantage Mechanical advantage in a pulley system is obtained by multiplying the initial input force applied on the load. The input force refers to the tension created by pulling on the system, expressed as one unit of tension. The "TMethod" (Tension Method) allows you to calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) by tracing the distribution of this initial unit of tension throughout the system. To use the T-Method, assign one unit of tension (T) to the point where force is applied to the system. Then, follow the path of the rope through the pulley system to the load. By tracking how the initial unit of tension is distributed, you can determine the TMA. Compare the amount of tension applied to the load with the input unit of tension. Keep in mind that when a junction occurs within the ropes of the pulley system, such as when one rope acts on another or one rope interacts with multiple ropes, the tension on one side of the junction must equal the tension on the other side. Moreover, the tension must be appropriately (though not necessarily equally) distributed among the ropes on each side of the junction. For instance, if a rope with one unit of tension makes a 180° change of direction through a pulley (considered a junction), the object the pulley is attached to receives two units of tension. In other words, two ropes each with a tension of one (two total units of tension) are acting on and counteracting the force applied to the object the pulley is connected to.

Page | 223

T-Method Introduction to the T-Method and Its Calculations Welcome to the next crucial aspect of high-angle rescue: the T-Method. This fundamental technique is a powerful tool for determining mechanical advantage and analyzing complex rope rescue systems. Understanding and mastering the T-Method is an essential skill for every rescuer and forms the basis for safe and efficient operations in high-angle environments. The T-Method, also known as the T-System, allows us to visually represent and calculate forces within a rope system. By understanding these forces, we can design systems that are both safe and efficient. This process involves mapping out the system in a simplified, linear format that helps in identifying the mechanical advantages and force distributions within it. In this section, we will delve into the details of the T-Method, exploring its principles, the steps to execute it, and how to calculate the various forces at play. We will present a series of diagrams, each representing different configurations of rope systems. Your task will be to apply the T-Method to these diagrams, allowing you to calculate the forces present and understand how they are distributed throughout the system. The understanding and application of the T-Method is not only a vital skill for high-angle rescuers but also a stepping stone to more complex system analysis. As we progress through this chapter, remember that practice is key. The more you work with the T-Method, the more intuitive and straightforward it will become. So, let's get started and dive into the fascinating world of the T-Method!

How to calculate the T-Method The T-Method is a systematic approach to calculating forces in a mechanical advantage system used in high-angle rescue. It involves drawing a simplified representation of the system and then calculating the forces acting within it. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to use the T-Method: Step 1: Identify the System First, identify the system you're working with. This could be a simple pulley system or a complex mechanical advantage system. Make sure you understand all parts of the system, including pulleys, ropes, anchors, and loads. Step 2: Draw the T-Method Diagram Next, draw a simplified diagram of the system. This will look like a T, with the crossbar of the T representing the load and the stem of the T representing the haul line. Draw a line for each rope segment in the system, branching off from the main stem. Step 3: Label the Lines Each line in the diagram represents a segment of rope carrying a specific amount of force. Label these lines with 'T' for tension. If the rope passes over a pulley and changes direction, the force on both segments of the rope will be the same. If the rope passes through a pulley and does not change direction, the force on one segment will be twice that on the other. Step 4: Assign Values Assign a value to the load. This is often given in the problem or can be determined by the situation. The load is represented as the weight at the bottom of the T diagram. The tension in the haul line (the vertical line of the T) is usually given the value of 1T. This simplifies calculations and can be scaled up or down later if needed.

Page | 224

Step 5: Calculate the Forces Start from the top of the diagram (the haul line) and work your way down, calculating the force in each rope segment. Remember, the tension in the rope is the same on either side of a pulley unless the direction of the rope changes. If the rope passes over a moving pulley (attached to the load), the tension on both sides of the pulley will be added to calculate the total load. Step 6: Verify Your Results Finally, check your work by ensuring that the sum of the forces equals the load. The total of all the T's on the branches should equal the load at the bottom of the T.

Page | 225

Using the T-Method allows rescuers to analyze and understand the forces at play in their systems, ensuring safety and efficiency during rescue operations. It's an essential skill for anyone involved in high-angle rescue. Remember, the more you practice, the more intuitive this process will become.

T-METHOD EXAMPLES

Simple 3:1 Pulley System illustrating T-method

Compound 9:1 Pulley System illustrating T-method

Page | 226

Page | 227

Page | 228

Mechanical Advantage Systems

Page | 229

Page | 230

Haul Factor It's crucial to be cautious when choosing a mechanical advantage (MA) system, as the risk of overloading the system or its components increases with higher MA. To maintain a safety factor and prevent overloading, you can use a rule of thumb based on the number of haul team members and the MA system ratio. For example, if you have 5 team members and are using a 3:1 MA system, you can calculate the maximum safe force by multiplying the number of members by the MA ratio: (5 members x 3:1) 5 x 3 = 15. This means that the team should not exert more than 15 times the force they apply individually to avoid overloading the system or its components. By following this rule of thumb, you can help ensure the safe and efficient use of pulley systems in rescue operations or other applications requiring mechanical advantage. The goal is to keep the sum of this equation between 12 -18. The rule of thumb for calculating maximum safe force in a mechanical advantage system is just a guiding principle. It can be adjusted based on various factors that may affect the efficiency or safety of the pulley system. These factors include environmental conditions, soil traction, haul path obstacles, vegetation, weather, or a slippery rope due to water or mud. By considering these external factors, you can make informed adjustments to the recommended safe force or choose a different mechanical advantage system that better suits the specific conditions of your operation. Always prioritize safety and efficiency when selecting and using pulley systems in rescue or other applications. As a general guideline, the average person can provide 209 Newtons (46 lbs) of gripping ability per hand on a rope, which results from a combination of grip strength and the coefficient of friction of the item being gripped. This information is useful when planning a raising system and determining the number of haulers needed. By rounding up to 50 lbs of force (222 Newtons) per hauler and multiplying by the mechanical advantage of the pulley system, you can determine the theoretical output of the pulley system, not accounting for friction loss. A common mistake is pulling too hard and too fast, which can be dangerous as the load may become jammed in a crevice or injure rescuers on the line. The goal is to generate a smooth and controlled raising effort on the line.

WARNING If you exceed the recommended safe force in a mechanical advantage system, it should be a deliberate and calculated decision, not an unintentional oversight. Applying excessive force could lead to damaging consequences, such as injuring the person being rescued, damaging equipment, or causing system failure. For instance, if a rescuer's leg is stuck in an exposed root system, applying too much force might cause severe injury without the haul team realizing it. Always prioritize safety and consider the potential risks associated with exceeding the recommended force limits in a mechanical advantage system. Make well-informed decisions based on the specific situation and conditions, and ensure that all team members are aware of the plan and potential hazards.

Page | 231

Avoid a forceful, jerky "heave-ho" pull on the haul system, as it can cause the litter to bounce and create excess abrasion on the main line. If a heave-ho is occurring, consider increasing the mechanical advantage or the number of haulers. Ensure that a single person is giving commands and minimize unnecessary verbal communication among topside personnel. This will help maintain focus and coordination during the rescue operation.

“Slow is smooth, smooth is fast.”

Page | 232

Chapter 17: Mechanical Advantage and Pulley Systems Quiz 1. The mechanical advantage of a pulley system is determined by: a) The number of pulleys. b) The type of pulley used. c) The weight being lifted. d) The number of sections of rope that support the load.

2. Pulley efficiency can be affected by: a) Rope friction. b) Number of pulleys. c) Weight of the load. d) All of the above.

3. Who is credited with the first documented use of compound pulleys in a block and tackle system? a) Archimedes b) Newton c) Galileo d) Einstein

4. The two weighted legs of the rope passing through a pulley should be kept parallel to: a) Prevent twisting. b) Improve efficiency. c) Avoid rope wear. d) All of the above.

5. What is Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA)? a) The theoretical maximum advantage without considering friction. b) The actual advantage achieved in real-world applications. c) The average advantage achieved over several trials. d) The advantage achieved when the pulley system is at rest.

Page | 233

6. A stationary pulley: a) Changes the direction of the force. b) Changes the magnitude of the force. c) Does not affect the force. d) Both a and b.

7. Prusiks are used as haul and ratchet rope connections in a pulley system to: a) Increase the mechanical advantage. b) Allow for reversibility. c) Prevent the load from slipping back. d) All of the above.

8. The role of a Haul Prusik in a pulley system is to: a) Provide a mechanical advantage. b) Capture the progress of the load. c) Control the release of the load. d) Anchor the pulley system.

9. A Ratchet Prusik, also known as a progress capture device (PCD), in a pulley system functions to: a) Increase the mechanical advantage. b) Capture the progress of the load. c) Control the release of the load. d) Anchor the pulley system.

10. The difference between a simple pulley system, a compound pulley system, and a complex pulley system lies in: a) The number of pulleys used. b) The mechanical advantage. c) The arrangement of pulleys and ropes. d) The type of pulley used.

Page | 234

11. The theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) of a compound pulley system is calculated by: a) Counting the number of sections of rope that support the load. b) Multiplying the number of pulleys by the weight of the load. c) Adding the weights of all the pulleys. d) Dividing the weight of the load by the number of pulleys.

