Military Organization [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

MILITARY ORGANIZATION

Contents 0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Admiralty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

0.1.1

Function and organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

0.1.2

Admiralty buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

0.1.3

“Admiralty”as a metonym for “sea power” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

0.1.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

0.1.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

0.1.6

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

0.1.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

Air force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

0.2.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

0.2.2

Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6

0.2.3

Air armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6

0.2.4

Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

0.2.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

0.2.6

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

0.2.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

Army group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

0.3.1

World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

0.3.2

World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

0.3.3

NATO 'Army Groups' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

0.3.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

Artillery battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

0.4.1

Land usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

0.4.2

Naval usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

0.4.3

Modern battery organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

0.4.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

0.4.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

0.4.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

0.4.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

0.5.1

Independent operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

0.5.2

Homogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

0.5.3

British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

i

ii

CONTENTS 0.5.4

Canadian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

0.5.5

Dutch Army

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

0.5.6

Swiss Army

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

0.5.7

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

0.5.8

USSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

0.5.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

0.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

0.5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

Battle Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

0.6.1

Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

0.6.2

Commander in Chief, Battle Fleet (COMBATFLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

0.6.3

Commander Battle Force (COMBATFOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

0.6.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

0.6.5

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

Battlegroup (army) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

0.7.1

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

0.7.2

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

0.7.3

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

Battlespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

0.8.1

Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

0.8.2

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

0.8.3

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

0.8.4

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

0.8.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

0.9.1

Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

0.9.2

Individual armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

0.9.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

0.9.4

Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

0.9.5

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

0.10 Brigade group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

0.10.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

0.10.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

0.11 Combat command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

0.11.1 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

0.11.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

0.11.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

0.11.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

0.11.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

0.12 Command and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

0.12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

CONTENTS

iii

0.12.2 Derivative terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

0.12.3 Command and control centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

0.12.4 Command and control warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

0.12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

0.12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

0.12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

0.13 Company (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

0.13.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

0.13.2 British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

0.13.3 Canadian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

0.13.4 Soviet armed forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

0.13.5 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

0.13.6 Disambiguation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

0.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

0.13.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

0.13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

0.13.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

0.14 Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

0.14.1 Military formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

0.14.2 Administrative Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

0.14.3 Non-military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

0.14.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

0.14.5 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

0.15 Detachment (military) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

0.15.1 Use by Cadet forces in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

0.15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

0.15.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

0.16 Division (military) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

0.16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

0.16.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

0.16.3 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

0.16.4 National organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

0.16.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

0.16.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

0.16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

0.16.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

0.17 Field army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

0.17.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

0.17.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

0.18 Field force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

0.18.1 United Kingdom use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS 0.18.2 Australian use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

0.18.3 United States use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

0.18.4 Police field forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

0.18.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

0.19 Fireteam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

0.19.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

0.19.2 National variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

0.19.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

0.19.4 Fire and maneuver team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

0.19.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

0.19.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

0.20 Flight (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

0.20.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

0.20.2 Commonwealth usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

0.20.3 American usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

0.20.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

0.20.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

0.21 Flotilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

0.21.1 US Coast Guard

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

0.21.2 Russian Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

0.21.3 Non-military usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

0.21.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

0.21.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

0.21.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

0.22 Grand strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

0.22.1 Historical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

0.22.2 In the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

0.22.3 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

0.22.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

0.22.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

0.22.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

0.22.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

0.23 Group (military aviation unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

0.23.1 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

0.23.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

0.24 Joint Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

0.24.1 Numbered USMCEB joint task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

0.24.2 Named joint task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

0.24.3 United States Army and other non-USMCEB task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

0.24.4 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

0.24.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

CONTENTS

v

0.24.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

0.24.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

0.25 Military administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

0.25.1 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

0.25.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

0.26 Military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

0.26.1 Historiography of military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

0.26.2 Early historians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

0.26.3 Technological evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

0.26.4 Periods of military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

0.26.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

0.26.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

0.26.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

0.26.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

0.27 Military logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

0.27.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

0.27.2 Modern developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

0.27.3 Loss of Strength Gradient

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

0.27.4 U.S. Armed Forces classes of supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

0.27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

0.27.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

0.27.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

0.28 Military organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

0.28.1 Executive control, management and administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

0.28.2 Armed services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

0.28.3 Commands, formations, and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

0.28.4 Table of organization and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

0.28.5 Modern hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

0.28.6 Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

0.28.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

0.28.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

0.29 Military strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

0.29.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

0.29.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

0.29.3 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

0.29.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

0.29.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

0.29.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

0.29.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

0.30 Military tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

0.30.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

vi

CONTENTS 0.30.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 0.30.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 0.30.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 0.31 Naval fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 0.31.1 The modern fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 0.32 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 0.32.1 Etymology and meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 0.32.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 0.32.3 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 0.32.4 Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 0.32.5 Naval organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 0.32.6 Naval infantry

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

0.32.7 Naval aviation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

0.32.8 Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 0.32.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 0.32.10 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 0.32.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 0.33 Numbered Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 0.33.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 0.33.2 List of Numbered Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 0.33.3 Named Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 0.33.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 0.33.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 0.34 Operational level of war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 0.34.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 0.34.2 Role in battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 0.34.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 0.34.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 0.34.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 0.35 Operational manoeuvre group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 0.35.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 0.35.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 0.36 Patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 0.36.1 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 0.36.2 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 0.36.3 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 0.36.4 Non-law enforcement patrols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 0.36.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 0.36.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 0.37 Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 0.37.1 Early usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

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0.37.2 Modern usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 0.37.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 0.37.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 0.37.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 0.38 Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 0.38.1 Historical origin

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

0.38.2 Regimental system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 0.38.3 Commonwealth armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 0.38.4 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 0.38.5 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 0.38.6 Russian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 0.38.7 Soviet Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 0.38.8 Irish Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 0.38.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 0.38.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 0.39 Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 0.39.1 Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 0.39.2 Geographical regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 0.39.3 Regions in human geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 0.39.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 0.39.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 0.39.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 0.39.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 0.40 Section (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 0.40.1 Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 0.40.2 Danish Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 0.40.3 French Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 0.40.4 Singapore Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 0.40.5 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 0.40.6 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 0.40.7 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 0.40.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 0.40.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 0.40.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 0.41 Squad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 0.41.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 0.41.2 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 0.41.3 Other military uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 0.41.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 0.41.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 0.41.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

viii

CONTENTS 0.42 Squadron (army) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 0.42.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 0.42.2 Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 0.42.3 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 0.42.4 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 0.42.5 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 0.42.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 0.43 Squadron (aviation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 0.43.1 United States military air services 0.43.2 Others

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

0.43.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 0.44 Squadron (naval) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 0.44.1 Command element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 0.44.2 Squadron types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 0.44.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 0.44.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 0.44.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 0.45 Table of organization and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 0.45.1 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 0.45.2 Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 0.45.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 0.45.4 External links and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 0.46 Task force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 0.46.1 Naval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 0.46.2 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 0.46.3 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 0.46.4 Other data regarding US task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 0.46.5 Task forces in popular culture

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

0.46.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 0.46.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 0.46.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 0.47 Theater (warfare) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 0.47.1 Theater of war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 0.47.2 Theater of operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 0.47.3 Soviet and Russian Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 0.47.4 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 0.47.5 Images and diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 0.47.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 0.47.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 0.48 Troop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 0.48.1 Troops in various forces

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

CONTENTS

ix

0.48.2 Troops in civilian organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 0.48.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 0.49 United States Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 0.49.1 Mission, vision, and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 0.49.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 0.49.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 0.49.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 0.49.5 Aircraft inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 0.49.6 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 0.49.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 0.49.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 0.49.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 0.50 War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 0.50.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 0.50.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 0.50.3 Behaviour and conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 0.50.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 0.50.5 Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 0.50.6 Factors ending a war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 0.50.7 Ongoing conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 0.50.8 Efforts to limit or stop wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 0.50.9 Theories for motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 0.50.10 War ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 0.50.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 0.50.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 0.50.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 0.51 Weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 0.51.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 0.51.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 0.51.3 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 0.51.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 0.51.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 0.51.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 0.52 Wing (military aviation unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 0.52.1 Commonwealth usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 0.52.2 Canadian usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 0.52.3 United States Air Force usage

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

0.52.4 U.S. Naval Aviation and Civil Air Patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 0.52.5 Equivalents in other countries

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

0.52.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 1

undefined

200

x

CONTENTS 1.1

Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 1.1.1

Glossary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

1.1.2

Design

1.1.3

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

1.1.4

Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

1.1.5

For firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

1.1.6

Ordnance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

1.1.7

Naval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

1.1.8

Field supply

1.1.9

Environmental problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

1.1.10 Sabotage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 1.1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 1.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 1.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 1.2

1.3

1.4

Automatic rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 1.2.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

1.2.2

Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

1.2.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

1.2.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Designated marksman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 1.3.1

DM / sniper differences

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

1.3.2

Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

1.3.3

Worldwide use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

1.3.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

1.3.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

1.3.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

FGM-148 Javelin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 1.4.1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

1.4.2

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

1.4.3

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

1.4.4

Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

1.4.5

Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

1.4.6

Combat history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

1.4.7

Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

1.4.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

1.4.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

1.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 1.5

Force multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 1.5.1

Doctrinal changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

1.5.2

Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

1.5.3

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

CONTENTS

1.6

xi

1.5.4

Creating local forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

1.5.5

Deception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

1.5.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

1.5.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Grenadier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 1.6.1

Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

1.6.2

Grenades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

1.6.3

Early distinctions of dress and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

1.6.4

Elite status in the 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

1.6.5

Headgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

1.6.6

Grenadier companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

1.6.7

Grenadier regiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

1.6.8

Modern usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

1.6.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

1.6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 1.6.11 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 1.6.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 1.7

Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 1.7.1

History and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

1.7.2

Combat role

1.7.3

Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

1.7.4

Doctrine

1.7.5

Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

1.7.6

Day to day service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

1.7.7

Equipment and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

1.7.8

Other infantry

1.7.9

Descriptions of infantry

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

1.7.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 1.7.11 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1.7.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1.7.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1.8

1.9

M14 rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1.8.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

1.8.2

Rifle design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

1.8.3

Variants and related designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

1.8.4

Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

1.8.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

1.8.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

1.8.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

1.8.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

M203 grenade launcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

xii

CONTENTS 1.9.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

1.9.2

Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

1.9.3

Rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

1.9.4

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

1.9.5

Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

1.9.6

Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

1.9.7

Civilian ownership in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

1.9.8

Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

1.9.9

Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

1.9.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 1.9.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 1.9.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 1.10 M249 light machine gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 1.10.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 1.10.2 Design details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 1.10.3 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 1.10.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 1.10.5 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 1.10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 1.10.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 1.10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 1.10.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 1.11 M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 1.11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 1.11.2 Combat reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 1.11.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 1.11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 1.11.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 1.11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 1.11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 1.12 M320 Grenade Launcher Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 1.12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 1.12.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 1.12.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 1.12.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 1.13 M4 carbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 1.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 1.13.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 1.13.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 1.13.4 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 1.13.5 Trademark issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

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xiii

1.13.6 Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 1.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 1.13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 1.13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 1.14 Military science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 1.14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 1.14.2 Employment of military skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 1.14.3 Military concepts and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 1.14.4 Military systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 1.14.5 Military studies journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 1.14.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 1.14.7 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 1.14.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 1.14.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 1.15 Overwatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 1.15.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 1.16 Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 1.16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 1.16.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 1.16.3 Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 1.16.4 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 1.16.5 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 1.16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 1.16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 1.16.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 1.17 Rifleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 1.17.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 1.17.2 Modern tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 1.17.3 Rifleman in different countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 1.17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 1.17.5 References and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 1.18 Suppressive fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 1.18.1 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 1.18.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 1.18.3 Weapons used

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

1.18.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 1.19 Team leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 1.19.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 1.19.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 1.20 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 1.20.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

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CONTENTS 1.20.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 1.20.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 1.20.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 1.20.5 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 1.20.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 1.20.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 1.20.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 1.20.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 1.21 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 1.21.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 1.21.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 1.21.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 1.21.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 1.21.5 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 1.21.6 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 1.21.7 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 1.21.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 1.21.9 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 1.21.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 1.21.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

2

undefined

339

3

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

340

3.1

Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

3.2

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

3.3

Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

0.1. ADMIRALTY

0.1 Admiralty

1 the nine Great Officers of State.

In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral This article is about a former military department of into commission and control of the Royal Navy passed to England and later the United Kingdom. For other uses, a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The see Admiralty (disambiguation). office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709, after which the ofThe Admiralty was the authority responsible for the fice was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord command of the Royal Navy in the Kingdom of England, High Admiral being the future King William IV in the and later in Great Britain and until 1964 in the United early 19th century). Kingdom. Originally exercised by a single person, the Lord High Admiral, the Admiralty was from the early 18th century onwards almost invariably put“in commission”and exercised by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, who sat on the Board of Admiralty.

In 1831, the Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity and its duties and responsibilities were given over to the Admiralty. In 1964, the Admiralty was subsumed into the Ministry of Defence along with the War Office and the Air Ministry. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board, Army Board and Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence. As mentioned above, there is also a new Navy Board in charge of the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy.

In 1964, the functions of the Admiralty were transferred to a new Admiralty Board, which is a committee of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom and part of the Ministry of Defence. The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board (not to be confused with the historical Navy Board described later in this article). It is common for the various The Board of Admiralty authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday.* [1] There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices.

0.1.1

Function and organisation

History Board of admiralty about 1810.

Flag of the Lord High Admiral

The office of Admiral of England (or Lord Admiral and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400, though there were before this Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of

When the office of Lord High Admiral was in commission, as it was for most of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries until it reverted to the Crown, it was exercised by a Board of Admiralty, officially known as the Commissioners for Exercising the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &c. (alternatively of England, Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland depending on the period). The Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords, and Civil Lords, normally politicians. The quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, who was a member of the Cabinet. After

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1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord.

0.1.2

Admiralty buildings

• Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) in 1760 before addition of the Adam screen • Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) circa 1790 after addition of the Adam screen • Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) circa 1830 Admiralty House Admiralty House is a moderately proportioned mansion to the south of the Ripley Building, built in the late 18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the Admiralty, serving that purpose until 1964. Winston Churchill was one of its occupants. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall, and is entered through the Ripley Building. It is a three-storey building in yellow brick with neoclassical interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto Horse Guards Parade. The architect was Samuel Pepys Cockerell. There are now three ministerial flats in the building, which were unoccupied in 2012.* [2]

Admiralty Extension

The Admiralty complex in 1794. The colours indicate departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is Admiralty House.

The Admiralty complex lies between Whitehall, Horse Guards Parade and The Mall and includes five interconnected buildings. Since the Admiralty no longer exists The Admiralty Extension (which is also one of the two buildings which are sometimes referred to as the “Old Admiralty”) dates as a department, these buildings are now used by separate from the turn of the 20th century. government departments: The Admiralty The oldest building was long known simply as The Admiralty; it is now known officially as the Ripley Building, a three storey U-shaped brick building designed by Thomas Ripley and completed in 1726. Alexander Pope implied the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour of the baroque style which was fading from fashion at the time, or the austere grandeur of the Palladian style which was just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the first purpose built office building in Great Britain. It contained the Admiralty board room, which is still used by the Admiralty, other state rooms and offices and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. Robert Adam designed the screen which was added to the entrance front in 1788. The Ripley Building is currently occupied by the Department for International Development.

This is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings. It was begun in the late 19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra offices needed due to the naval arms race with the German Empire. It is a red brick building with white stone detailing in the Queen Anne style with French influences. It has been used by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office since the 1960s. The Department for Education will move into the building in September 2017 following the Foreign and Commonwealth Office's decision to leave the building and consolidate its London staff into one building on King Charles Street.

Admiralty Arch Admiralty Arch is linked to the Old Admiralty Building by a bridge and is part of the ceremonial route from Trafalgar Square to Buckingham Palace.

0.1. ADMIRALTY

3

0.1.5 References [1] “New title for Duke of Edinburgh as he turns 90”. BBC news (BBC). 10 June 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2011. [2] Ministerial Residences

0.1.6 Further reading Admiralty Arch

The Admiralty Citadel This is a squat windowless World War II fortress north west of Horse Guards Parade, now covered in ivy. See Military citadels under London for further details.

0.1.3

The Building • Bradley, Simon, and Nikolaus Pevsner. London 6: Westminster (from the Buildings of England series). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-300-09595-3. • C. Hussey,“Admiralty Building, Whitehall”, Country Life, 17 and 24 November 1923, pp. 684–692, 718–726.

“Admiralty”as a metonym for “sea The Office power” • Daniel A. Baugh, Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole (Princeton, 1965). • Sir John Barrow, An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, Bart., Late of the Admiralty (London, 1847). • John Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III: Its State and Direction (Cambridge, 1953). • C. I. Hamilton, The Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making 1805–1927 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

Bomb proof citadel constructed 1940 for Admiralty headquarters

In some cases, the term admiralty is used in a wider sense, as meaning sea power or rule over the seas, rather than in strict reference to the institution exercising such power. For example, the well-known lines from Kipling's Song of the Dead: If blood be the price of admiralty, Lord God, we ha' paid in full!

0.1.4

See also

• Admiralty administration • List of Lords High Admiral • List of the First Lords of the Admiralty

• C. I. Hamilton, “Selections from the Phinn Committee of Inquiry of October–November 1853 into the State of the Office of Secretary to the Admiralty, in The Naval Miscellany, volume V, edited by N. A. M. Rodger, (London: Navy Records Society, London, 1984). • C. S. Knighton, Pepys and the Navy (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003). • Christopher Lloyd, Mr Barrow of the Admiralty (London, 1970). • Malcolm H. Murfett, The First Sea Lords: From Fisher to Mountbatten (Westport: Praeger, 1995). • Lady Murray, The Making of a Civil Servant: Sir Oswyn Murray, Secretary of the Admiralty 1917– 1936 (London, 1940).

• List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty

• N.A.M. Rodger, The Admiralty (Lavenham, 1979)

• Lord High Admiral of Scotland

• J.C. Sainty, Admiralty Officials, 1660–1870 (London, 1975)

• St Boniface's Catholic College • Admiralty chart

• Sir Charles Walker, Thirty-Six Years at the Admiralty (London, 1933)

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0.1.7

External links

• The Admiralty at the Survey of London online

0.2 Air force For other uses, see Air Force (disambiguation) and list of air forces.

For military aviation conducted by armies and navies, see army aviation and naval aviation.

Refuelling a Jaguar GR1 of the Royal Air Force (1991).

air components from allied nations. Air forces typically consist of a combination of fighters, bombers, helicopters, transport planes and other aircraft.

Four fighters and a tanker aircraft of the USAF.

Many air forces are also responsible for operations of military space, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), and communications equipment. Some air forces may command and control other air defence assets such as anti-aircraft artillery, surface-to-air missiles, or antiballistic missile warning networks and defensive systems. Some nations, principally Russia, the former Soviet Union and countries who modelled their militaries along Soviet lines, have an Air Defence Force which is organizationally separate from their air force. In addition to pilots, air forces have ground support staff who support the aircrew. In a similar manner to civilian airlines, there are supporting ground crew as pilots cannot fly without the assistance of other personnel such as engineers, loadmasters, fuel technicians and mechanics. However, some supporting personnel such as airfield defence troops, weapons engineers and air intelligence staff do not have equivalent roles in civilian organizations.

0.2.1 History Main article: Aerial warfare USAF B-2 Spirit stealth strategic bomber.

An air force, also known in some countries as an air army, is in the broadest sense, the national military organization that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nation's armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army, navy, or a marine corps. Typically, air forces are responsible for gaining control of the air, carrying out strategic and tactical bombing missions, and providing support to Infantry Forces

Heavier-than-air military aircraft Balloon or flying corps are not generally regarded as examples of an air force. However, with the invention of heavier-than-air craft in the early 20th century, armies and navies began to take interest in this new form of aviation as a means to wage war.

The first aviation force in the world was the Aviation Militaire of the French Army formed in 1910, which eventu. ally became L'Armée de l'Air. In 1911, during the ItaloThe term“air force”may also refer to a tactical air force Turkish War, Italy employed aircraft for the first time or numbered air force, which is an operational formation ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing miseither within a national air force or comprising several sions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The

0.2. AIR FORCE

5

Italian–Turkish war of 1911–1912 was the first in history that featured air attacks by airplanes and dirigible airships.* [1] During World War I France, Germany, Italy, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed significant forces of bombers and fighters. World War I also saw the appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare and numerous flying aces. Independent air forces An independent air force is one which is a separate branch of a nation's armed forces and is, at least nominally, RAF Supermarine Spitfire played a vital role in British victory treated as a military service on par with that of older ser- during the Battle of Britain. vices like navies or armies. The British Royal Air Force was the first independent air force in the world.* [2] The RAF was founded on 1 April 1918 by amalgamation the British Army's Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. On establishment the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft, was commanded by a Chief of the Air Staff who held the rank of Major General and was governed by its own government ministry (the Air Ministry).

Germany was the first country to organize regular air attacks on enemy infrastructure with the Luftstreitkräfte. In World War I, it used its zeppelins (airships) to drop bombs on British cities. At that time, Britain did have aircraft, though her airships were less advanced than the zeppelins and were very rarely used for attacking; instead they were usually used to spy on German U-boats (submarines).

Over the following decades most countries with any substantial military capability established their own independent air forces. The South African Air Force was formed on 1 February 1920 and the Australian Air Force was formed shortly afterwards on 31 March 1921, although it was not until 1922 that the head of the Service was titled as Chief of the Air Staff, placing him on a par with his Australian Army and Navy counterparts. The Canadian Air Force was formed at the end of World War I, and was abolished and reorganized several times between 1918 and 1924. It became the permanent Royal Canadian Air Force when it received the“Royal”title by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938 when its head was also designated as Chief of the Air Staff. Similarly, the Royal New Zealand Air Force was established in 1923 as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force but did not become independent of the New Zealand Army until 1937. The Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928* [3] and the United States Air Force was formed as a separate branch of the American military on 18 September 1947.* [4] The Israeli Air Force came into being the with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, but evolved from the pre-existing Sherut Avir (Air Service) of the Haganah paramilitary. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force was not established until 1954; in World War II Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the Army and Navy. Unlike all these countries, the Mexican Air Force remains an integral part of the Mexican Army.

Fixed-wing aircraft at the time were quite primitive, being able to achieve velocities comparable to that of modern automobiles and mounting minimal weaponry and equipment. Aerial services were still largely a new venture, and relatively unreliable machines and limited training resulted in stupendously low life expectancies for early military aviators.

The world wars World War I See also: Aviation in World War I

World War II

See also: Air warfare of World War II

By the time World War II began, planes had become much safer, faster, and more reliable. They were adopted as standard for bombing raids and taking out other aircraft because they were much faster than airships. The world's largest military Air Force by the start of the Second World War in 1939 was the Soviet Red Air Force, and although much depleted, it would stage the largest air operations of WWII over the four years of combat with the German Luftwaffe. Arguably the war's most important air operation, known as the Battle of Britain, took place during 1940 over Britain and the English Channel between Britain's Royal Air Force and Germany's Luftwaffe over a period of several months. In the end Britain emerged victorious, and this caused Adolf Hitler to give up his plan to invade Britain. Other prominent air force operations during the Second World War include the Allied bombing of Germany during 1942–1944, and the Red Air Force operations in support of strategic ground offensives on the Eastern Front. The aerial warfare in Pacific Ocean theatre was of a comparable strategic significance to the Battle of Britain but was largely conducted by the US and Japanese naval aviation services and not by air forces.

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A-6As VA-196 dropping Mk 82 bombs Vietnam

Heinkel He 111 during the Battle of Britain

Strategic bombing

navy to form the unified Canadian Forces, with air assets divided between several commands and a green uniform for everyone. This proved very unpopular, and in 1975 Canadian aviation units were rebrigaded under a single organization (Air Command) with a single commander. In 2011 the Canadian Forces Air Command reverted to its pre-1960s name, the Royal Canadian Air Force. Perhaps the latest air force to become independent is the Irish Air Corps, which changed its uniform from army green to blue in the 1990s.

0.2.2 Organization See also: Military organization

B-29 in flight

The air force's role of strategic bombing against enemy infrastructure was developed during the 1930s by the Japanese in China and by the Germans during the Spanish Civil War. This role for the bomber was perfected during World War II, during Allied “Thousand Bomber Raid” operations. The need to intercept these bombers, both during the day and at night, accelerated fighter aircraft developments. The war ended when United States Army Air Forces Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945.

The organizational structures of air forces vary between nations: some air forces (such as the United States Air Force, the Royal Air Force) are divided into commands, groups and squadrons; others (such as the Soviet Air Force) have an Army-style organizational structure. The modern Royal Canadian Air Force uses Air Division as the formation between wings and the entire air command. Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of squadrons. In the case of China the Air Force headquarters consists of four departments: Command, Political, Logistic, and Equipment, which mirrors the four general departments of the People's Liberation Army. Below the headquarters, Military Region Air Forces (MRAF) direct divisions (Fighter, Attack, Bomber), which in turn direct regiments and squadrons.* [5]

0.2.3 Air armies Post World War II The United States Air Force finally became an independent service in 1947. As the Cold War began, both the USAF and the Soviet Air Force built up their nuclearcapable strategic bomber forces. Several technological advances were widely introduced during this time: the jet engine; the missile; the helicopter; and inflight refueling.

Several countries title their air force Air Army, notably France and Spain. In such countries the army is officially called the Land Army, although in common usage army retains its meaning of a land force.

However, in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation the term Air Army also refers to a military formation, and during WWII eighteen Air Armies operated as part of During the 1960s, Canada took the unusual step of merg- the Red Army Order of Battle as the Soviet Air Forces ing the Royal Canadian Air Force with the army and the in World War II. The Air Armies were divided into the

0.3. ARMY GROUP

7

air forces of the military district PVO, the Frontal Avia- 0.2.7 References tion Air Armies assigned one to each Front, and the Anti•“AFPC – Air Force Personnel Center”, Air Force Air Defence Armies that included anti-aircraft guns and Personnel Center, Joint Base San Antonio, Texas, interceptors. 2013, webpage: www.afpc.af.mil. •“United States Air Force”, U.S. Air Force, 2009, webpage (large): Airforce.com (Air Force recruiting site). •“United States Air Force”, U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): Official Site of the US Air Force (has subpages about the Air Force). •“United States Air Force Fact Sheet”, U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): US Air Force Fact Sheet. Members of the Fusiliers Commandos de l'Air, the infantry unit of the French Air Force

0.2.4

Infantry

Main article: Air force infantry and special forces units Infantry in air forces, such as the Royal Air Force Regiment and the Royal Australian Air Force Airfield Defence Guards, are used primarily for ground-based defence of air bases and other, air force facilities. They also have a number of other, specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and training other, air force personnel in basic ground defence tactics.

0.2.5

•“United States Air Force Facebook Official External Presence”, U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): Official US Air Force Facebook page. •“United States Air Force blog”, U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): Official US Air Force blog.

0.3 Army group

See also

• List of air forces • Aerial warfare • History of military aviation • Military aircraft • Space force Standard NATO symbol for an army group (or Soviet front)

0.2.6

Notes

[1] Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare, pg.19 [2] Royal Air Force 90th Anniversary History of the RAF [3] “FINNISH AIR FORCE AIRCRAFT HISTORY TIMELINE”. Pentti Perttula. 8 April 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2009. [4] 80 P.L. 253, 61 Stat. 495 (1947); Air Force Link, (2006) “Factsheets: The U.S. Air Force”. U.S. Air Force, December 2008. Retrieved on 9 May 2009. [5] IISS Military Balance 2012, 233, 237

An army group is a military organization consisting of several field armies, which is self-sufficient for indefinite periods. It is usually responsible for a particular geographic area. An army group is the largest field organization handled by a single commander̶usually a full general or field marshal̶and it generally includes between 400,000 and 1,000,000 soldiers. In the Polish Armed Forces and former Soviet Red Army an army group was known as a Front. The equivalent of an army group in the Imperial Japanese Army was an “area army”(Hōmen-gun (⽅⾯軍)).

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Army groups may be multi-national formations. For province. He was the highest ranking Chinese officer to example, during World War II, the Southern Group of be killed in the war. Armies (also known as the U.S. 6th Army Group) comprised the U.S. Seventh Army and the French First Army; the 21st Army Group comprised the British Second Germany Army, the Canadian First Army and the US Ninth Army. See List of German Army Groups in WWII In U.S. Army usage, the number of an army group is expressed in Arabic numerals (e.g., “12th Army Group” ), while the number of a field army is spelled out (e.g., The German Army was organized into army groups (Heeresgruppen). Some of these army groups were multi“Third Army”). national, containing armies from several Axis countries. For example Army Group Africa contained both German 0.3.1 World War I and Italian corps. France Japan The French Army formed a number of groupe d'armees during the First World War. The first of these was Army Main article: Armies of the Imperial Japanese Army Group North, formed on a provision basis in October 1914. Army Group East and Army Group Centre both During World War II there were six general armies: followed in 1915 while Army Group Reserve was established in 1917. A Franco-Belgian Army Group Flanders • Kantōgun (often known as the “Kwantung Army” also existed briefly in 1918, under the command of Albert ) originated as the division-level garrison of a I of Belgium. Japanese colony in northeast China, in 1908; it remained in northern China until the end of World Germany War II. The strength of the Kantōgun peaked at 700,000 personnel in 1941. It faced and was deThe German Army formed its first two Heeresgruppen stroyed by Soviet forces in 1945. in 1915, to control forces on the eastern front. A total of eight army groups would ultimately be raised; four • Shina Hakengun, the“China Expeditionary Army”, for service on each front, with one of the eastern front was formed in Nanjing, in September 1939, to conarmy groups being a multinational German and Austrotrol operations in central China. At the end of World Hungarian formation. Originally the Imperial German War II, it consisted of 620,000 personnel in 25 inarmy groups were not separate formations, but instead fantry and one armored divisions. additional responsibilities granted to certain army commanders. Crown Prince Wilhelm for instance, was simultaneously commander of the 5th Army and Army Group • Nanpo Gun was the“Southern Army”, also known German Crown Prince from August 1915 to November as the“Southern Expeditionary Army”. By Novem1916. ber 1941, war with the western Allies appeared likely and Nanpo Gun was formed in Saigon, French All eight German army groups were named after their Indochina, to control Imperial Japanese Army opcommanders. erations in southern China, South Asia, South East Asia, and the South Pacific.

0.3.2

World War II

China Main article: List of Army Groups of the National Revolutionary Army Main article: Group Army

A Chinese“army group”was usually equivalent in numbers only to a field army in the terminology of other countries. On 16 May 1940, Zhang Zizhong, commander of the 33rd Army Group was killed in action in Hubei

In April 1945, the Boei So-Shireibu (translated as “general defense command”or“home defense general headquarters”and similar names) was split into three general armies: • Dai-Ichi So-Gun (“1st General Army”, headquartered in Tokyo) • Dai-Ni So-Gun (“2nd General Army”, headquartered in Hiroshima) • Koku So-Gun (“Air General Army”, headquartered in Tokyo)

0.3. ARMY GROUP By August 1945, these comprised two million personnel in 55 divisions and numerous smaller independent units. After the surrender of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army was dissolved, except for the Dai-Ichi So-Gun, which existed until 30 November 1945 as the 1st Demobilization Headquarters. Soviet Union The Soviet Army was organized into fronts (фронт, pl. фронты) which were often as large as an army group. (See List of Soviet fronts in World War II.) Some of the fronts contained Allied formations raised in exile. For example, the Polish First Army was part of the 1st Belorussian Front. Western Allies Six army groups were created by the Western Allies during the Second World War, although no more than five existed at any one time. The army groups were in turn subordinate to the Allied theatre supreme commanders. While led by British and American officers they included troops from numerous allied nations; the 15th Army Group included Canadian and Polish Corps, Divisions from Brazil, India, New Zealand and South Africa and a Greek brigade. • 18th Army Group: Established on 20 February 1943, under the command of General Harold Alexander for the Tunisia Campaign. A primarily British formation, it comprised the British First Army and Eighth Army, but included French and American corps. After the capture of Tunisia it was reorganized as the 15th Army Group.

9 • 12th Army Group: Established on 14 July 1944, the 12th Army Group was officially activated at noon on August 1, 1944 under the command of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, with Lieutenant Generals Courtney Hodges and George Patton commanding First Army and Third Army, respectively. Eventually, 12th Army Group included Ninth Army under the command of Lieutenant General William Simpson and Fifteenth Army under the command of Lieutenant General“Gee”Gerow, it was the largest of the Western Allies' army groups in World War II. 12th Army Group occupied the middle of the allied line, between the 21st and 6th Army Groups, and was sometimes referred to as the Central Army Group. This is the only army group in World War II that consisted entirely of U.S. troops. At its peak at end of the war, 12th Army Group consisted of the four aforementioned field armies, twelve corps, and over forty divisions -- four-star General Bradley commanded over 1.3 million men in his army group, the largest number of soldiers ever commanded by a single officer in United States history. • 6th Army Group: Established on 29 July 1944 under the command of Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers for Operation Dragoon. Made up of the U.S. Seventh Army and the First French Army, it occupied the southern flank of the Allied Expeditionary Force and was sometimes referred to as the Southern Army Group. • 11th Army Group: Established in November 1943 under the command of General George Giffard for the Burma Campaign. The 11th Army Group was originally comprised the British Fourteenth Army and Ceylon Army, with a degree of control over the Sino-American Northern Combat Area Command. In November 1944 Giffard was succeeded by Lieutenant General Oliver Leese and firm command established over the Northern Combat Area Command. Leese was in turn replaced by General William Slim in July 1945, shortly before the war ended.

• 15th Army Group: Established on 15 May 1943, under the command of General Alexander for the invasion of Italy. For the invasion of Sicily it consisted of the British Eighth Army and U.S. Seventh Army. Subsequently the Seventh Army was replaced by the U.S. Fifth Army and in Alexander was succeeded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark in As part of Operation Quicksilver, a fictitious First United December 1944. States Army Group was created. • 21st Army Group: Established in June 1943 under the command of General Bernard Paget. In January 1944 Paget was replaced by General Bernard Mont- 0.3.3 NATO 'Army Groups' gomery who led the army group through Operation Overlord and the subsequent North West Europe During the Cold War, NATO land forces in what was descampaign. 21st Army Group was made up of the ignated the Central Region (most of the Federal Republic Canadian First Army and the British Second Army, of Germany) would have been commanded in wartime by but also had command of the First Allied Airborne two 'army groups'. Under Allied Forces Central Europe Army, U.S. First Army and U.S. Ninth Army for and alongside air force elements, the two army groups some operations. After the breakout from Nor- would have been responsible for the defence of Germany mandy, it formed the northern wing of the Allied against any Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion. These two prinExpeditionary Force and was sometimes referred to cipal subordinate commanders had only limited peaceas the Northern Army Group. time authorities, and issues such as training, doctrine, lo-

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0.3.4 References [1] Globalsecurity.org, Cold War NATO Army Groups, accessed 20 June 2010 [2] David C Isby & Charles Kamps Jr, Armies of NATO's Central Front, Jane's Publishing Company Limited, 1985

0.4 Artillery battery

Northern Army Group Remains of a battery of English cannon at Youghal, County Cork

In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit of guns, mortars, rockets or missiles so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield communication and command and control, as well as to provide dispersion for its constituent gunnery crews and their systems. The term is gistics, and rules of engagement were largely a national, also used in a naval context to describe groups of guns rather than NATO, responsibility.* [1] on warships. The two formations were the 'Northern Army Group' (NORTHAG) and the 'Central Army Group' (CENTAG). By World War II and previous standards these two 0.4.1 Land usage formations were only armies, as they contained four corps each.* [2] NORTHAG consisted, from north to south, of I Netherlands Corps (I (NE) Corps), I German Corps (I (GE) Corps), I (BR) Corps, and I Belgian Corps (I (BE) Corps). Its commander was the British commander of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). CENTAG consisted, from north to south, of III (GE) Corps, V US Corps, VII (US) Corps, and II (GE) Corps in the extreme south of the Federal Republic of Germany. The commander of the United States Army Europe commanded CENTAG. In November 1991, the NATO heads of state and government adopted the “New Strategic Concept”at the NATO Summit in Rome. This new conceptual orientation led, among other things, to fundamental changes both in the force and integrated command structure. Structural changes began in June 1993, when HQ Central Army Group (CENTAG) at Heidelberg and Northern Army Group (NORTHAG) at Mönchengladbach, GE were deactivated and replaced by Headquarters Allied Land Forces Central Europe (LANDCENT), which was activated at Heidelberg on 1 July 1993.

A coast battery in Crawfordsburn, County Down.

Historically the term 'battery' referred to a cluster of cannon in action as a group, either in a temporary field position during a battle or at the siege of a fortress or a city. Such batteries could be a mixture of cannon, howitzer,

0.4. ARTILLERY BATTERY

11

or mortar types. A siege could involve many batteries at different sites around the besieged place. The term also came to be used for a group of cannon in a fixed fortification, for coastal or frontier defence. During the 18th century 'battery' began to be used as an organizational term for a permanent unit of artillery in peace and war, although horse artillery sometimes used 'troop' and fixed position artillery 'company'. They were usually organised with between six and 12 ordnance pieces, often including cannon and howitzers. By the late 19th century 'battery' had become standard mostly replacing company or troop. In the 20th century the term was generally used for the company level sub-unit of an artillery branch including field, air-defence, anti-tank and position (coastal and frontier defences). Artillery operated target acquisition emerged during the First World War and were also grouped into batteries and have subsequently expanded to include the complete intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition and reconnaissance (ISTAR) spectrum. 20thcentury firing batteries have been equipped with mortars, guns, howitzers, rockets and missiles. Mobile batteries

60-pounder battery at Arras, 1917.

and periods, but often translate into the English 'platoon' or 'troop' with individual ordnance systems called a 'section', or 'sub-section' where a section comprises two artillery pieces. The rank of a battery commander has also varied, but is usually a lieutenant, captain or major. The number of guns, howitzers, mortars or launchers in an organizational battery has also varied, with the calibre of guns usually being an important consideration. In the 19th century four to 12 guns was usual as the optimum number to maneuver into the gun line. By late 19th century the mountain artillery battery was divided into a gun line and an ammunition line. The gun line consisted of six guns (five mules to a gun) and 12 ammunition mules.* [1]

During the American Civil War, artillery batteries often consisted of six field pieces for the Union Army and four for the Confederate States Army, although this varied. Batteries were divided into sections of two guns apiece, each section normally under the command of a lieutenant. The full battery was typically commanded by French Napoleonic artillery battery. Photo taken during the a captain. Often, particularly as the war progressed, in200th anniversary reenactment of the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. dividual batteries were grouped into battalions under a major or colonel of artillery. See Field Artillery in the During the Napoleonic Wars some armies started group- American Civil War. ing their batteries into larger administrative and field In the 20th century it varied between four and 12 for field units. Groups of batteries combined for field combat em- artillery (even 16 if mortars), or even two pieces for very ployment called Grand Batteries by Napoleon. heavy pieces. Other types of artillery such as anti-tank or Administratively batteries were usually grouped in battalions, regiments or squadrons and these developed into tactical organisations. These were further grouped into regiments, simply 'group' or brigades, that may be wholly composed of artillery units or combined arms in composition. To further concentrate fire of individual batteries, from World War I they were grouped into 'artillery divisions' in a few armies. Coastal artillery sometimes had completely different organizational terms based on shore defence sector areas.

anti-aircraft have sometimes been larger. Some batteries have been 'dual-equipped' with two different types of gun or mortar, and taking whichever was more appropriate when they deployed for operations.

From the late 19th Century field artillery batteries started to became more complex organisations. First they needed the capability to carry adequate ammunition, typically each gun could only carry about 40 rounds in its limber so additional wagons were added to the battery, typically about two per gun. The introduction on indirect fire Batteries also have sub-divisions which vary across armies in the early 20th Century necessitated two other groups,

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CONTENTS

firstly observers who deployed some distance forward of the gun line, secondly a small staff on the gun position to undertake the calculations to convert the orders from the observers into data that could be set on the gun sights. This in turn led to the need for signalers, which further increased as the need to concentrate the fire of dispersed batteries emerged and the introduction fire control staff at artillery headquarters above the batteries. Fixed battery

Barbette of the French battleship Redoutable (1876)

This remained the standard layout for centuries, until new designs, such as the revolving turret, made it obsolete.

64 Pounder Rifled Muzzle-Loader (RML) gun on Moncrieff disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort, a fixed battery of coastal artillery in Bermuda.

Fixed artillery refers to guns or howitzers on mounts that were either anchored in one spot (though capable of being moved for purposes of traverse and elevation), or on carriages intended to be moved only for the purposes of aiming, and not for tactical repositioning. These were in distinction from field artillery guns positioned within forts. Such mounts were typically used in forts, or permanent defensive batteries, such as coastal artillery. By the end of the 19th Century, batteries of this sort were equipped with much larger guns than field artillery units could utilise, and the gun emplacement was only one part of an extensive installation that included magazines and systems to deliver ammunition from the magazines to the guns. Although such batteries were useful where permanent defences were required, especially with artillery capable of firing at long ranges, they became increasingly vulnerable to naval fire as the size and range of naval artillery outstripped that of coastal artillery, and to air attack with the advent of powered flight.

The first operational use of a rotating turrets was on the American ironclad USS Monitor, designed by John Ericsson. Other designs used open barbettes to house their main batteries on rotating mounts. Both designs allowed naval engineers to dramatically reduce the number of guns present in the battery, by giving a handful of guns the ability to concentrate on either side of the ship. A revolution in ship armament occurred in 1906, with the completion of HMS Dreadnought. In previous battleship designs, the primary battery often consisted of four large caliber guns in two turrets: one forward and the other aft. The ships also had a mixed secondary battery of smaller guns that were also intended to be used offensively. The differences in gun calibers and ranges made it difficult to accurately judge shell splashes, and thus to fire the guns accurately, which led to decreased effectiveness of the ships. Dreadnought's design did away with the offensive secondary battery, and replaced it with ten heavy caliber guns, and a smaller secondary battery to be used for selfdefense. This leap in armament made all other battleships obsolete. Armored gun house

Powder hoist

Rammers

Gun barrels Deck lug Gun deck Gun girder Projectile hoist Pan floor Roller path

Rotating turret structure Projectile ring Fixed stowage

Barbette

See also: land battery

Turret foundation (stationary) Machinery floor Projectile handling floor Magazines

Powder handling room

0.4.2

Naval usage

Cut-away illustration of the 16 inch gun turret on Iowa-class battleships that formed the primary battery.

The term 'battery' has also been used in association with warships. Early warships that mounted guns, such as the ship of the line, mounted dozens of cannons, carronades, Often, ships have a primary battery for offensive purand other guns in broadsides, sometimes on several decks. poses, and a secondary and sometimes even a tertiary bat-

0.4. ARTILLERY BATTERY

13

tery for self-defense. An example of this was the German • Headquarters batteries, which themselves have no battleship Bismarck, which carried a primary battery of artillery pieces, but are rather the command and eight 380 mm (15 in) guns, a secondary battery of twelve control organization for a group of firing batteries 150 mm (5.9 in) guns for defense against destroyers and (for example, a regimental or battalion headquarters torpedo boats, as well as a tertiary battery of various battery). anti-aircraft guns ranging in caliber from 105-to-20 mm (4.13-to-0.79 in). Many later ships used dual-purpose The battery is typically commanded by a captain in US guns to combine the secondary battery and the heavier forces and is equivalent to an infantry company. guns of the tertiary batteries, in order to simplify the deIn United Kingdom and Commonwealth forces a battery sign. commander, or “BC”is a Major (like his infantry comMost modern vessels have largely done away with conven- pany commander counterpart). However, in these armies tional artillery, instead using cruise and guided missiles the battery commander leads the 'tactical group' and is for most offensive and defensive purposes, respectively. usually located with the headquarters of the infantry or Guns are retained for niche roles, such as the Phalanx amoured unit the battery is supporting. The battery poCIWS, a multi-barrel rotary cannon used for point de- sition is commanded by the BC's second-in-command, fense, the Mark 45 5-inch (130 mm), or the Otobreda 76 the Battery Captain (BK). Increasingly these direct supmm which is used for close defense against surface com- port battery commanders are responsible for the orchesbatants and shore bombardment. tration of all forms of fire support (mortars, attack helicopters, other aircraft and naval gunfire) as well as artillery. General support battery commanders are likely to 0.4.3 Modern battery organization be at brigade or higher headquarters. A US Army battery is divided into the following units: • The firing section, which includes the individual gun sections. Each gun section is typically led by a staff sergeant (US Army Enlisted pay grade E-6); the firing section as a whole is usually led by a lieutenant and a senior NCO.

I Battery, 2nd Battalion 11th Marines in Iraq, 2003

• The fire direction center (FDC), which computes firing solutions based on map coordinates, receives fire requests and feedback from observers and infantry units, and communicates directions to the firing section. It also receives commands from higher headquarters (i.e. the battalion FDC sends commands to the FDCs of all three of its batteries for the purpose of synchronizing a barrage).

In modern battery organization, the military unit typically has six to eight howitzers or six to nine rocket launchers and 100 to 200 personnel and is the equivalent of a United States Marine Corps company in terms of organisation level. 155mm Howitzer Battery, Artillery Battalion, Artillery In the United States Army, generally a towed howitzer Regiment, Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force battery has six guns, where a self-propelled battery (such as an M 109 battery) contains eight. They are subdivided (Battery Organization consisting of 145 Marines and Navy personnel, per Table of Organization T/O 1113G) into: • Field batteries, equipped with 105 mm howitzers or equivalent; • Medium batteries, equipped with 155 mm howitzers or equivalent;

• Battery Headquarters • Headquarters Section – Battery CO (Capt), Battery 1stSgt, plus 3 Marines • Communications Section –16 Marines, led by the Radio Chief (SSGT)

• Heavy batteries, which are equipped with guns of 203 mm or more calibre, but are now very rare; and

• Maintenance Section – 11 Marines, led by the Battery Motor Transport Chief (GySgt)

• Various more specialised types, such as anti-aircraft, missile, or Multiple Launch Rocket System batteries.

• Medical Section – 3 Navy Hospital Corpsmen • Liaison Section – led by the Liaison Officer (1stLt)

14

CONTENTS • Liaison Team – 5 Marines, led by the Ob- 0.4.6 References server Liaison Chief (SGT) • Bethell, Henry Arthur, 1911, Modern Artillery in • Forward Observer Team (3) – 4 Marines, the Field: A Description of the Artillery of the Field, led by a Forward Observer (2ndLT) London, Macmillan and Co Ltd • Ammunition Section – 17 Marines, led by the Ammunition Chief (SSGT)

• Firing Platoon • Headquarters Section – Platoon Commander/Battery XO (1stLt), Battery Gunnery Sergeant (GySgt), and Local Security Chief/Platoon Sergeant (SSGT)

0.4.7 External links • French Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars • Corregidor's artillery batteries

• Battery Operations Center – 5 Marines, 0.5 Battalion led by the Assistant XO/FDO (2ndLt) and an Operations Assistant (SGT) For other uses, see Battalion (disambiguation). • Fire Direction Center – 9 Marines, led by A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term the Fire Direction Officer (FDO) (1stLT) and the Operations Chief (SSGT) • Artillery Section (6) – 10 Marines, led by the Section Chief (SSGT), with a Gunner (SGT), two Assistant Gunners (CPL), five Cannoneers (PVT-LCPL), and a Motor Vehicle Operator (LCPL) to operate and maintain the prime mover (i.e., truck used to tow the artillery piece and transport the gun crew and baggage). Other armies can be significantly different, however. For example: the basic field organization being the 'gun group' and the 'tactical group'. The former being reconnaissance and survey, guns, command posts, logistic and equipment support elements, the latter being the battery commander and observation teams that deploy with the Standard NATO code for a friendly infantry battalion. supported arm. In these armies the guns may be split into several fire units, which may deploy dispersed over an extended area or be concentrated into a single position. It some cases batteries have operationally deployed as six totally separate guns, although sections (pairs) are more usual. During the Cold War NATO batteries that were dedicated to a nuclear role generally operated as 'sections' comprising a single gun or launcher. Groupings of mortars, when they are not operated by arSymbol of the Austrian 14th Armoured Battalion in NATO militillery, are usually referred to as platoons. tary graphic symbols

0.4.4

See also

• Artillery • Field artillery team

0.4.5

Notes

[1] p.263, Bethell

“battalion”varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies. A battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word“battalion”is associated with the infantry. The term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 1500s. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia. The first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean “part of a regiment”is from 1708.

0.5. BATTALION

15

0.5.3 British Army The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, and intelligence corps only. It was formerly used for a few units in the Royal Engineers (before they switched to regiments), and was also used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps and Royal Pioneer Corps. Other corps usually use the term “regiment”instead.

Australian 11th (Western Australia) Battalion, 3rd Infantry Brigade, Australian Imperial Force posing on the Great Pyramid of Giza on 10 January 1915

0.5.1

Independent operations

An infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment (e.g., 1st Battalion, The Rifles, usually referred to as 1 Rifles). It normally has a headquarters company, support company, and three rifle companies (usually, but not always, A, B and C companies). Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding (OC), with a captain or senior lieutenant as second-in-command (2IC). The HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer and reconnaissance platoons. Mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment (LAD) of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, a British battalion had around 650 soldiers. With successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion (others were amalgamated to form large regiments which maintained multiple battalions, e.g., the Royal Anglian Regiment).

A battalion may be the smallest military organization capable of independent operations, though this depends on the definition of“independent operations”. It must have a source of re-supply to sustain operations for more than several days. In addition to comprising sufficient personnel and equipment (usually at least two primary mission companies and one mission support company) to perform significant operations, as well as a limited self-contained Important figures in a battalion headquarters include: administrative and logistics capability, the commander is • Commanding officer (CO) (invariably a lieutenant provided with a full-time staff whose function is to coorcolonel) dinate current operations and plan future operations. A battalion's subordinate units (companies and their organic • Second-in-command (2i/c) (Major) platoons) are dependent upon the battalion headquarters for command, control, communications, and intelligence • Adjutant (captain) and the battalion's organic service and support structure • Quartermaster (QM) (major) to perform their mission. The battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organi• Quartermaster (technical) (QM(T)) zational model used by that service. Battalions generally • Medical officer (MO) (Royal Army Medical Corps can operate for no greater than 10 days without higher captain or major) echelon support, and are unable to operate away from a supported location without their higher headquarters reg• Administrative officer (Adjutant General's Corps iment, brigade, or group's logistical support structure. captain or major)

0.5.2

Homogeneity

The bulk of a battalion's companies are often homogeneous with respect to type (e.g., an infantry or tank battalion), although there are exceptions such as combined arms battalions in the U.S. Army. A battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company.

• Padre (Royal Army Chaplains Department chaplain 4th or 3rd class) • Intelligence officer (IO) (lieutenant) • Signals officer (lieutenant) • Regimental sergeant major (RSM) (warrant officer class 1) • Regimental quartermaster sergeant (RQMS) (warrant officer class 2)

16

CONTENTS

• Regimental quartermaster sergeant (technical) (RQMS(T)) (warrant officer class 2) Battalions of other corps are given separate cardinal numbers within their corps (e.g., 101 Battalion REME). Battalion group A battalion group is a military unit based around a battalion. A typical battalion group consists of an infantry or armoured battalion with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the direct command of the battalion commander. Battalion groups may be permanent or temporary formations.

• Mortar platoon: • Platoon headquarters of two FV105 Sultans • Four sections of three FV432s with L16 81 mm mortar • Operations section of four MFC teams and four FV103 Spartans • CSS detachment of one FV432 • Pioneer platoon of four Warriors, platoon headquarters (L9A1 51 mm light mortar), three sections (two L86 LSWs each) • LAD section of one FV432, one FV434 “carrier, maintenance, full tracked”and one FV106 Samson

Under modern military doctrine, battalion groups are be- This is all scheduled to change under the Army 2020 coning replaced by battlegroups. The key difference between cept. battalion groups and battlegroups is that battlegroups consist of a mixture of sub-units and typically do not include all sub-units of any single battalion. 0.5.4 Canadian Army The battalion staff includes the operations officer (usually a major) who is also generally the next in command In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally hierarchy after the battalion second in command. ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece. The nine regular force infantry batArmoured infantry battalion talions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are gen• Headquarters of five FV432, two Warrior MCRVs erally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller (mechanised combat repair vehicle) and one War- reserve battalions may be commanded by majors. rior MAOV (mechanised artillery observation vehiThose regiments consisting of more than one battalion cle) are: • Four armoured infantry companies (one company • The Royal Canadian Regiment (three regular and has two platoons): one reserve battalions) • Headquarters of two Warriors, one FV432 • Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (three ambulance, two Land Rovers, one eight-ton regular battalions) truck, headquarters and sniper section • Royal 22* e Régiment (three regular and two reserve • Three platoons of four Warriors, platoon headbattalions) quarters (L9A1 51 mm light mortar), three sections (two L86 LSW each) • LAD section of one Warrior MCRV, one Warrior 512 and one FV432

• The Royal Newfoundland Regiment (two reserve battalions)

Tactically, the Canadian battalion forms the core of the infantry battle group, which also includes various supporting elements such as armour, artillery, combat en• Headquarters of five FV432s, two Warrior gineers and combat service support. An infantry battle MCRVs and one Warrior MAOV group will typically be commanded by the commander of the core infantry battalion around which it is formed • Anti-tank platoon: • Headquarters of two Warriors and two and can range in size from 300 to 1,500 or more soldiers, depending on the nature of the mission assigned. MILAN teams

• Manoeuvre support company:

• Three sections of one FV103 Spartan (headquarters) three Warriors and six MILAN teams • Reconnaissance platoon: • Three sections of four Sabres • Headquarters ISTAR group of one FV432

0.5.5 Dutch Army • A mechanised infantry battalion usually consists of one command- and medical company, three mechanised infantry companies, and one support company which has three platoons with heavy mortars

0.5. BATTALION

17

and three platoons with anti-tank missiles (TOW). 0.5.7 United States With the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an "afdeling" (which translates to United States Army “section”). • Combat companies consist of (usually mechanised) infantry, combat engineers, or tanks. In the latter case, the unit is called an "eskadron", which translates roughly to “squadron”. There are also support battalions in the Dutch Army, which specialise on specific task: for example, supplies and transport or communications.

In the United States Army, a battalion is a unit composed of a headquarters and two or more batteries, companies or troops. They are normally identified by ordinal numbers (1st Battalion, 2nd Squadron, etc.) and normally have subordinate units that are identified by single letters (Battery A, Company A, Troop A, etc.). Battalions are tactical and administrative organizations with a limited capability to plan and conduct independent operations and • The Netherlands have four battalions that are per- are normally organic components of brigades, groups, or manently reserved for the United Nations, for the regiments. purpose of peacekeeping duties. A US Army battalion includes the battalion commander (lieutenant colonel), executive officer (major), command • An infantry battalion, logistical battalion, combat sergeant major (CSM), headquarters staff, and usually battalion, and the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps three to five companies, with a total of 300 to 1,200 solall have a battalion structure. Each battalion usually diers. A regiment consists of between two and six organic consists of the following: battalions, while a brigade consists of between three and seven separate battalions. • Battalion command During the American Civil War, an infantry or cavalry • Commander battalion was an ad hoc grouping of companies from the • Second in command parent regiment (which had ten companies, A through K, minus J as described below), except for certain reg• General service ular infantry regiments, which were formally organized • Personnel section into three battalions of six companies each (numbered • Intelligence section 1–6 per battalion vice sequential letter designations). After 1882, cavalry battalions were renamed squadrons and • Operations section cavalry companies were renamed troops. Artillery battal• Materiel section ions typically comprised four or more batteries, although • Communication section this number fluctuated considerably. • Command company During World War II, most infantry regiments consisted • • • • •

Command group Administration group Medical group Communication group Supply platoon

• Three infantry companies • Support company • • • •

0.5.6

Command group Recon platoon Mortar platoon Anti-tank platoon

Swiss Army

With the major reform of its armed forces in 2004, the Swiss Army abandoned the old regimental system and adopted a combat team approach centred on battalions as the building blocks of mission-oriented task forces. Battalion sizes vary between branches.

of three battalions (1st, 2nd, and 3rd) with each battalion consisting of three rifle companies and a heavy weapons company. That is, rifle companies A, B, C along with heavy weapons company D were part of the 1st battalion, rifle companies E, F, G, and heavy weapons company H constituted the 2nd battalion, and rifle companies I, K, L, and heavy weapons company M were in the 3rd. There was no J company: the letter J was traditionally not used because in 18th and 19th centuries old-style type, the capital letters I and J looked alike, and were therefore easily confused with one another. It was common for a battalion to become temporarily attached to a different regiment. For example, during the confusion and high casualty rates of both the Normandy landings and the Battle of the Bulge, in order to bolster the strength of a depleted infantry regiment, companies and even battalions were moved around as necessary. From the 1960s through the early 1980s, a typical maneuver (infantry or tank) battalion had five companies: headquarters and headquarters company (HHC) and A, B, and C companies, plus a combat support company (CSC), with a scout platoon, 4.2 inch heavy mortar platoon, along with other elements that varied between or-

18 ganizations. These included heavy anti-tank TOW missile platoons, ground surveillance radar sections and manportable anti-aircraft missile sections. Beginning in the early 1980s, some elements of the combat support companies (the mortar and scout platoons) were merged into the headquarters company with the staff and support elements, others were moved to their parent type organization (ground surveillance radar and air defense), and in infantry battalions the heavy anti-tank missile platoon was organized as a separate company (E company). In the late 1980s, there was a fourth“line”company added (D company) in most infantry and tank battalions. In this older structure, U.S. Army mechanized infantry battalions and tank battalions, for tactical purposes, crossposted companies to each other, forming a battalion-sized task force (TF). Starting in 2005–2006, the U.S. Army mechanized and tank battalions were reorganized into combined arms battalions (CABs). Tank battalions and mechanized infantry battalions no longer exist. These new combined arms battalions are modular units, each consisting of a headquarters company, two mechanized infantry companies, two armor companies, and a forward support company attached from the battalions parent brigade support battalion. This new structure eliminated the need to cross-post (or as it is more commonly referred to, cross-attach) companies between battalions; each combined arms battalion was organically composed of the requisite companies. At a higher level, each armored brigade (formerly designated as a heavy brigade) is now composed of three CABs (vs. the two CABs of a former heavy brigade), an armored reconnaissance squadron, a fires battalion (field artillery), a brigade engineer battalion (BEB), and a brigade support battalion (BSB).

United States Marine Corps See also: List of United States Marine Corps battalions

CONTENTS brigade" (MEB). An MEB is one of the standard marine air-ground task forces (MAGTF), is commanded by a brigadier general or major general, and consists of command element, a ground combat element (usually one reinforced marine infantry regiment), an aviation combat element (a reinforced marine aircraft group including rotary wing, fixed wing, and tiltrotor aircraft), and a combat logistics element (a marine combat logistics regiment, which includes naval construction forces [Seabees] and naval medical elements). In the U.S. Marine Corps, an infantry or “rifle”battalion typically consists of a headquarters and service company, three rifle, or “line”, companies (designated alphabetically A through M depending upon which battalion of the parent regiment to which they are attached) and a weapons company. Weapons companies do not receive a letter designation. Marine infantry regiments use battalion and company designations as described above under World War II, with company letters D, H, and M not normally used but rather held in reserve for use in augmenting a fourth rifle company into each battalion as needed. United States Marine Corps infantry battalions are task organized into battalion landing teams (BLTs) as the ground combat element (GCE) of a marine expeditionary unit (MEU). A standard U.S. Marine infantry battalion is typically supported by an artillery battery and a platoon each of tanks, amphibious assault vehicles, light armored reconnaissance vehicles, reconnaissance marines, and combat engineers. The battalion structure is designed to readily expand to include a fourth rifle company, if required, as described above under battalion organization. Often Air Naval Gunfire Liaison Company (ANGLICO) officers are assigned to the battalion, to coordinate naval gunfire support. United States Navy

The United States Navy has construction battalions and navy cargo handling battalions. They are structured A United States Marine Corps battalion includes the bat- roughly analogous to an army or marine corps battalion talion headquarters, consisting of the commanding offi- with staff and commanding officers of similar grade and cer (usually a lieutenant colonel, sometimes a colonel), experience. an executive officer (the second-in-command, usually a major), the sergeant major, and the executive staff (S1 through S-4 and S-6). The battalion headquarters is 0.5.8 USSR supported by a headquarters and service company (battery). A battalion usually contains two to five organic Soviet Armed Forces companies (batteries in the artillery), with a total of 500 to 1,200 marines in the battalion. A regiment consists Motorised rifle battalion In the Soviet Armed Forces of a regimental headquarters, a headquarters company a motorised rifle battalion could be mounted on either (or battery), and two to five organic battalions (marine BTR armoured personnel carriers or BMP infantry fightinfantry regiments – three battalions of infantry; marine ing vehicles, with the former being more numerous into artillery regiments – three to five battalions of artillery; the late 1980s. Both consisted of a battalion headquarmarine combat logistics regiments – one to three com- ters of 12 personnel and three motorised rifle companies bat logistics battalions). In the U.S. Marine Corps, the of 110 personnel each, along with a number of combat brigade designation is used only in "marine expeditionary support units: a mortar battery consisting of eight 120mm

0.5. BATTALION

19 mation with 135 personnel and 31 tanks total, with each tank company consisting of 10 tanks total.* [2]* [3]

1980s Soviet motorised rifle battalion (BTR)

120-PM-43 mortars or automatic 82mm 2B9 Vasileks, an air defense platoon with nine MANPADs, either the SA7 Grail, SA-14 Gremlin or SA-16 Gimlet, and an automatic grenade launcher platoon with six 30mm AGS-17 launchers. The BTR battalion also featured an anti-tank platoon with four AT-3 Sagger or AT-4 Spigot launchers and two 73mm SPG-9 recoilless guns; BTR units on high-readiness status sometimes had six missile launchers and three recoilless guns. Both featured the same support units as well, with a signal platoon, supply platoon, repair workshop and medical aid station. The addition of the antitank platoon meant a BTR battalion at full strength was 525 personnel and 60 BTRs, including three command variants, while a BMP battalion consisted of 497 personnel and 45 BMPs, including three command variants.* [1]

1980s Soviet 122mm artillery battalion

Artillery battalion A Soviet artillery battalion in the late 1980s consisted of a battalion headquarters, a headquarters platoon, a maintenance and supply platoon and three firing batteries of eighteen artillery pieces total, whether the self-propelled 2S1 Gvozdikas or the towed D-30 howitzers, and numbering 260 personnel or 240 personnel respectively. Rocket launcher artillery battalions consisted of a headquarters and headquarters platoon, a service battery and three firing batteries equipped with BM-21 Grads for a total of 255 personnel.* [4]* [5]

0.5.9 See also • March battalion • Military organization • Swedish Battalion of the 17th and 18th century

0.5.10 References [1] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4-3

1980s Soviet tank battalion and company

Tank battalion Prior to the late 1980s Soviet tank battalions consisted of three tank companies of 13 T-64, T72 or T-80 tanks each, along with a battalion headquarters mounted in a command tank and a headquarters and service platoon, for a total of 165 personnel and 40 tanks; battalions using the older T-54, T-55 or T-62s tanks had 31 or 40 additional enlisted personnel. However forces in Eastern Europe began to standardize to a smaller for-

[2] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-15 [3] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-108 [4] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-3 [5] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4-50

20

0.5.11

CONTENTS

External links

Battle Force. In 1939, the Battle Force had 5 carriers, 12 battleships, 14 light cruisers, and 68 destroyers.* [2]

• French Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars

On 1 February 1941, General Order 143 reorganized the • The Battalion Commander's Handbook, 1996, by United States Fleet with three separate fleets, the United Major General Richard A. Chilcoat, US Army War States Atlantic Fleet, the United States Pacific Fleet and the Asiatic Fleet. College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania USS Mississippi SSN-782 is in the current Battle Force * [3]

0.6 Battle Fleet This article is about the U.S. Navy Battle Fleet. For the game series, see BattleFleet (game series). For the 1978 war movie, see The Greatest Battle. The United States Battle Fleet or Battle Force was part of the organization of the United States Navy from 1922 to 1941. The General Order of 6 December 1922 organized the United States Fleet, with the Battle Fleet as the Pacific presence. This fleet comprised the main body of ships in the Navy, with the smaller Scouting Fleet as the Atlantic presence. The battleships, including most of the modern ones, and new aircraft carriers were assigned to this fleet.