12. The "T-Method" (Tension Method) is used to: a) Calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA). b) Determine the tension in each section of the pulley system. c) Calculate the pulley efficiency. d) Determine the type of pulley to be used.

13. Junctions within the ropes of the pulley system affect tension distribution by: a) Increasing the overall tension. b) Decreasing the overall tension. c) Creating points where the tension is divided. d) Creating points where the tension is doubled.

14. Using the T-Method, forces are calculated by: a) Multiplying the number of Ts by the load weight. b) Dividing the load weight by the number of Ts. c) Adding the number of Ts. d) Counting the number of Ts and equating it to tension.

15. Assigning a value of 1T to the haul line in the T-Method is done to: a) Simplify calculations. b) Increase the mechanical advantage. c) Decrease the mechanical advantage. d) Determine the number of pulleys needed.

Page | 235

16. The "haul factor" is used to: a) Calculate the mechanical advantage. b) Prevent overloading of a pulley system. c) Determine the type of pulley to be used. d) Calculate the pulley efficiency.

17. Adjustments to the recommended safe force in a mechanical advantage system might be required due to: a) The type of pulley used. b) The weight of the load. c) The condition of the ropes and pulleys. d) All of the above.

18. The average gripping ability per hand of an individual on a rope is: a) 50 lbs. b) 60 lbs. c) 70 lbs. d) 80 lbs.

19. A forceful, jerky "heave-ho" pull on the haul system should be avoided to: a) Prevent injury to the haul team. b) Prevent damage to the pulley system. c) Ensure smooth operation of the system. d) All of the above.

20. Ensuring that all elements of the pulley system are correctly installed and functioning is important because: a) It ensures the safety of the operation. b) It maximizes the efficiency of the pulley system. c) It increases the lifespan of the pulley system. d) All of the above.

Page | 236

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 237

Answer Key: 1. a) The number of pulleys. 2. d) All of the above. 3. a) Archimedes. 4. d) All of the above. 5. a) The theoretical maximum advantage without considering friction. 6. c) Does not affect the force. 7. c) Prevent the load from slipping back. 8. b) Capture the progress of the load. 9. b) Capture the progress of the load. 10. c) The arrangement of pulleys and ropes. 11. a) Counting the number of sections of rope that support the load. 12. b) Determine the tension in each section of the pulley system. 13. c) Creating points where the tension is divided. 14. d) Counting the number of Ts and equating it to tension. 15. a) Simplify calculations. 16. b) Prevent overloading of a pulley system. 17. d) All of the above. 18. a) 50 lbs. 19. d) All of the above. 20. d) All of the above.

Page | 238

Chapter 18

Changeover Technique Rescue Load

Page | 239

Chapter 18: Changeover Technique-Rescue Load Learning Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter, learners will be able to: 1. Understand the process of switching from a lowering to a raising operation using a jumper and a descent control device (DCD). 2. Know how to prepare and transfer tension to a jumper during a changeover operation. 3. Understand the role of the rigging plate and load-releasing hitch (LRH) in changeover operations. 4. Learn how to complete a changeover from raising to lowering, and vice versa, using a DCD and a jumper. 5. Understand the benefits and operations of a CMC MPD™ in facilitating immediate changeovers. 6. Understand the process of knot passing during a lowering operation using an Aztek (AZ) and system Prusik. 7. Learn how to transfer tension between the AZ and the DCD during knot passing. 8. Learn how to reattach and prepare the DCD for receiving tension again during knot passing. 9. Understand the process of knot passing during a raising operation using a ganged or pigged hauling system. 10. Learn how to make strategic decisions during a rescue operation considering the specific situation and available resources. 11. Understand the importance of edge protection in preventing damage or failure of the rope. 12. Learn the most common techniques for edge protection, such as the use of canvas padding or edge rollers. 13. Understand the proper setup and adjustment of edge rollers and pads. 14. Learn the best practices for the placement of the main line and belay line when edge protection is in use.

Page | 240

Lowering to Raising Switching from lowering to raising involves transferring tension off the descent control device (DCD). This can be done using an extended long Prusik, known as a "jumper," which bypasses the DCD. When the attendant calls for a "stop" and communicates "rig for raise," the DCD should be manually held at full stop without a tie-off. Next, the jumper is rigged on the line and attached to the rigging plate at the focal point. The attendant is then advised to "prepare for settling." As the main line is lowered, the tension transfers to the jumper. Feeding additional rope through the DCD causes it to slacken, allowing it to be removed from the system. Once the rope is released from the lowering device, the pulley system is set up for the raise. As the raising operation begins, the jumper is removed while the raising process continues uninterrupted.

Raising to Lowering During a raising operation, the load can be quickly lowered back down a short distance by having the haul team let out the main line while keeping the ratchet on the haul system open, preventing it from setting. Although less common in rescue scenarios, a complete changeover from raising to lowering can be achieved through another tension transfer maneuver. When a "stop" is called during the raising operation, a jumper, connected to the rigging plate with a load-releasing hitch (LRH), is rigged on the tensioned line in front of the ratchet Prusik hitch. This should be done with enough distance to accommodate the descent control device (DCD) after the line is slackened. The attendant is then advised to "prepare for settling" as the haul system is lowered back out, with the ratchet manually held open. This transfers the tension onto the jumper, allowing the haul system to slacken and be removed. The DCD is then rigged to the slackened line behind the jumper and tied off. The load-releasing hitch is let out to transfer tension over to the descender, completing the changeover from raising to lowering.

Note: The use of a CMC MPD™ preconfigures a lowering or raising system for an immediate changeover without having to complete the steps shown above.

Page | 241

Page | 242

Knot Passing During Lowering 1. Attach an Aztek (AZ) and system Prusik: Use a single 3-wrap, 8 mm Prusik hitch placed approximately one foot beyond the descent control device (DCD) on the main line. Attach this Prusik hitch to the running end of the AZ, and then connect the AZ to the same anchor as the DCD. Do not create a separate anchor. Mind the Prusik hitch during the lowering process. 2. Transfer tension to the AZ: As the incoming bend (knot in the main line) gets about 12 to 16 inches away from the DCD, let the minded Prusik hitch grab the rope by pushing it away from the anchor down the rope. Both the DCD and Prusik hitch will have tension on them. Allow total slack onto the friction device and angle the rope between the Prusik hitch and the DCD away from the AZ. The tension is now on the AZ. 3. Move and reattach the DCD: Slide the rope through the DCD, creating slack. Remove the DCD completely and place it on the other side of the knot to be passed. Ensure the knot is as close as possible to the top of the DCD. Lock off the DCD, preparing it to receive tension again. 4. Transfer tension back to the DCD: An assistant uses the AZ to gently lower the load, extending out until the tension is transferred back onto the readied DCD. Both the AZ and DCD will have tension during this process. 5. Remove the AZ and system Prusik hitch: Once tension is back on the DCD, remove the AZ and system Prusik hitch to complete the knot-passing procedure.

Page | 243

Knot Passing – During Raising Attach a "ganged" or "pigged" hauling system, such as a "set of 4's", extended out past the bend, to the main line. This allows for hauling the main line and the knot until it is well above and out of the way of the primary hauling system. With adequate anchors and additional equipment, this may be a more efficient technique. You have the option to continue the raise using the pigged system. However, the main line progress-capture Prusik will require a dedicated person to mind it. Alternatively, you may consider rebuilding your system and removing the pigged system altogether. This choice depends on the specific situation and available resources during the rescue operation.

Page | 244

Edge Protection

Page | 245

When a rope is running over a sharp edge, it is crucial to protect it in order to prevent damage or failure. The most common techniques for protection are using canvas padding or edge rollers. Edge rollers are more efficient during a raising operation but are heavier and bulkier than other options. A directional may be used to avoid the rope encountering the edge, or a rock hammer may be used to dull the edge. It's important to secure and adjust the edge rollers and pads by either tie-in or Prusik them to a separate line. When a dedicated main line and a dedicated belay line are used, the main line should be placed directly on edge rollers while the belay line is left out of edge rollers. This is because friction in the belay line reduces the peak forces that the belay device receives. Padding should be used for the belay line on sharp edges.

Page | 246

Page | 247

Chapter 18: Changeover Technique-Rescue Load Quiz 1. What is the role of a "jumper" in a changeover operation? a. It controls the descent b. It bypasses the descent control device (DCD) c. It acts as the main line d. It holds the ratchet on the haul system

2. In a changeover operation, when is the attendant advised to "prepare for settling"? a. After the jumper is rigged on the line b. Before the DCD is removed from the system c. As the main line is being lowered d. Both a and c

3. What happens when the main line is lowered during a changeover operation? a. The tension transfers to the jumper b. The pulley system is set up for the raise c. The jumper is removed d. The DCD is removed from the system

4. During a raising operation, how can the load be quickly lowered back down a short distance? a. By letting out the main line while keeping the ratchet on the haul system open b. By transferring tension to the jumper c. By releasing the load-releasing hitch d. By removing the DCD from the system

5. What is the purpose of a load-releasing hitch (LRH) in a changeover operation? a. It ties off the DCD b. It transfers tension over to the descender c. It holds the ratchet on the haul system d. It connects the jumper to the rigging plate

Page | 248

6. How does a CMC MPD™ facilitate changeover operations? a. It preconfigures a lowering or raising system for an immediate changeover b. It acts as the main line c. It holds the ratchet on the haul system d. It bypasses the DCD

7. During a knot-passing operation, when should you attach a system Prusik to the running end of the AZ? a. After the DCD is removed completely b. Before the tension is transferred to the AZ c. As the incoming bend gets about 12 to 16 inches away from the DCD d. After the tension is transferred back to the DCD

8. How is tension transferred to the AZ during a knot-passing operation? a. By letting the minded Prusik hitch grab the rope b. By sliding the rope through the DCD c. By removing the DCD completely d. By locking off the DCD

9. In a knot-passing operation, when should the DCD be removed completely? a. After the tension is transferred to the AZ b. Before the tension is transferred to the AZ c. After the tension is transferred back to the DCD d. Before the tension is transferred back to the DCD

10. How is tension transferred back to the DCD during a knot-passing operation? a. By using the AZ to gently lower the load b. By sliding the rope through the DCD c. By removing the DCD completely d. By locking off the DCD

Page | 249

11. What is the purpose of attaching a ganged or pigged hauling system to the main line during a knot-passing operation in a raising scenario? a. To haul the main line and the knot until it is well above and out of the way of the primary hauling system b. To transfer tension to the AZ c. To slide the rope through the DCD d. To lock off the DCD

12. What factors should you consider when deciding whether to continue the raise using the pigged system or to rebuild your system and remove the pigged system? a. The specific situation and available resources b. The distance between the main line and the DCD c. The type of knot in the main line d. The type of rope used in the operation

13. Why is it crucial to protect a rope running over a sharp edge? a. To prevent damage or failure of the rope b. To facilitate a smoother operation c. To prevent accidents and injuries d. All of the above

14. What are the most common techniques for edge protection? a. Using canvas padding or edge rollers b. Using a ratchet on the haul system c. Using a load-releasing hitch d. Using a ganged or pigged hauling system

15. How should you secure and adjust edge rollers and pads? a. By tying them in or Prusiking them to a separate line b. By attaching them to the main line c. By connecting them to the DCD d. By attaching them to the same anchor as the DCD

Page | 250

16. When a dedicated main line and a dedicated belay line are used, where should the main line be placed? a. Directly on edge rollers b. On the same anchor as the DCD c. On a separate line d. On a load-releasing hitch

17. When a dedicated main line and a dedicated belay line are used, where should the belay line be placed? a. Directly on edge rollers b. On the same anchor as the DCD c. On a separate line d. Out of edge rollers

18. Why should the belay line be left out of edge rollers? a. Because friction in the belay line reduces the peak forces that the belay device receives b. Because the belay line should be attached to the same anchor as the DCD c. Because the belay line should be attached to a separate line d. Because the belay line should be connected to the DCD

19. What type of edge protection is more efficient during a raising operation but is heavier and bulkier than other options? a. Canvas padding b. Edge rollers c. Load-releasing hitch d. Ganged or pigged hauling system

20. How can you protect a belay line on sharp edges? a. By using canvas padding b. By using edge rollers c. By using a load-releasing hitch d. By using a ganged or pigged hauling system

Page | 251

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 252

Answer Key: 1. b. It bypasses the descent control device (DCD) 2. d. Both a and c 3. a. The tension transfers to the jumper 4. a. By letting out the main line while keeping the ratchet on the haul system open 5. b. It transfers tension over to the descender 6. a. It preconfigures a lowering or raising system for an immediate changeover 7. b. Before the tension is transferred to the AZ 8. a. By letting the minded Prusik hitch grab the rope 9. a. After the tension is transferred to the AZ 10. a. By using the AZ to gently lower the load 11. a. To haul the main line and the knot until it is well above and out of the way of the primary hauling system 12. a. The specific situation and available resources 13. d. All of the above 14. a. Using canvas padding or edge rollers 15. a. By tying them in or Prusiking them to a separate line 16. a. Directly on edge rollers 17. d. Out of edge rollers 18. a. Because friction in the belay line reduces the peak forces that the belay device receives 19. b. Edge rollers 20. a. By using canvas padding

Page | 253

Chapter 19

High Angle Rescue

Page | 254

Chapter 19: High Angle Rescue Learning Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter, learners will be able to: 1. Understand the definitions of high angle, low angle, and steep slope in the context of NFPA 1670 and their implications in rescue operations. 2. Recognize the importance of using a main and belay line combination while operating on steep slopes and the forces at play. 3. Understand the concept of steep angle system forces and the measures taken to ensure safety, including the use of Force Limiting Systems. 4. Understand the techniques and considerations involved in vertical and suspended rescue rigging, including the use of bridles, connection points, and secondary attachments. 5. Understand the concept and execution of pick-offs in rescue scenarios, along with the precautions needed to avoid risks such as shock load to the rescue system or suspension trauma. 6. Understand the intricacies of a Rappelling Pick-Off, including the roles of rescuers, the tools used, the connection processes, and safety considerations. 7. Understand the guiding line technique and its utility in navigating around obstacles during a raise or lower operation, as well as the difference between a guiding line and a tag line. 8. Understand the risks and safety measures associated with the guiding line technique, including the importance of not suspending loads too high from the slope or face. 9. Understand the rigging requirements and steps to employ the guiding line technique effectively, including the connections to the litter harness and the use of pulley systems.

Page | 255

High Angle/Low Angle In the context of NFPA 1670, high angle refers to an environment where the rope rescue system primarily supports the load. The terrain or surface angle is often near vertical or greater than 60 degrees. In these situations, the rescuers and the subject's weight is borne by the rope system, making it a high angle scenario.

Low angle and steep slope usually refer to environments where the terrain or surface angle is less than 60 degrees. In these scenarios, rescuers may be able to use their feet for traction and support, meaning not all their weight is supported by the rope system. Despite this, it's crucial to remain tethered to the main and belay lines for safety, particularly when the terrain becomes steeper.

While operating on steep slopes, the main and belay line combination helps manage significant forces generated by multiple attendants and the patient. This is especially important as attendants are standing on their feet and not suspended, meaning not all their weight is on the rope system. Even so, potential catastrophic failure is always a consideration, and all safety measures should be put in place.

Steep angle system forces are an essential consideration in rescue operations. In steep terrain, the rope rescue system may experience higher static forces than in vertical terrain due to the weight of several attendants and the patient. Nevertheless, the potential peak force in a worst-case scenario on a steep slope is not as high as that of a 1m drop on 3m of rope with a 200 kg mass.

To ensure safety, engineers compare the highest anticipated load, whether static or dynamic, to material yield or breaking strengths, with a target safety factor of 1.5-2:1. However, some rescue systems may require higher static forces than necessary, which cannot produce the same magnitude of peak force as a two-person load on a poor edge transition. To address this issue, Force Limiting Systems (slipping clutch) are employed to truly limit the force between 6-12 kN, with a requirement of rigging to 20+ kN strength, providing safety coverage for all worst-case events in rescue work.

Page | 256

Page | 257

Page | 258

Low Angle/Slope Rescue According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1670 standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents, "Low Slope" describes an environment where the weight of an object or a person is supported primarily by the object or person itself, rather than the rescue rope system. This term generally applies to flat or mildly inclined terrains. Rescue operations in low slope environments often involve moving a patient on a stretcher across a rugged or uneven terrain. The technicality of this type of operation can vary significantly based on the conditions, and while the angle might be low, the need for safety and effective techniques remains high. In a low slope rescue, careful risk assessment is crucial. Outcome-based decision making should guide whether to employ a single rope system or a dual rope system. The critical question here is: "What would be the outcomes if a single-rope system fails?" A proper analysis of this question takes into account the nature of the terrain, the condition of the patient, and the resources available to the rescue team. Several factors play into the decision-making process in low slope rescues: 1. Choice of Rope System: Depending on the situation, you might opt to use only a belay line, or perhaps a 2:1 haul system with a progress capture Prusik could be more appropriate. The decision largely depends on the potential risk of a fall and the resources available. 2. Safety of Attendants: If there's any possibility that attendants will be attached to the stretcher or system, it's usually safest to use both a mainline and a belay line. This redundancy offers an extra layer of security. 3. Command Structure: It's important to maintain clear and effective communication during a rescue operation. Designate one attendant as the Lead. This person should be the only one giving commands to ensure there's no confusion during the operation. 4. Efficiency in Transport: The physical exertion of the attendants can be reduced by using webbing loops as "shoulder straps." These distribute the patient's weight more evenly, making it easier to transport them over a long distance or challenging terrain. 5. Simplicity in Systems: Lastly, always strive for simplicity in your rescue systems. Complex systems can lead to errors and increase the chance of accidents. The KISS principle (Keep It Simple, Stupid) often serves well in rescue scenarios. A low angle/slope rescue may seem less daunting than a vertical rescue, but it requires just as much care, planning, and technical skill. Training and practice are essential to ensure that you're prepared to handle these scenarios safely and effectively.