0.6.1

Organization

On July 1, 1923, the Battle Fleet was under the command of Admiral Samuel S. Robison. Battleships, Battle Fleet was under the command of Vice Admiral Henry A. Wiley, with his flag aboard New Mexico (BB-40).* [1] Battleship Division Three, under Rear Admiral Louis M. Nulton, consisted of New York (BB-34) (F), Texas (BB-35) under Capt. A. M. Proctor, Oklahoma (BB37) under Captain W. F. Scott, and California (BB-44) under Captain H. H. Christy, which was also the Battle Fleet flagship. Battleship Division Four, under Rear Admiral William Veazie Pratt, comprised Arizona (BB39) (F), under Captain J. R. Y. Blakely, Nevada (BB36), Mississippi (BB-41), and Pennsylvania (BB-38). Battleship Division Five under Vice Admiral Wiley himself comprised New Mexico (BB-40), Idaho (BB-42), Tennessee (BB-43), and Maryland (BB-46). Aircraft Squadrons, Battle Fleet, under Captain A. W. Marshall, comprised Aroostook (CM-3) (F), Langley (CV-1), and the tender Gannet (AM-41). Destroyer Squadrons, Battle Fleet, under Rear Admiral Sumner E. W. Kittelle, comprised Destroyer Squadron 11 and Destroyer Squadron 12. Submarine Divisions, Pacific, was under Captain A. Bronson, Jr. In 1930, the name of the fleet was changed to “Battle Force”, but the structure remained the same. In 1931, the force was based in Pearl Harbor and consisted of a majority of the United States' surface fleet: all of the newer battleships, all of the carriers, a light cruiser squadron and “three or four”destroyer squadrons were all a part of the

0.6.2 Commander in Chief, Battle Fleet (COMBATFLT) 0.6.3 Commander Battle Force (COMBATFOR) 0.6.4 References [1] Stephen Svonavec, The United States Fleet, July 1, 1923: Battle Fleet, accessed June 2012 [2] Morison, 28. [3] USS Mississippi.

0.6.5 Bibliography • Morison, Samuel Eliot (1948). Volume III, The Rising Sun in the Pacific. Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.

0.7 Battlegroup (army) For Pentomic Division subunit, see Battle Group (Pentomic). A battlegroup (British/Commonwealth term), or task force (U.S. term) in modern military theory is the basic building block of an army's fighting force. A battlegroup is formed around an infantry battalion or armoured regiment, which is usually commanded by a lieutenant colonel. The battalion or regiment also provides the command and staff element of a battlegroup, which is complemented with an appropriate mix of armour, infantry and support personnel and weaponry, relevant to the task it is expected to perform. The organisation of a battlegroup is flexible, and can be restructured quickly to cope with any changes in the situation. Typically, an offensive battlegroup may be structured around an armoured regiment, with two squadrons of main battle tanks supported by an infantry company; conversely, a more defensive battlegroup may be structured around an infantry battalion, with two companies and an armoured squadron. In support would be a reconnaissance troop, a low-level air defence detachment,

0.8. BATTLESPACE

21

an anti-tank section and engineering detachment, plus artillery support.

0.8 Battlespace

Battlegroups are often subdivided into company groups (called“teams”in the U.S. Army) consisting of a single infantry company supported by a tank troop and various other support units.

Battlespace is a term used to signify a unified military strategy to integrate and combine armed forces for the military theatre of operations, including air, information, land, sea, and space to achieve military goals. It includes the environment, factors, and conditions that must be understood to successfully apply combat power, protect the force, or complete the mission. This includes enemy and friendly armed forces, infrastructure, weather, terrain, and the electromagnetic spectrum within the operational areas and areas of interest.* [1]* [2]

In the British Army, an armoured or mechanised division could expect to have as many as twelve separate battlegroups at its disposal, with three or four in each brigade.

A Commonwealth battle group is usually named after its major constituent; for example, the Canadian Army's “1st Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment Battle Group”(shortened to “1 RCR Battle Group”) on an operational tour of duty in Afghanistan in 2007–08,* [1] 0.8.1 Concept and the British Army's “3 Para Battle Group”that was From 'Battlefield' to 'Battlespace' operational in Afghanistan in 2011.* [2] India, with the adoption of the Cold Start Doctrine, has come up with independent brigade groups a little larger in composition than a task force. It is composition mix of all elements for specific war purpose against Pakistan. Offensive elements comprise independent armed brigade groups (usually composed of armour units) and independent offensive brigade groups (usually composed of infantry); the Indian Army has substantially reduced the time it took to deploy its forces on its borders.

Over the last 25 years, the understanding of the military operational environment has transformed from primarily a time & space driven linear understanding (a battlefield), to a multi-dimensional system of systems understanding (a battlespace). This system of systems understanding implies that managing the battlespace has become more complex, primarily because of the increased importance of the cognitive domain, a direct result of the information age. Today, militaries are expected to understand the efMost nations form battlegroups as required for opera- fects of their actions on the operational environment as a tional or training purposes. When not deployed, the el- whole, and not just in the military domain of their operements that would make up a battlegroup remain with ational environment. their parent units. However, some nations maintain permanently formed battlegroups – a notable example is Battlespace agility Norway, three of whose four major combat units are allarms battlegroups. Battlespace agility refers to the speed at which the warfighting organization develops and transforms knowledge into actions for desired effects in the battlespace. 0.7.1 See also Essentially it argues that you must be better than the op• Kampfgruppe - original source of the term, in the position at doing the right actions at the right time and place. Inbuilt into this understanding is that battlespace German Army. agility is not just about speed, but it is also about exe• Battlegroup of the European Union cuting the most effective action (ways) in the most efficient manner (means) relative to achieving the desired im• Demi-brigade pact on the system (ends). At all times battlespace agility is dependent on the quality of situational awareness and 0.7.2 Notes holistic understanding of the battlespace to determine the best actions, a logic that has become a driving force be[1] Smyth 2008. hind a renaissance of interest in the quality of military [2] MOD staff 2011. intelligence. It has been heavily linked to the ability of intelligence analysts and operational planners to understand their battlespace, and their targets, as networks in 0.7.3 References order to facilitate a faster, and more accurate shared situational understanding. This in turn increases targeting ef• Smyth, Lieutenant Travis (28 January 2008). ficacy and helps retain the overall initiative. Battlespace “Canadian Battle Group in Afghanistan Transagility has its roots solidly in the more generic Command fers Command Authority of Joint Task Force & Control (C2) research field on C2 agility conducted Afghanistan”. Canadian Government website. by NATO,* [3] but works specifically with an agility con• MOD staff (17 June 2011).“Prince Charles praises cept within the context of warfighting only.* [4] Hence it Paras”. British Ministry of Defence. is framed by effects based thinking, system of systems

22

CONTENTS

analysis, and competing Observation Orient Decide Act process that includes defining the total battlespace envi(OODA) loops.* [5] ronment; describing the battlespace's effects; evaluating the adversary; and determining and describing adversary potential courses of action. Battlespace awareness The process is used to analyze the aerial, terrestrial, Battlespace awareness (BA) is a practice of military phi- maritime/littoral, spatial, electromagnetic, cyberspace, losophy that is used as a valuable asset by joint compo- and human dimensions of the environment and to deternent and force commanders, to predict courses of action mine an opponent's capabilities to operate in each. JPIB before employing troops into a prescribed area of opera- products are used by the joint force and component comtion (AO). It utilizes the intelligence preparation asset to mand staffs in preparing their estimates and are also apassist the commander in being 'aware' of recent, current, plied during the analysis and selection of friendly courses of action. and near term events in his battlespace.* [6] It is based around its knowledge and understanding obtained by the an intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) system. It is another methodical concept used to gain information about the operational area̶the environment, factors, and conditions, including the status of friendly and adversary forces, neutrals and noncombatants, weather and terrain̶that enables timely, relevant, comprehensive and accurate assessments. It has become an effective concept for conventional and unconventional operations in successfully projecting, or protecting, a military force, and/or completing its mission.* [7] Battlespace digitization

Battlespace measures Manoeuvre control Manoeuvre control measures are the basic preliminary step in effective clearance of fire support (e.g. artillery, Naval gunfire, and close air support), marked by imaginary boundary lines used by commanders to designate the geographical area for which a particular unit is tactically responsible. It is usually established on identifiable terrain to help aid in hasty referencing for better lateral advantage in the science of fire support, normally orchestrated by a higher echelon of the general staff, mainly the operations staff sections. They are normally designated along terrain features easily recognizable on the ground. An important point on maneuver control graphics: staffs must be knowledgeable regarding the different maneuver control measures and their impact on clearance of fires. For instance, boundaries are both restrictive and permissive; corridors are restrictive, while routes, axis, and directions of attack are neither.

Battlespace digitization is designed to improve military operational effectiveness by integrating weapons platforms, sensor networks, ubiquitous command and control (UC2), intelligence, and network-centric warfare. This military doctrine reflects that in the future, military operations will be merged into joint operations rather than take place in separate battlespaces under the domain of individual armed services. It should be reminded of the effect on clearance of fires if subordinate maneuver units are not given zones or sectors (i.e. no boundaries established). Since boundaries Battlespace intelligence preparation serve as both permissive and restrictive measures, the decision not to employ them has profound effects upon Intelligence preparation Intelligence preparation of timely clearance of fires at the lowest possible level. the battlespace (IPB) is an analytical methodology employed to reduce uncertainties concerning the enemy, en- The higher echelon may coordinate all clearance of fires vironment, and terrain for all types of operations. Intel- short of the Coordinated Fire Line (CFL), a very timeligence preparation of the battlespace builds an extensive intensive process. It allows the unit to maneuver successdatabase for each potential area in which a unit may be fully and to swiftly and efficiently engage targets. It requires coordination and clearance only within that orgarequired to operate. nization. The database is then analyzed in detail to determine the * impact of the enemy, environment and terrain on opera- They affect fire support in two ways: [8] tions and presents it in graphic form. Intelligence preparation of the battlespace is a continuing process. • Restrictive̶Restrictive control that is established in conjunction with a host nation to preclude damage or destruction to a national asset, population center, Joint intelligence preparation Joint intelligence or religious structure. Its key role are for protection preparation of the battlespace (JIPB) is the analytical of an element of tactical importance, such as a fuel process used by joint intelligence organizations to storage area. produce intelligence assessments, estimates and other • Restrictive fire area (RFA) is an area with speintelligence products in support of the joint force comcific restrictions and in which fires that exceed mander's decision making process. It is a continuous

0.9. BRIGADE those restrictions will not be delivered without coordination with the establishing headquarters, or higher echelon; occasionally, it may be established to operate independently.

23

[6] Joint Synthetic Battlespace: Cornerstone for Predictive Battlespace Awareness [7] DOD - Battlespace Awareness defined

• No-fire area (NFA) is a designated area which no fire support may be delivered for fires [8] U.S. Field Manual 6-20-40; Appendix E: Fire Support Coordinating Measures or effects. When the establishing headquarters allows fires on a mission-by-mission basis. [9] DEATH FROM ABOVE: I MEF's use of Marine When a friendly force is engaged by an enemy TACAIR during Desert Storm located within the NFA and the commander returns fire to defend his forces. The amount of return fire should not exceed that sufficient to protect the force and continue the mission. 0.8.4 Further reading • Permissive̶Permissive control that gives the maneuver commander the liberty to announce and engage fire support at his will, unless it otherwise is restricted by a higher echelon. Most cases, a commander will deny the use of Fire Support Coordinating Measures (FSCM). • There are free-fire areas (FFA) which fire support can commence without additional coordination with the establishing headquarters. Normally, it is established on identifiable terrain by division or higher headquarters. Battlespace shaping Further information: Area of responsibility Battlespace shaping is a concept involved in the practice of maneuver warfare that are used for shaping a situation on the battlefield, gaining the military advantage for the commander. It forecasts the elimination of the enemy's capability by fighting in a coherent manner before deploying determine-sized forces.* [9]

0.8.2

See also

• Mitchell, W. (2013). Battlespace Agility 101. Royal Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN 978-87-7147-006-2 • Mitchell, W. (2013). Battlespace Agility 201.Royal Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN 978-87-7147-018-5 • Mitchell, W. (2012). Battlespace Intelligence. Royal Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN 9788798772064 • Mitchell, W. (2012). Battlespace Agility in Helmand. Royal Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN 9788798772057 • Mitchell, W. (2008). Comprehensive Approach Capacity Building.Royal Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN 978-87-9142-152-5 • Blackmore, T. (2005). War X: Human Extensions in Battlespace. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-8791-4 • Owens, W. (2002). Dominant Battlespace Knowledge. University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 1-41020413-8

• List of command and control abbreviations • Command and control

0.8.5 External links

• Fog of war • Network-centric warfare

0.8.3

References

[1] Battlespace definition, DoD [2] Military Jargon Database [3] [4] [5]

• Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication (MCDP) 1-0: Marine Corps Operations' • Achieving Dominant Battlespace Awareness • Joint Synthetic Battlespace: Cornerstone for Predictive Battlespace Awareness • Battlespace Digitization - Coping With Uncertainty In The Command Process • Challenges for Joint Battlespace Digitization (JBD)

24

CONTENTS vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached. The headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. Stryker Brigade Combat Team Organizational Table United States Army X

Stryker Brigade Combat Team HHC

MI

Infantry Battalion (Stryker) HHC

Headquarters and Headquarters Company

Military Intelligence Company

Infantry Battalion (Stryker) HHC

Headquarters and Headquarters Company

NSC

Network Support Company

Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company Engineer Company

Cavalry Squadron

Infantry Battalion (Stryker) HHC

Headquarters and Headquarters Company

Anti-Tank Company

HHT

Headquarters and Headquarters Troop

Field Artillery Battalion HHB

Headquarters and Headquarters Battery

Alpha Company (Stryker)

Alpha Company (Stryker)

Alpha Company (Stryker)

Alpha Troop (Stryker Recon)

Alpha Battery (155mm)

Bravo Company (Stryker)

Bravo Company (Stryker)

Bravo Company (Stryker)

Bravo Troop (Stryker Recon)

Bravo Battery (155mm)

Charlie Company (Stryker)

Charlie Company (Stryker)

Charlie Company (Stryker)

Charlie Troop (Stryker Recon)

Charlie Battery (155mm)

BSB

Brigade Support Battalion

HHC

Headquarters and Headquarters Company Alpha Company (Supply and Distribution)

FLD

Bravo Company (Field Maintenance) Charlie Company (Medical Support)

Delta Troop (Surveillance)

Standard NATO symbol for an infantry brigade.

0.9 Brigade This article is about a type of military unit. For other uses, see Brigade (disambiguation). A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Three or more brigades constitute a division.

Example of typical modern US Brigade formation

In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the basic-level organizational unit.

0.9.1 Origin The brigade was invented as a tactical unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus. It was introduced during the Thirty Years' War to overcome the lack of coordination between normal army structure consisting of regiments by appointing a senior officer. The term derives from Italian brigata, as used for example in the introduction to The Decameron, where it refers only to a group of ten, or Old French brigare, meaning“company”of an undefined size, which in turn derives from a Celtic root briga, which means “strife.”

Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armoured (sometimes referred to as combined arms brigades). In addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigadegroups. On operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some The so-called “brigada”was a well mixed unit, comtemporarily attached for a specific task. prising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, desBrigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions ignated for a special task. The size of such “brigada” of a single branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, ar- was a reinforced “company”of up to two regiments. mored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers, signals The“brigada”was the ancient form of the modern "task or logistic. Some brigades are classified as independent or force". separate and operate independently from the traditional division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade This was copied in France by General Turenne, who made consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops. How- it a permanent standing unit, requiring the creation in ever, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go 1667 of a permanent rank of brigadier des armées du as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerun- roi (literally translating to brigadier of the armies of the ners and successors, mostly use “regiment”instead of king), which would in time be renamed simply Général brigade, and this was common (e.g. in Germany) in much de brigade (but would still be referred to occasionally as brigadier for short). of Europe until after World War II. A brigade's commander is commonly a brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a General Officer. The brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. The principal staff officer, usually a lieutenant colonel or colonel, may be designated chief of staff, although until the late 20th century British and similar armies called the position 'brigade-major'. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander. The headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support (clerks, assistants and drivers) that can

0.9.2 Individual armies Australia In the Australian Army, the brigade has always been the smallest tactical formation, since regiments are either administrative groupings of battalions (in the infantry) or battalion-sized units (in the cavalry). A typical brigade may consist of approximately 5,500 personnel between

0.9. BRIGADE two mechanised infantry battalions, an armored regiment, an armored artillery regiment, and other logistic and engineering units. The brigade is usually commanded by an officer holding the rank of Brigadier, who is referred to as the “Brigade Commander”. United Kingdom Brigades, with a field not a regional administrative role, have usually been of a named type and numbered since the 19th century (e.g. Cavalry Brigade or Infantry Brigade). From after World War II, brigade numbers have been unique and not by type. Brigades in divisions do not usually command their combat support and combat service support units. These remain under divisional command, although they may be permanently affiliated with a particular brigade (as a“brigade group”). Historically, infantry or cavalry/armoured brigades have usually comprised three or four combat arm battalions, but currently larger brigades are normal, made larger still when their affiliated artillery and engineer regiments are added.

25 and one combat service and support (CSS) battalion. Colocated with each CMBG is a field ambulance, and a tactical helicopter squadron, and a military police platoon. Regular Force CMBG strengths are 5,000 personnel.* [2] Canada also has 10 Primary Reserve brigades (Canadian brigade group, CBG), 31 CBG through 39 CBG, and 41 CBG. The CBG formations are for administrative purposes. Republic of China (1911–1947) An NRA Brigade, 旅, was a military formation of the Chinese Republic's National Revolutionary Army. Infantry and Cavalry Brigades were composed of two Infantry Regiments. After the 1938 reforms, the Brigade was dispensed with within the Infantry Division in favor of the Regiment to simplify the command structure.* [3] United States

Until 1918, the chief of staff of a brigade was known as a Brigade Major. Before 1922, British Army brigades were normally commanded by general officers holding the “one-star”rank of Brigadier-General; after that date, the appointment became that of Brigadier, usually held by a field officer with the substantive rank of Colonel. From 1859 to 1938,“brigade” “brigade-division” ( 1885– 1903) was also the term used for a battalion-sized unit of the Royal Artillery. This was because, unlike infantry battalions and cavalry regiments, which were organic, artillery units consisted of individually numbered batteries that were“brigaded”together. The commanding officer of such a brigade was a Lieutenant Colonel. In 1938, the Royal Artillery adopted the term“regiment”for this size of unit, and “brigade”became used in its normal sense, particularly for groups of anti-aircraft artillery regiments commanded by a brigadier.* [1]

A U.S. infantry brigade of around 3,200 personnel, formed into eight battalion-sized groups

Army

In the United States Army, a brigade is smaller than a division and roughly equal to or a little larger than a regiment. During the American Civil War infantry brigades contained two to five regiments.and were usually commanded by a brigadier general. More recently, the U.S. Army has moved to a new generic brigade combat team (BCT) in which each brigade contains combat elements and their support units. After the 2013 reform, BCT personnel strength typically ranges from 4,400 for infantry BCTs, to 4,500 for Stryker BCTs, to 4,700 for arCanada mored BCTs. This formation is standard across the active U.S. Army, U.S. Army Reserve, and the Army National The Canadian Army currently has three Regular Force Guard. brigade groups, designated as Canadian mechanized brigade groups (CMBG): 1 CMBG, 2 CMBG, which con- The brigade commander is usually a colonel, although a tain the regular army's Anglophone units, and 5 CMBG, lieutenant colonel can be selected for brigade command the regular Francophone formation. These CMBGs are in lieu of an available colonel. A typical tour of duty for each composed of two mechanized infantry battalions, this assignment is 24 to 36 months. one light infantry battalion, one armoured regiment, one A brigade commander enjoys a headquarters and staff to mechanized artillery regiment, one engineer regiment, assist him in commanding the brigade and its subordinate In the Second World War, a Tank Brigade comprised three tank regiments and was equipped with infantry tanks for supporting the Infantry divisions. Armoured Brigades were equipped with cruiser tanks or (US LendLease) medium tanks and a motorised infantry battalion. The armoured divisions included one or more armoured brigades.

26 battalion units. The typical staff includes: • a brigade executive officer, usually a lieutenant colonel (if commanded by a colonel) • a brigade command sergeant major • a personnel officer (S1), usually a major • an intelligence officer (S2), usually a major

CONTENTS

0.9.3 See also • Artillery brigade • Mixed brigade • International Brigades • Military organization

• an operations officer (S3), usually a lieutenant colonel 0.9.4 • a logistics officer (S4), usually a major • a plans officer (S5), usually a major • a communications officer (S6), usually a major • a medical officer, usually a major • a legal officer (JAG), usually a major • a brigade chaplain, usually a major

Notes and references

[1] Maj-Gen Sir John Headlam, The History of the Royal Artillery, Vol II (1899–1914), Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1937. [2] Defence, Issue 1, Evidence, July 18, 2001 (afternoon) [3] Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed. ,1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung , Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China.

In addition, the headquarters includes additional junior staff officers, non-commissioned officers, and enlisted support personnel in the occupational specialties of the 0.9.5 Bibliography staff sections; these personnel are ordinarily assigned to • (French) Nouveau Larousse illustré, undated (early the brigade's headquarters and headquarters company. 20th century) Marine Corps In the United States Marine Corps, brigades are designated as Marine Expeditionary Brigades (MEB), and are usually commanded by a brigadier general. The MEB is a mid-level Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) essentially forming a “demi-division.”The MEB organizational structure is completely different from an army brigade, and consists of a minimum of three regimental-equivalent sized units and a command element (a Regimental Combat Team, a Composite Marine Aircraft Group, a Marine Logistics Regiment, and a MEB Headquarters Group). Each Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) contains a MEB, available for deployment on expeditionary duty. The MEB is the intermediate MAGTF between the MEF and the Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU). Along with the Marine Infantry Regiments, the MEU, (while smaller than an army brigade), are the USMC organizational equivalents of army brigades. The MEU consists of three battalion-equivalent sized units and a command element (a Battalion Landing Team, a Marine Medium Tilt-rotor Squadron (Reinforced), a Combat Logistics Battalion, and a MEU Headquarters Group). The Marine Infantry Regiments, combined with the Marine Artillery Regiments, comprise the bulk of the Marine Divisions. An example of a MEB is Task Force Tarawa (2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade) during the Operation Iraqi Freedom campaign.

0.10 Brigade group A brigade group is a term used primarily in armies of the Commonwealth of Nations for an ad hoc arrangement of forces and not a permanent organisation whereas, with a capital G, a Brigade Group is.* [1] It generally refers to a formation which includes three or four battle groups, or an infantry brigade (three battalions), supported by armoured, artillery, field engineer, aviation and support units, and amounting to about 5,000 soldiers.* [2] A brigade group represents the smallest unit able to operate independently for extended periods on the battlefield. It is similar to the concept of a regimental combat team (RCT), which was once used by the United States Army, but which now uses the term brigade combat team (BCT). The United States Marine Corps continues to use the term regimental combat team.

0.10.1 References • Reid, Brian. No Holding Back: Operation Totalize, Normandy, August 1944 Robin Brass Studio (April 2005) 1-896941-40-0

0.11. COMBAT COMMAND

0.10.2

Footnotes

[1] Reid, Pg 4 [2] Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Defence and Security

0.11 Combat command

27 Use of combat commands was first specified in Armored Force Tentative Table of Organization A, for armored divisions, dated December 22, 1941. The initial organization envisioned two combat command headquarters at the disposal of the armored division. The combat command headquarters themselves were small, fielding only five light tanks and 56 men. Revisions to this structure in 1943 resulted in a headquarters of 3 light tanks and 99 men. The 1943 structure also allowed for three combat command headquarters in an armored division.

A Combat Command was a combined-arms military organization of comparable size to a brigade or regiment employed by armored forces of the U.S. Army from 1942 until 1963. The structure of combat commands was taskorganized and so the forces assigned to a combat command often varied from mission to mission.

Within the armored division, the combat commands were named“A”,“B”, and later,“R”(for Reserve).* [note 1] Thus, historical accounts of U.S. armored divisions of this period refer to “Combat Command B”or “CCB” and so forth. During the latter stages of World War II in Europe, armored divisions tended to fight with CCA and CCB, while moving worn-out battalions into CCR for rest and refit, though this was not always the case.* [note 2] In 0.11.1 Abbreviations 1954, CCR was redesignated “Combat Command C” Combat Command is most often abbreviated by one of (CCC). the related derivative notations: The combat command proved to be the forerunner of modern U.S. Army organizational structure for divisions. In the early 1960s, divisions were restructured as part of • CCA, or CC-A or CC A the Reorganization Objective Army Division (ROAD), • CCB, or CC-B or CC B in which all divisions, including infantry, were organized • CCC, or CC-C or CC C (an older convention for with three brigades which also did not have dedicated battalions and could be assigned as many battalions as "reserve formation") needed for a mission. With the transition to ROAD divi• CCR, or CC-R or CC R (for Combat Command sions, the term combat command was no longer employed by the U.S. Army. Reserve)

0.11.2

History

The concept of the combat command was developed by General Adna Chaffee during the 1930s. Chaffee's concept envisaged combined arms mechanized units with no formal structure. When the first U.S. armored divisions were organized a few years later, Chaffee's concepts for the combat command were incorporated into the divisional structure.* [1] The combat command was a flexible organization that did not have dedicated battalions. Instead, tank, armored infantry, and armored field artillery battalions, as well as smaller units of tank destroyers, engineers, and mechanized cavalry were assigned as needed in order to accomplish any given mission.* [2] During a U.S. Army reorganization in the 1960s, the term combat command fell out of favor and was replaced by the designation brigade. While flexible, this task-force organization lacked the high cohesion characteristic of traditional regiments that always kept the same group of battalions together. The organization of the combat command contrasted with that of the infantry, who employed reinforced infantry regiments with permanently assigned infantry battalions. This type of infantry organization was called a Regimental combat team.

0.11.3 Notes [1]“While still at Camp Cooke the division also started developing the combat command type of tactical headquarters. CC A was first commanded by Brig. Gen. Wood and later, by Brig. Gen. Harold W. Blakely, CC B's first commander was Brig. Gen. Serene E. Brett. CC A's tactical units included: the 34th Armored Regiment, 71st Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and the 1st Battalion of the 46th Armored Infantry Regiment. CC B's organization consisted of: the 81st Armored Regiment, 47th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and the 2nd Battalion of the 46th. The remainder of the units formed what was known as the Division Reserve.”, Paths_of_Armor, p. 8. [2] Some armored used CCR as an operational combat element of the division as well, such as the 7th Armored Division's use of CCR during the reduction of the Ruhr Pocket and the 12th Armored Division's CCR spearhead outpacing CCA and CCR in the XXI Corps' dash for Austria in the final weeks of the war.UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II, Special Studies, CHRONOLOGY 1941-1945 The 5th Armored Division used CCR as a combat element during the entire campaign in northwestern Europe. See Paths_of_Armor for details, particularly the biography section for Colonel Glen H. Anderson, the CCR commander.

28

0.11.4

CONTENTS

References

[1] Coffey, p. 42. [2] McGrath, pp. 48-49.

0.11.5

Canadian defence scientists Ross Pigeau and Carol McCann discuss the issues and uncertainties related to the definition of command & control in their article in the Canadian Military Journal.* [5]

Sources 0.12.1 Overview

• Rod Coffey, “Doctrinal Orphan or Active Partner? A History of U.S. Army Mechanized Infantry DocUS perspective trine”, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College thesis, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 2000. The US Department of Defense Dictionary of Military • John J. McGrath, “The Brigade: A History, Its and Associated Terms.* [6] defines command and control Organization and Employment in the US Army”, as:“The exercise of authority and direction by a properly Combat Studies Institute Press, Fort Leavenworth, designated commander over assigned and attached forces Kansas, 2004. in the accomplishment of the mission. Also called C2. Source: JP 1”.* [7] • Revised Tables of Organization Armored Force 1 The edition of the Dictionary “As Amended Through January 1942 (U.S. Army) April 2010”elaborates, “Command and control func• Armored Division Tables of Organization, 15 tions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and proceSeptember 1943 (U.S. Army) dures employed by a commander in planning, directing, • Discussion of U.S. Army divisional organizations coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission.”* [8] However, this sen• Paths of Armor tence is missing from the“command and control”entry for the edition“As Amended Through 15 August 2014.” * [9]

0.12 Command and control

Commanding officers are assisted in executing these tasks by specialized staff officers and enlisted personnel. These This article is about command and control in the military staff are a group of officers and enlisted personnel military. For other uses, see Command and control that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commanding officer and subordinate military units. (disambiguation). Older versions of U.S. Army FM 3-0 state: Command and control, or C2, in a military organization is the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commanding officer over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission.* [1]* [2] The term may also refer to command and control systems within a military system.

The purpose of a military staff is mainly that of providing accurate, timely information which by category represents information on which command decisions are based. The key application is that of decisions that effectively manage unit resources. While information flow toward the commander is a priority, information that is useful or contingent in nature is communicated to lower staffs and units.

The 1988 NATO definition: Command and control is the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated [individual] over assigned [resources] in the accomplishment of a [common goal].* [3] Computer security industry The Australian Defence Force definition is similar: C2 is the system empowering designated personnel to exercise lawful authority and direction over assigned forces for the accomplishment of missions and tasks.* [4] (The Australian doctrine goes on to state: The use of agreed terminology and definitions is fundamental to any C2 system and the development of joint doctrine and procedures. The definitions in the following paragraphs have some agreement internationally, although not every potential ally will use the terms with exactly the same meaning.* [4])

This term is also in common use within the computer security industry and in the context of cyberwarfare. Here the term refers to the influence an attacker has over a compromised computer system that they control. For example, a valid usage of the term is to say that attackers use “command and control infrastructure”to issue “command and control instructions”to their victims. Advanced analysis of command and control methodologies can be used to identify attackers, associate attacks, and disrupt ongoing malicious activity.* [10]

0.12. COMMAND AND CONTROL

0.12.2

Derivative terms

There is a plethora of derivative terms which emphasise different aspects, uses and sub-domains of C2. These terms come with a plethora of associated abbreviations – for example, in addition to C2, command and control is also often abbreviated as C2 , and sometimes as C&C.

29 • C2I – Command, Control & Intelligence • C2I – Command, Control & Information (A less common usage)* [12] • C2IS – Command and Control Information Systems • C2ISR – C2I plus Surveillance and Reconnaissance • C2ISTAR – C2 plus ISTAR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance) • C3 – Command, Control & Communication (Human activity focus) • C3 – Command, Control & Communications (Technology focus) • C3 – Consultation, Command, and Control [NATO] • C3I – 4 possibilities; the most common is Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence • C3ISTAR – C3 plus ISTAR • C3ISREW – C2ISR plus Communications plus Electronic Warfare (Technology focus) • C4, C4I, C4ISR, C4ISTAR, C4ISREW – plus Computers (Technology focus) or Computing (Human activity focus)* [13]* [14] • C4 I2 – Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, and Interoperability • C5I – Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Collaboration and Intelligence and others.

軍 C4ISR

Command and control have been coupled with • Communication / Communications • (Military) Intelligence • Information / Information Systems • Computers / Computing* [11] • Surveillance • Target acquisition • Reconnaissance • Interoperability • Collaboration • Electronic Warfare and others. Some of the more common variations include:

Command: The exercise of authority based upon certain knowledge to attain an objective. Control: The process of verifying and correcting activity such that the objective or goal of command is accomplished. Communication: Ability to exercise the necessary liaison to exercise effective command between tactical or strategic units to command. Computers: The computer systems and compatibility of computer systems. Also includes data processing. Intelligence: Includes collection as well as analysis and distribution of information.