Page | 259

Page | 260

Vertical and Suspended Rescue Rigging Vertical litter rigging can be accomplished many ways with several different types of manufactured bridle systems or pre-constructed rope bridles. Regardless of the system being used, bridles should have the ability to adjust at the feet for proper patient positioning. All rope or webbing should be rated, inspected, and constructed using proper knots, and connection points. Following the two points of contact rule, both the patient and attendant must be attached to the rope system with long tails of the Main line and Belay Line). Another preferred item included in the system is for the attendant to travel vertically between the litter and the collection point. This is usually accomplished with a “Set of Fours” (AZTEK) that serves as the attendants second point of attachment. An Etrier is sometimes used for a soft step to aid in vertical movement.

Page | 261

Page | 262

Page | 263

Page | 264

Pick-Offs During a pick-off rescue, the primary rescuer is lowered from above to reach the stranded subject, without the use of a litter. If possible, this method is preferred as it is less physically demanding for the rescuer and can easily transition to a raise if necessary. It is important to choose a descent path that does not pose a risk of rockfall to the subject. The rescuer must also bring a pick-off harness and helmet for the subject, if needed. Cutting the subject's line during a pick-off can result in a sudden shock load to the rescue system, so it is safer to raise the load onto the rescue system in a controlled manner. Industrial workers may use the "dorsal" attachment point for their fall protection, but rescue technicians do not recommend this as it can concentrate the weight on the inside portion of the leg loop, potentially leading to suspension trauma, a life-threatening condition caused by restricted blood flow from the Femoral Vein.

Page | 265

Page | 266

Rappelling Pick-Off A Rappelling Pick-Off is a rescue technique that involves a rescuer controlling their descent on the face while managing a two-person load. Two rescuers are needed to rig a fixed main line and belay line. One rescuer serves as the belayer while the other prepares to rappel to the subject. The rescuer attaches their DCD to a mini rigging plate or Delta Link, to which a lifting device like an AZTEK is also attached. The Delta Link is attached to the harness via an extension sling to increase distance from the set of 4's. A long tail off the rescuer’s belay becomes a secondary attachment to the subject. Once attached, slack is removed with a prusik on the long tail. The rescuer rappels to just above the subject within reach of the patient's waist or harness. The Belay Prusik is immediately attached to the subject's harness, or if necessary, a rescue chest or cinch is secured. An improvised or commercially sewn pick-off harness is then placed on the subject, followed by a secondary connection from the rescuer’s Lift Device to the subject’s harness. The subject is removed from their original line using a 2:1 pick-off strap or personal AZTEK. After the transfer of the subject to the rescue system, the rescuer rappels to the ground with the subject. It is crucial to avoid cutting the subject’s line during the pick-off, as it could result in a shock load to the rescue system. Instead, raising the load onto the rescue system is a safer and more controlled way of transferring the load. When performing a Rappelling Pick-Off, it is important to keep in mind that being suspended from the dorsal can restrict blood return from the Femoral Vein and lead to suspension trauma, so rescue technicians do not use this attachment point.

Page | 267

Page | 268

Guiding Line Technique A guiding line is an excellent way to navigate around obstacles at the bottom of a cliff during a raise or lower operation. It differs from a tag line, which is simply attached to a litter to allow those below to apply tension and guide its movement. Instead, the guiding line is a separate rope that supports a guiding pulley, which is connected to the litter and can be controlled to move in a specific direction. This provides a reliable and independent route for the litter to move along and avoid any obstacles, making the operation smoother and safer. The guiding line technique is not meant to suspend loads high in the air and can be considered a "low-tech highline." It is best used for raising or lowering a load while avoiding obstacles at the base of a cliff. The guiding line is not just a simple tag line, which is only used to provide tension and change the direction of the litter. The guiding line is a separate ropeway that is used to move a guiding pulley that is connected to the litter, allowing for controlled movement along a specific path. It is important to note that loads raised or lowered with a guiding line should not be suspended more than one meter away from the slope or face. This is to minimize any potential injury caused by a short pendulum swing in the event that the guiding line fails. If the potential for injury due to the height of the load is significant, then another technique should be used. In sloping terrain where it is safe for rescuers to walk, such as a talus field, it is only necessary to suspend the patient and litter on the guiding line. To use the guiding line technique, the main and backup lines are connected to a litter harness using interlocking long-tailed bowlines. A simple mechanical advantage pulley system is used at the bottom end to adjust the guiding line tension as needed. For horizontal control, a directional pulley can be added in front of the pulley system at ground level.

Page | 269

Page | 270

Page | 271

Page | 272

Chapter 19: High Angle Rescue Quiz 1. According to NFPA 1670, a high angle scenario refers to: a) An environment where the terrain or surface angle is less than 60 degrees b) An environment where the terrain or surface angle is greater than 60 degrees c) A scenario where the rescuer's weight is primarily supported by their feet d) A scenario where the rescuer is not tethered to the main and belay lines

2. In a low angle or steep slope scenario: a) All of the rescuer's weight is supported by the rope system b) The rescuer is not tethered to the main and belay lines c) The rescuer may use their feet for traction and support d) The terrain or surface angle is greater than 60 degrees

3. When operating on steep slopes, which line combination is used to manage significant forces? a) Main line and control line b) Main line and belay line c) Belay line and control line d) Control line and main line

4. What do engineers compare to ensure safety in steep angle system forces? a) The highest anticipated load to the material's elasticity b) The highest anticipated load to material yield or breaking strengths c) The static force to the dynamic force d) The static force to the potential peak force

5. What is used to limit the force in rescue systems? a) A control line b) A belay line c) A Force Limiting System d) A main line

Page | 273

6. When doing vertical litter rigging, what should the bridles have the ability to adjust? a) The patient's weight b) The patient's position at the feet c) The rescuer's position d) The direction of the rescue

7. How many points of contact should the patient and attendant have with the rope system? a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four

8. What is a pick-off rescue? a) A rescue that uses a litter to transport the subject b) A rescue where the primary rescuer is lowered to reach the subject without a litter c) A rescue that uses a guiding line to navigate around obstacles d) A rescue that involves a sudden shock load to the rescue system

9. In a Rappelling Pick-Off, what does the rescuer attach to a mini rigging plate or Delta Link? a) Their harness b) Their DCD c) Their helmet d) Their guiding line 10. What is the purpose of a guiding line? a) To provide tension and change the direction of the litter b) To navigate around obstacles during a raise or lower operation c) To serve as a second point of attachment for the attendant d) To limit the force in the rescue system

Page | 274

11. What is the difference between a guiding line and a tag line? a) A guiding line is used for tension while a tag line is used for navigating obstacles b) A tag line supports a guiding pulley while a guiding line does not c) A guiding line supports a guiding pulley while a tag line does not d) A tag line is used for navigating obstacles while a guiding line is used for tension

12. In the guiding line technique, how high should loads be suspended from the slope or face? a) More than one meter b) Less than one meter c) At exactly one meter d) The height does not matter

13. What knot is typically used to connect the main and backup lines to a litter harness in the guiding line technique? a) Square knot b) Clove hitch c) Figure-eight knot d) Interlocking long-tailed bowlines

14. What is the target safety factor engineers aim for when comparing the highest anticipated load to material yield or breaking strengths? a) 0.5-1:1 b) 1.5-2:1 c) 2-2.5:1 d) 3-4:1

15. What is a potential danger of using the "dorsal" attachment point for fall protection during a pick-off rescue? a) It may result in a sudden shock load to the rescue system b) It can concentrate the weight on the inside portion of the leg loop, potentially leading to suspension trauma c) It may result in the rescuer losing their grip on the rope d) It can lead to an unstable descent of the rescuer and subject.

Page | 275

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 276

Answer Key: 1. b) An environment where the terrain or surface angle is greater than 60 degrees 2. c) The rescuer may use their feet for traction and support 3. b) Main line and belay line 4. b) The highest anticipated load to material yield or breaking strengths 5. c) A Force Limiting System 6. b) The patient's position at the feet 7. b) Two 8. b) A rescue where the primary rescuer is lowered to reach the subject without a litter 9. b) Their DCD 10. b) To navigate around obstacles during a raise or lower operation 11. c) A guiding line supports a guiding pulley while a tag line does not 12. b) Less than one meter 13. d) Interlocking long-tailed bowlines 14. b) 1.5-2:1 15. b) It can concentrate the weight on the inside portion of the leg loop, potentially leading to suspension trauma

Page | 277

Chapter 20

Patient Packaging

Page | 278

Chapter 20: Patient Packaging Chapter Learning Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to: 1. Understand the use and functionality of harnesses in rescue scenarios, including the purpose and proper application of an improvised harness and the Pick Off Hasty Harness. 2. Recognize the importance of safety measures in litter patient packaging such as the need for internal and external lashing, correct placement and use of carabiners, and appropriate webbing weaving. 3. Demonstrate the correct process to package a patient for transport, from ensuring stabilization before movement, applying necessary medical measures, preparing the litter, to finally securely lashing the patient into the litter. 4. Apply the use of Spider Straps for patient packaging, including proper positioning, securing, and checking the straps, as well as applying internal and external lashing. 5. Understand how to ensure the safety of patients during packaging and transport, including avoiding ejection from the litter and preventing movement within the litter. 6. Identify the significance of properly loaded carabiners and the importance of never tying patient lashing around the top rail of the litter. 7. Implement the steps to package a patient for transport, encompassing patient stabilization, provision of protection, usage of sit harness, application of medical measures, preparation and loading of the litter, and secure lashing of the patient. 8. Know how to apply internal and external lashing using specified webbing lengths, as well as adjust and check the lashing during transport.

Page | 279

Victim Harnesses A harness used for a stranded subject should be easy to put on without requiring them to step into it. Although improvised harnesses made of webbing are useful for stabilizing the subject, they may be uncomfortable when fully suspended and require a certain level of proficiency to tie properly.

Pick Off Hasty Harness This technique provides an effective means for securing a subject in exposed terrain without having them move. It is also useful on a supine patient in a litter without excessive manipulation or movement.

Litter Patient Packaging Safety • • • • • • • • • • •

Patient(s) must be internally lashed to protect them from ejection out of the ends of the litter. They must also be externally lashed to prevent them from moving within the litter. All carabiners should have gates opening down and toward the “inside” of the litter basket. Ensure carabiners are properly loaded and will not torque or side load. Never tie patient lashing around top rail of the litter: Always weave webbing between the stokes or to internal areas of plastic stretchers. Steps to package a patient for transport: Ensure patient is stabilized before moving. Provide head, eye, and face protection. Use a sit harness, especially for steep or high-angle terrain. Apply appropriate medical measures, such as a C-collar, backboard, bandaging, or splinting. Prepare the litter to receive the patient. Carefully load the patient into the litter. Securely lash the patient into the litter.

Page | 280

Using Spider Straps for Patient Packaging Spider straps are an excellent tool for securing a patient in a litter. These straps are typically constructed of nylon and feature a series of large loops that can be easily adjusted to secure the patient. • • • • • •

Begin by positioning the spider straps over the patient, ensuring that they're laying flat and untwisted. Adjust the straps so that the buckles are located at the patient's shoulders and hips. Start by securing the straps over the patient's chest and abdomen, then secure the straps over their legs. The straps should cross over the patient's body in an 'X' formation. Check that the straps are snug but not too tight. They should be able to comfortably slide two fingers between the strap and the patient's body. The patient's head should be secured last, with straps crisscrossing over their forehead. The spider straps should be regularly checked and readjusted as needed during transport.

In addition to the above steps, you should: • •

Apply internal lashing using two 12-foot yellow webbings. Apply external lashing, using a 25-foot black webbing to establish lashing if the litter does not have seatbelt-type lashing.

Litter Patient Packaging Safety • • • • •

Patient(s) must be internally lashed to protect them from ejection out of the ends of the litter. They must also be externally lashed to prevent them from moving within the litter. All carabiners should have gates opening down and toward the “inside” of the litter basket. Ensure carabiners are properly loaded and will not torque or side load. Never tie patient lashing around top rail of the litter: Always weave webbing between of the stokes or to internal areas of plastic stretchers.

Steps to package a patient for transport: • Ensure patient is stabilized before moving. • Provide head, eye, and face protection. • Use a sit harness, especially for steep or high-angle terrain. • Apply appropriate medical measures, such as a C-collar, backboard, bandaging, or splinting. • Prepare the litter to receive the patient. • Carefully load the patient into the litter. • Securely lash the patient into the litter. • Apply internal lashing using two 12-foot yellow webbings. • Apply external lashing, using a 25-foot black webbing to establish lashing if the litter does not have seatbelt-type lashing.

Page | 281

Page | 282

Page | 283

Chapter 20: Patient Packaging Quiz 1. What is the main advantage of an improvised harness? A) It is the most comfortable B) It is easy to apply without needing the subject to step into it C) It is the most cost-effective D) All of the above

2. When is a Pick Off Hasty Harness particularly useful? A) In high-angle terrain B) In exposed terrain C) When the patient is in a supine position in a litter D) Both B and C

3. Why is it important to ensure carabiners are properly loaded and will not torque or side load? A) It is a requirement by law B) To ensure patient comfort C) To prevent the carabiners from becoming a safety hazard D) To keep the carabiners from making noise

4. What is one reason you should never tie patient lashing around the top rail of the litter? A) It will cause discomfort to the patient B) It does not provide sufficient security for the patient C) It could damage the litter D) It would look untidy

5. Which of the following is NOT a step in packaging a patient for transport? A) Giving the patient a hot drink B) Applying appropriate medical measures C) Loading the patient into the litter D) Securing the patient in the litter

Page | 284

6. Why are spider straps useful for securing a patient in a litter? A) They can be adjusted easily to secure the patient B) They are very cheap C) They are very comfortable for the patient D) All of the above

7. What is the first step in using spider straps for patient packaging? A) Positioning the spider straps over the patient B) Ensuring the buckles are at the patient's shoulders and hips C) Checking that the straps are snug but not too tight D) Securing the patient's head

8. What is the purpose of internal lashing? A) To prevent the patient from moving within the litter B) To protect the patient from ejection out of the ends of the litter C) To ensure the patient is comfortable in the litter D) Both A and B

9. What is one reason you would use a sit harness when packaging a patient for transport? A) It is easier to apply than other harnesses B) It provides better protection in steep or high-angle terrain C) It is more comfortable for the patient D) It is cheaper than other types of harnesses

10. When should the head be secured when using spider straps for patient packaging? A) Before the chest and abdomen B) After the chest and abdomen, but before the legs C) After the chest, abdomen, and legs D) It does not matter when the head is secured

Page | 285

11. What is one thing you need to do to ensure the safety of a patient in a litter? A) Use seatbelt-type lashing B) Check the straps regularly and readjust them as needed C) Tie patient lashing around the top rail of the litter D) All of the above

12. What type of webbing is recommended for applying external lashing? A) 12-foot yellow webbing B) 25-foot black webbing C) Any type of webbing D) None of the above

13. In what order should you secure the straps over the patient's body when using spider straps? A) Legs, chest, abdomen B) Abdomen, chest, legs C) Chest, abdomen, legs D) Legs, abdomen, chest

14. What is the purpose of external lashing? A) To prevent the patient from moving within the litter B) To protect the patient from ejection out of the ends of the litter C) To ensure the patient is comfortable in the litter D) Both A and B

15. How should the carabiners' gates be positioned? A) Up and toward the outside of the litter B) Up and toward the inside of the litter C) Down and toward the outside of the litter D) Down and toward the inside of the litter

Page | 286

(Page Left Blank Intentionally)

Page | 287

Answer Key: 1. B) It is easy to apply without needing the subject to step into it 2. D) Both B and C 3. C) To prevent the carabiners from becoming a safety hazard 4. B) It does not provide sufficient security for the patient 5. A) Giving the patient a hot drink 6. A) They can be adjusted easily to secure the patient 7. A) Positioning the spider straps over the patient 8. D) Both A and B 9. B) It provides better protection in steep or high-angle terrain 10. C) After the chest, abdomen, and legs 11. B) Check the straps regularly and readjust them as needed 12. B) 25-foot black webbing 13. C) Chest, abdomen, legs 14. D) Both A and B 15. D) Down and toward the inside of the litter

Page | 288

Chapter 21

Artificial High Directional Highlines & Towers

Page | 289

Chapter 21: Artificial High Directionals, Highlines, Towers In the realm of rope rescue, a diverse range of scenarios and environments often necessitates specialized techniques and equipment to achieve safe and effective results. This chapter delves into the utilization of artificial high directionals (AHDs), highlines, and tower rescue operations, each offering unique capabilities that, when applied properly, can address complex challenges often encountered in rescue situations. From generating necessary clearance over edges to traversing wide spans or maneuvering around towering structures, this knowledge becomes indispensable for a well-rounded rescuer. By familiarizing ourselves with these methods, we enhance our capacity to respond dynamically to the myriad of challenges presented in the field.

Learning Objectives: 1. Understand the role of Artificial High Directionals (AHDs) in rope rescue, including the different types of AHDs and the situations in which they are most effective. 2. Describe how to safely and effectively set up and use AHDs, including the considerations and precautions that must be taken during their use. 3. Understand the purpose and structure of highline systems and identify the different components of a highline system, including track lines, control lines, and reeving lines. 4. Describe how to safely and effectively set up and use highline systems, including tensioning the track lines, setting up control lines, and attaching the rescue carriage. 5. Understand the unique challenges of tower rescues and the specific techniques and equipment used in such scenarios. 6. Describe how to safely and effectively perform tower rescues, including navigating complex structures, managing risks associated with extreme heights, and handling high-angle rescues. 7. Recognize and apply the safety protocols and procedures for working with AHDs, highlines, and towers. 8. Familiarize with the specialized equipment used in these scenarios and understand their operation and limitations.

Page | 290

Artificial High Directionals Negotiating a sharp cliff edge with a loaded litter is dramatically easier for the attendant and can be less traumatic on the patient when the main line is directed up through a high point near the edge. This facilitates a much smother edge transition and eliminates the “edge trauma” a patient might experience if a litter is pulled up over a sharp cliff edge. A natural rock stair-step or a well- placed tree with the attachment of a directional pulley could provide rescuers with an easy solution. However, lacking such a natural rigging opportunity an artificial high directional (AHD) can be engineered with a quad- pod, tripod, A-frame or gin pole configuration, which are constructed respectively with either four legs, three legs, two legs or a single leg.