0.12.3 Command and control centers A command and control center is typically a secure room or building in a government, military or prison facility that operates as the agency's dispatch center, surveillance monitoring center, coordination office and alarm

30

CONTENTS

monitoring center all in one. Command and control centers are operated by a government or municipal agency. Various branches of the US military such as the US Coast Guard and Navy have command and control centers. They are also common in many large correctional facilities. A command and control center that is used by a military unit in a deployed location is usually called a“command post”.* [15] A warship has a Combat Information Center for tactical control of the ship's resources, but commanding a fleet or joint operation requires additional space for commanders and staff plus C4I facilities provided on a Flagship (e.g., aircraft carriers), sometimes a Command ship or upgraded logistics ship such as USS Coronado.

• Communications protection • Defence Information Infrastructure • Electronic warfare • Fingerspitzengefühl • Fog of war • Intent (Military) • Military communications • Mission Command • Mission-type tactics

0.12.4

Command and control warfare

• Network-centric warfare

Command and control warfare encompasses all the military tactics that use communications technology. It can be abbreviated as C2 W. An older name for these tactics is “signals warfare”, derived from the name given to communications by the military. Newer names include information operations and information warfare

• Reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA)

The following techniques are combined:

• Surveillance and Target Acquisition (STA)

• Operations security (OPSEC) • Military deception • Psychological operations (PSYOP) • Electronic warfare (EW) • Psychological warfare with the physical destruction of enemy communications facilities. The objective is to deny information to the enemy and so disrupt its command and control capabilities. At the same time precautions are taken to protect friendly command and control capabilities against retaliation. In addition to targeting the enemy's command and control, information warfare can be directed to the enemy's politicians and other civilian communications.

0.12.5

See also

• Signal Corps (disambiguation) • Signals intelligence (SIGINT)

US and other NATO specific: • 505th Command and Control Wing • Command and Control Research Program (CCRP) • Deployable Joint Command and Control • Future Combat Systems Command and Control Vehicle • Global Command and Control System • Joint Force Air Component Headquarters • Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems • NATO Communications and Information Systems Agency

• Battlespace

• NATO Consultation, Agency

• Battle command

• NORAD

• Civilian control of the military

• Worldwide Military Command and Control System

Command and Control

• Command and control warfare • Command center • Command ship

other • Kiev Military Institute of Control and Signals

0.13. COMPANY (MILITARY UNIT)

0.12.6

References

[1] para 5-2, United States Army Field Manual: FM 3–0 Headquarters, Department of the Army (14 June 2001). FM 3–0, Operations. Washington, DC: GPO. OCLC 50597897. Archived from the original (PDF INSIDE ZIP–SFX) on 19 February 2002. Retrieved 19 August 2013. Newer versions of FM 3-0 do not define Command and control, even though they use the term extensively. [2] Builder, Carl H., Bankes, Steven C., Nordin, Richard, “Command Concepts – A Theory Derived from the Practice of Command and Control”, MR775, RAND, ISBN 0-8330-2450-7, 1999 [3] Neville Stanton, Christopher Baber, Don Harris (1 January 2008). Modelling Command and Control: Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. [4] “ADDP 00.1 Command and Control”(PDF). Commonwealth of Australia. 27 May 2009. pp. 1–2. [5] Ross Pigeau and Carol McCann (Spring 2002). “Reconceptualizing Command and Control” (PDF). Canadian Military Journal 3 (1): 53–63.

31 • This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Defense document "Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms". • This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document “Federal Standard 1037C”.

0.12.7 External links • Command and control definitions and procedures, UK College of Policing, www.app.college.police.uk • The Command and Control Research Program (CCRP) • “Understanding Command and Control” by D. S. Alberts and R. E. Hayes (2006)

0.13 Company (military unit)

[6] DoD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, www. dtic.mil [7] Command and control, Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, www.dtic.mil [8] Joint Chiefs of Staff (U.S.) (8 November 2010). “Command and Control”. Joint Publication 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (As Amended Through 31 January 2011) (PDF). p. 65. Retrieved 3 November 2014. [9] Joint Chiefs of Staff (U.S.) (8 November 2010). “Command and Control”. Joint Publication 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (As Amended Through 15 August 2014) (PDF). p. 44. Retrieved 3 November 2014.

Standard NATO code for a friendly infantry company.

[10] Command Five Pty Ltd, “Command and Control in the Fifth Domain”, February 2012, www.commandfive.com [11] In modern warfare, computers have become a key component as cyberspace is now seen as "the fifth domain of warfare" – refer: Clarke, Richard A. (2010). Cyber War. HarperCollins. and “Cyberwar: War in the Fifth Domain”. Economist. 1 “B”company of 113th regiment in American Expeditionary July 2010. Forces in France, 1919. [12] TTCP Groups, www.dtic.mil/ttcp/

A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a captain or a major. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the exact number may vary by country, [14] Sloan, E., “Security and Defence in the Terrorist Era” unit type, and structure. Several companies are grouped , McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 2005; see to form a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is Ch. 7 for C4ISTAR discussion. sometimes formed by several battalions. [13] “Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms”, Joint Publication 1-02, US Department of Defense, 17 March 2009.

[15] US Army PEO C3T – Project Manager, Command Posts, peoc3t.monmouth.army.mil

Certain sub-units were raised as independent companies that reported to no higher unit headquarters.

32

0.13.1

CONTENTS

Historical background

0.13.2 British Army Rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters.

The modern military unit“company,”became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph. For administrative purposes the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the infantry companies were organized into “battalions”and grouped with cavalry troops and artillery batteries to form “brigades.”

Company-sized organisations in units with a horsemounted heritage, such as Household Cavalry, Royal Armoured Corps, Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, Army Air Corps, Special Air Service, Honourable Artillery Company and Royal Logistic Corps, use the term squadron instead of company, and in the Royal Artillery they are called batteries. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both From ancient times, some armies have commonly used a squadrons and companies depending on whether the units base administrative and tactical unit of around 100 men. were supporting mounted or foot formations. (Perhaps the most well-known is the Roman century, The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle originally intended as a 100-man unit, but later ranging companies by letter (usually, but not always, A, B and C) from about 60-80 men, depending upon the time period.) within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headAn organization based on the decimal number system quarters company and a support/heavy weapons com(i.e., by tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten-thousands) pany. Some units name their companies after regimental might seem intuitive to most, if not also highly logical, battle honours; this is commonly the case for composite based on the common anatomical counting device cre- units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, ated by using the ten digits of the human hands in num- Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regbering objects, animals, people, etc. Therefore, to the iments use traditional names for some of their compaRomans, for example, a unit of 100 men seemed suffi- nies, for example Queen's Company, Left Flank, Prince ciently large enough to efficiently facilitate organizing a of Wales's Company etc. large body of men numbering into the several thousands, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that yet small enough that one man could reasonably expect is unique across the corps, not just within their command. to command it as a cohesive unit by using his voice and The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, physical presence, supplemented by musical notes (e.g., Royal Military Police and Royal Electrical and Mechandrum beats, bugle or trumpet blasts, etc.) and visual cues ical Engineers all have companies uniquely numbered (e.g., colors, standards, guidons, etc.). across their corps. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans The defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer are best able to maintain stable relationships in a coheCorps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies; sive group numbering between 100-250 members, with the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. 150 members being the common number (see Dunbarʼs number). Again, a military unit on the order of no more British companies are usually commanded by a major, than 100 members, and perhaps ideally fewer, would per- the officer commanding (OC), with a captain or senior haps present the greatest efficiency as well as effective- lieutenant as second-in-command (2i/c). The company ness of control, on a battlefield where the stress, danger, headquarters also includes a company sergeant major fear, noise, confusion, and the general condition known (CSM) normally holding the rank of WO2 and a company as the“fog of war,”would present the greatest challenge quartermaster sergeant (CQMS) of colour sergeant rank, to an officer to command a group of men engaged in mor- the two most senior soldiers in the company. tal combat. Indeed, until the latter half of the 19th cen- The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, tury, when infantry troops still routinely fought in close- not a company in terms of organisation and size. order, marching and firing shoulder-to-shoulder in lines facing the enemy, the company remained at around 100, or fewer, men. 0.13.3 Canadian Army The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles, and machine guns necessitated highly dispersed combat formations. This reality, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the general range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best (as well as live, work, socialize, play, etc.) in organizations of around 150 members, more or less.

Canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British. However, a Canadian infantry battalion consists of three or four rifle companies identified by letter (A Company, B Company, etc.), a Combat Support Company, and an Administration Support Company. A notable exception is The Royal Canadian Regiment, which names its companies sequentially throughout the regiment from the Duke of Edinburgh's Company (instead of A Company) in the 1st Battalion to T Company in the

0.13. COMPANY (MILITARY UNIT)

33

4th Battalion. Many regiments name their companies af- of 110 personnel and 12 BTRs. A BMP rifle company ter battle honours or former units that make up the current had the same number of personnel and carriers and also regiment, for example: consisted of a company headquarters and three motorised rifle platoons but instead included a machine gun platoon • 75th Company ̶The Toronto Scottish Regiment equipped with six RPK-74s. While seemingly containing less firepower, US commanders were advised to include (Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother's Own) the BMP's heavier weaponry in their calculations.* [1] • Victoria Company ̶The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Tank company • Grenadier Company ̶The Royal Regiment of Canada Prior to the late 1980s, a Soviet tank company consisted • No.2 (Prince of Wales) Company-Canadian of a company headquarters and three tank platoons with T-64, T-72 or T-80 tanks for a total of 39 personnel and Grenadier Guards 13 tanks; companies using the older T-54, T-55 or T-62s tanks had 10 or 13 additional enlisted personnel. HowThe combat support company administratively contains ever, forces in Eastern Europe began to standardize tank the specialized platoons, such as reconnaissance, pio- companies at 10 tanks, with three tanks in each platoon neer, headquarters and signals, anti-armour, and mortar. instead of four.* [2]* [3] The administration support company contains the support tradesmen that a battalion requires, such as cooks, vehicle technicians, supply, medics, etc. 0.13.5 United States As in the British Army, company sized units with a mounted heritage use the term squadron, and in the ar- Army tillery they are called batteries. Historical background In the 1700s, British Army (as well as American Colonial Militia), and later American 0.13.4 Soviet armed forces Army infantry, regiments were organized into companies of somewhat less than 100 officers and enlisted men, alMotorised rifle company though the actual totals widely varied from a low of 38 enlisted men in British companies in 1775 (organized into a regiment of 10 companies totaling 477 officers and men) to a high of 95 enlisted men in an American company (organized into a regiment of approximately 1200 officers and enlisted men) in 1792. From the late 1700s up until the late 1800s, a US infantry company consisted of a small company headquarters, commanded by a captain and assisted by a first sergeant (and later an executive officer), and two or (later) three identical platoons led by lieutenants. In 1775, a Continental Army Infantry Company was authorized with one captain, two lieutenants (as platoon leaders), a company first sergeant, four sergeants (section leaders with two to a platoon), four corporals (squad leaders with two to a platoon), a musician, and 68 privates.

1980s Soviet Motorised Company (BTR)

A Soviet motorised rifle company could be mounted in either BTR armoured personnel carriers or BMP infantry fighting vehicles, with the former being more numerous into the late 1980s. A BTR rifle company consisted of a company headquarters, three motorised rifle platoons and a machine gun/antitank platoon equipped with two PK machine guns and two AT-7 Saxhorn launchers for a total

The company was an administrative and tactical unit seldom employed in other than as a massed formation. The standard procedure, once the company had marched into its position in the line of battle, was for the company to form facing the enemy as two ranks, by platoon, one behind the other. The commanding officer (a captain), and the one to three lieutenants, serving as platoon leaders and the executive officer (again depending upon the time period) would direct the fighting, leading from the front in the attack and on the flanks in the defense (the executive officer and the first sergeant were normally positioned behind the battle line so as to assist the company commander in overseeing the company and managing the

34 rear (company trains, casualties, enemy prisoners, noncombatants, deserters, etc.). The musician remained with the commanding officer to relay orders by sound (i.e., music) and served as an orderly when not playing his instrument. The sergeants, acted as “file closers,”working the line by putting men forward to replace casualties in the front rank, encouraging men to fire, reload, move forward, etc. and if need be, physically assisting or restraining men who refused to move forward or attempted to flee. The corporals, physically led by example (much like modern fire team leaders) by taking their place in the line with their privates and fighting alongside them. Cavalry companies (not officially re-designated as “troops”until 1883) had a similar organization to the infantry, but with fewer men, companies rarely exceeding around 70 men. In the Field Artillery the companyequivalent unit is designated as a “battery”and historically consisted of a battery headquarters and two or three gun platoons, each with two gun sections. At full authorized strength a typical battery of six gun sections would consist of approximately 100 officers and enlisted men.

CONTENTS battalion are identified by letter̶for example, “Company A, 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment”. This would commonly be abbreviated as “A/1-15 INF”in writing, but not in speaking. When the regimental headquarters exists as a separate echelon of command (e.g., the 75th Ranger Regiment, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, and the 1st Marine Regiment), as virtually all US Army regiments did until after the Korean War, a slash separates the battalion/squadron number from the regimental number (i.e., B/2/75 Ranger, C/3/11 ACR, E/2/1 Marines). The letters are usually pronounced using the NATO phonetic alphabet or, before that, the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet, resulting in names such as“Bravo Company”and“Echo Company”(formerly “Baker”and "Easy" Companies, respectively). Companies with a separate table of organization and equipment are identified by a number, and are able to operate completely independently from any other unit's support. Company-sized units which are organized under a table of distribution and allowance are identified with a name or number. Company-sized units usually consist of four to six platoons (each led by a lieutenant), although there are examples of combat service and combat service support companies that have seven or more platoons. For example, a transportation terminal service company normally has two ship platoons, two shore platoons, one documentation platoon, one maintenance platoon, and the headquarters platoon. These platoons are led by first lieutenants, while the company is commanded by a major.

B Company, 3rd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment in Somalia, 1993.

Modern use In the United States Army, infantry companies are usually made up of three rifle platoons and a heavy weapons platoon; mechanized infantry companies are usually made up of three rifle platoons consisting of four IFVs each and a command element containing two IFVs; tank companies are usually made up of three tank platoons consisting of four tanks each and a command element containing two tanks; support companies are typically divided into platoons of specialization that may contain additional special sections. A company is usually commanded by an Army captain, although in rare cases they may be commanded by a first lieutenant or a major. Unlike its component platoons, a company typically has additional positions of supporting staff, such as an executive officer (XO), a readiness/training NCO, and other positions (e.g. supply sergeant). By tradition, the corresponding unit of artillery is always called a battery. Similarly, the term troop is used for cavalry units, including both the horse-mounted units of history as well as modern armored cavalry and air cavalry units.

While companies are typically commanded by captains, some special units are commanded by majors, and have platoons commanded by captains. Examples of this arrangement include aviation platoons and many special forces units. This is not a dishonor to the officers so appointed, but rather an acknowledgement that such platoons usually have some special operational capacity that requires them to be commanded by an officer with greater command authority and more experience than that usually possessed by a lieutenant. A captain reports to his commander, usually the battalion commander (a lieutenant colonel). However, there are some administrative and other duties at battalion level and larger (brigade or division) that are also handled by captains, for example the S-1, S-2, & S-4 officers of a battalion (S-3 is a major), or some assistant staff positions in the G shops at division.

The senior non-commissioned officer of a company is called a first sergeant. Any sergeant holding this position is referred to as“first sergeant”regardless of actual rank and pay grade, though the non-commissioned officer assigned ordinarily has the rank of first sergeant and a grade of E-8. A master sergeant (E-8) assigned to this position will be“laterally promoted”to the rank of first sergeant, unless the appointment is temporary. In some instances, a sergeant first class (E-7) will be appointed to the job in Companies that are not separate from their parent lieu of a qualified first sergeant or master sergeant. Again,

0.13. COMPANY (MILITARY UNIT) in such situations, the NCO holds the duty position and title of “First Sergeant”, while retaining the rank of sergeant first class, at a grade of E-7. Marine Corps Rifle Company • Company Headquarters • Company Commander (Commanding Officer/CO) – Captain (O-3) • Executive Officer (XO) – usually a First Lieutenant (O-2) • First Sergeant (1stSgt, E-8) • Gunnery Sergeant (GySgt, E-7) • Property NCO (Sgt, E-5) • Messenger/Driver (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3) • Rifle Platoon (3) • Platoon Headquarters • Platoon Commander – Lieutenant (O1/2) • Platoon Sergeant – Staff Sergeant (E-6) • Platoon Guide – Sergeant (E-5) • Messenger – (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3) • Rifle Squad (3) • Squad Leader – Sergeant (E-5) • Fire Team (3) • Team Leader/Grenadier – Corporal (E-4) • Automatic Rifleman – Lance Corporal (E-3) • Assistant Automatic Rifleman – (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3) • Rifleman/Scout – (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3) • Weapons Platoon • Platoon Headquarters

35 • Ammunition Man – (Pvt-LCpl, E1/3) • LWCMS Mortar Section (3 – M224 60mm Light Weight Company Mortar Systems) • Section Leader – Staff Sergeant (E-6) • Mortar Squad (3) • Squad Leader/Gunner – Corporal (E4) • Assistant Gunner – Lance Corporal (E-3) • Ammunition Man (2) – (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3) • Assault Section (6 – Mk153 SMAW Shoulderlaunched Multipurpose Assault Weapon launchers) • Section Leader – Sergeant (E-5) • Assault Squad (3) • Squad Leader/Team Leader/Gunner – Corporal (E-4) • Team Leader/Gunner – Lance Corporal (E-3) • Assistant Gunner (2) – (Pvt-LCpl, E1/3) • Attachments (notional, dependent upon mission and availability) • Company Medical Team from Medical Platoon, Headquarters and Service Company, Infantry Battalion • Forward Observer from Fire Direction Center, 81mm Mortar Platoon, Weapons Company, Infantry battalion • Forward Air Control Party from S-3 Section and Communications Platoon, Headquarters and Service Company, Infantry Battalion • Forward Observer Team from the Battalion's Direct Support 155mm Howitzer Battery, Artillery Battalion • Dining Facility Team from Dining Facility Section, Service Platoon, Headquarters and Service Company, Infantry Battalion

• Platoon Commander – usually a First Lieutenant (O-2) • Platoon Sergeant – Gunnery Sergeant (E7)

• Heavy Machine Gun Squad/Section (M2HB .50 cal.BMG and/or Mk 19 40mm AGL) from Heavy Machine Gun Platoon, Weapons Company, Infantry Battalion

• Machine Gun Section (6 – M240G 7.62mm general-purpose machine guns)

• Javelin Squad (4 – FGM-148 Javelin AntiTank Missile launchers) from Javelin Section, Antiarmor Platoon, Weapons Company, Infantry Battalion

• Section Leader – Staff Sergeant (E-6) • Machine Gun Squad (3) • Squad Leader – Sergeant (E-5) • Machine Gun Team (2) • Team Leader – Corporal (E-4) • Gunner – Lance Corporal (E-3

• Antitank (TOW) Squad (2 – BGM-71 Tube launched, Optically tracked, Wire command link guided missile launchers) from Antitank (TOW) Section, Antiarmor Platoon, Weapons Company, Infantry Battalion

36

CONTENTS • Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV) Platoon (12 – AAV-7 Amphibious Assault Vehicles) from the Battalion's Direct Support AAV Company/Battalion

AAV companies have three platoons containing four sections of three AAVs each, for a total of 12 AAVs per platoon, and a headquarters section of three AAVs. The company also includes both command and recovery vari• Tank Section/Platoon (2/4 M1A2 Main Bat- ents of the AAV, giving the company a grand total of tle Tanks) from the Battalion's Direct Support approximately 42-45 AAVs. Tank Company/Battalion • Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) Pla- 0.13.6 Disambiguation toon (4 LAV-25 Light Armored Reconnaissance Vehicles) from the Battalion's Direct Some companies were well enough known that they have Support LAR Company/Battalion been identified with their company letter. Examples in• Other Ground Combat Element assets as re- clude: quired (e.g., Scout Sniper, Reconnaissance, Combat Engineer, etc.) Weapons company

• Easy Company of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, which became the focus of the BBC/HBO miniseries Band of Brothers.

A weapons company has in place of the three rifle pla- 0.13.7 See also toons, an 81 mm mortar platoon, an anti-armor platoon, and a heavy machine gun platoon. • Military organization Headquarters and Service Company

• Infantry of the British Army

• Headquarters Platoon consists of Marines from S-1, 0.13.8 S-2, S-3, the Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Defense section, and the Chaplain section (one Navy chap- 0.13.9 lain and an enlisted religious program specialist). • Communications Platoon, consisting of Radiomen, Wiremen, Techs, Data Marines, and the associated staff. • Service Platoon, consisting of S-4, Motor Transportation, Food Service, armorers, and Supply.

Notes References

[1] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4–26 [2] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4–15 [3] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4–108

• Scout Sniper Platoon. • Medical Platoon, which includes all of the Navy 0.13.10 External links medical personnel for the rifle companies and the Battalion Aid Station (BAS). The allowance of 65 0.14 Corps hospital corpsmen and two Medical Corps officers (doctors) is usually not completely staffed. As such, This article is about a military unit. For alterthe BAS usually fields one doctor and 10–12 hospital native meanings, see Corps (disambiguation). corpsmen. The remaining personnel are assigned to the rifle companies, usually five hospital corpsmen A corps (/ˈkɔər/“core"; the plural is spelled the same as per company. singular but pronounced /ˈkɔərz/ “cores"; from French, from the Latin corpus “body”) is an organized body of Tank and Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) companies people. It may be: USMC tank and LAR companies are organized similarly to US Army tank and mechanized infantry companies, with the three line platoons consisting of four tanks or LAVs each and the company command element containing two tanks or LAVs.

• A large military formation composed of two or more military divisions. There is no rule for the size of a corps, but typically it might consist of twenty thousand to forty thousand soldiers.

Assault Amphibian Vehicle (AAV) companies

• A professional branch of the armed forces such as a medical corps, signal corps, marine corps, etc.

0.14. CORPS

37 the New Guinea campaign. In early 1945, when I Corps was assigned the task of re-taking Borneo, II Corps took over in New Guinea. Canada

Canada first fielded a corps-sized formation in the First World War; the Canadian Corps was unique in that its composition did not change from inception to the war's end, in contrast to British corps in France and Flanders. The Canadian Corps consisted of four Canadian divisions. After the Armistice, the peacetime Canadian militia was nominally organized into corps and divisions but no full-time formations larger than a battalion were ever trained or exercised. Early in the Second World War, Standard NATO symbol for a corps. The Xs do not indicate the Canada's contribution to the British-French forces fightcorps' number; instead, the three Xs represent a corps (two Xs ing the Germans was limited to a single division. After represent a division and 1 X represents a brigade). the fall of France in June 1940, a second division moved to England, coming under command of a Canadian corps • A civilian public organization such as a police corps, headquarters. This corps was renamed I Canadian Corps as a second corps headquarters was established in the ambulance corps, Civil Defence Corps etc. UK, with the eventual formation of five Canadian divisions in England. I Canadian Corps eventually fought in Italy, II Canadian Corps in NW Europe, and the two were 0.14.1 Military formation reunited in early 1945. After the formations were disIn many armies, a corps is a battlefield formation com- banded after VE Day, Canada has never subsequently orposed of two or more divisions, and typically commanded ganized a Corps headquarters. by a lieutenant general. During World War I and World War II, due to the large scale of combat, multiple corps Republic of China (1911–1947) were combined into armies which then formed into army groups. In Western armies with numbered corps, the An NRA Corps (軍團) was a type of military organizanumber is often indicated in Roman numerals (e.g., VII tion used by the Chinese Republic, and usually exercised Corps). command over two to three NRA Divisions and often a number of Independent Brigades or Regiments and supporting units. The Chinese Republic had 133 Corps durAustralia ing the Second Sino-Japanese War. After losses in the early part of the war, under the 1938 reforms, the reIn the later stages of World War I, the five infantry dimaining scarce artillery and the other support formations visions of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) ̶ were withdrawn from the Division and was held at Corps, consisting entirely of personnel who had volunteered for or Army level or higher. The Corps became the basic service overseas̶were united as the Australian Corps, tactical unit of the National Revolutionary Army having on the Western Front, under Lieutenant General Sir John strength nearly equivalent to an allied Division. Monash. During World War II, the Australian I Corps was formed to co-ordinate three Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) units: the 6th, 7th and 9th Divisions, as well as other Allied units on some occasions, in the North African campaign and Greek campaign. Following the commencement of the Pacific War, there was a phased withdrawal of I Corps to Australia, and the transfer of its headquarters to the Brisbane area, to control Allied army units in Queensland and northern New South Wales (NSW). II Corps was also formed, with Militia units, to defend south-eastern Australia, and III Corps controlled land forces in Western Australia. Sub-corps formations controlled Allied land forces in the remainder of Australia. I Corps headquarters was later assigned control of

France The French Army under Napoleon used corps-sized formations (French: Corps d'Armée) as the first formal combined-arms groupings of divisions with reasonably stable manning and equipment establishments. Napoleon first used the Corps d'Armée in 1805 . The use of the Corps d'Armée was a military innovation that provided Napoleon with a significant battlefield advantage in the early phases of the Napoleonic Wars. The Corps was designed to be an independent military group containing cavalry, artillery and infantry, and capable of defending against a numerically superior foe. This allowed

38 Napoleon to mass the bulk of his forces to effect a penetration into a weak section of enemy lines without risking his own communications or flank. This innovation stimulated other European powers to adopt similar military structures. The Corps has remained an echelon of French Army organization to the modern day.

CONTENTS of the IFOR deployment prior to that in 1996. Otherwise, the only time a British corps headquarters has been operationally deployed since 1945 was II Corps during the Suez Crisis. United States

Pakistan The paramilitary forces of Pakistan's two main western provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan are the Frontier Corps (FC) founded in 1907 during British Rule as at least three various organizations before being combined together. They are charged with guarding the country's western borders as well as providing internal security including guarding important sites and participating in law enforcement activities. They are divided into two sub-organizations: FC Balochistan and FC Pakhtunkhwa. Poland (1938–39) The Polish Armed Forces used Independent Operational Group's in the place of the Corps before and during World War Two. An example would be Independent Operational Group Polesie. The groups, as the name indicates, were more flexible and showed greater capacity to absorb and integrate elements of broken units over a period of just a couple days and keep cohesion during the September Campaign than more traditional army units such as divisions, regiments, or even brigades.

The XVIII Airborne Corps command group returns home from Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2009

United Kingdom The structure of a field corps in the United States Army Wellington formed a “corps d'armee”in 1815 for com- is not permanent; many of the units that it commands are manding his mixed allied force of four divisions against allocated to it as needed on an ad hoc basis. On the batNapoleon. tlefield, the corps is the highest level of the forces that When the British Army was expanded from an expedi- is concerned with actually fighting and winning the war. tionary force in the First World War, corps were created Higher levels of command are concerned with administo manage the large numbers of divisions. The British tration rather than operations, at least under current doccorps in World War I included 23 infantry corps and a trine. The corps provides operational direction for the forces under its command. few mounted corps. The British Army still has a corps headquarters for operational control of forces. I Corps of the British Army of the Rhine was redesignated the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps in 1994 . It is no longer a purely British formation, although the UK is the 'framework nation' and provides most of the staff for the headquarters. A purely national Corps headquarters could be quickly reconstituted if necessary. It took command of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan on 4 May 2006. Previously, it was deployed as the headquarters commanding land forces during the Kosovo War in 1999 and also saw service in Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding the initial stages

As of 2014, the active field corps in the U.S. Army are I ( core”), III Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps; Corps “eye their lineages derive from three of the corps formed during World War I (I and III Corps) and World War II (XVIII Airborne Corps). Civil War The first field corps in the United States Army were legalized during the American Civil War by an Act of Congress on July 17, 1862, but Major General George B. McClellan had designated six corps organizations within his Army of the Potomac that spring. Previously, groupings of divisions were known by other names, such as“wings”and“grand divisions”. The term“army

0.14. CORPS corps”was often used at this time. These organizations were much smaller than their modern counterparts: they were usually commanded by a major general, were composed of two to six divisions (although predominantly three) and typically included from 10,000 to 15,000 men. Although designated with numbers that are sometimes the same as those found in the modern U.S. Army, there is no direct lineage between the 43 Union field corps of the Civil War and those with similar names in the modern era, due to Congressional legislation caused by the outcry from Grand Army of the Republic veterans during the Spanish–American War. In the Confederate States Army, field corps were authorized in November 1862. They were commanded by lieutenant generals and were usually larger than their Union Army counterparts because their divisions contained more brigades, each of which could contain more regiments. All of the Confederate corps at the Battle of Gettysburg, for instance, exceeded 20,000 men. However, for both armies, unit sizes varied dramatically with attrition throughout the war. In Civil War usages, by both sides, it was common to write out the number, thus “Twenty-first Army Corps”, a practice that is usually ignored in modern histories of the war.

39 Cold War and 21st Century After the Korean War, the Army and Marines would diverge in their approach to the concept of the field corps. III Marine Amphibious Corps would be transformed over the years into a selfcontained Marine Expeditionary Force, with organic air and logistic elements. The Army, meanwhile, would use corps-level headquarters during the Vietnam War, but using the name of “Field Force,”to avoid confusion with the ARVN corps areas.* [2] Soviet Union Main article: Formations of the Soviet Army

The pre-World War II Red Army of the former USSR had rifle corps much like in the Western sense with approximately three divisions to a corps.* [3] However, after the war started, the recently purged Soviet senior command (Stavka) structure was apparently unable to handle the formations, and the armies and corps were integrated. Rifle Corps were re-established during the war after Red Army commanders had gained experience handling larger formations. Before and during World War II, however, Soviet armored units were organized into corps. The pre-war Mechanized Corps were made up of divisions. In the reorganizations, these “Corps”were reSpanish-American War Although the U.S. Army in organized into tank brigades and support units, with no the years following the Civil War lacked standing orgadivision structure. Due to this, they are sometimes, innization at the corps and division levels, it moved swiftly formally, referred to as “Brigade Buckets”. to adopt these during the mobilization for the SpanishAmerican War in the spring of 1898. On May 7, General After the war, the Tank and Mechanized Corps were Order 36 called for the establishment of seven “army re-rated as divisions. During the reforms of 1956-58, corps”(repeating the nomenclature of the Civil War); an most of the corps were again disbanded to create the eighth was authorized later that month.* [1] Two of these new Combined Arms and Tank Armies. A few corps saw action as a unit: the Fifth in Cuba and the Eighth in were nevertheless retained, of both patterns. The Vyborg the Philippines; elements of the First, Fourth and Seventh and Archangel Corps of the Leningrad Military District made up the invasion force for Puerto Rico (the Sec- were smaller armies with three low-readiness motorized ond, Third and Seventh provided replacements and oc- rifle divisions each. The Category A Unified Corps of cupation troops in Cuba, while the Sixth was never or- the Belarussian Military District (Western TVD/Strategic ganized). The corps headquarters were disbanded during Direction) and Carpathian Military District (also Western the months following the signing of the peace treaty (with TVD) were of the brigade pattern. the exception of the Eighth Army Corps, which remained The Soviet Air Forces used ground terminology for its active until 1900 due to the eruption of the Philippine- formations down to squadron level. As intermediates American War), and like the corps of the Civil War, their between the Aviation Division and the Air Army were lineage ends at that point. Corps̶these also had three Air Divisions each. World Wars I & II During World War I the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) adopted the common European usage of designating field corps by Roman numerals. Several "corps areas" were designated under the authority of the National Defense Act of 1920, but played little role until the Army's buildup for World War II. During that war, the Marine Corps organized corps headquarters for the first time, the I Marine (later III Amphibious Corps) and V Amphibious Corps. The Army would ultimately designate 25 field corps (I-XVI, XVIII-XXIV, XXXVI and I Armored Corps) during World War II.

0.14.2 Administrative Corps In the British Army and the armies of many Commonwealth countries, a corps is also a grouping by common function, or an Arm or a Service (e.g. Intelligence Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, Royal Corps of Signals), performing much the same function as a ceremonial infantry or cavalry regiment, with its own cap badge, stable belt, and other insignia and traditions. The Royal Armoured Corps and the Corps of Infantry are looser groupings of independent regiments.

40 Australia Main article: List of Australian Army Corps In Australia, soldiers belong foremost to a Corps which defines a common function or employment across the army. The Australian Army has a system of coloured lanyards, which each identify a soldier as part of a specific Corps (or sometimes individual battalion). This lanyard is a woven piece of cord which is worn on ceremonial uniforms and dates back to the issue of clasp knives in the early 20th century which were secured to the uniform by a length of cord. If a soldier is posted to a unit outside of their parent corps, except in some circumstances the soldier continues to wear the hat badge and lanyard of their Corps (e.g. a Clerk posted to an infantry battalion would wear the hat badge of the Royal Australian Ordnance Corps but would wear the lanyard of the battalion they are posted to.)

CONTENTS regimental system there is less variation in insignia and tradition. These are often referred to as “Branches” and include the Quartermaster Corps, Ordnance Corps, Transportation Corps, Medical Corps, Nurse Corps, Chaplain Corps, Judge Advocate General's Corps, & Finance Corps. Each of these Corps is also considered a “Regiment”for historic purposes but these Regiments have no tactical function.

0.14.3 Non-military use The Salvation Army calls its local units/church “corps” (e.g. The Rockford Temple Corps, The St. Petersburg Citadel Corps), echoing the pseudomilitary name and structure of the organization. In the United Kingdom, the Royal Observer Corps was a civil defence unit from 1925 until disbanded in 1995.

In the US, there are non-military, administrative, training and certification Corps for commissioned officers of the government's uniformed services, such as the United Canada States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and In Canada, with the integration of the Canadian army the National Oceanic *and* Atmospheric Administration into the Canadian Forces, the British Corps model was Commissioned Corps. [7] [8] replaced with personnel branches, defined in Canadian Many volunteer municipal or university ambulance, resForces Administrative Orders (CFAOs) as "...cohesive cue, and first aid squads are known as VACs (volunteer professional groups...based on similarity of military roles, ambulance corps). Prominent examples are the Order of customs and traditions.”CFAO 2-10)* [4] However, the Malta (the largest in Ireland), Hatzolah (largest VAC netArmour Branch has continued to use the title Royal Cana- work worldwide), Hackensack VAC. The usage of the dian Armoured Corps, the Infantry Branch continued to term Ambulance Corps dates to Civil War Major General use the Royal Canadian Infantry Corps designation, and George B. McClellan's General Order No 147 to create the Artillery Branch uses the term Royal Regiment of an “ambulance corps”within the Union Army.* [9] GO Canadian Artillery. When the Army, Royal Canadian 147 used“Corps”in one of its standard military senses. Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged in However, subsequent formations of non-military ambu1968 to form the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian lance squads continued to use the term, even where they Dental Corps and Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps adhere less to paramilitary organizational structure. were deactivated and merged with their Naval and Air The Peace Corps was organized by the United States as Force counterparts to form the Dental Branch (Canadian an “army”of volunteers. Forces) and the Canadian Forces Medical Service of the Canadian Forces Health Services Group (CF H Svcs Gp). Some Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are The Royal Canadian Army Service Corps transport and known as corps. Examples include Global Health Corps supply elements were combined with the Royal Cana- and Mercy Corps. dian Ordnance Corps to form the Logistics Branch The A Patent Examiner in the US is a member of the ExamRoyal Canadian Army Service Corps clerical trades were iner Corps. merged with the Royal Canadian Army Pay Corps and the Royal Canadian Postal Corps to form the Administration Branch (later merged with the Logistics Branch) 0.14.4 See also * [5] Other“corps”, included: Canadian Engineer Corps, Signalling Corps, Corps of Guides, Canadian Women's • The Salvation Army Army Corps, Royal Canadian Army Veterinary Corps, • Military unit Canadian Forestry Corps, Canadian Provost Corps and Canadian Intelligence Corps.* [6] • Corps area United States The Corps system is also used in the U.S. Army to group personnel with a common function, but without a

• United States Marine Corps • Eurocorps • List of military corps

0.15. DETACHMENT (MILITARY)

41

• List of corps of the United States

0.15 Detachment (military)

• Drum and bugle corps (modern)

A detachment (from the French détachement) is a military unit. It can either be detached from a larger unit for a specific function or (particularly in United States Military usage) be a permanent unit smaller than a battalion. The term is often used to refer to a unit that is assigned to a different base from the parent unit. An example is the United States Army's 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (Airborne) (1st SFOD-D (A)), commonly known as Delta Force by the general public.

• Drum and bugle corps (classic) • Peace Corps • AmeriCorps • Signal Corps (disambiguation) • United States Army Corps of Engineers • Ambulance corps

Detachment is also the term used as the collective noun for personnel manning an artillery piece (e.g. gun detachment).

• Green Lantern Corps

0.14.5

References and Further Reading

[1] Kreidberg, Marvin; Henry, Morton (November 1955). History of Military Mobilization (PDF). Washington, DC: Department of the Army. pp. 144–145. Retrieved 30 July 2014. [2] Eckhardt, George S. (1991). Vietnam Studies: Command and Control, 1950-1969. Washington, DC: Department of the Army. pp. 52–55. Retrieved 30 July 2014.

0.15.1 Use by Cadet forces in the United Kingdom The Army Cadet Force in the United Kingdom breaks its structure down into local detachments which usually consist of between 10 and 40 cadets. Several detachments make up a company. The Combined Cadet Force, however, does not use this term. Individual units are known as Cadet Contingents.

0.15.2 See also [3] Eve of war Soviet structure

• Geographically Separate Unit [4] http://www.admfincs.forces.gc.ca/admfincs/subjects/ cfao/002-10_e.asp

0.15.3 References [5] Sutton, Brigadier John, ed.,”Wait For The Waggon”. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Leo Cooper, 1998.

0.16 Division (military)

[6] Love, David, A Call To Arms. [7] “Mission of Public Health Service at USPHS Commissioned Corps”. Usphs.gov. 2011-11-14. Retrieved 4 July 2012. [8] “NOAA Corps”. Noaacorps.noaa.gov. Retrieved 4 July 2012. [9] “The Union Army Ambulance Corps”.

• Phisterer, Frederick, Statistical Record of the Armies of the United States, Castle Books, 1883, ISBN 07858-1585-6. • Tsouras, P.G. Changing Orders: The evolution of the World's Armies, 1945 to the Present Facts On File, Inc, 1994. ISBN 0-8160-3122-3 Standard NATO symbol for an infantry division. The Xs do not • Warsaw Pact June 1989 OOB

replace the division's number; instead, the two Xs represent a division (one would denote a brigade; three, a corps).

42

CONTENTS

A division is a large military unit or formation, usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades; in turn, several divisions typically make up a corps. In most modern militaries, a division tends to be the smallest combined arms unit capable of independent operations; this is due to its self-sustaining role as a unit with a range of combat troops and suitable combat support forces, which can be divided into various organic combinations. While the focus of this article is on army divisions, in naval usage division has a completely different meaning, referring either to an administrative/functional sub-unit of a department aboard naval and coast guard ships and shore commands (e.g., fire control division, weapons department), to a sub-unit of several ships within a flotilla or squadron, or to two or three sections of aircraft operating under a designated division leader. In the administrative usage, unit size varies widely, though typically divisions number far less than 100 people. In the US and Commonwealth navies a divisional officer (DIVO) is usually an ensign or lieutenant (JG), but may be an officer of much higher rank in certain circumstances or aboard large warships, who oversees a team of enlisted sailors in their duties.

0.16.1

History

Modern divisions In modern times, most military forces have standardized their divisional structures. This does not mean that divisions are equal in size or structure from country to country, but divisions have, in most cases, come to comprise units of 10,000 to 20,000 troops with enough organic support to be capable of independent operations. Usually, the direct organization of the division consists of one to four brigades or battle groups of its primary combat arm, along with a brigade or regiment of combat support (usually artillery) and a number of direct-reporting battalions for necessary specialized support tasks, such as intelligence, logistics, reconnaissance, and combat engineers. Most militaries standardize ideal organization strength for each type of division, encapsulated in a Table of Organization and Equipment (TO&E) which specifies exact assignments of units, personnel, and equipment for a division. The modern division became the primary identifiable combat unit in many militaries during the second half of the 20th century, supplanting the brigade; however, the trend started to reverse since the end of the Cold War. The peak use of the division as the primary combat unit occurred during World War II, when the belligerents deployed over a thousand divisions. With technological advances since then, the combat power of each division has increased; the Invasion of Iraq in 2003 involved only a handful of divisions but significant support forces.

Origins In the West, the first general to think of organising an army into smaller combined-arms units was Maurice de Saxe (d. 1750), Marshal General of France, in his book Mes Rêveries. He died at the age of 54, without having implemented his idea. Victor-François de Broglie put the ideas into practice. He conducted successful practical experiments of the divisional system in the Seven Years' War.

0.16.2 Types Divisions are often formed to organize units of a particular type together with appropriate support units to allow independent operations. In more recent times, divisions have mainly been organized as combined arms units with subordinate units representing various combat arms. In this case, the division often retains the name of a more specialized division, and may still be tasked with a primary role suited to that specialization.

Early divisions The first war in which the divisional system was used systematically was the French Revolutionary War. Lazare Carnot of the Committee of Public Safety, who was in charge of military affairs, came to the same conclusion about it as the previous royal government, and the army was organised into divisions. It made the armies more flexible and easy to manoeuvre, and it also made the large army of the revolution manageable. Under Napoleon, the divisions were grouped together into corps, because of their increasing size. Napoleon's military success spread the divisional and corps system all over Europe; by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, all armies in Europe had adopted it.

Cavalry For most nations, cavalry was deployed in smaller units and was not therefore organized into divisions, but for larger militaries, such as that of the British Empire, United States, First French Empire, France, German Empire, Nazi Germany, Russian Empire, Empire of Japan, Second Polish Republic and Soviet Union, a number of cavalry divisions were formed. They were most often similar to the nations' infantry divisions in structure, although they usually had fewer and lighter support elements, with cavalry brigades or regiments replacing the infantry units, and supporting units, such as artillery and supply, being horse-drawn. For the most part, large cavalry units did not remain after World War II.

0.16. DIVISION (MILITARY) While horse cavalry had been found to be obsolete, the concept of cavalry as a fast force capable of missions traditionally fulfilled by horse cavalry made a return to military thinking during the Cold War. In general, two new types of cavalry were developed: air cavalry or airmobile, relying on helicopter mobility, and armored cavalry, based on an autonomous armored formation. The former was pioneered by the 11th Air Assault Division (Test), formed on 1 February 1963 at Fort Benning, Georgia. On 29 June 1965 the division was renamed as the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile), before its departure for the Vietnam War.

43 tank, infantry, artillery, and support units. A panzer division was an armoured division of the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS of Germany during World War II. Since the end of the war, most armored and infantry divisions have had significant numbers of both tank and infantry units within them. The difference has usually been in the mix of battalions assigned. Additionally, in some militaries, armored divisions would be equipped with the most advanced or powerful tanks – such as the M1A2 Abrams in the United States.

After the end of the Vietnam War, the 1st Cavalry Di- Infantry division vision was reorganised and re-equipped with tanks and armored scout vehicles to form armored cavalry, as were Infantry division refers to a division with a majority of all of the United States' independent Cavalry Regiments. infantry sub-units but also supported by subunits from other combat arms. In the Soviet Union and Russia, an After the 1990–91 Gulf War, the U.S. 2nd Armored infantry division is often referred to as a rifle division. A Cavalry Regiment (2nd ACR) was re-equipped with motorised infantry division refers to a division with a Humvees and designated Armored Cavalry (Light), while majority of infantry subunits transported on soft-skinned units retaining their Abrams tanks and Bradley fighting motor vehicles. A mechanized infantry division refers Vehicles were classified as Armored Cavalry (Heavy). In to a division with a majority of infantry subunits trans2004, the 2nd ACR was again reequipped, this time with ported on armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry Stryker Armored Combat Vehicles, and renamed the 2nd fighting vehicles (IFVs) or both, or even some other class Cavalry Regiment. of armored fighting vehicles designed for the transportation of infantry. Armored division

0.16.3 Nomenclature Divisions are designated by combining an ordinal number and a type name. Nicknames are often assigned or adopted, although these often are not considered an official part of the unit's nomenclature. In some cases, divisional titles lack an ordinal number, often in the case of unique units or units serving as elite or special troops. For clarity in histories and reports, the nation is identified before the number. This also helps in historical studies, but due to the nature of intelligence on the battlefield, division names and assignments are at times obscured. However, the size of the division rarely makes such obfuscation necessary.

0.16.4 National organization Australia A Priest 105mm self-propelled gun of British 3rd Infantry Division, 1944

The development of the tank during World War I prompted some nations to experiment with forming them into division-size units. Many did this the same way as they did cavalry divisions, by merely replacing cavalry with AFVs (including tanks) and motorizing the supporting units. This proved unwieldy in combat, as the units had many tanks but few infantry units. Instead, a more balanced approach was taken by adjusting the number of

Historically, the Australian Army has fielded a number of divisions. During World War I, a total of six infantry divisions were raised as part of the all-volunteer Australian Imperial Force: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th. The 1st Division and part of the 2nd saw service during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 before later taking part in the fighting on the Western Front between 1916 and 1918 along with the 3rd, 4th and 5th.* [1] The 6th Division existed only briefly in 1917, but was disbanded without seeing combat to make up for manpower

44 shortages in the other divisions.* [2] Another infantry division, known as the New Zealand and Australian Division, was also formed from Australian and New Zealand troops and saw service at Gallipoli.* [3] Two divisions of Australian Light Horse were also formed – the Australian Mounted Division (which also included some British and French units) and the ANZAC Mounted Division – both of which served in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the war.* [4]

Members of the Australian 6th Division at Tobruk, 22 January 1941

In the inter-war years, on paper the Australian Army was organised into seven divisions: five infantry (1st through to 5th) and two cavalry, albeit on a reduced manning scale.* [5] During World War II, the size of Australia's force was expanded to eventually include 12 infantry divisions: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th. Of these, four – the 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th – were raised as part of the all-volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force, while the others formed part of the Militia, and were maintained through a mixture of volunteers and conscripts. In addition to the infantry divisions, three armoured divisions were formed: 1st, 2nd and 3rd. The Australian divisions were used in various campaigns, ranging from North Africa, Greece, Syria and Lebanon, to the South West Pacific.* [6]

CONTENTS and became the 1st Canadian Division when a 2nd Canadian Division took to the field later that year. A 3rd Canadian Division and 4th Canadian Division saw service in France and Flanders, and a Fifth Canadian Division was disbanded in the United Kingdom and broken up for reinforcements. The four divisions (collectively under the command of the Canadian Corps) were disbanded in 1919. Canada had nominal divisions on paper between the wars, overseeing the Militia (part-time reserve forces), but no active duty divisions. On 1 September 1939, two divisions were raised as part of the Canadian Active Service Force; a Third Division was raised in 1940, followed by a First Canadian (Armoured) Division and Fourth Canadian Division. The First Armoured was renamed the Fifth Canadian (Armoured) Division and the Fourth Division also became an armoured formation. The 1st and 5th Divisions fought in the Mediterranean between 1943 and early 1945; the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions served in Northwest Europe. A Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Division were raised for service in Canada, with one brigade of the Sixth Division going to Kiska in 1943. By 1945, the latter three divisions were disbanded as the threat to North America diminished. A Third Canadian Division (Canadian Army Occupation Force) was raised in 1945 for occupation duty in Germany, organized parallel to the combatant Third Division, and a Sixth Canadian Division (Canadian Army Pacific Force) was undergoing formation and training for the invasion of Japan when the latter country surrendered in September 1945. All five combatant divisions, as well as the CAOF and CAPF, were disbanded by the end of 1946.

A First Canadian Division Headquarters (later renamed simply First Division) was authorized once again in April 1946, but remained dormant until formally disbanded in July 1954. Simultaneously, however, another “Headquarters, First Canadian Infantry Division”was authorized as part of the Canadian Army Active Force (the Regular forces of the Canadian military), in October 1953. This, the first peace-time division in Canadian history, consisted of a brigade in Germany, one in Edmonton Since the end of World War II, the number of divisions and one at Valcartier. This division was disbanded in has fallen significantly as the Australian Army has con- April 1958. centrated its force generation at brigade level. Three di- The First Canadian Division was reactivated in 1988 visions – the 1st, 2nd and 3rd – have existed during this and served until the 1990s when the headquarters of time, but the 3rd Division was disbanded in 1991, and the division was transformed into the Canadian Forces only two divisions currently remain active. The 1st Divi- Joint Headquarters and placed under the control of the sion is a skeleton organisation that acts as a deployable Canadian Expeditionary Force Command. The CFJHQ force headquarters, while the 2nd is a Reserve forma- was transformed back into Headquarters, 1st Canadian tion.* [7]* [8] Division, on 23 June 2010, the unit once more falling under the control of the Canadian Army. The unit is based at Kingston. Canada currently has 5 divisions unCanada der its command. 1st Canadian Division has approxiThe first division-sized formation raised by the Canadian mately 2000 troops under its command, while 2nd Canamilitary was the First Contingent of the Canadian Ex- dian Division, 3rd Canadian Division, 4th Canadian Dipeditionary Force; raised in 1914, it was renamed the vision, and the 5th Canadian Division have approximately Canadian Division in early 1915 when it took to the field, 10,000 troops each.

0.16. DIVISION (MILITARY)

45

China

Colombia

People's Republic The People's Liberation Army (PLA) deploys the world's largest ground force, currently totaling some 1.6 million personnel, or about 70% of the PLA's total manpower (2.3 million in 2005). The ground forces are divided into seven Military Regions (MR). The regular forces of the ground forces consist of 18 group armies: corps-size combined arms units each with 24,000–50,000 personnel. The group armies contain among them:

In the Colombian Army, a division is formed by two or more brigades and is usually commanded by a Major General. Today, the Colombian Army has eight active divisions:

• 25 infantry divisions • 28 infantry brigades • 9 armored divisions • 9 armored brigades • 2 artillery divisions • 19 artillery brigades • 19 antiaircraft artillery/air-defense missile brigades • 10 army aviation (helicopter) regiments.

• 1st Division (Santa Marta) – Its jurisdiction covers the Northern Region of Colombia in which there are the departments of Cesar, La Guajira, Magdalena, Sucre, Bolívar and Atlántico. • 2nd Division (Bucaramanga) – Its jurisdiction covers the north eastern Colombia in which there are the departments of Norte de Santander, Santander and Arauca. • 3rd Division (Popayán) – Its jurisdiction covers the South West of Colombia in which there are the departamntos of Nariño, Valle del Cauca, Cauca, Caldas, Quindio, part of Santander and the southern part of the Chocó. • 4th Division (Villavicencio) – Its jurisdiction covers the eastern region of Colombia in which there are the departments of Meta, Guaviare, and part of Vaupés.

There are also three airborne divisions manned by the PLA Air Force (PLAAF). The PLA Navy (PLAN) has two multi-arm marine brigades.

• 5th Division (Bogotá) – Its jurisdiction covers the Central Region of Colombia in which there are the departments of Cundinamarca, Boyaca, Huila and Tolima.

National Revolutionary Army The NRA Division (Chinese: 整編師, 編制師) was a military unit of the Chinese Republic. The original pattern of the infantry Division organization of the early Republic, was a square division. It was formed with two infantry brigades of two infantry regiments of three infantry battalions, an artillery regiment of fifty four guns and eighteen machineguns, a cavalry regiment of twelve squadrons, an engineer battalion of four companies, a transport battalion of four companies, and other minor support units.* [9]* [10]

• 6th Division (Florencia) – Its jurisdiction covers the southern region of Colombia in which there are the departments of Amazonas, Caquetá, Putumayo and southern Vaupés.

In the mid-1930s, the Nationalist government with the help of German advisors attempted to modernize their army and intended to form sixty Reorganized Divisions and a number of reserve divisions. Under the strains and losses of the early campaigns of the Second SinoJapanese War, the Chinese decided in mid-1938 to standardize their Divisions as triangular divisions as part of their effort to simplify the command structure and placed them under Corps, which became the basic tactical units. The remaining scarce artillery and the other support formations were withdrawn from the Division and were held at Corps or Army level or even higher. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Republic mobilized at least 310 Infantry Divisions, 23 Cavalry Divisions, and one Mechanized Division, (the 200th Division).

• 8th Division (Yopal) – Its jurisdiction covers the northeastern region of Colombia in which there are the departments of Casanare, Arauca, Vichada, Guainía, and the municipalities of Boyaca of Cubará, Pisba, Paya, Labranzagrande and Pajarito.

• 7th Division (Medellin) – Its jurisdiction covers the western region of Colombia in which there are the departments of Cordoba, Antioquia, and part of the Chocó.

France French Army retained divisions as permanent units until its 1999 reorganisation. Since then, brigades have been the largest permanent formations. However, the army still retains two divisions headquarters, known as État-major de force n° 1 and État-major de force n° 3 (Etat-major n°2 and 4 were disbanded in 2011).

46

CONTENTS

Germany Today, the German Army has five active divisions:

jor (BSM) and may consists of three infantry, mechanised and/or armoured brigades and supporting units. Currently, the British Army has two active divisions:

•

1. Panzerdivision (1. PzDiv) in Hannover

•

1st (United Kingdom) Division, the Adaptable Force

•

Division Spezielle Operationen (DSO) in Veitshöchheim

•

3rd (United Kingdom) Division, the Reaction Force

•

Division Luftbewegliche Operationen (DLO) in The British Army previously had four other infantry diStadtallendorf visions. These are now disbanded and were placed under one single two-star command, Support Command. • 10. Panzerdivision (10. PzDiv) in Sigmaringen •

13. Panzergrenadierdivision (13. PzGrenDiv) in Leipzig

1. Panzerdivision includes the main part of the rapid reaction forces. The DSO is specialized in airborne and commando operations, the DLO covers army aviation, airmobile forces and combat support troops. 10. Panzerdivision and 13. Panzergrenadierdivision are planned for peace keeping missions. Each division is structured as two brigades and divisional troops. India With more than 1,130,000 soldiers in active service, the Indian Army is the world's third largest. An Indian Army division is intermediate between a corps and a brigade. Each division is headed by General Officer Commanding (GOC) in the rank of Major general. It usually consists of 15,000 combat troops and 8,000 support elements. Currently, the Indian Army has 37 divisions: four RAPIDs (Reorganised Army Plains Infantry Divisions), 18 infantry, 10 mountain, three armoured and two artillery. Each division consists of several brigades. Pakistan An Army division in the Pakistan Army is an intermediate between a corps and a brigade. It is the largest striking force in the army. Each division is headed by General Officer Commanding (GOC) in the rank of major general. It usually consists of 15,000 combat troops and 8,000 support elements. Currently, the Pakistani Army has 29 divisions: 20 infantry, two armoured, two mechanized, two air defence, two strategic and one artillery. Each division consists of several brigades.

•

2nd Division – Scotland and Northern England, headquartered at Edinburgh

•

4th Division – Southern England, headquartered at Aldershot

•

5th Division – Wales, English Midlands and Eastern England, headquartered at Shrewsbury

•

United States See also: Divisions of the United States Army A divisional unit in the United States Army typically consists of 17,000 to 21,000 soldiers commanded by a major general. Two divisions usually form a corps and each division consists of three maneuver brigades, an aviation brigade, an engineer brigade, and division artillery (latter two excluded from divisional structure as of 2007), along with a number of smaller specialized units. In 2014 divisional artillery (DIVARTY) organizations began to reappear with some fires brigades reorganizing to fill this role.* [11] The United States Army currently has ten active divisions: •

1st Infantry Division at Fort Riley, Kansas and in Fort Knox, Kentucky

•

1st Armored Division at Fort Bliss, Texas

•

1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas

•

2nd Infantry Division at Camp Red Cloud, South Korea and in Fort Lewis, Washington

•

3rd Infantry Division at Fort Stewart, Georgia and in Fort Benning, Georgia

United Kingdom In the British Army, a division is commanded by a major-general with a WO1 as the Brigade Sergeant Ma-

6th Division – headquartered at York

0.16. DIVISION (MILITARY)

47

•

42nd Infantry Division, Troy, New York

There are two division within the Army Reserve that are responsible for training operations:

•

95th Division (Training), Fort Sill, Oklahoma

•

100th Division (Training), Fort Knox, Kentucky

The United States Marine Corps has a further three active divisions and one reserve division. They consist of three infantry regiments, one artillery regiment, a tank Soldiers from the US 1st Infantry Division in Fallujah, 2005. battalion, a Light Armored Reconnaissance battalion, an Amphibious Assault Vehicle battalion, a reconnaissance battalion, a combat engineer battalion, and a headquarters • 4th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Col- battalion. orado • 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton, California. • 10th Mountain Division (Light) at Fort Drum, New York and in Fort Polk, Louisiana •

25th Infantry Division at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, Fort Richardson, Alaska and in Fort Wainwright, Alaska

•

2nd Marine Division at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.

•

3rd Marine Division at Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa, Japan.

•

4th Marine Division (Reserve) with units located throughout the United States and headquartered in New Orleans, Louisiana.

•

82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, North Carolina

•

101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) at Fort Campbell, Kentucky Japan

The Army National Guard has a further eight divisions:

Japan Ground Self-Defense Force divisions are combined arms units with infantry, armored, and artillery units, combat support units and logistical support units. They • 28th Infantry Division, Fort Indiantown Gap, are regionally independent and permanent entities. The Pennsylvania divisions strength varies from 6,000 to 9,000 personnel. JGSDF currently has 9 active duty divisions (1 armored, 8 infantry):

•

29th Infantry Division, Fort Belvoir, Virginia

•

34th Infantry Division, Rosemount, Minnesota

•

1st Division, in Nerima.

•

35th Infantry Division, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

•

2nd Division, in Asahikawa.

•

3rd Division, in Itami.

•

4th Division, in Kasuga.

•

6th Division, in Higashine.

071216-A-0013H-001

•

36th Infantry Division, Camp Mabry, Texas

•

38th Infantry Division, Indianapolis, Indiana

•

40th Infantry Division, Los Alamitos JFTB, California

• 7th Division (Armored), in Chitose.

48

•

CONTENTS

8th Division, in Kumamoto.

Russian Federation

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian tank and motorized-rifle divisions were reduced to nearcadre state, many being designated Bases for Storage of Weapons and Equipment (Russian acronym BKhVT). • 10th Division, in Nagoya. These bases, or“cadre”divisions, were equipped with all the heavy armaments of a full-strength motor-rifle or tank division, while having only skeleton personnel strength, USSR as low as 500 personnel. The officers and men of a cadre division focus primarily on maintaining the equipment in Main article: List of Soviet Union divisions working condition. During wartime mobilization, such a division would be beefed up to full manpower strength; In the Soviet Armed Forces, a division (Russian: diviziya) however, in peacetime, a cadre division is unfit for any may have referred to a formation in any of the Armed combat. Services, and included subunits appropriate to the service After the 2008 Russian military reforms, most active disuch as regiments and battalions, squadrons or naval vesvisions were disbanded or converted into brigades. Exsels. Almost all divisions irrespective of the service had ceptions are the: the 3+1+1 structure of major sub-units, which were usually regiments. •

9th Division, in Aomori.

There is also a similarly sounding unit of military organization in Russian military terminology, called divizion. A divizion is used to refer to an artillery battalion, a specific part of a ship's crew (korabel'nyy divizion, 'ship battalion'), or a group of naval vessels (divizion korabley). Before the Second World War, besides the Mechanised Corps, there were independent tank battalions within rifle divisions. These were meant to reinforce rifle units for the purpose of breaching enemy defences. They had to act in cooperation with the infantry without breaking away from it and were called tanks for immediate infantry support (tanki neposredstvennoy podderzhki pekhoty). After 1945, some Red Army rifle divisions were converted to Mechanised Divisions. From 1957, all rifle and mechanised divisions became Motorised Rifle Divisions (MRDs). These divisions usually had approximately 12,000 soldiers organized into three motor rifle regiments, a tank regiment, an artillery regiment, an air defense regiment, surface-to-surface missile and antitank battalions, and supporting chemical, engineer, signal, reconnaissance, and rear services companies.* [12] A typical tank division had some 10,000 soldiers organized into three tank regiments and one motorized rifle regiment, all other sub-units being same as the MRD.* [13]

•

7th Guards Air Assault (Mountain) Division in Novorossiysk

•

76th Guards Air Assault Division in Pskov

•

98th Guards Airborne Division in Ivanovo

•

106th Guards Airborne Division in Tula

•

4th Guards Tank Division in Naro-Fominsk

•

2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division in Moscow

In addition to the Army divisions, Ministry of Internal Affairs has one, rapid deployment capable Internal Troops division: •

Dzerzhinsky Division in Moscow.

0.16.5 See also

• Air Division A typical Soviet Frontal Aviation Division consisted of three air regiments, a transport squadron, and associated • List of military divisions maintenance units. The number of aircraft within a regiment varied. Fighter and fighter-bomber regiments were • commons:Division insignia of the United States usually equipped with about 40 aircraft (36 of the primary Army unit type and a few utility and spares), while bomber reg• Military organization iments typically consisted of 32 aircraft. Divisions were typically commanded by Colonels or Major Generals, or Colonels or Major Generals of Aviation in the Air Force. 0.16.6 Notes Soviet Naval Aviation and the Strategic Missile Forces divisions had either Colonels or Major Generals as com- [1] Grey 2008, p. 100 manding officers while the Ship Divisions were led by [2] Grey 2008, p. 111 Captains 1st Rank or Captains 2nd Rank.

0.17. FIELD ARMY

[3] Grey 2008, p. 92 [4] Grey 2008, pp. 99 & 117 [5] Keogh 1965, p. 37 [6] Johnston 2007, p. 10

49

0.16.8 External links • Infantry Divisions (British Army and British Indian Army) 1930–1956

0.17 Field army

[7] “1st Division”. Australian Army. Retrieved 4 June 2013. [8] Palazzo 2002, p. 194 [9] Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China. [10] History of the Frontal War Zone in the Sino-Japanese War, published by Nanjing University Press. [11] “Division Artillery returns to the Army”. DVIDS. 23 July 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014. [12] Note that during the Soviet era, 25 different MRD staffing and equipage tables existed to reflect different requirements of divisions stationed in different parts of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact countries and Mongolia

The standard map symbol for a field army. The four exes are the generic symbol of a field army (i.e. they do not represent Roman numerals); the army's specific number or name, if included, would be written numerically to the left of the symbol.

[13] Note that during the Soviet era, 15 different TD staffing and equipage tables existed to reflect different requirements of divisions stationed in different parts of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact countries and Mongolia

0.16.7

References

• Van Creveld, Martin (2000). The Art of War: War and Military Thought. London: Cassell. ISBN 0304-35264-0. • Grey, Jeffrey (2008). A Military History of Australia (3rd ed.). Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69791-0. • Johnston, Mark (2007). The Australian Army in World War II. Elite. Martin Windrow (consultant The unit flag of the Sixth United States Army. The distinguishing editor). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1- flag of a United States army is bicolored, white over red, measuring 91.4 centimeters (36 inches) hoist by 121.9 centimeters (48 84603-123-6. inches) fly, with gold fringe. In the center is a rendering of the army's shoulder-sleeve insignia, measuring 38.1 centimeters (15 inches) in height.* [1]

• Jones, Archer (2000). The Art of War in the Western World. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-25206966-8. A field army (or numbered army or simply army) is a military formation in many armed forces, composed of • Keogh, Eustace (1965). South West Pacific 1941– two or more corps and may be subordinate to an army 45. Melbourne, Victoria: Grayflower Publications. group. Likewise, air armies are equivalent formation OCLC 7185705. within some air forces. • Palazzo, Albert (2002). Defenders of Australia: The 3rd Australian Division 1916–1991. Loftus, New South Wales: Australian Military Historical Publications. ISBN 1-876439-03-3.