Page | 291

Page | 292

An AHD (Artificial High Directional) is a commonly employed piece of equipment in rope rescue operations. It provides a means of creating an anchor point at an elevated position above the ground or a lower surface. One of the most popular types of AHDs is the tripod configuration. However, one issue with the tripod configuration is its elevated center of gravity. This makes it susceptible to instability, which can be hazardous during rescue operations. To counteract this, it is important to properly apply the load in a downward manner. When done correctly, the compression forces will stabilize the tripod in place. This is a crucial factor in ensuring the safety of both the rescuers and the patient. Another factor to consider when using an AHD is the resultant force vector created by the interior angle of the rope at the pulley. This force vector can be visualized by projecting an imaginary line from where the base of the pulley is pointing. When the resultant force vector is located inside the footprint of the tripod, it stabilizes the tripod in place. However, when the resultant force vector for the main line is located outside of the tripod base, the device becomes unstable and tends to want to topple in the direction of the force. Therefore, the goal in rigging a tripod is to have the resultant force as close to the center of the three legs as possible. This requires careful planning and consideration of the location of the anchor points and the direction of the load. Properly positioning the resultant force vector ensures the stability and safety of the AHD during rescue operations. An artificial high directional (AHD) is a vital piece of equipment in rescue operations that involves complex rigging scenarios, especially in confined spaces, sloping terrain, or steep cliffs. AHDs allow rescuers to redirect ropes and pulleys, change directions, and lift or lower heavy loads with increased efficiency, safety, and versatility. However, an AHD can also pose a significant hazard if not properly rigged and stabilized. One of the most critical aspects of AHD rigging is understanding the forces that act upon it and how they can affect the stability and safety of the system. For instance, an AHD tripod has an elevated center of gravity that can make it top-heavy and prone to tipping over. However, when a load is properly applied in a downward manner, such as with a main line attached to a litter or a rescuer, the compression forces generated by the load can stabilize the tripod and prevent it from tipping over. Another important concept in AHD rigging is the resultant force vector, which is the net force generated by the interaction of two or more forces. In the case of an AHD, the resultant force vector is created by the tension in the rope that runs through a pulley at the top of the AHD. The direction and magnitude of the resultant force vector depend on the angle and tension of the rope and can be visualized by projecting an imaginary line from where the base of the pulley is pointing.

Ideally, the resultant force vector should be located well inside the footprint of the tripod or other AHD configuration to stabilize it and prevent it from toppling over. However, if the resultant force vector is located outside of the AHD base, the device will become unstable and tend to topple in the direction of the force.

Page | 293

Therefore, the goal in rigging an AHD is to have the resultant force as close to the center of the three legs or other stabilizing components as possible. Additionally, other factors such as wind, terrain conditions, and the weight and movement of the load can affect the stability and safety of an AHD. Therefore, rescuers must assess and mitigate these risks before and during the operation by using proper rigging techniques, selecting appropriate anchor points, stabilizing the legs or guy lines, and monitoring the forces and movements of the system. The importance of properly rigging an artificial high directional cannot be overstated. Depending on the specific configuration of the AHD, it may require additional support to counteract tipping forces. Two-legged and monopole AHDs are particularly unstable and require guy lines to prevent them from toppling over. It is crucial to understand the forces generated in specific situations and configurations. The resultant force vector must be in straight compression upon the legs to prevent additional loading on guy lines that could cause them to fail. Different AHD designs require varying guy line configurations to provide proper stabilization. An easel A-frame is one AHD design that is sufficiently stable to not require additional guying when properly positioned. When using guy lines, an A-frame configuration should be leaned toward the edge, creating a resultant force that directly bisects the line between the legs once the load is applied. This results in balancing the load on the legs and preventing tipping forces from causing the AHD to become unstable. Ultimately, the stability of an artificial high directional depends on proper rigging and careful consideration of the forces involved. Taking the time to ensure that the AHD is properly supported can mean the difference between a successful rescue operation and a catastrophic failure.

Page | 294

A Sideways A-frame configuration employs guy lines from both sides, thus alleviating the necessity for an anchor point at or over the edge as required by a traditional A-frame set-up. A gin (jin) pole is a monopod arrangement and inherently the most unstable arrangement for an AHD, thereby requiring numerous tensioned guy lines to keep it vertically secure for use. A gin pole can be suitably secured with a minimum of three guy lines rigged with exactly 120° spacing between each. When sufficient anchors are available, construct four guy lines with 90° spacing between each line. Secure the bottom end of the gin pole in a natural depression and, when feasible, anchor it to prevent movement. Tilting the gin pole, like an A-frame, toward the edge will keep the resultant force vector down and in-line with the pole. The main line is rigged directly through a directional pulley at the top of an AHD. It is highly recommended to elevate the back-up line also through a high directional during edge transitions, otherwise any “failure” of the main system is guaranteed to result in the maximum fall distance. The AHD backup line is ideally suspended at waist height of the attendant, initially during the initial edge transition, and then once the load is safely below the edge, with the attendant in the proper plumb line and in control of the load, the backup line can be moved to a lower position lowered close to ground level once the attendant is well below the cliff edge. This can be accomplished by running the belay line through a pulley suspended from the head of the AHD on an adjustable jigger that is managed by the edge attendant. This approach of also elevating the back-up rope is excellent risk management of some of the more likely factors that can affect the fall of the load during edge transitions sudden overfeeding of the main line, causing a sudden drop of the load.

Page | 295

The AZ Vortex is promoted as a “multi- pod” because of its ability to be rigged as a standard tripod, easel Aframe, sideways A-frame or a Gin Pole. Adjustable leg lengths allow it to be adapted to uneven and challenging terrain at a cliff edge. The Head Set of the AZ Vortex has numerous attachment points to rig pulleys or attach guy lines. Guy lines are intended to be attached to the triangular holes in the head. Raptor feet (spiked) and flat feet are sold with the AZ Vortex to provide a secure footingin different terrain or structural locations.

With both sets of feet the entire unit weighs 33 kg (72 lbs). The rated breaking strength is 36 kN (8,093 lbf) and it is NFPA 1983 certified for General Use as well as CE certified to 0120 (EN 795 B) Standard.

The AZ Vortex is most efficiently assembled a short distance from a cliff edge and then moved into place. In the easel A-frame configuration, the AZ Vortex is awkward to maneuver in to place, requiring a wellcoordinated movement with one person handling each leg. All AHDs need to be belayed on an adjustable tether in order to prevent it from toppling over the cliff edge during installation. This tether is left in place during the operation providing an effective safety line. Once the device is properly positioned, the feet are secured or hobble straps are rigged between the legs. When the top of the AZ Vortex is subjected to a downward compression, the wide arrangement of the legs causes them to be forced apart. The legs therefore must be physically stabilized by either anchoring the feet to the surface or alternatively hobbling the legs with separate straps or cordage. Only two legs per hobble strap are rigged together, since three legs encircled with a single hobble tie could still permit two legs to spread. Moderate tension is applied to the hobbles so that the straps are snug but not excessive tension causing the legs to flex. The hobble straps are rigged low to the ground to prevent a possible tripping hazard.

Page | 296

Arizona Vortex Tripod System The Arizona Vortex (AZ Vortex) is a highly versatile and portable artificial high directional (AHD) system that significantly broadens the capacity of rope access and rescue teams to handle complex situations involving vertical and high-angle environments. Here, we delve into the details of this innovative equipment and discuss how to effectively use it in different rescue scenarios.

Components and Design The AZ Vortex was developed by Reed Thorne of Ropes That Rescue in Arizona. It includes two heads, three adjustable legs, and two leg pins, along with other modular components. These parts can be assembled in multiple configurations based on the rescue or access requirements. The adjustability of the legs permits deployment on uneven terrain, and the head components, equipped with several connection holes, facilitate diverse rigging options. At its simplest, the AZ Vortex operates as a tripod for managing loads and negotiating edges during rope rescue or rope access work. However, its transformative design allows it to be reconfigured as a bipod or monopod (also known as a gin pole), offering a variety of deployment options that extend far beyond the capabilities of a traditional tripod system.

Applications The versatility of the AZ Vortex becomes apparent when confronting challenging environments. For example, in a scenario where a traditional tripod might be unstable due to sloping or uneven terrain, the AZ Vortex can be set up as a bipod with the third leg used as a back tie. In urban environments with limited space, such as narrow alleyways or small rooms, the AZ Vortex can be set up as a monopod or gin pole. Beyond its use in a variety of configurations, the AZ Vortex is an invaluable asset for edge management. With its ability to project over edges, rescuers can position the mainline and belay lines in a manner that reduces rope abrasion and enhances the efficiency of the lowering or hauling system.

Usage Considerations When using the AZ Vortex, a number of factors must be considered. A thorough understanding of the system's capabilities and limitations is essential. Rigging should be carried out by personnel with training in its setup and use, and all components should be inspected for signs of wear or damage before use. The stability of the system under load should be tested prior to live use. Despite its adaptability, the AZ Vortex, like any AHD, is subject to mechanical and operational constraints. Understanding vector forces, proper guying, load direction, and system height is crucial in safely and effectively using the AZ Vortex.