Particular field armies are usually named or numbered to distinguish them from “army”in the sense of an entire national land military force. In English, the typical style for naming field armies is word numbers, such as

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“First Army"; whereas corps are usually distinguished by Roman numerals (e.g. I Corps) and subordinate formations with ordinal numbers (e.g. 1st Division). A field army may be given a geographical name in addition to or as an alternative to a numerical name, such as the British Army of the Rhine, Army of the Niemen or Aegean Army (also known as the Fourth Army). The Roman army was among the first to feature a formal field army, in the sense of a very large, combined arms formation, namely the sacer comitatus, which may be translated literally as“sacred escort”. The term is derived from the fact that they were commanded by Roman emperors (who were regarded as sacred), when they acted as field commanders. While the Roman comitatensis (plural: comitatenses) is sometimes translated as“field army” , it may also be translated as the more generic“field force” or “mobile force”(as opposed to limitanei or garrison units). In some armed forces, an“army”is or has been equivalent to a corps-level unit. Prior to 1945, this was the case with a gun (軍; “army”) within the Imperial Japanese Army, for which the formation equivalent in size to a field army was an “area army”(⽅⾯軍; hōmen-gun). In the Soviet Red Army and the Soviet Air Forces, an army was subordinate in wartime to a front (an equivalent of army group). It contained at least three to five divisions along with artillery, air defense, reconnaissance and other supporting units. It could be classified as either a combined arms army (CAA) or tank army (TA); and while both were combined arms formations, the former contained a larger number of motorized rifle divisions while the later contained a larger number of tank divisions.* [2] In peacetime, a Soviet army was usually subordinate to a military district. Modern field armies are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility. For instance, within NATO a field army is composed of a headquarters, and usually controls at least two corps, beneath which are a variable number of divisions. A battle is influenced at the field army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point. NATO armies are controlled by a general or lieutenant general.

0.17.1

See also

• Military unit • Military history • List of numbered armies

0.17.2

Footnotes

[1] US Army, AR 840-10, Paragraph 5-11.

[2] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 1-3.

0.18 Field force A field force in British and Indian Army military parlance is a combined arms land force operating under actual or assumed combat circumstances,* [1] usually for the length of a specific military campaign. It is used by other nations, but can have a different meaning.

0.18.1 United Kingdom use A field force would be created from the various units in an area of military operations and be named for the geographical area. Examples are: • Kurram Field Force, 1878 • Peshawar Valley Field Force, 1878 • Kabul Field Force, 1879–1880 • Kabul-Kandahar Field Force, 1880 • Natal Field Force, 1881 • Zhob Field Force, 1890 • Mashonaland Field Force, 1896 • Malakand Field Force, 1896 • Tirah Field Force, 1897 • Yukon Field Force, 1898 • Royal West African Frontier Force, 1900

0.18.2 Australian use In Australia, a field force comprises the units required to meet operational commitments.* [2]

0.18.3 United States use In the United States, during the Vietnam War the term came to stand for a corps-sized organization with other functions and responsibilities. To avoid confusion with the corps designations used by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and to allow for a flexible organization, MACV and General William Westmoreland developed the“field force”such as I Field Force and II Field Force. Unlike an Army corps, which had a size and structure fixed by Army doctrine, the field force could expand as needed and had other functions such as liaison with South Vietnamese and civil affairs functions and was flexible enough to have many subordinate units assigned to it.* [3]

0.19. FIRETEAM

0.18.4

51

Police field forces

In counter insurgency type campaigns, select and specially trained units of police armed and equipped as light infantry have been designated as police field forces who perform paramilitary type patrols and ambushes whilst retaining their police powers in areas that were highly dangerous.* [4] Examples of these are: • Royal Malaysian Police Police Field Force/General Operations Forces (Malayan Emergency) • Kenya Police General Service Unit (Mau Mau Uprising) • Tanzania Police Police Field Force (Zanzibar Revo- Standard NATO military map symbol for a friendly infantry “Fireteam”. lution) • Gambia Police Field Force

section in coordinated operations, which is led by a squad • Republic of Vietnam National Police Field Force leader.* [1] (Vietnam War) Fireteams are the second smallest organized unit in the militaries that use it; the smallest being three or fewer sol• British South Africa Police Support Unit (Rhodesian dier support or specialist teams (such as anti-tank teams, Bush War) machine gun teams, mortar teams, sniper teams, EOD • Royal Solomon Islands Police Force Police Field teams, or military working dog teams) that are designed Force to operate independently. • Sri Lanka Special Task Force (Sri Lankan Civil Fireteams are the primary unit upon which modern infantry organization is based in the British Army, Royal War) Air Force Regiment, Royal Marines, United States Army, • Namibia Special Field Force United States Marine Corps, United States Air Force Security Forces, Canadian Forces, and Australian Army.

0.18.5

References

[1] p.88 Dupuy, Trevor N., Johnson, Curt and Hayes, Grace P. (1986). Dictionary of Military Terms: A Guide to the Language of Warfare and Military Institutions. The H. W. Wilson Company.

0.19.1 Concept

The concept of the fireteam is based on the need for tactical flexibility in infantry operations. A fireteam is capable of autonomous operations as part of a larger unit. [2] http://www.diggerhistory3.info/handbook/page/ Successful fireteam employment relies on quality small 01-army-today.htm unit training for soldiers, experience of fireteam members [3] Eckhard, George S. Vietnam Studies: Command and Con- operating together, sufficient communications infrastructrol 1950-1969. Washington, DC: Department of the ture, and a quality non-commissioned officer corps to Army, 1991 p. 53. Online http://www.history.army.mil/ provide tactical leadership for the team. books/Vietnam/Comm-Control/index.htm [4] p.Davies, Bruce & McKay, Gary The Men Who Persevered:The AATTV 2005 Bruce & Unwin

0.19 Fireteam A fireteam is a small military sub-subunit of infantry designed to optimize bounding overwatch and fire and movement tactical doctrine within a hostile urban environment. Depending on mission requirements, it generally consists of four or fewer soldiers and are usually grouped by two or three fireteams into a squad or

These requirements have led to successful use of the fireteam concept by more professional militaries. It is less useful for armies employing massed infantry formations, or with significant conscription. Conscription makes fireteam development difficult, as team members are more effective as they build experience over time working together and building personal bonds. The creation of effective fireteams is seen as essential for creating an effective professional military as they serve as a primary group. Psychological studies by the United States Army have indicated that the willingness to fight is more heavily influenced by the desire to avoid failing to support other members of the fireteam than by abstract

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concepts. Historically, nations with effective fireteam organization have had significantly better performance from their infantry units in combat than those limited to operations by larger units.

(Equipe de choc), made up of riflemen armed with rifle grenades or disposable rocket launchers, is the reconnaissance and maneuver unit. The Teams bounding overwatch, with one element covering as the other moves. The Team leaders have handheld radios so the elements can stay in contact with each other, as well as with the Section Leader's backpack radio set. The most common symbol of the modern French junior NCO (chef d'equipe) has been a radio hanging around their neck.

In combat, while attacking or maneuvering, a fireteam generally spreads over a distance of 50 metres (160 ft), while in defensive positions the team can cover up to the range of its weapons or the limits of visibility, whichever is less. In open terrain, up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) can be covered by an effective team, although detection range limits effectiveness beyond 100 metres (330 ft) or so United States without special equipment. A team is effective so long as its primary weapon remains operational. Army The United States Army particularly emphasizes the fireteam concept.* [2]

0.19.2

National variations

British Infantry units of the British Army, Royal Marines and RAF Regiment use the fireteam concept. An infantry section of eight men contains two fireteams, Charlie and Delta, each comprising an NCO (Corporal or Lance Corporal) and three Privates. • Team Leader: The NCO will carry an L85A2 rifle with an L17A2 under-slung grenade launcher. Some units vary with one of the privates carrying the grenade launcher rather than the NCO. • Rifleman: One private carries the L85A2 rifle. • Automatic Rifleman: One private carries L110A1 light machine gun or L86A2 light support weapon. • Designated marksman: One private carries the L129A1 designated marksman rifle. The fireteam is generally used as a subdivision of the section for fire and maneuver rather than as a separate unit in its own right, although fireteams or fireteam sized units are often used for reconnaissance and special operations. Canadian In the Canadian Army 'fireteam' refers to two soldiers paired for fire and movement. Two fireteams form an 'assault group' and two assault groups form a section of eight soldiers. French The French Section (Groupe de Combat – “Combat Group”) is divided into two Teams. The “Fire Team” (Equipe de feu) is based around the section-level automatic rifle or light machinegun. The “Shock Team”

According to US Army Field Manual 3-21.8 (Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad, formerly FM 7-8* [3]) a typical United States Army fireteam consists of four soldiers: • Team Leader (TL): The NCO holds the rank of Sergeant or Corporal (although occasionally a team is led by a Specialist or Private First Class). Provides tactical leadership for the team at all times with a "Do As I Do" attitude; standard equipped with backpack GPS/radio set, and either an M16 rifle or M4 carbine. A Squad Leader or Assistant Squad Leader may replace the team leader at the squad or section level. • Rifleman (R): Is 'the baseline standard for all Infantrymen'. They are equipped with the M16 rifle or M4 carbine. The rifleman is usually assigned with the grenadier to help balance the firepower capabilities of the automatic rifleman. • Grenadier Rifleman (GR): Provides limited highangle fire over 'Dead zones'. A grenadier is equipped with an M4/M16 with the M203 grenade launcher (or newer M320 grenade launcher) mounted to the weapon. • Automatic Rifleman (AR): Second-in-command next to Team Leader: provides overwatch an suppressive fire through force multiplication. The most casualty producing person in a fireteam, in terms of firepower and maneuverability when compared to the standard nine-man rifle squad. An automatic rifleman is equipped with a M249 light machine gun. The automatic rifleman is usually assigned with the team leader to maximize directed fields of fire and to help balance the firepower capabilities of the grenadier. In the context of a Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT)'s Infantry Rifle Companies,* [4] one man from each fireteam in a rifle squad is either the Squad Leader (SL),* [5] Assistant Squad Leader (ASL), the squad machine gunner (MG), the squad assistant gunner (AG), the squad RTO, the squad rifleman/compassman

0.19. FIRETEAM (R/CM), the Squad Anti-armor Specialist (RMAT), armed with the FGM-148 Javelin, or the Squad Designated Marksman (DM), who carries the M4 carbine and M14 rifle. In all cases these specialized function replaces the basic rifleman position in the fireteam.* [6]

US Marines on patrol in Afghanistan, 2009.

Marine Corps The United States Marine Corps summarizes its fireteam organization with the mnemonic “ready-team-fire-assist”, the following being the arrangement of the fireteam when in a column: • Rifleman: acts as a scout for the fireteam; “Ready” .

53 World War I Although in the Napoleonic War skirmishers ahead of the main group would often work in teams of two, providing covering fire and protecting each other, this was particularly effective for the British Riflemen. During World War I, this resulted in a trench warfare stalemate on the Western Front. In order to combat this stalemate, the Germans developed a doctrinal innovation known as infiltration tactics, in which small, autonomous teams would covertly penetrate Allied lines. The Germans used their stormtroopers organized into squads at the lowest levels to provide a cohesive strike force in breaking through Allied lines. The British and Canadian troops on the Western Front started dividing platoons into sections after the Battle of the Somme in 1916. (This idea was later further developed in World War II.) French Chasseur units in WWI were organized into fireteams, equipped with a light machine gun (Chauchat) team and grenades, to destroy German fire positions by fire (not assault) at up to 200 meters using rifle grenades. The light machinegun team would put suppressive fire on the enemy position, while the grenadier team moved to a position where the enemy embrasure could be attacked with grenades. The Chasseur tactics were proven during the Petain Offensive of 1917. Survivors of these French Chasseur units taught these tactics to US Infantry, which used them with effectiveness at St. Mihiel and the Argonne.

• Team Leader: uses the M203 and works as the desInterbellum ignated grenadier; “Team”. • Designated Automatic Rifleman: uses the M249 In the inter-war years, United States Marine Corps Caplight machine gun or M27 IAR and serves as sec- tain Evans F. Carlson went to China in 1937 and obond in command for the fireteam; “Fire”. served units of the Communist Chinese National Revolutionary Army in action against the Japanese army. Carl• Assistant Automatic Rifleman: carries extra son and Merritt A. Edson are believed to have developed ammunition for the team; “Assist”. the fireteam concept during the United States occupation of Nicaragua (1912–1933). At that time the US Marine squad consisted of a Corporal and seven Marines Other all armed with a bolt-action M1903 Springfield rifle and an automatic rifleman armed with a Browning Automatic Many other armed forces see the squad as the smallest Rifle. The introduction of the Thompson submachine gun military unit; some countries' armies have a pair consistand Winchester Model 1912 shotgun was popular with ing of two soldiers as the smallest military unit. In oththe Marines as a point-defense weapon for countering ers a fireteam is composed of two pairs of soldiers (fire ambush by Nicaraguan guerrillas within the thick vegeand maneuver team) forming a fireteam. Chinese militation that could provide cover for a quick overrun of a tary forces traditionally use a three-man 'cell' (equivalent patrol. A team of four men armed with these weapons to fireteam) as the smallest military formation. had proven more effective in terms of firepower and maneuverability than the standard nine-man rifle squad.

0.19.3

History

Fireteams have their origins in the early 20th century. From the Napoleonic War until World War I, military tactics involved central control of large numbers of soldiers in mass formation where small units were given little initiative.

Carlson later brought these ideas back to the US when the country entered World War II. Under his command, the 2nd Marine Raider battalion were issued with the semiautomatic M1 Garand rifle and were organized in the standard 4-man fireteam (although it was called firegroup) concept, 3 firegroups to a squad with a squad leader. A firegroup was composed of an M1 Garand rifleman, a

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BAR gunner and a submachine gunner. After sustaining severe wounds, Carlson was replaced and his battalion later disbanded and reorganized under conventional Marine doctrine of ten-man squads. Later, Carlson's fireteam concept was re-adopted.

World War II WWII US Army squads consisted of an A-team (squad leader and two scouts), B-team (BAR Gunner, assistant and 3 rifle men) and C-team (Bazooka gunner, assistant and 3 rifle men). In an assault the A team and C team would assault, as the B-team provided suppressive fire. Suppressive fire from the BAR would be supplemented by fire from the rifles of his team as he reloaded, and could be An example of fire and maneuver in actual combat. Here, during further supplemented by platoon medium machine guns. the Battle of Okinawa, a US Marine on the left provides covering The US Army Rangers and Special Service Force adopted an early Fire Team concept when on campaign in Italy and France. Each Squad sub-unit of 4 to 5 men was heavily armed. Each Fire Team was composed of a 2-man BAR automatic rifleman and assistant, a scout (marksman/grenadier) armed with a M1903 Springfield with a rifle grenade discharger, and a team leader armed with an M1 carbine or M1 SMG. Their later misuse as conventional infantry negated their special training and fighting skill and their use as “fire brigades”against larger enemy forces negated their advantages in aggressiveness and firepower.

fire for the Marine on the right to break cover and move to a different position.

France The French Army has the concept of a Binome (“pair” ). In the regular forces it is the pairing of an experienced soldier with a recruit or replacement. The new man learns from the experienced man how to properly perform the everyday tasks and responsibilities of his assignment.

In the old Colonial Forces (like the Legion Etrangere) it was a means of imposing order. The pair were responMeanwhile, the Communist Chinese established the sible for each other - if one member broke the rules or three-man fireteam concept as the three-man cell when deserted, the other would be punished for not preventing they organized a regular army, and its organization it. seemed to have been disseminated throughout all of Asia's communist forces, perhaps the most famous of which are the PAVN/NVA (People's Army of Viet- Sweden nam/North Vietnamese Army) and the Viet Cong. According to the Swedish Armed Forces field manual, a trained fire and maneuver team is as effective as four individual soldiers of same quality. However, the efficiency 0.19.4 Fire and maneuver team of the fire and maneuver team has been challenged by many experts as it has been claimed to be insufficient in Main article: Fire and Movement A Fire and Maneuver team is the smallest unit above close-quarter situations where many fighting techniques the individual soldier. It consists of two soldiers with have been designed for larger units. one soldier acting as senior of the two fighters (decided amongst the two or by their superior). A fireteam in turn consists of at least two fire and maneuver teams and a 0.19.5 See also squad of two or more fireteams. • Infantry The concept is not widely utilized. The United States and most Commonwealth armies rely on the concept of fire • Military science teams forming a squad.

Finland In the Finnish Defence Forces, a squad is formed by three fire and maneuver teams (taistelupari, literally “combat pair”) and a squad leader.

0.19.6 References [1] http://armypubs.army.mil/doctrine/DR_pubs/dr_a/pdf/ fm3_21x8.pdf [2] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR8VLkzfbuU

0.20. FLIGHT (MILITARY UNIT)

[3] http://armypubs.army.mil/doctrine/DR_pubs/dr_a/pdf/ fm3_21x8.pdf [4] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/ army/fm/3-21-11/c01.htm#sectionii1_7 [5] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVQ6F57w8_U [6] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zp8-ugcWh-w

0.20 Flight (military unit)

55 air forces, was commanded by a flight lieutenant, a rank equivalent to captain in armies and other air forces, or a naval lieutenant. More recently, however, it has become common for a flight to be led by a squadron leader̶a formal rank distinct from a squadron commander̶equivalent to an army major or naval lieutenant commander. A flight is usually divided into two sections, each containing two to three aircraft, which share ground staff with the other section, and are usually commanded by a flight lieutenant. The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm, the Army Air Corps, and other Commonwealth naval and army aviation arms also have flights. Ground flights

An air force ground flight is roughly equivalent to an army platoon and may be commanded by a flight lieutenant, flying officer, pilot officer, or warrant officer. A flight is also a basic unit of guided missiles, such as surface-toair missiles. These ground flights may carry out operational roles (such as air traffic control, airfield defence or firefighting), engineering roles (such as aircraft or ground systems maintenance), medical, dental, and legal units, or A flight of four RNZAF Strikemasters purely administrative roles, such as finance, infrastructure A flight is a military unit in an air force, naval air ser- or human resource management. vice, or army air corps. It usually comprises three to six aircraft, with their aircrews and ground staff; or, in the case of a non-flying ground flight, no aircraft and a 0.20.3 American usage roughly equivalent number of support personnel. In most usages, multiple flights make up a squadron. The“flight” The United States Air Force (USAF) has three types of is also a basic unit for intercontinental ballistic missiles. flights: numbered, alphabetic, and aircraft (which may be In the Fleet Air Arm a flight could be as few as 1 heli- designated by alpha/numerics or name). copter operating from a smaller ship. French equivalent A numbered flight is a unit with a unique base, wing, is “escadrille”. group, or Numbered Air Force mission, such as training or finance, though not large enough to warrant designation as a squadron. Numbered flights are uncommon, and are 0.20.1 Origins usually only found in basic training facilities. The use of the term “flight”to describe a collection of aircraft (typically four in the early days of aviation) dates back to around 1912. Winston Churchill claims to have invented the term while he was learning to fly with the Royal Navy's embryonic air service. It has also been suggested that the term was coined by technical subcommittee of the Committee of Imperial Defence which was examining the British air arrangements around the same time.* [1]

An alphabetic flight is an operational component of a flying or ground squadron, not an independent unit; alphabetic flights within a squadron normally have identical or similar functions and are normally designated A, B, C and so on within the squadron. Flights in the USAF are generally authorized to have between 20 and 100 personnel, and are normally commanded by a company-grade officer (lieutenant or captain) and/or a flight chief, usually a senior noncommissioned officer with the rank of master sergeant or senior master sergeant.

In USAF flying squadrons, the term flight also designates a tactical sub-unit of a squadron consisting of two or three elements (designated “sections”in US Army and US Aircraft flights Naval Aviation), with each element consisting of two or In the United Kingdom Royal Air Force and the air forces three aircraft. The flight operates under the command of of the Commonwealth, from where much air force termi- a designated flight leader. nology emanated, an aircraft flight, in the first decades of In Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile units of

0.20.2

Commonwealth usage

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CONTENTS

the U.S. Air Force, a flight is composed of ten unmanned launch facilities remotely controlled by a manned launch control center, containing two personnel. Five of these flights make up one missile squadron. The Air Force has a total of 45 ICBM missile flights. (In US Army Aviation the equivalent organizational level of a flight is called a “platoon,”while in US Naval Aviation the “flight”is known as a “division.”) Under US military and FAA common usage, for air traffic control and separation purposes, a“flight”of aircraft is simply two or more aircraft intentionally operating in close proximity to each other under a designated “flight leader”without regard to military organizational hierarchy. For example, the division leader of a flight of seven USMC KC-130's may check in with the Air Route Traffic Control Center with, “Good morning, Atlanta Center, Otis 08, flight of seven KC-130's, Flight Level 230.” Which would simply confirm to the controller that the large blip on his radar screen, squawking a discrete code, and indicating FL230, was indeed the gaggle of Battle Hercs from MCAS Cherry Point that were just handed off to him/her from Washington Center; he/she doesn't really care that they are actually a “division”of aerial refuelers from VMGR-252, but rather that they are a collection, viz, “flight”of airplanes flying together under a common leader.

0.20.4

References

[1] Joubert de la Ferté, Sir Philip (1955). The Third Service. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 14, 15.

José de Bustamante y Guerra's flotilla is intercepted by four British frigates

of the command (a Vice Admiral would normally command a squadron). A flotilla is often divided into two or more divisions, each of which might be commanded by the most senior Commander. A flotilla is often, but not necessarily, a permanent formation. In modern navies, flotillas have tended to become administrative units containing several squadrons.* [1] As warships have grown larger, the term squadron has gradually replaced the term flotilla for formations of destroyers, frigates and submarines in many navies. A naval flotilla has no direct equivalent on land, but is, perhaps, the rough equivalent in value of a brigade or regiment.

0.21.1 US Coast Guard

In the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, a Flotilla is the basic organizational unit and consists of members at a local level where the majority of the work of the Auxiliary • Australian War Memorial, 2005, “RAAF: Struc- is done. A Flotilla is led by an elected Flotilla Commanture” der assisted by an elected Vice Flotilla Commander, who is in turn assisted by appointed Flotilla Staff Officers.* [2] A Coast Guard Auxiliary Division consists of multiple Flotillas and a District consists of multiple Divisions. 0.21 Flotilla Auxiliary Districts are organized along Coast Guard District lines and are administered by a Coast Guard officer This article is about the naval term. For the 2010 video (usually a Commander or Captain) who is called the Digame, see Flotilla (video game). rector of the Auxiliary. A flotilla (from Spanish, meaning a small flota (fleet) of ships, and this from French flotte), or naval flotilla, is a formation of small warships that may be part of 0.21.2 Russian Navy a larger fleet. A flotilla is usually composed of a homogeneous group of the same class of warship, such as In the Russian Navy, the word flotilla has tended to be frigates, destroyers, torpedo boats, submarines, gunboats, used for "brown-water" naval units - those operating not or minesweepers. Groups of larger warships are usually in the oceans and real seas, but in inland seas or rivers. called squadrons, but similar units of non-capital ships Among the former are the present-day Caspian Flotilla, may be called squadrons in some places and times, and the early 20th century Satakundskaya Flotilla, or the Aral flotillas in others. Flotilla of the 1850s;* [3] among the latter, the Don Mil-

0.20.5

External links

A flotilla is usually commanded by a Rear Admiral, a itary Flotilla (which was created several times over more Commodore or a Captain, depending on the importance than 200 years), the Red Volga Flotilla, which partici-

0.22. GRAND STRATEGY

57

pated in the Kazan Operation during the Russian Civil 0.22 Grand strategy War, or the Danube Military Flotilla. In the 18th century, the term also applied to the comparatively small fleets op- For grand strategy in wargaming, see Grand strategy erating on those seas where Russia did not have much wargame. naval presence yet, e.g. the Okhotsk Flotilla.

0.21.3

Non-military usage

The word flotilla has been used at times to refer to a small fleet of vessels, commercial or otherwise.* [4] There is also such thing as a flotilla holiday, in which is a group of chartered yachts that set sail together on the same route.

0.21.4

See also

• United States Coast Guard Auxiliary • Tactical formation • Chesapeake Bay Flotilla of U.S. Navy (War of 1812)

0.21.5

References

• Chief Director of Auxiliary (2007-02-15).“USCG G-PCX Web Site - Flotilla Organizational Structure”. USCG Auxiliary Office of the Chief Director (CG-3PCX). Retrieved 2007-03-15. [1]“military unit.”Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 Oct. 2010 : "Administratively, several ships of the same type (e.g., destroyers) are organized into a squadron. Several squadrons in turn form a flotilla, several of which in turn form a fleet. For operations, however, many navies organize their vessels into task units (3–5 ships), task or battle groups (4–10 ships), task forces (2–5 task groups), and fleets (several task forces)." [2] As described at the Flotilla Organization page of the U.S. Coast Guard.

Grand strategy, also called high strategy, comprises the“purposeful employment of all instruments of power available to a security community”.* [1] Military historian B. H. Liddell Hart says about grand strategy: [T]he role of grand strategy – higher strategy – is to co-ordinate and direct all the resources of a nation, or band of nations, towards the attainment of the political object of the war – the goal defined by fundamental policy. Grand strategy should both calculate and develop the economic resources and manpower of nations in order to sustain the fighting services. Also the moral resources – for to foster the people's willing spirit is often as important as to possess the more concrete forms of power. Grand strategy, too, should regulate the distribution of power between the several services, and between the services and industry. Moreover, fighting power is but one of the instruments of grand strategy – which should take account of and apply the power of financial pressure, and, not least of ethical pressure, to weaken the opponent's will. ... Furthermore, while the horizons of strategy is bounded by the war, grand strategy looks beyond the war to the subsequent peace. It should not only combine the various instruments, but so regulate their use as to avoid damage to the future state of peace – for its security and prosperity.* [2] Grand strategy expands on the traditional idea of strategy in three ways:* [3] 1. expanding strategy beyond military means to include diplomatic, financial, economic, informational, etc. means

[3] Ram Rahul. “March of Central Asia”. Published 2000. Indus Publishing. ISBN 81-7387-109-4. p.160. On Google Books

2. examining internal in addition to external forces – taking into account both the various instruments of power and the internal policies necessary for their implementation (conscription, for example)

[4] http://www.ocscsailing.com/vacations/flotillas/index. php

3. including consideration of periods of peacetime in addition to wartime

0.21.6

External links

• Coast Guard Auxiliary Los Angeles Flotilla • Coast Guard Auxiliary Lake Clarke Flotilla

Issues of grand strategy typically include the choice of primary versus secondary theaters in war, distribution of resources among the various services, the general types of armaments manufacturing to favor, and which international alliances best suit national goals. Grand strategy has considerable overlap with foreign policy, but grand

58

CONTENTS

strategy focuses primarily on the military implications of policy. The political leadership of a country typically directs grand strategy with input from the most senior military officials. The development of a nation's grand strategy may extend across many years or even multiple generations. Some have extended the concept of grand strategy to describe multi-tiered strategies in general, including strategic thinking at the level of corporations and political parties. In business, a Grand strategy is a general term for a broad statement of strategic action. A grand strategy states the means that will be used to achieve long-term objectives. Examples of business grand strategies that can be customized for a specific firm include: concentration, market development, product development, innovation, horizontal integration, divestiture, and liquidation.

0.22.1

of the Roman empire by weakening its frontier defenses and allowing it to be susceptible to outside armies coming in. Also, people who lived near the Roman frontiers would begin to look to the barbarians for protection after the Roman armies departed. “Constantine abolished this frontier security by removing the greater part of the soldiery from the frontiers to cities that needed no auxiliary forces. He thus deprived of help the people who were harassed by the barbarians and burdened tranquil cities with the pest of the military, so that several straightway were deserted. Moreover, he softened the soldiers who treated themselves to shows and luxuries. Indeed, to speak plainly, he personally planted the first seeds of our present devastated state of affairs – Zosimus, 5th-century CE historian

Historical examples

Peloponnesian War

World War II

See also: List of World War II conferences and One of the earlier writings on grand strategy comes Combined Chiefs of Staff from Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War, an account of the Peloponnesian War between the An example of modern grand strategy is the decision of Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Delian the Allies in World War II to concentrate on the defeat League (led by Athens). of Germany first. The decision, a joint agreement made after the attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) had drawn the US into the war, was a sensible one in that Germany was the Roman Empire most powerful member of the Axis, and directly threatFrom the era of Hadrian, Roman emperors ened the existence of the United Kingdom and the Soviet employed a military strategy of“preclusive seUnion. Conversely, while Japan's conquests garnered curity̶the establishment of a linear barrier of considerable public attention, they were mostly in coloperimeter defence around the Empire. The Lenial areas deemed less essential by planners and policygions were stationed in great fortresses”* [4] makers. The specifics of Allied military strategy in the Pacific War were therefore shaped by the lesser resources * These “fortresses”existed along the perimeter of the made available to the theatre commanders. [5] Empire, often accompanied by actual walls (for example, Hadrian's Wall). Due to the perceived impenetrability Cold War of these perimeter defenses, the Emperors kept no central reserve army. The Roman system of roads allowed The US and the UK used a policy of containment as part for soldiers to move from one frontier to another (for the of their grand strategy during the Cold War.* [6] purpose of reinforcements during a siege) with relative ease. These roads also allowed for a logistical advantage for Rome over her enemies, as supplies could be moved 0.22.2 In the United States just as easily across the Roman road system as soldiers. This way, if the legions could not win a battle through mil- In a 1997 piece for International Security entitled“Comitary combat skill or superior numbers, they could simply peting Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy,”Barry R. Posen outlast the invaders, who, as historian E.A. Thompson and Andrew L. Ross outlined four major grand strategies wrote, “Did not think in terms of millions of bushels of applicable to U.S. foreign policy in the post-Cold War wheat.” world:* [7] Emperor Constantine moved the legions from the frontiers to one consolidated roving army as a way to save money and to protect wealthier citizens within the cities. However, this grand strategy would have costly effects

1. neo-isolationism 2. selective engagement 3. cooperative security 4. primacy

0.22. GRAND STRATEGY Neo-isolationism See also: Non-interventionism and Isolationism Stemming from a defensive realist understanding of international politics, what the authors call“neo-isolationism” advocates the United States remove itself from active participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the Eurasian landmass.* [8] The United States' security and the absence of threats means that “national defense will seldom justify intervention abroad.”* [8] Even further, its proponents argue that “the United States is not responsible for, and cannot afford the costs of, maintaining world order.”* [9] They also believe that “the pursuit of economic well-being is best left to the private sector,” and that the United States should not attempt to spread its values because doing so increases resentment towards the U.S. and in turn, decreases its security.* [9] In short, neo-isolationism advises the United States to preserve its freedom of action and strategic independence.* [9] In more practical terms, the authors discuss how the implementation of a so-called“neo-isolationist”grand strategy would involve less focus on the issue of nuclear proliferation, withdrawal from NATO, and major cuts to the United States military presence abroad. The authors see a military force structure that prioritizes a secure nuclear second-strike capability, intelligence, naval and special operations forces while limiting the forward-deployment of forces to Europe and Asia.* [8] Posen and Ross identify such prominent scholars and political figures as Earl Ravenal, Patrick Buchanan and Doug Bandow.* [8]

Selective engagement With similar roots in the realist tradition of international relations, selective engagement advocates that the United States should intervene in regions of the world only if they directly affect its security and prosperity. The focus, therefore, lies on those powers with significant industrial and military potential and the prevention of war amongst those states. Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the United States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which have the greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is a primary source

59 of oil for much of the developed world. In addition to these more particular concerns, selective engagement also focuses on preventing nuclear proliferation and any conflict that could lead to a great power war, but provides no clear guidelines for humanitarian interventions. The authors envision that a strategy of selective engagement would involve a strong nuclear deterrent with a force structure capable of fighting two regional wars, each through some combination of ground, air and sea forces complemented with forces from a regional ally. They question, however, whether such a policy could garner sustained support from a liberal democracy experienced with a moralistic approach to international relations, whether the United States could successfully differentiate necessary versus unnecessary engagement and whether a strategy that focuses on Europe, Asia and the Middle East actually represents a shift from current engagement. In the piece, Barry Posen classified himself as a “selective engagement”advocate, with the caveat that the United States should not only act to reduce the likelihood of great power war, but also oppose the rise of a Eurasian hegemon capable of threatening the United States.* [10] Robert J. Art argues that selective engagement is the best strategy for the twenty-first century because it is, by definition, selective.* [11] “It steers the middle course between an isolationist, unilateralist course, on the one hand, and world policeman, highly interventionist role, on the other.”* [11] Therefore, Art, concludes, it avoids both overly restrictive and overly expansive definitions of U.S. interests, finding instead a compromise between doing too much and too little militarily. Additionally, selective engagement is the best strategy for achieving both realist goals ̶preventing WMD terrorism, maintaining great power peace, and securing the supply of oil; and liberal goals̶preserving free trade, spreading democracy, observing human rights, and minimizing the impact of climate change.* [11] The realist goals represent vital interests and the liberal goals represent desirable interests. Desirable interests are not unimportant, Art maintains, but they are of lesser importance when a trade-off between them and vital interests must be made.* [12] Selective engagement, however, mitigates the effect of the trade-off precisely because it is a moderate, strategic policy.

Cooperative security The authors write“the most important distinguishing of cooperative security is the proposition that peace is effectively indivisible.”* [13] Unlike the other three alternatives, cooperative security draws upon liberalism rather than realism in its approach to international relations. Stressing the importance of world peace and international cooperation, the view supposes the growth in democratic governance and the use of international institutions will

60 hope overcome the security dilemma and deter interstate conflict. They propose that collective action is the most effective means of preventing potential state and nonstate aggressors from threatening other states. Cooperative security considers nuclear proliferation, regional conflicts and humanitarian crises to be major interests of the United States. The authors imagine that such a grand strategy would involve stronger support for international institutions and agreements and the frequent use of force for humanitarian purposes. Were international institutions to ultimately entail the deployment of a multinational force, the authors suppose the United States' contribution would emphasize command, control, communications and intelligence, defense suppression, and precision-guided munitions-what they considered at the time to be the United States' comparative advantage in aerospace power.* [13] Collective action problems, the problems of the effective formation of international institutions, the vacillating feelings of democratic populations, and the limitations of arms control are all offered by the authors as noted criticisms of collective security.

Primacy 'Primacy holds that only a preponderance of U.S. power ensures peace.'* [14] As a result, it advocates that the United States pursue ultimate hegemony and dominate the international system economically, politically and militarily, rejecting any return to bipolarity or multipolarity and preventing the emergence of any peer competitor. Therefore, its proponents argue that U.S. foreign policy should focus on maintaining U.S. power and preventing any other power from becoming a serious challenger to the United States. With this in mind, some supporters of this strategy argue that the U.S. should work to contain China and other competitors rather than engage them. In regards to humanitarian crises and regional conflicts, primacy holds that the U.S. should only intervene when they directly impact national security, more along the lines of selective engagement than collective security. It does, however, advocate for the active prevention of nuclear proliferation at a level similar to collective security. Implementation of such a strategy would entail military forces at similar levels to those during the Cold War, with emphasis on military modernization and research and development. They note, however, that “the quest for primacy is likely to prove futile for five reasons": the diffusion of economic and technological capabilities, interstate balancing against the United States, the danger that hegemonic leadership will fatally undermine valuable multilateral institutions, the feasibility of preventive war and the dangers of imperial overstretch.* [15]

CONTENTS generates positive economic externalities.* [16]“One argument, which I label 'geoeconomic favoritism,' hypothesizes that the military hegemon will attract private capital because it provides the greatest security and safety to investors. A second argument posits that the benefits from military primacy flow from geopolitical favoritism: that sovereign states, in return for living under the security umbrella of the military superpower, voluntarily transfer resources to help subsidize the cost of the economy. The third argument postulates that states are most likely to enjoy global public goods under a unipolar distribution of military power, accelerating global economic growth and reducing security tensions. These public goods benefit the hegemon as much, if not more, than they do other actors.”* [16] Drezner maintains the empirical evidence supporting the third argument is the strongest, though with some qualifiers.“Although the precise causal mechanism remain disputed, hegemonic eras are nevertheless strongly correlated with lower trade barriers and greater levels of globalization.”* [17] However, Drezner highlights a caveat: The cost of maintaining global public goods catches up to the superpower providing them. “Other countries free-ride off of the hegemon, allowing them to grow faster. Technologies diffuse from the hegemonic power to the rest of the world, facilitating catchup. Chinese analysts have posited that these phenomena, occurring right now, are allowing China to outgrow the United States.”* [18]

Primacy vs. selective engagement Barry Posen, director of the Security Studies Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, believes the activist U.S. foreign policy that continues to define U.S. strategy in the twenty-first century is an “undisciplined, expensive, and bloody strategy”that has done more harm than good to U.S. national security.* [19] “It makes enemies almost as fast as it slays them, discourages allies from paying for their own defense, and convinces powerful states to band together and oppose Washington's plans, further raising the costs of carrying out its foreign policy.” * [19] The United States was able to afford such adventurism during the 1990s, Posen argues, because American power projection was completely unchallenged. Over the last decade, however, American power has been relatively declining while the Pentagon continues to “depend on continuous infusions of cash simply to retain its current force structure̶levels of spending that the Great Recession and the United States' ballooning debt have rendered unsustainable.”* [19]

Posen proposes the United States abandon its hegemonic strategy and replace it with one of restraint. This translates into jettisoning the quest of shaping a world that is satisfactory to U.S. values and instead advances vital naDaniel Drezner, professor of international politics at tional security interests: The U.S. military would go to Tufts University, outlines three arguments offered by pri- war only when it must. Large troop contingents in unmacy enthusiasts contending that military preeminence precedentedly peaceful regions such as Europe would be

0.22. GRAND STRATEGY significantly downsized, incentivizing NATO members to provide more for their own security. Under such a scenario, the United States would have more leeway in using resources to combat the most pressing threats to its security. A strategy of restraint, therefore, would help preserve the country's prosperity and security more so than a hegemonic strategy. To be sure, Posen makes clear that he is not advocating isolationism. Rather, the United States should focus on three pressing security challenges: preventing a powerful rival from upending the global balance of power, fighting terrorists, and limiting nuclear proliferation.* [19] John Ikenberry of Princeton University and Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth, both of Dartmouth College, push back on Posen's selective engagement thesis, arguing that American engagement is not as bad as Posen makes it out to be. Advocates of selective engagement, they argue, overstate the costs of current U.S. grand strategy and understate the benefits. “The benefits of deep engagement…are legion. U.S. security commitments reduce competition in key regions and act as a check against potential rivals. They help maintain an open world economy and give Washington leverage in economic negotiations. And they make it easier for the United States to secure cooperation for combating a wide range of global threats.”* [20] Ikenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth are not convinced that the current U.S. grand strategy generates subsequent counterbalancing. Unlike the prior hegemons, the United States is geographically isolated and faces no contiguous great power rivals interested in balancing it. This means the United States is far less threatening to great powers that are situated oceans away, the authors claim. Moreover, any competitor would have a hard time matching U.S. military might. “Not only is the United States so far ahead militarily in both quantitative and qualitative terms, but its security guarantees also give it the leverage to prevent allies from giving military technology to potential U.S. rivals. Because the United States dominates the high-end defense industry, it can trade access to its defense market for allies' agreement not to transfer key military technologies to its competitors.”* [20]

61 rigidity or an effort to stifle discussion about a range of alternatives to the status quo. Selective engagement is a strategy that sits in between primacy and isolationism and, given growing multipolarity and American fiscal precariousness, should be taken seriously.“Selectivity is not merely an option when it comes to embarking on military interventions. It is imperative for a major power that wishes to preserve its strategic insolvency. Otherwise, overextension and national exhaustion become increasing dangers.”* [21] Carpenter thinks that off-loading U.S. security responsibility must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless, the United States must refrain from using military might in campaigns that do not directly deal with U.S. interests.“If a sense of moral indignation, instead of a calculating assessment of the national interest, governs U.S. foreign policy, the United States will become involved in even more murky conflicts in which few if any tangible American interests are at stake.”* [21]

0.22.3 Limits Strategy is considered“the essential ingredient for making war either politically effective or morally tenable.” * [22] Without strategy, power is a“loose cannon and war is mindless.”* [22] Because strategy is necessary, however, does not mean that it is possible. Political scientist Richard K. Betts has detailed some of the critiques raised by skeptics regarding the feasibility and practicability of strategy, explaining "[t]o skeptics, effective strategy is often an illusion because what happens in the gap between policy objectives and war outcomes is too complex and unpredictable to be manipulated to a specified end.”* [23] Beyond the difficulty of organizing resources for effective grand strategy, Betts explores both the retrospective fallacy of coherence – the tendency to see the actions of states as more coherent and purposeful than they actually were or to assume particular actions and choices as more decisive in the outcome of events than they actually were – and the prospective fallacy of control – the tendency of policymakers to believe they can exert far greater influence over events than they can. Betts highlights 10 of the skeptics' critiques that throw the predictability of strategy into question.

Finally, when the United States wields its security leverage, the authors argue, it shapes the overall structure of the global economy. “Washington wins when U.S. allies favor [the] status quo, and one reason they are inclined 0.22.4 to support the existing system is because they value their military alliances.”* [20] 0.22.5

See also References

Ted Carpenter, senior fellow at the Cato Institute, believes that the proponents of primacy suffer from the Notes “light-switch model,”in which only two positions exist: on and off. “Many, seemingly most, proponents [1] Gray, Colin: War, Peace and International Relations: An of U.S. preeminence do not recognize the existence of Introduction to Strategic History, Abingdon and New York: options between current policy of promiscuous global inRoutledge 2007, p. 283. terventionism and isolationism.”* [21] Adherence to the light switch model, Carpenter argues, reflects intellectual [2] Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy London: Faber & Faber, 1967. 2nd rev. ed. p.322

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[3] Murray et al. (1994). The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–23. [4] Ferrill, Arther. The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation [5] Morton, Louis (1962). United States Army in World War 2: War in the Pacific, Strategy and Command: The First Two Years. GPO. pp. 376–386. [6] Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). Strategies of Containment. Oxford University Press. [7] Posen, Ross, Barry R., Andrew L. (Winter 1996–1997). “Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy” (PDF). International Security, Vol. 21, No. 3: 5–53. [8] Posen, Barry R.; Ross, Andrew L. (Winter 1996–1997). “Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy”(PDF). International Security 21 (3): 12–15. doi:10.2307/2539272. [9] Posen, Barry R.; Ross, Andrew L. (Winter 1996–1997). “Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy” (PDF). International Security 21 (3): 11. doi:10.2307/2539272. [10] Posen, Barry R.; Ross, Andrew L. (Winter 1996–1997). “Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy” (PDF). International Security 21 (3): 17. doi:10.2307/2539272. [11] Art, Robert J. (Winter 1998–1999). “Geopolitics Updated: The Strategy of Selective Engagement”. International Security 23 (3): 80. doi:10.2307/2539339. Retrieved 9 May 2013. [12] Art, Robert (Winter 1998–1999).“Geopolitics Updated: The Strategy of Selective Engagement”. International Security 23 (3): 95. doi:10.2307/2539339. Retrieved 9 May 2013. [13] Posen, Barry R.; Ross, Andrew L. (Winter 1996–1997). “Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy”(PDF). International Security 21 (3): 23, 29. doi:10.2307/2539272. [14] Posen, Ross, Barry R., Andrew L. (Winter 1996–1997). “Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy” (PDF). International Security 21 (3): 30. doi:10.2307/2539272. [15] Posen, Ross, Barry R., Andrew L.; Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy (Winter 1996–1997). International Security 21 (3): 32–43. Missing or empty |title= (help) [16] Drezner, Daniel W. (Summer 2013). “Military Primacy Doesn't Pay (Nearly As Much As You Think)". International Security 38 (1): 58. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00124. Retrieved 12 July 2013. [17] Drezner, Daniel W. (Summer 2013). “Military Primacy Doesn't Pay (Nearly As Much As You Think)". International Security 38 (1): 70. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00124. Retrieved 16 July 2013. [18] Drezner, Daniel W. (Summer 2013). “Military Primacy Doesn't Pay (Nearly As Much As You Think)". International Security 38 (1): 72–73. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00124. Retrieved 16 July 2013.

CONTENTS

[19] Posen, Barry (January–February 2013).“Pull Back: The Case for a Less Activist Foreign Policy”. Foreign Affairs 92 (1): 116–128, 117. Retrieved 9 January 2013. [20] Brooks, Stephen; Ikenberry, John; Wohlforth, William (January–February 2013).“Lean Forward: In Defense of American Engagement”. Foreign Affairs 92 (1): pp.130– 142, 137. Retrieved 9 January 2013. [21] Carpenter, Ted (March–April 2013). “Delusions of Indispensability”. The National Interest (124): 47–55. Retrieved 7 March 2013. [22] Betts, Richard (2012). American Force: Dangers, Delusions, and Dilemmas in National Security. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-23115122-1. [23] Betts, Richard K. (Autumn 2000). “Is Strategy an Illusion”. International Security 25 (2): 5–50. doi:10.1162/016228800560444. JSTOR 2626752., 5 [24] Betts, Richard (2012). American Force: Dangers, Delusions, and Dilemmas in National Security. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 232–265. ISBN 9780-231-15122-1.

0.22.6 Further reading • Robert J. Art, A Grand Strategy for America (Cornell) • Biddle, Stephen. American Grand Strategy After 9/11: An Assessment. 50pp. April 2005 • Clausewitz, Carl von. On War • Fuller, J.F.C.. The Generalship of Alexander the Great • Benjamin Isaac. The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992 (2nd rev. ed.) • Kolliopoulos. Grand Strategy of Ancient Sparta. Piotita Publications. • Kondilis, P. Theory of War • Kondilis, P. Power and Decision • Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy. London:Faber, 1967 (2nd rev. ed.) • Luttwak. The Grand strategy of the Roman Empire • Papasotiriou, Harry. Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire • Platias, A. International Relations and Grand Strategy in Thucydides • Posen, Barry P. Restraint: A New Foundation for U.S. Grand Strategy, Cornell University Press, 2014 ISBN 978-0-8014-5258-1

0.24. JOINT TASK FORCE

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• Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf als and Commodores) or even Air Vice-Marshals (equivSecurity: The Foundations of the War on Terror, alent to Major Generals and Rear Admirals). Ithaca Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-86372-321-6

0.23.1 United States Army 0.22.7

External links

In the United States Army, certain formations (e.g., cur• Peter Gowan interview on U.S. Grand Strategy since rent Special Forces and formerly some Air Defense Artillery, Field Artillery, Combat Engineer, Military In1945 telligence, Military Police, and Signal Corps units) are structured similar to the Air Force Wing/Group structure. 0.23 Group (military aviation unit) These units are generally smaller than brigades, with 2 to 4 battalions and/or detachments attached to it. A group is a military aviation unit, a component of military organization and a military formation. Usage of 0.23.2 References the terms group and wing differ from one country to another, as well as different branches of a defence force, in [1] See Ravenstein, Charles A. Organization of the Air Force, Research Division, Albert F. Simpson Historical Research some cases. Groups therefore vary considerably in size. In many air services, a group is made up of two to four squadrons and is usually commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel, Commander or an officer of equivalent rank. In France and Germany, the precursors of the Armée de l'Air and Luftwaffe formed groupes and Gruppen during the early stages of World War I. The groups of the Armée de l'Air usually comprise two escadrons, but sometimes only one, or as many as four. Three German Staffeln (similar to the English language concept of “squadrons”) make up a Gruppe. In the United States Air Force (USAF) a group may consist of two or more squadrons. Prior to 1991, it was not unusual for a USAF support group to have no subordinate squadrons, but merely be a larger unit than a squadron. In such cases the group would not have a headquarters.* [1] Similarly, in the British Fleet Air Arm and some other naval air services, a group usually consists of three squadrons. In the United States Marine Corps, a group consists of at least two squadrons. Two or more groups form a wing.* [2]

Center, Maxwell AFB, AL, 1982, p. 41. For an example of a support group that had no subordinate units for some time, see 5th Combat Communications Group [2] http://usmilitary.about.com/cs/airforce/a/aforganization. htm

0.24 Joint Task Force “JTF”redirects here. For other uses, see JTF (disambiguation). A Joint Task Force is a "joint" (multi-service) ad hoc military formation. The task force concept originated with the United States Navy around the beginning of the Second World War in the Pacific. “Combined”is the British-American military term for multi-national formations.

• CTF - Commander Task Force, sometimes ComIn the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and the air forces bined Task Force of many Commonwealth countries, a group is made up of several wings, each of which controls two or more • CCTF - Commander Combined Task Force squadrons, so that a group normally includes six to 10 squadrons, and is thus equivalent to a USAF wing. It is • CJTF - Combined Joint Task Force also roughly equivalent to the "carrier air groups" formerly deployed by the United States Navy (USN), al- There are two ways in which a U.S. or U.S.-allied task though the term is no longer used by the USN. force may be assigned a number. The first is the originally RAF stations (air bases) are also controlled by a partic- naval scheme promulgated and governed by the U.S. Milular group, although Expeditionary Air Groups control itary Communications-Electronic Board, chaired by the expeditionary air wings directly. Groups are directly sub- Joint Staff J6. Task force numbers allocated under this ordinate to a command (or, historically, to a tactical air scheme form the majority of the listings below. force). The second is a by-product of the U.S. Army's proceWhen the RAF was formed, an officer with the rank of Group Captain (equivalent to Colonel and (Navy) Captain) commanded such a unit, although by the time of World War II, some groups were commanded by Air Commodores (equivalent to Brigadiers/Brigadier Gener-

dure for forming task-organised forces for combat, differing from strictly doctrinally assigned table of organization and equipment organizations. A battalion, company or brigade commander has very wide latitude in selecting a task force name,* [1] though often the name of

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the commander is used (e.g. Task Force Faith). This Task Force 180. has often resulted in derivations from the originator unit's numerical designation being used. For example, when a special operations aviation unit was being formed in the 0.24.4 Others late 1970s, the original unit drew heavily on personnel • Task Force for Business and Stability Operations from the 158th Aviation. The designation chosen was U.S. Department of Defense commercial facilitation Task Force 158, which later grew to become the 160th organization, not an operational task force. Special Operations Aviation Regiment. Another example comes from 2004 in Afghanistan. On 15 April 2004 the • Task Force 6-26 - USSOCOM or JSOC task force headquarters of the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Division arrived in Afghanistan and took command of CJTF-180 • Task Force 777 - Egyptian special forces hostage from the 10th Mountain Division. Lieutenant General rescue unit David Barno, commanding then decided to rename CJTF • Task Force Iron-Heavy Battalion mechanized Task 180 because the“180”designation had traditionally been Force with the foundation being formed by Task given to Joint task forces led by the Army's XVIII AirForce 1-41 Infantry and other 2nd Armored Diviborne Corps. Barno chose Combined Joint Task Force sion(FWD)battalions during the 1st Gulf War. It 76 as the new name to evoke Americaʼs history and the * served at the Battle of 73 Easting and the Battle of democratic spirit of 1776. [2] The CFC-A commander Norfolk. was hoping that this new designation would highlight the change in command at the operational level at a time when Afghanistan appeared to be moving closer to democracy.

0.24.5 See also

No coordination appears to occur between U.S. Army task forces designated in this way, and the USMCEB • Taskforce (disambiguation) scheme. This has resulted in simultaneous designations • The Wire (JTF-GTMO) being used at the same time. For example, Combined Joint Task Force 76, was in use in Afghanistan in 2004, but doubling up on the Task Force 76 designation used for decades by Amphibious Force, United States Seventh 0.24.6 References Fleet, in north Asia.

[1] See Larry Bond, 'Cauldron' (fiction) or Hackworth, 'About Face'.

0.24.1

Numbered USMCEB joint task forces

Allied Communications Publication 113: Call Signs Book for Ships in its Annex B lists allocations of task force numbers from 1 to approximately 1000, allocated by the United States Military Communications-Electronic Board in blocks for use by the United States Department of Defense and allies. Norman Polmar notes in Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, 2005, that the task forces under the commanders of the Atlantic and Pacific Fleet are mainly for contingency purposes.* [3] They are employed for specific operations and exercises.

0.24.2

Named joint task forces

Joint Task Force Shining Hope; Joint Task Force Eagle Vista (1998 Presidential African visit)

0.24.3

United States Army and other nonUSMCEB task forces

These included Combined Joint Task Force 76, Combined Joint Task Force 82, and Combined Joint

[2] Lieutenant General David W. Barno, interview by Center for Military History, 21 November 2006, 31–32, in A Different Kind of War. [3] Norman Polmar, Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet,' Naval Institute Press, 2005, p.37 [4] Puryear 1983, pp. 132–133. [5] National Archives and Records Administration, Federal Record Group 374.5.2, accessed June 2013. [6] Barton C. Hacker, 'Elements of Controversy'. [7] Siegel, Adam B. (August 1996). The Intervasion of Haiti, Professional Paper 539 (PDF). Center for Naval Analyses. p. 12. [8] Science Advisor, NAVEUR/NAVAF/Sixth Fleet, Science and Technology Shortfalls, 26 June 2012, accessed January 2014. [9] Globalsecurity.org, Patrol and Reconnaissance Force, Pacific [10] CTF 84 Reserve Unit Established, October 5, 2005 [11] Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet [12] Mud, Muscle and Miracles, 384. [13] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2010SET/Deets.pdf

0.25. MILITARY ADMINISTRATION

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[14] Larry Berman, Zumwalt: The Life and Times of Admiral Elmo Russell “Bud”Zumwalt, Jr., Harper, 2012, 171.

[36] http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/ Working_Paper_20.pdf, p.16

[15] This story was written by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jessica Vargas, TACAMO, Strategic Communications Wing One Public Affairs. “Strategic Communications Wing One Holds Change of Command”. Navy.mil. Retrieved 2014-05-12.

[37] Heightened security results in Joint Task Force, 11 April 2002, defence.gov.au/news/raafnews

[16] Karen Smith et al., 'Is NAVSO Organized and Staffed to do its job?' Center for Naval Analysis, CRM D0005057.A1, January 2002. [17] “p.370” (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-12. [18] U.S. Navy online documentation [19] WA Saunders, Joint Pub 5-00.2 Joint Task Force Planning Guidance and Procedures: A Critical Review, 1992 [20] GlobalSecurity.org. “Operation Sea Signal”, GlobalSecurity.org website, 2008. Retrieved on October 19, 2008. [21] http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/ underseawarfaremagazine/issues/archives/issue_44/ royal_navy.html [22] Roberts, 344. [23] Independent, Obituary: Admiral Sir Richard Fitch, 22 February 1994. Note that the Independent incorrectly lists Ashmore's apppoinment at the time. [24] Henn, Francis. A Business of Some Heat: The United Nations Force in Cyprus Before and During the 1974 Turkish Invasion. Casemate Publishers, 2004, 295 [25] The Gulf Revisited - Why?, The Naval Review, 1990, and Cdre Chris Craig account [26] “SUEZ WAR OF 1956”. Godfreydykes.info. 1956-1105. Retrieved 2014-05-12.

[38] http://www.maltutty.com/content/Working% 20Documents/16b%20SETE%202011%20WTR% 20Workshop%20Presentation%20after.pdf [39] http://www.army.gov.au/Our-work/ Community-engagement/Disaster-relief-at-home/ Operation-VIC-FIRE-ASSIST-2009 [40] “WWII ammo to be rendered safe on joint mission - Keith Jackson & Friends: PNG ATTITUDE”. Asopa.typepad.com. 2011-10-20. Retrieved 2014-0512. [41] Navy Wire, 1999. [42] See Spirtas et al., 'What it takes,' 59-63. [43] U.S. Army Cold Regions Test Center - History, accessed June 2013.

0.24.7 Further reading • Center for Naval Analysis, Joint Task Force Operations since 1983, CRM94-42, July 1994 • Timothy M. Bonds, Myron Hura, Thomas-Durrell Young, 'Enhancing Army Joint Force Headquarters Capabilities,' Santa Monica, CA; RAND Corporation, 2010 - includes list of joint task forces • Roberts, John. Safeguarding the Nation: The Story of the Modern Royal Navy. Seaforth Publishing, 2009. Includes mention of a number of RN task groups.

[27] http://www.operationtelic.co.uk/order-of-battle/ Operation-Telic-3-Order-%20of-Battle.pdf

0.25 Military administration

[28] https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attachment_data/file/137649/foi_christmas_ island_miscellaneous_docs.pdf

For other uses, see Military administration (disambiguation).

[29] [30]

[31] [32] [33] [34] [35]

Military administration identifies both the techniques and systems used by military departments, agencies, Andrew Preston (2012-09-15). “and Royal Navy Bridge Card, various editions”. Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved and Armed Services involved in the management of the armed forces. It describes the processes that take place 2014-05-12. within military organisations outside of combat, particuOperation OCEAN SHIELD (2014-01-14).“14 January larly in managing military personnel, their training, and 2014”. Mc.nato.int. Retrieved 2014-05-12. services they are provided with as part of their military service. In many ways military administration serves the Operation VIC FIRE ASSIST, army.gov.au same role as public administration in the civil society, and AFTP 9(H), navy.gov.au is often sited as a source of bureaucracy in the government as a whole. Given the wide area of application, Australian Operations in Afghanistan, accessed April military administration is often qualified by specific ar2014. eas of application within the military, such as logistics “Commodore Timothy William BARRETT CSC RAN, administration, administration of doctrine development ACT” (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-12. or military reform administration.* [1]

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Citations and notes

powder. It highlights the short outbursts of rapid change followed by periods of relative stability.

[1] p.xxiv, Weber, Eliasson

0.26.1 Historiography of military history 0.25.2

References

Historiography is the study of the history and method of • Weber, Jeffrey A., Eliasson, Johan, Handbook of the discipline of history or the study of a specialised topic. In this case, military history with an eye to gaining an acMilitary Administration, CRC Press, 2007 curate assessment of conflicts using all available sources. For this reason military history is periodised, creating overlaying boundaries of study and analysis in which de0.26 Military history scriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failure and exagThis article is about the field of study. For television gerate success. Military historians use Historiographical channel of the same name, see Military History (TV analysis in an effort to allow an unbiased, contemporary channel). For the book by John Keegan, see A History view of records.* [2] of Warfare. One military historian, Jeremy Black, in a recent work Military history is a humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and international relationships. Professional historians normally focus on military affairs that had a major impact on the societies involved as well as the aftermath of conflicts, while amateur historians and hobbyists often take a larger interest in the details of battles, equipment and uniforms in use.

mentioned some problems 21st century military historians face as an inheritance of their predecessors: Eurocentricity, a technological bias, a focus on leading military powers and dominant military systems, the separation of land from sea and recently air conflicts, the focus on stateto-state conflict, a lack of focus on political“tasking”in how forces are used.* [3]

If these challenges were not sufficient for the military historians, the limits of method are complicated by the lack of records, either destroyed or never recorded for its value as a military secret that may prevent some salient facts from being reported at all; scholars still do not know the The essential subjects of military history study are exact nature of Greek fire for instance. Despite these limthe causes of war, the social and cultural foundations, its, wars are some of the most studied and detailed perimilitary doctrine on each side, the logistics, leadership, ods of human history. technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these changed over time. On the other hand, Just War Theory Military historians have often compared organization, explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better tactical and strategic ideas, leadership, and national suplimit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to estab- port of the militaries of different nations.* [4] lish a doctrine of military ethics. As an applied field, military history has been studied at academies and service schools because the military command seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past. The discipline of military history is dynamic, changing with development as much of the subject area as the societies and organisations that make use of it.* [1] The dynamic nature of the discipline of military history is largely related to the rapidity of change the military forces, and the art and science of managing them, as well as the frenetic pace of technological development that had taken place during the period known as the Industrial Revolution, and more recently in the nuclear and information ages.

0.26.2 Early historians The documentation of military history begins with the confrontation between Sumer (current Iraq) and Elam (current Iran) c. 2700 BC near the modern Basra, and includes such enduring records as the Hebrew Bible. Other prominent records in military history are the Trojan War in Homer's Iliad (though its historicity has been challenged), The Histories by Herodotus (484 BC – 425 BC) who is often called the “father of history”.* [5] Next was Thucydides whose impartiality, despite being an Athenian, allowed him to take advantage of his exile to research the war from different perspectives by carefully examining documents and interviewing eyewitnesses.* [6] An approach centered on the analysis of a leader was taken by Xenophon (430 BC - 355 BC) in Anabasis, recording the expedition of Cyrus the Younger into Anatolia.

An important recent concept is the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) which attempts to explain how warfare has been shaped by emerging technologies, such as gun- The records of the Roman Julius Caesar (100 BC – 44

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67

BC) enable a comparative approach for campaigns such For settled agrarian civilizations, the infantry would beas Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Commentarii de Bello come the core of military action. The infantry started as Civili. opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders. The Greeks and early Romans used rigid, heavily armed phalanxes. The Macedonians and Hellenistic 0.26.3 Technological evolution states would adopt phalanx formations with sarissa pikemen. The Romans would later adopt more flexible maniples from their neighbors which made them extremely successful in the field of battle. The kingdoms of the Warring States in East Asia also adopted infantry combat, a transition from chariot warfare from centuries earlier. Cavalry would become an important tool. In the Sicilian Expedition, led by Athens in an attempt to subdue Syracuse, the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became crucial to the success of the Syracusans. Macedonian Alexander the Great effectively deployed his cavalry forces to secure victories. In battles such as the Battle of Cannae of the Second Punic War, and the Battle of Carrhae of the Roman-Persian Wars, the importance of the cavalry would be repeated. There were also horse archers, who had the ability to shoot on horseback – the Parthians, Scythians, Mongols, and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this tactic. By the 3rd-4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted by the Eastern Roman Empire, Sassanids, Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms, etc.

Relief of Ramses II located in Abu Simbel fighting at the Battle of Kadesh on a chariot.

Even in the First World War, cavalry was still considered important; the British mobilized 165,000 horses, the Austrians 600,000, the Germans 715,000, and the Russians more than a million.* [8]

New weapons development can dramatically alter the face The early Indo-Iranians developed the use of chariots in warfare. The scythed chariot was later invented in India of war. and soon adopted by the Persian Empire. Chariots, pulled by animals like the onager, ox, donkey, and later the horse, originated around 2000 BC. The char- War elephants were often deployed for fighting in ancient iot was an effective, fast weapon; while one man con- warfare. They were first used in India and later adopted trolled the maneuvering of the chariot, a second bowman by both the Persians and Alexander the Great against one could shoot arrows at enemy soldiers. These became cru- another. War elephants were also used in the Battle of cial to the maintenance of several governments, including the Hydaspes River, and by Hannibal in the Second Punic the New Egyptian Kingdom and the Shang Dynasty and War against the Romans. the nation states of early to mid Zhou dynasty. There were also organizational changes, made possible by Some of the military unit types and technologies which better training and intercommunication. Combined arms was the concept of using infantry, cavalry, and artillery in were developed in the ancient world are: a coordinated way. • Slinger • Hoplite • Auxiliaries • Infantry • Crossbowmen • Chariots • Cavalry

A Greek trireme

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Naval warfare was often crucial to military success. Early navies used sailing ships without cannons; often the goal was to ram the enemy ships and cause them to sink.

• Knight (see also: Chivalry)

There was human oar power, often using slaves, built up to ramming speed. Galleys were used in the 3rd millennium BC by the Cretans. The Greeks later advanced these ships.

• Pikeman

• Crossbow

• Samurai

• Sipahi In 1210 BC, the first recorded naval battle was fought between Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites, and Cyprus, which was defeated. In the Persian Wars, the navy be- Bows and arrows were often used by combatants. Egypcame of increasing importance. tians shot arrows from chariots effectively. The crossbow Triremes were involved in more complicated sea-land was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used a * operations. Themistocles helped to build up a stronger lot in the Middle Ages. [11] The English/Welsh longbow Greek navy, composed of 310 ships, and defeated the from the 12th century also became important in the MidPersians at the Battle of Salamis, ending the Persian in- dle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the Hundred Years' War, even though the English vasion of Greece.* [9] were eventually defeated. The Battle of Crécy and the In the First Punic War, the war between Carthage and Battle of Agincourt are excellent examples of how to deRome started with an advantage to Carthage because of stroy an enemy using a longbow. It dominated battlefields their naval experience. A Roman fleet was built in 261 for over a century. BC, with the addition of the corvus that allowed Roman soldiers on board the ships to board the enemy ships. The bridge would prove effective at the Battle of Mylae, resulting in a Roman victory. The Vikings, in the 8th century AD, invented a ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow, hence called the Drakkar. The 12th century AD Song Dynasty invented ships with watertight bulk head compartments while the 2nd century BC Han Dynasty invented rudders and sculled oars for their warships. Fortifications are important in warfare. Early hill-forts A small English Civil War-era cannon were used to protect inhabitants in the Iron Age. They were primitive forts surrounded by ditches filled with wa- In the 10th century, the invention of gunpowder led to many new weapons that were improved over time. Black ter.* [10] powder was used in China since the 4th century, but it Forts were then built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, was not used as a weapon until the 11th century. and other available materials. Romans used rectangular fortresses built out of wood and stone. As long as there Until the mid-15th century, guns were held in one hand, have been fortifications, there have been contraptions to while the explosive charge was ignited by the other hand. break in, dating back to the times of Romans and earlier. Then came the matchlock, which was used widely until around the 1720s. Leonardo da Vinci made drawings of Siege warfare is often necessary to capture forts. the wheel lock which made its own sparks. Eventually, Some of the military unit types and technologies which the matchlock was replaced by the flintlock. were used in the medieval period are: Cannons were first used in Europe in the early 14th century, and played a vital role in the Hundred Years' War. • Artillery The first cannons were simply welded metal bars in the form of a cylinder, and the first cannonballs were made • Cataphract of stone. By 1346, at the Battle of Crécy, the cannon had • Condottieri been used; at the Battle of Agincourt they would be used again.* [12] • Fyrd At the beginning of the 16th century, the first European • Rashidun fire ships were used. Ships were filled with flammable materials, set on fire, and sent to enemy lines. This tac• Mobile guard tic was successfully used by Francis Drake to scatter the Spanish Armada at the Battle of Gravelines,* [13] and • Mamluk would later be used by the Chinese, Russians, Greeks, • Janissary and several other countries in naval battles.