Page | 297

In conclusion, the AZ Vortex embodies the evolution of high directional systems, providing versatility, adaptability, and increased safety margins for rope rescue and rope access work. By harnessing the full potential of this system, rescue teams can enhance their effectiveness in a wide range of environments and scenarios. It is a valuable addition to any rescue team's toolkit, underlining the constant innovation and development in the field of rope access and rescue.

Page | 298

The Highline Evolution Highline systems are rope systems that allow for movement of a rescuer and/or litter along a horizontal or angled plane, and may also be designed to facilitate vertical movement of the rescuer and/or litter from any position upon that horizontal or angled plane. These systems are considered the most complex of rope systems, as they typically require more equipment and personnel involvement to assemble and operate than any other rope system. Due to the combination of a highline rope system being personnel and equipment heavy, along with the total dependency of the safety of the rescuer on the highline system, the highest degree of scrutiny of the assembly and operation of the system in its entirety is required. The successful operation of a highline system is dependent upon the coordination of personnel, equipment, and the components that comprise highline systems all working together under the direction of the Rescue Group Leader and his/her staff. The set up and operation of a horizontally oriented Highline system involves personnel, equipment, and tasks performed from each “end” of the Highline system. To simplify the identification for these two locations, the terminology “near side” and “far side” are utilized. The “near side” designator is applied to the location in which operations are based, and the rescuer and/or litter is deployed from. The “far side” operation is where the Highline is extended to and typically involves fewer personnel and equipment. On highline systems that angle to the ground from an anchored location above, the terminology “top” and “bottom” are used. These systems require significant planning and specialized equipment such as a high anchor point, a high directional, and a dedicated rope for the highline. The system must be installed and operated by personnel who are trained and experienced in highline operations. Proper communication and clear delineation of roles and responsibilities are essential to the success of the operation.

Page | 299

Highline System Assignments

Highline systems are rope systems that allow movement of a rescuer and/or litter along a horizontal or angled plane, and may also be designed to facilitate vertical movement of the rescuer and/or litter from any position upon that horizontal or angled plane. Highline systems are considered the most complex of rope systems as they typically require more equipment and personnel involvement to assemble and operate than any other rope system. Due to the combination of a highline rope system being personnel and equipment heavy, along with the total dependency of the safety of the rescuer on the highline system, the highest degree of scrutiny of the assembly and operation of the system in its entirety is required. The successful operation of a highline system is dependent upon the coordination of personnel, equipment, and the components that comprise highline systems all working together under the direction of the Rescue Group Leader and his/her staff. The set up and operation of a horizontally oriented highline system involves personnel, equipment, and tasks performed from each “end” of the highline system. To simplify the identification for these two locations, the terminology “near side” and “far side” are utilized. The “near side” designator is applied to the location in which operations are based and the rescuer and/or litter is deployed from. The “far side” operation is where the highline is extended to and typically involves fewer personnel and equipment. On highline systems that angle to the ground from an anchored location above, the terminology “top” and “bottom” are used. As RGS, the responsibility of managing a highline operation can seem very daunting and test the skills of any technician. Like a factory assembly-line, it helps to break it down and assign specific, individual tasks that when completed and assembled, produce a highly functioning machine. It is important to delegate and assign positions as quickly as possible. Then support those positions with the needed personnel. The following tasks can be separated out and teams assigned to them: 1. Rigging Team Leader. 2. Entry Team Leader. 3. Tech Safety Officer. 4. Far Side 5. Entry Team. 6. Track Line. 7. Control Line. 8. Reeving Line. Once you identify the location of the system, Far Side may need some extra time to get in position. Give them their task, location, and objective (TLO). They will need to build a system for a control line that will perform raising, lowering, and belaying operations. They will also secure the track lines once the messenger line is shot over. Get them on their way as soon as you can. It is important to “stay-in-your-lane” regarding the task you were assigned. If you believe a tech is struggling, inform the Rigging Team Leader so they can provide additional clarity, assign someone to assist, or replace them.

Page | 300

Track Line(s): The Track Line is the rope(s) that the load is suspended from and determines the path of the litter or rescuer. Track Lines can be single or doubled and may be oriented horizontally or angled up or down. The effective practical span of Track Lines should not exceed 300’. A load suspended from a horizontal Track Line can adversely impact the anchors that support the Track Line two ways. First, wide critical angles amplify the loads effect to the anchors and second, movement of the load on the Track Line can cause fluctuations of several hundred pounds at the anchor points. Because of these factors, the highest degree of scrutiny must be given in regard to the stability of the anchors being utilized for the Track Line. To help minimize the impact of wide critical angles, the Track Lines need only be tensioned sufficiently for the load to safely clear all obstacles. Due to the high loading that Highline systems subject to the Track Line anchors, a maximum of two persons (rescuer and patient), shall be allowed to be suspended from the Track Lines.

Single Track Lines: The use of a single Track Line is frequently utilized when the Track Line angles steeply to the ground from its anchored position above, commonly referred to as a “Sloping Track Line”. Due to the steep orientation of the Track Line, the load is mostly captured by the Control Lines therefore removing the necessity of doubling the Track Line. When a Track Line is set up for this type of operation, the use of multiple Control Lines (Main and Belay) is recommended to prevent the possibility of an uncontrolled descent of the load.

Double Track Lines: The highest degree of safety for a Track Line system is reached when two Track Lines are utilized. Multiple Track Lines when tensioned equally splits the weight of the load between the two lines thus minimizing the impact that the load imparts onto the ropes. Multiple Track Lines can be anchored expeditiously and most effectively from one “bombproof” anchor. The utilization of separate anchors for each Track Line for the purpose of backing up each other is not typically necessary as the Control Lines can be designed to capture the load in case of a Track Line failure (See “Control Lines” below). If separate anchors for each Track Line are utilized, the location of each anchor should be aligned in reasonable proximity to allow both Track Lines to break over the edge along the same plane and right next to each other. In order to allow the load being applied on the Track Lines to be evenly distributed between the two lines, both of the Track Lines should be from the same manufacturer, be of similar construction and length, and be tensioned equally (see “Anchoring and tensioning of Track Lines” below).

Anchoring and tensioning of Track Lines: The far side track line is secured using full-strength tie-offs to minimize equipment usage and, more importantly, to help reduce the loss of rope strength caused by knot applications, such as when an anchor is connected using a Figure 8 on a Bight knot. (The Figure 8 on a Bight knot has an efficiency of 80% to 85%, reducing the 9,000 lb breaking strength of a ½-inch lifeline by 1,350 to 1,800 lbs.) Once the track lines are appropriately tensioned, the near side track lines are held in place by pairs of triple-wrapped Prusik knots. These two triple-wrapped Prusik knots not only maintain tension on the track lines but also serve as a makeshift dynamometer, as the Prusiks will begin to "slip" at around 1,500 lbs of force. Tensioning the track lines can be achieved by applying a 2:1 theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) to each of the track lines using a single tensioning rope in the following manner:

Page | 301

1. Secure the end of the tensioning rope to the tensioning rope's anchor and its anchor plate using a Figure 8 on a Bight knot. 2. Bring the tensioning rope up to the first track line and connect it to the track line through a pulley, which is attached to the track line using a triple-wrapped Prusik knot. 3. Pull the tensioning line back towards its anchor plate, pass it through a second pulley attached to the anchor plate, and then direct it back towards the second track line. 4. Connect the tensioning line to the second track line using a third pulley, which is attached to the track line with a triple-wrapped Prusik knot, similar to the connection made with the first track line. 5. Tension the track lines and secure the tensioning line. Track line tension can be adjusted as needed during operation. The coordination of track line adjustments must be carefully orchestrated by the Rescue Group Leader, ensuring all safety measures are in place to pass a "whistle test" once the tensioning system for the track lines is in operation.

Control Lines Control lines enable the movement of rescuers and/or litters along the track lines. Since a horizontally oriented track line is not excessively tensioned, a sag in the track line occurs as the load approaches the center of the span. Due to this sag, control lines function as a lowering operation from one side down to the center of the span (referred to as the near side control line) and a raising operation from the center of the span up to the far side anchor (called the far side control line). When control lines move a load past mid-span and back, the near side lowering operation must be converted to a raise to bring the load back up to the near side. Conversely, if the load passes mid-span, the far side raising operation must be converted to a lower to support the belay of the load back to mid-span. The lowering side of the control line is set up similarly to a "Main Line Lower" using a brake bar rack, with the addition of tandem Prusiks on a load release hitch placed ahead of the rack towards the load. The raising side of the control line can be set up like a "Main Line Raise" using a 3:1 theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) configured from the control line, or more efficiently by using a Pig-Rig attached to the control line. Tandem Prusiks are also utilized in this system, as detailed next. In addition to facilitating load movement along the track lines, control lines may also serve as a backup safety in case of track line failure. To function as a backup safety for the track lines, control lines must adhere to the following: 1.

Control lines must have separate anchors from the track line anchors (to account for track line anchor failure).

2.

The depth of the span must be sufficient for the control lines to capture the load before it "bottoms out" (the capture distance of the control line is approximately equal to 1/5 the span).

3.

Tandem Prusiks are employed on the control line after the descent control device (DCD) and act as the belay on the lowering side. An AZTEK or set of 4's will need to be available to disengage the Prusiks if activated. On the far side raising control line, tandem Prusiks are positioned at the change of direction pulley when the far side control line is set up like a 3:1 TMA "Main Line Raise" (refer to the "Main and Belay Line Systems" section).

Control lines can be suspended from the track lines by girth hitching Prusik loops, referred to as "festoons," around the control lines at approximately 30-foot intervals and attaching them to the track lines with a carabiner. A single control line can be used instead of separate near and far side control lines, but it must be longer than twice the span. Unless an obviously "bombproof" anchor is available, the control line anchors should be separate from the track line anchors, especially if relying on the control line as a backup in case of track line failure (which most

Page | 302

frequently occurs due to anchor failure, not track line failure). The connection of the control lines to the rescue carriage is detailed below under "Rescue Carriage."

Rescue Carriage: The carriage that moves the rescuer and/or litter along the track lines must have a sheave diameter and width suitable for accommodating multiple track lines. Knot-passing pulleys and the Kootenay Carriage are pulleys that meet this requirement. The Kootenay Carriage design includes one larger hole that can accommodate up to three carabiners for attaching the Reeving Line and a hard tie for the rescuer while moving along the track lines, as well as two additional smaller holes for attaching the control lines. A knot-passing pulley used for a rescue carriage may have an anchor plate attached to its single hole to provide additional connection points for the control, Reeving Lines, and rescuer attachment during transport. A single triple-wrapped Prusik (sometimes called a "soft interface") is placed onto each control line where the control line connects to the carriage suspending the rescuer and/or litter. The control line is allowed to "droop" at this connection point, with the triple-wrapped Prusik taking all of the tension that the lower or raise systems on the control line impart. The triple-wrapped Prusik acts as a dynamometer, providing a visual confirmation of excessive forces being applied to the control line, as the Prusik will begin to slip at around 1,500 lbs of force. If a single control line is utilized, the connection to the carriage can be accomplished using two inline Figure 8 knots with two single Prusik loops added to act as the dynamometer. Reeving Line: The Reeving Line enables vertical movement of the rescuer and/or litter at any position along the Track Lines. The Reeving Line is operated from the near or top side position. Lowering the rescuer and/or litter is achieved using a brake bar rack, with the addition of a single Prusik attached to a Load Release Hitch connected on the load side of the brake bar rack. This setup allows the system to pass the "whistle test" during operation and enables changeover from a lowering system to a raising system. The raising system can be created using a 3:1 theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) on the Reeving Line or more efficiently with a Pig-Rig attached to the Reeving Line. The single Prusik and Load Release Hitch used for the lowering operation remain in place during the raising operation, ensuring the system passes the whistle test and secures the load during a reset of the hauling system.

Attachment of a litter on a Reeving Line: The attachment of the litter, Tender, and patient onto a Reeving Line is accomplished in the same manner as described under Two Rope Systems. The only difference is that there is only one Reeving Line instead of the Main and Belay Line setup. The Reeving Line connects to the "O" ring on the litter harness with either a Longtail Bowline or an inline Figure 8, with the tail connecting to the Tender's harness. The patient is connected to the Reeving Line using a Purcell Prusik or webbing and a Prusik. Example of a tactical setup sequence for a horizontal Highline: 1.

Determine the location of the Highline and select suitable anchors. Since horizontal Highlines exert high loads on anchors, the Track Line anchor must be "bombproof."

2.

Determine the method for getting ropes across to the far side. If using a messenger line propelled by a line-throwing gun, ensure the safety of all personnel before deployment. If using multiple Track Lines, three rope ends will need to be hauled across by the far side personnel (two Track Lines and the far side Control Line). If using hangers to support the far side Control Line, they can also be sent across with the three ropes.

Page | 303

3.

Secure appropriate anchors for the near and far side Track Lines. The far side Track Lines will be secured by full-strength tie-offs. The near side Track Lines are held in place each with tandem Triple Wrapped Prusiks after tensioning. Rig the tensioning system on the near side (see "Anchoring and tensioning of Track Lines" above for details).

4.

Pre-tensioning is provided by one person operating the 2:1. Adjust final tensioning so that the weight of the rescuer, litter, and patient clears all obstacles.

5.

The Control Lines anchors for the near and far side must be separate from the Track Lines anchors if the Control Lines are to function as a backup in case of Track Line failure. Using the same anchor for both the Track Line and Control Line may be utilized only if the anchors are positively "bombproof" and suitable multiple "bombproof" anchors are not present.

6.

Set up the near side Control Line the same as a "Main Line Lower" with a SCARAB and tandem Triple Wrapped Prusiks on the load side of the rope. Set up the far side Control Line the same as a "Main Line Raise" with the addition of tandem Prusiks. The tandem Prusiks capture the load in case of a Track Line failure, and also allow passing of a whistle test.

7.

Place the rescue carriage onto the Track Lines. Connect the near and far side Control Lines to the carriage side holes with a Figure 8 on a Bight into a carabiner. Add a single Triple Wrapped Prusik to the connection to act as a visible dynamometer via a "droop" in the Control Line at the carriage connection. If using a single Control Line for both sides, two inline Figure 8's may be utilized with two Triple Wrapped Prusiks added for the above reason (note: if using a single Control Line, it must be longer than twice the span).

8.

Connect a pulley with a carabiner to the carriage for a change of direction to the rescuer and/or litter if using a Reeving Line. During transport along the Track Lines via the Control Lines, the rescuer and litter are tied directly to the carriage with a piece of webbing.

9.

Protection while lowering the Reeving Line is provided by a Triple Wrapped Prusik attached to the Reeving Line on both sides of the pulley at the collection point of the rescue package. Once the rescuer is positioned along the Track Line at a location where the lowering operation will commence, the Reeving Line will have to perform a short raise to allow the rescuer to disconnect themselves from the transport webbing. Once the rescuer has secured the patient, and the rescuer and patient are raised with the Reeving Line up to the carriage, the rescuer should reconnect the transport webbing before the Control Lines move the carriage.

Page | 304

Highline System components:

Page | 305

Page | 306

Tower Rescue Tower rescue is an essential and specialized area within the field of rope rescue, focusing on the unique challenges and requirements posed by elevated structures, such as transmission towers, communication infrastructure, wind turbines, and other tall structures. With the increasing number of these structures worldwide, the need for skilled and welltrained tower rescue personnel has become more critical than ever. Linemen and other access technicians are often trained in rope rescue and selfrescue techniques as part of their job requirements, which can help reduce the need for external professional rescues. However, when a situation arises that is beyond the capabilities of the onsite workers, or when additional resources are needed, specialized tower rescue teams play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and well-being of those involved. Tower rescue requires specific skills, techniques, and equipment designed to address the unique challenges and hazards associated with working at height on these structures. Some of these challenges include: 1. Accessing and navigating complex structures with various obstacles and confined spaces. 2. Managing the risks associated with working at extreme heights, such as fall protection and rope management. 3. Handling high-angle rescues and managing loads safely in challenging environments. 4. Adapting to various weather conditions and the potential for rapidly changing conditions. 5. Utilizing specialized equipment designed for tower rescue, such as rope access devices, litters, and specialized anchor systems. Training and proficiency in tower rescue are essential for ensuring the safety of both the rescuer and the individual being rescued. This involves not only learning the specific techniques and equipment used in tower rescue but also staying up to date with the latest developments in the field. Regular training exercises and simulations can help tower rescue teams maintain their skills and adapt to new situations and equipment as they arise. In conclusion, tower rescue is a vital and specialized discipline within the field of rope rescue, requiring unique skills, techniques, and equipment to address the challenges of working on elevated structures. As the number of these structures continues to grow, the demand for skilled tower rescue personnel will only increase, making it more important than ever for professionals in this field to stay current with the latest training and advancements.

Page | 307

Page | 308

Transverse view: A perspective of a tower when viewed from the front or back, typically parallel or underneath the transmission lines. Longitudinal view: A perspective of a tower when viewed from the side or profile, usually perpendicular to the transmission lines. Tangent Angle Tower: A transmission tower located at the apex of a turn in the transmission line's path. Dead End Tower: A transmission tower where all lines terminate. Arm: A lattice structure that extends from the main body of the transmission tower to hold insulators, which support the transmission lines. Insulators: Bell-shaped, non-conductive plates, typically made of porcelain, used to insulate high voltage wires and prevent the energizing of the tower. Minimum Approach Distance (MAD): A safe zone for access and working, often established by measuring the length of the insulator and its associated radius. Most pre-installed fall protection or foot peg paths should fall within the MAD. Fixed Brake: A stationary friction device anchored either on the ground or on the structure and used to lower a victim or rescuer. Examples of fixed brakes include brake bar racks, CMC MPD, and Petzl ID. Dynamic Fixed Brake: A brake similar to a fixed brake, but with the ability to move under load. This can be achieved by using a Set of Fours, AZTEK, or other mechanical advantage systems behind the brake. This allows for more flexibility in managing loads during a rescue operation.