0.26. MILITARY HISTORY Naval mines were invented in the 17th century, though they were not used in great numbers until the American Civil War. They were used heavily in the First and Second World Wars. Air-deployed naval mines were used to mine the North Vietnamese port of Haiphong during the Vietnam War. The Iraqi Navy of Saddam Hussein used naval mines extensively during the Tanker War, as part of the Iran–Iraq War.

69 In the 1860s there were a series of advancements in rifles. The first repeating rifle was designed in 1860 by a company bought out by Winchester, which made new and improved versions. Springfield rifles arrived in the mid-19th century also. Machine guns arrived in the middle of the 19th century. Automatic rifles and light machine guns first arrived at the beginning of the 20th century.

Also in the 1860s came the first boats that would later be known as torpedo boats. These were first used in the American Civil War, but generally were not successful. Several Confederates used spar torpedoes, which were bombs on long poles designed to attach to boats. In the The Turtle was developed by David Bushnell during the later part of the 19th century, the self-propelled torpedo American Revolution. Robert Fulton then improved the was developed. The HNoMS Rap was the world's first torpedo boat. submarine design by creating the Nautilus.* [14] At the start of the World Wars, various nations had developed weapons that were a surprise to their adversaries, leading to a need to learn from this, and alter how to combat them. Flame throwers were first used in the First World War. The French were the first to introduce the armored car in 1902. Then in 1918, the British produced the first armored troop carrier. Many early tanks were proof of concept but impractical until further development. In World War I, the British and French held a crucial advantage due to their superiority in tanks; the Germans had only a few dozen A7 V tanks, as well as 170 captured tanks. The British and French both had several hundred each. The French tanks included the 13 ton Schneider-Creusot, with a 75 mm gun, and the British had the Mark IV and Mark V tanks.* [15] A 155 mm M198 howitzer firing a shell. The first navigable submarine was built in 1624 by Cornelius Drebbel, it could cruise at a depth of 15 feet (5 m). However, the first military submarine was constructed in 1885 by Isaac Peral.

The Howitzer, a type of field artillery, was developed in the 17th century to fire high trajectory explosive shells at targets that could not be reached by flat trajectory projectiles.

On December 17, 1903, the Wright Brothers performed the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight; it went 39 meters (120 ft). In 1907, the first helicopter flew, but it wasn't practical for usage. Aviation became important in World War I, in which several aces gained fame. In 1911 an aircraft took off from a warship for the first time. It was a cruiser. Takeoffs were soon perfected, but deck landings on a cruiser were another matter. This led to the development of an aircraft carrier with a decent unobstructed flight deck.

Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers. Bayonet is named after Bayonne, France where it was first manufactured in the 16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to fight in hand-to-hand combat. General Jean Martinet introduced the bayonet to the French army. They were used a lot in the American Civil War, and con- Chemical warfare exploded into the public consciousness tinued to be used in modern wars like the Invasion of Iraq. in World War I but may have been used in earlier wars without as much human attention. The Germans used Balloons were first used in warfare at the end of the 18th gas-filled shells at the Battle of Bolimov on January 3, century. It was first introduced in Paris of 1783; the first 1915. These were not lethal, however. In April 1915, balloon traveled over 5 miles (8 km). Previously military the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly scouts could only see from high points on the ground, or lethal, and used it to great effect at the Second Battle of from the mast of a ship. Now they could be high in the Ypres.* [16] sky, signalling to troops on the ground. This made it much World War II gave rise to even more technology. The more difficult for troop movements to go unobserved. worth of the aircraft carrier was proved in the battles At the end of the 18th century, iron-cased artillery rockbetween the United States and Japan like the Battle of ets were successfully used militarily in India against the Midway. Radar was independently invented by the Allies British by Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore during and Axis powers. It used radio waves to detect objects. the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Rockets were generally inacMolotov cocktails were invented by General Franco in curate at that time, though William Hale, in 1844, was the Spanish Civil War, directing the Nationalists to use able to develop a better rocket. The new rocket no longer them against Soviet tanks in the assault on Toledo. The needed the rocket stick, and had a higher accuracy.

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atomic bomb was developed by the Manhattan Project are more likely to survive. Weapons and armor were also and dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, ulti- mass-produced to a scale that makes them quite plentiful mately ending World War II. throughout history, and thus more likely to be found in During the Cold War, even though fighting did not ac- archaeological digs. tually occur, the superpowers – the United States and the USSR – engaged in a race to develop and increase the level of technology available for military purposes. In the space race, both nations attempted to launch human beings into space to the moon. Other technological advances centered on intelligence (like the spy satellite) and missiles (ballistic missiles, cruise missiles). Nuclear submarine, invented in 1955. This meant submarines no longer had to surface as often, and could run more quietly. They evolved into becoming underwater missile platforms. Cruise missiles were invented in Nazi Germany during World War II in the form of the V-1.

Such items were also considered signs of prosperity or virtue, and thus were likely to placed in tombs and monuments to prominent warriors. And writing, when it existed, was often used for kings to boast of military conquests or victories.

For more details on this topic, see Ancient warfare.

Egypt began growing as an ancient power, but eventually fell to the Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs.

Writing, when used by the common man, also tended to record such events, as major battles and conquests constituted major events that many would have considered worthy of recording either in an epic such as the Homeric writings pertaining to the Trojan War, or even personal writings. Indeed the earliest stories center on warfare, as war was both a common and dramatic aspect of life; the witnessing of a major battle involving many thousands of soldiers would be quite a spectacle, even today, and thus 0.26.4 Periods of military history considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art, but also in realistic histories, as well as being a central elThe influence of technology on military history, and ev- ement in a fictional work. ident Eurocentrism are nowhere more pronounced than in the attempt by the military historians to divide their Lastly, as nation states evolved and empires grew, the subject area into more manageable periods of analysis. increased need for order and efficiency lead to an inWhile general discipline of history subdivides history into crease in the number of records and writings. Officials Ancient history (Classical antiquity), Middle Ages (Eu- and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed rope, 4th century – 15th century), Early Modern period records and accounts involving any and all things con(Europe, 14th century – 18th century), Modern era (Eu- cerning a matter such as warfare that in the words of Sun rope, 18th century – 20th century), and the Post-Modern Tzu was“a matter of vital importance to the state”. For (USA, 1949–present), the periodisation below stresses all these reasons, military history comprises a large part technological change in its emphasis, particularly the cru- of ancient history. cial dramatic change during the Gunpowder warfare pe- Notable militaries in the ancient world included the riod. Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Ancient Greeks (noPeriodisation is not uniformly applied through time and tably the Spartans and Macedonians), Indians (notably space, affirming the claims of Eurocentrism from re- the Magadhas, Gangaridais, Gandharas and Cholas), gional historians. For example, what might be described Early Imperial Chinese (notably the Qin and Han Dyas prehistoric warfare is still practised in a few parts of nasties), Xiongnu Confederation, Ancient Romans, and the world. Other eras that are distinct in European his- Carthaginians. tory, such as the era of medieval warfare, may have little The fertile crescent of Mesopotamia was the center relevance in East Asia. of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians. Iranians were the first nation to Ancient warfare introduce cavalry into their army.* [17]

Much of what we know of ancient history is the history of militaries: their conquests, their movements, and their technological innovations. There are many reasons for this. Kingdoms and empires, the central units of control in the ancient world, could only be maintained through military force. Due to limited agricultural ability, there were relatively few areas that could support large communities, so fighting was common.

The earliest recorded battle in India was the Battle of the Ten Kings. The Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are centered on conflicts and refer to military formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. Chanakya's Arthashastra contains a detailed study on ancient warfare, including topics on espionage and war elephants.

Weapons and armor, designed to be sturdy, tended to last Alexander the Great invaded Northwestern India and delonger than other artifacts, and thus a great deal of surviv- feated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River. ing artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they The same region was soon re conquered by Chandragupta

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71

Maurya after defeating the Macedonians and Seleucids. He also went on to conquer the Nanda Empire and unify Northern India. Most of Southern Asia was unified under his grandson Ashoka the Great after the Kalinga War, though the empire collapsed not long after his reign.

Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami.

The Warring States era philosopher Mozi (Micius) and his Mohist followers invented various siege weapons and siegecraft, including the Cloud Ladder (a four-wheeled, extendable ramp) to scale fortified walls during a siege of an enemy city. The warring states were first unified by Qin Shi Huang after a series of military conquests, creating the first empire in China.

vasion of Italy by crossing the Alps. He famously won the encirclement at the Battle of Cannae. However, after Scipio invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow and was defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the role of Carthage as a power.

The Macedonians, underneath Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, invaded Persia and won several major victories, establishing Macedonia as a major power. However, following Alexander's death at an early age, the In China, the Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty had risen empire quickly fell apart. and collapsed. This led to a Warring States period, in Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rewhich several states continued to fight with each other bellion against the Etruscans. During the three Punic over territory. Philosopher-strategists such as Confucius Wars, the Romans defeated the neighboring power of and Sun Tzu wrote various manuscripts on ancient war- Carthage. The First Punic War centered on naval warfare (as well as international diplomacy). fare. The Second Punic War started with Hannibal's in-

His empire was succeeded by the Han Dynasty, which expanded into Central Asia, Northern China/Manchuria, Southern China, and present day Korea and Vietnam. The Han came into conflict with settled people such as the Wiman Joseon, and proto-Vietnamese Nanyue. They also came into conflict with the Xiongnu (Huns), Yuezhi, and other steppe civilizations. The Han defeated and drove the Xiongnus west, securing the city-states along the silk route that continued into the Parthian Empire. After the decline of central imperial authority, the Han Dynasty collapsed into an era of civil war and continuous warfare during the Three Kingdoms period in the 3rd century AD.

After defeating Carthage the Romans went on to become the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully campaigning in Greece, (Aemilius Paulus decisive victory over Macedonia at the Battle of Pydna), in the Middle East (Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus), in Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar) and defeating several Germanic tribes (Gaius Marius, Germanicus). While Roman armies suffered several major losses, their large population and ability (and will) to replace battlefield casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical superiority enabled Rome to stay a predominant military force for several centuries, utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much larger “tribal”armies of their foes (see Battles of Aquae Sextiae, Vercellae, Tigranocerta, Alesia).

The Achaemenid Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great after conquering the Median Empire, NeoBabylonian Empire, Lydia and Asia Minor. His successor Cambyses went onto conquer the Egyptian Empire, much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and Libya. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after defeating Darius III. After being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, which were the Roman Empire's greatest rivals during the Roman-Persian Wars.

In 54 BC the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus took the offensive against the Parthian Empire in the east. In a decisive battle at Carrhae Romans were defeated and the golden Aquilae (legionary battle standards) were taken as trophies to Ctesiphon. The battle was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Republic in its entire history.

to protect its inhabitants, but the wall helped to facilitate the spread of a plague that killed about 30,000 Athenians, including Pericles. After a disastrous campaign against Syracuse, the Athenian navy was decisively defeated by

By the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Romans had expanded to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and to Mesopotamia in the east and controlled Northern Africa and Central Europe up to the Black Sea. However, Au-

While successfully dealing with foreign opponents, Rome experienced numerous civil wars, notably the power struggles of Roman generals such as Marius and Sulla In Greece, several city-states rose to power, including during the end of the Republic. Caesar was also notable Athens and Sparta. The Greeks successfully stopped two for his role in the civil war against the other member of Persian invasions, the first at the Battle of Marathon, the Triumvirate (Pompey) and against the Roman Senate. where the Persians were led by Darius the Great, and the The successors of Caesar – Octavian and Mark Anthony, second at the Battle of Salamis, a naval battle where the also fought a civil war with Caesar's assassins (Senators Greek ships were deployed by orders of Themistocles and Brutus, Cassius, etc.). Octavian and Mark Anthony eventhe Persians were under Xerxes I, and the land engage- tually fought another civil war between themselves to dement of the Battle of Plataea. termine the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian emerged victorious and Rome was turned into an empire with a huge The Peloponnesian War then erupted between the two Greek powers Athens and Sparta. Athens built a long wall standing army of professional soldiers.

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relius marked the end of the Five Good Emperors, and by way of the Balkans were defeated by Byzantium and Rome quickly fell into decline. Bulgaria,* [18] the Arabs expanded to the Iberian PeninThe Huns, Goths, and other barbaric groups invaded sula in the west and the Indus Valley in the east. The Rome, which continued to suffer from inflation and Abassids then took over the Arab Empire, though the other internal strifes. Despite the attempts of Diocletian, Umayyads remained in control of Islamic Spain. Constantine I, and Theodosius I, western Rome collapsed At the Battle of Tours, the Franks under Charles Martel and was eventually conquered in 476. The Byzantine em- stopped short a Muslim invasion. The Abassids defeated pire continued to prosper, however. the Tang Chinese army at the Battle of Talas, but were later defeated by the Seljuk Turks and the Mongols centuries later, until the Arab Empire eventually came to an Medieval warfare end after the Battle of Baghdad in 1258. In China, the Sui Dynasty had risen and conquered the For more details on this topic, see Medieval warfare. Chen Dynasty of the south. They invaded Vietnam When stirrups came into use some time during the Dark (northern Vietnam had been in Chinese control since the Han Dynasty), fighting the troops of Champa, who had cavalry mounted on elephants. After decades of economic turmoil and a failed invasion of Korea, the Sui collapsed and was followed by the Tang Dynasty, who fought with various Turkic groups, the Tibetans of Lhasa, the Tanguts, the Khitans, and collapsed due to political fragmentation of powerful regional military governors (jiedushi). The innovative Song Dynasty followed next, inventing new weapons of war that employed the use of Greek Fire and gunpowder (see section below) against enemies such as the Jurchens.

Battle of Crécy (1346) between the English and French in the Hundred Years' War.

The Mongols under Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, Möngke Khan, and Kublai Khan conquered most of Eurasia. They took over China, Persia, Turkestan, and Russia. After Kublai Khan took power and created the Yuan Dynasty, the divisions of the empire ceased to cooperate with each other, and the Mongol Empire was only nominally united.

In New Zealand, prior to European discovery, oral histories, legends and whakapapa include many stories of battles and wars. Māori warriors were held in high esteem. One group of Polynesians migrated to the Chatham Islands, where they developed the largely pacifist Moriori culture. Their pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland world. In China around the 5th century armies moved Māori in the 1830s. from massed infantry to cavalry based forces, copying the steppe nomads. The Middle East and North Africa They proceeded to massacre the Moriori and enslave the * * used similar, if often more advanced, technologies than survivors. [19] [20] Warrior culture also developed in the isolated Hawaiian Islands. During the 1780s and Europe. 1790s the chiefs and alii were constantly fighting for In Japan the Medieval warfare period is considered by power. After a series of battles the Hawaiian Islands were many to have stretched into the 19th century. In Africa united for the first time under a single ruler who would along the Sahel and Sudan states like the Kingdom of become known as Kamehameha I. Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and weapons well after they had been supplanted in Europe. Ages militaries were forever changed. This invention coupled with technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery.

In the Medieval period, feudalism was firmly implanted, Gunpowder warfare and there existed many landlords in Europe. Landlords For more details on this topic, see Gunpowder warfare. often owned castles to protect their territory. The Islamic Arab Empire began rapidly expanding throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Central After gunpowder weapons were first developed in Song Asia, initially led by Rashidun Caliphate, and later under Dynasty China (see also Technology of Song Dynasty), the Umayyads. While their attempts to invade Europe the technology later spread west to the Ottoman Empire,

0.26. MILITARY HISTORY

73

from where it spread to the Safavid Empire of Persia and Modern warfare the Mughal Empire of India. The arquebus was later adopted by European armies during the Italian Wars of For more details on this topic, see Modern warfare. the early 16th century. This all brought an end to the dominance of armored cavalry on the battlefield. The simultaneous decline of the feudal system – and the absorption of the medieval city-states into larger states – allowed the creation of professional standing armies to replace the feudal levies and mercenaries that had been the standard military component of the Middle Ages.

In modern times, war has evolved from an activity steeped in tradition to a scientific enterprise where success is valued above methods. The notion of total war is the extreme of this trend. Militaries have developed technological advances rivaling the scientific accomplishments of any other field of study.

However, it should be noted that modern militaries benefit in the development of these technologies under the funding of the public, the leadership of national governments, and often in cooperation with large civilian groups, such as the General Dynamics and Lockheed Martin corporations, in the United States. And as for“toThe period spanning between the 1648 Peace of Westtal war”, it may be argued that it is not an exclusive pracphalia and the 1789 French Revolution is also known as tice of modern militaries, but in the tradition of genocidal Kabinettskriege (Princes' warfare) as wars were mainly conflict that marks even tribal warfare to this day. carried out by imperial or monarchics states, decided by cabinets and limited in scope and in their aims. They also What distinguishes modern military organizations from involved quickly shifting alliances, and mainly used mer- those previous is not their willingness to prevail in conflict by any method, but rather the technological variety cenaries. of tools and methods available to modern battlefield comOver the course of the 18th-19th centuries all military manders, from submarines to satellites, from knives to arms and services underwent significant developments nuclear warheads. that included a more mobile field artillery, the transition from use of battalion infantry drill in close order to open Some of the military unit types and technologies which order formations and the transfer of emphasis from the were developed in modern times are: use of bayonets to the rifle that replaced the musket, and virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the uni• Ammunition versal dragoons, or mounted infantry. • Armory In Africa, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, was the first African commander to use gunpowder on the continent in the Ethiopian–Adal War, that lasted for fourteen years (1529–1543).

Industrial warfare

• Conscription • Grenadier

For more details on this topic, see Industrial warfare.

• Sappers and Miners

As weapons̶particularly small arms̶became easier to use, countries began to abandon a complete reliance on professional soldiers in favor of conscription. Technological advances became increasingly important; while the armies of the previous period had usually had similar weapons, the industrial age saw encounters such as the Battle of Sadowa, in which possession of a more advanced technology played a decisive role in the outcome.

• Marine

Conscription was employed in industrial warfare to increase the number of military personnel that were available for combat. This was used by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Napoleonic Wars.

• Global Information Grid

Total war was used in industrial warfare, the objective being to prevent the opposing nation to engage in war. William Tecumseh Sherman's "March to the Sea" and Philip Sheridan's burning of the Shenandoah Valley during the American Civil War and the strategic bombing of enemy cities and industrial factories during World War II are examples of total warfare.

• Aviation • Rifleman • Special Forces • Naval Combatant

• Active Electronically Scanned Array • Network-centric warfare • Supercomputer • Space warfare • Drone warfare • Cyberwar

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World War I was sparked by the assassination of [8] Keegan, p. 73 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to the mobilization [9] Moerbeek, Martijn (January 21, 1998). “The battle of of Austria and Serbia. The Germans joined the AustriSalamis, 480 BC” Accessed May 16, 2006. ans to form the Central powers; the French, British, and Russians formed the Allied powers. Following the Battle [10] “The Medieval Castle”. Accessed May 16, 2006 of the Marne and the outflanking attempt of both nations in the "Race to the Sea", trench warfare ensued, leaving [11] Selby, Stephen (2001). “A Crossbow Mechanism with Some Unique Features from Shandong, China”. Accessed the war in a great deadlock. on May 17, 2006.

Major operations by the Germans at the Battle of Verdun and by the British and the French at the Battle of [12] Calvert, J.B. (February 19, 2006) “Cannons and Gunpowder”. Accessed on May 18, 2006 the Somme were carried out, and new technology like tanks and chlorine gas were used. Following the USA's [13] Jorge. The “Invincible”Armada. Accessed on May 18, entrance into the war, the Germans and their allies were 2006. eventually defeated. World War II ensued after Germany's invasion of Poland, forcing Britain and France to declare war. Germany quickly defeated France and Belgium, later aided by Italy. A hasty evacuation occurred at Dunkirk to save the Allied army from complete destruction. The Germans then attacked the USSR and marched to take over the Soviet resources, but were thwarted.

[14] “Early Underwater Warfare”. California Center for Military History. Accessed on May 18, 2006. [15] Keegan, p. 410 [16] Keegan, pp. 197–199 [17] Suren-Pahlav S., General Surena; The Hero of Carrhae [18] s:Great Battles of Bulgaria

Meanwhile, Japan, who had already been at war with the [19] “Moriori - The impact of new arrivals”Te Ara EncycloChinese since 1937, had launched a surprise attack on pedia of New Zealand Pearl Harbor, leading the United States to join the Allied powers. In Europe, the Allies opened three fronts: in [20] “Chatham Islands” New Zealand A to Z the west, after securing Normandy; in the east, aiding the Soviet Union; and in the south, through Italy. Germany eventually surrendered, upon which the Allies turned and 0.26.7 Further reading focused troops to do island hopping. The dropping of the • Archer, I. John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig, and atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to the surTimothy H. E. Travers. World History of Warfare render of Japan and the end of the Second World War. (2nd ed. 2008) 638pp Worsening relationships between wartime Allies devel• Black, Jeremy. Warfare in the Western World, oped into the Cold War, reaching a climax during the 1775–1882 (2001) 240 pp. Cuban Missile Crisis at the same time as the Sino-Indian War. Hostilities never actually occurred, though the US • Black, Jeremy. Warfare in the Western World, did kill in the communist states in the Korean War and 1882–1975 (2002), 256 pp. the Vietnam War. • Chambers, John Whiteclay, ed. The Oxford Companion to American Military History (2000) online at OUP

0.26.5

See also

0.26.6

Notes and references

[1] Cowley, Parker, p. xiii [2] Morillo, Pevkovic, pp. 4–5 [3] Black, p. ix [4] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (Random House, 1987) [5] “Herodotus: The father of history”, Warburton [6] Farah, Karls, pp. 137–138 [7] Peters, Ralph. New Glory: Supremacy, 2005. p. 30

Expanding America's

• Cowley, Robert, and Geoffrey Parker, eds. The Reader's Companion to Military History (2001) excellent coverage by scholars. Complete text online free of 1996 edition • Dear, I. C. B., and M. R. D. Foot, eds. Oxford Companion to World War II (2005; 2nd ed. 2010) online at OUP • Doughty, Robert, Ira Gruber, Roy Flint, and Mark Grimsley. Warfare In The Western World (2 vol 1996), comprehensive textbook • Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present (1977), 1465pp; comprehensive discussion focused on wars and battles

0.26. MILITARY HISTORY • Echevarria, Antulio J. Imagining Future War: The West's Technological Revolution and Visions of Wars to Come, 1880-1914 (2007) • Holmes, Richard, ed. The Oxford Companion to Military History (2001) 1071pp; online at OUP • Jones, Archer, 2001, The Art of War in the Western World, University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780-252-06966-6 • Keegan, John (1999). The First World War (9th ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 0-37540052-4. • Kohn, George C. Dictionary of Wars (3rd ed. 2006) 704pp; very useful summary across world history • Karsten, Peter. ed., Encyclopedia of War and American Society (3 vols., 2005). • Lynn, John A. Battle: A Cultural History of Combat and Culture (2003). • Parker, Geoffrey, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare (2008), good overview Historiography • Barnett, Correlli, Shelford Bidwell, Brian Bond, and John Terraine. Old Battles and New Defences: Can We Learn from Military History? (1986). online edition • Black, Jeremy. “Determinisms and Other Issues”, Journal of Military History, 68 (Oct. 2004), 1217– 32. in Project MUSE • Black, Jeremy. Rethinking Military History (2004) online edition • Bucholz, Arden.“Hans Delbruck and Modern Military History.”The Historian vol 55#3 (1993) pp 517+. • Chambers II, John Whiteclay. “The New Military History: Myth and Reality”, Journal of Military History, 55 (July 1991), 395–406 • Charters, David A., Marc Milner, and J. Brent Wilson. eds. Military History and the Military Profession, (1992) • Citino, Robert M.“Military Histories Old and New: A Reintroduction”, The American Historical Review Vol. 112, no. 4 (October 2007), pp. 1070–1090 online version • Grimsley, Mark. “Why Military History Sucks”, Nov. 1996, War Historian.org, online at

75 • Karsten, Peter.“The 'New' American Military History: A Map of the Territory, Explored and Unexplored”, American Quarterly, 36 #3, (1984), 389– 418 in JSTOR • Kohn, Richard H. “The Social History of the American Soldier: A Review and Prospectus for Research”, American Historical Review, 86 (June 1981), 553–67. in JSTOR • Lee, Wayne E. “Mind and Matter̶Cultural Analysis in American Military History: A Look at the State of the Field”, Journal of American History, 93 (March 2007), 1116–42. Fulltext: History Cooperative and Ebsco • Lynn, John A. “Rally Once Again: The Embattled Future of Academic Military History”, Journal of Military History, 61 (Oct. 1997), 777–89. • Mearsheimer, John J. Liddell Hart and the Weight of History. (1988). 234 pp. • Messenger, Charles, ed. Reader's Guide to Military History (Routledge, 2001), 948 pp; detailed guide to the historiography of 500 topics excerpt and text search • Morillo, Stephen. What is Military History (2006) • Moyar, Mark. “The Current State of Military History”, The Historical Journal (2007), 50: 225–240 online at CJO • Murray, Williamson and Richard Hart Sinnreich, eds. The Past as Prologue: The Importance of History to the Military Profession (2006). • Noe, Kenneth W., George C. Rable and Carol Reardon. “Battle Histories: Reflections on Civil War Military Studies”Civil War History 53#3 2007. pp 229+. online edition • Porch, Douglas. “Writing History in the 'End of History' Era: Reflections on Historians and the GWOT”Journal of Military History 2006 70(4): 1065-1079. on war on terror, 2001–present • Reardon, Carol. Soldiers and Scholars: The U.S. Army and the Uses of Military History, 1865–1920. U. Press of Kansas 1990. 270 pp. ISBN 978-07006-0466-1. • Reid, Brian Holden. “American Military History: the Need for Comparative Analysis.”Journal of American History 2007 93(4): 1154–1157. • Reid, Brian Holden, and Joseph G. Dawson III, eds., “Special Issue: The Vistas of American Military History, 1800–1898”, American Nineteenth Century History, 7 (June 2006), 139–321.

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• Spector, Ronald H. “Teetering on the Brink of Respectability.”Journal of American History 2007 93(4): 1158–1160. online • Spiller, Roger. “Military History and its Fictions.” Journal of Military History 2006 70(4): 1081–1097. online

0.26.8

External links

• H-WAR, daily discussion group for historians, With book reviews and debates • International Bibliography of Military History of the International Commission of Military History • Journal of Chinese Military History • War History Online • Society for Military History • Journal of Military History • “Web Sources for Military History” • Graduate programs in military history • List of Wars World History Database

A USMC cook prepares corn for an evening meal

• Military History Encyclopedia

0.27.1 History

• Military History – The Canadian War Museum

The word “logistics”is derived from the Greek adjective logistikos meaning “skilled in calculating”. The first administrative use of the word was in Roman and Byzantine times when there was a military administrative official with the title Logista. At that time, the word apparently implied a skill involved in numerical computations.

• Military History Tours – Keeping the Spirit Alive • Army Non-commissioned Officer History

0.27 Military logistics Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:* [1] • Design, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of materiel. • Transport of personnel. • Acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities. • Acquisition or furnishing of services. • Medical and health service support.

Historically supplies for an army were first acquired by foraging or looting, especially in the case of food and fodder, although if traveling through a desolated region or staying in one place for too long resources could quickly be exhausted. A second method was for the army to bring along what was needed, whether by ships, pack animals, wagons or carried on the backs of the soldiers themselves. This allowed the army some measure of selfsufficiency, and up through to the 19th century most of the ammunition a soldier needed for an entire campaign could be carried on their person. However this method led to an extensive baggage train which could slow down the army's advance and the development of faster-firing weapons soon outpaced an army's ability to supply itself. Starting with the Industrial Revolution new technological, technical and administrative advances led to a third method, that of maintaining supplies in a rear area and transporting them to the front. This led to a “logistical revolution”which began in the 20th century and drasti-

0.27. MILITARY LOGISTICS

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cally improved the capabilities of modern armies while 17th Century making them highly dependent on this new system.* [2]

16th Century Starting in the late sixteenth century armies in Europe greatly increased in size, upwards of 100,000 or more in some cases. This increase in size came not just in the number of actual soldiers but also camp followers - anywhere from half to one and a half the size of the army itself - and the size of the baggage train - averaging one wagon for every fifteen men.* [3] However very little state support was provided to these massive armies, the vast majority of which consisted of mercenaries. Beyond being paid for their service by the state, an act which bankrupted even the Spanish Empire on several occasions, these soldiers and their commanders were forced to provide everything for themselves. If permanently assigned to a town or city with a working marketplace, or traveling along a well-established military route, supplies could be easily bought locally with intendants overseeing the exchanges. In other cases an army traveling in friendly territory could expect to be followed by sutlers, although their supply stocks were small and subject to price gouging, or a commissioner could be sent ahead to a town to make arraignments, including quartering if necessary.* [4] When operating in enemy territory an army was forced to plunder the local countryside for supplies, a historical tradition meant to allow war to be conducted at the enemy's expense. However with the increase in army sizes this reliance on plunder became a major problem, as many decisions regarding where an army could move or fight were made based not on strategic objectives but whether a given area was capable of supporting the soldiers' needs. Sieges in particular were affected by this, both for any army attempting to lay siege to a location or coming to its relief. Unless a military commander was able to implement some sort of regular resupply a fortress or town with a devastated countryside could be effectively immune to either operation.* [4] Conversely armies of this time had little need to maintain lines of communication while on the move, except insofar as it was necessary to recruit more soldiers, and thus could not be cut off from non-existent supply bases. Although this theoretically granted armies freedom of movement the need for plunder prevented any sort of sustained, purposeful advance. Many armies were further restricted to following waterways due to the fact that what supplies they were forced to carry could be more easily transported by boat. Artillery in particular was reliant of this method of travel, since even a modest number of cannons required hundreds of horses to pull overland and traveled at half the speed of the rest of the army.* [5]

By the seventeenth century, the French under Secretary of State for War Michel Le Tellier begun a series of military reforms to address some of these issues. Besides ensuring that soldiers were more regularly paid and combating the corruption and inefficiencies of private contractors, Le Tellier devised formulas to calculate the exact amount of supplies necessary for a given campaign, created standardized contracts for dealing with commercial suppliers, and formed a permanent vehicle-park manned by army specialists whose job was to carry a few days' worth of supplies while accompanying the army during campaigns. With these arraignments there was a gradual increase in the use of magazines which could provide a more regular flow of supply via convoys. While the concepts of magazines and convoys was not new at this time, prior to the increase in army sizes there had rarely been cause to implement them.* [6] Despite these changes French armies still relied on plunder for a majority of their needs while on the move. Magazines were created for specific campaigns and any surplus was immediately sold for both monetary gain and to lessen the tax burden. The vehicles used to form convoys were contracted out from commercial interests or requisitioned from local stockpiles. In addition, given warfare of this era's focus on fortified towns and an inability to establish front lines or exert a stabilizing control over large areas, these convoys often needed armies of their own to provide escort. The primary benefits of these reforms was to supply an army during a siege. This was borne out in the successful campaign of 1658 when the French army at no point was forced to end a siege on account of supplies, including the Siege of Dunkirk.* [6] Le Tellier's son Louvois would continue his father's reforms after assuming his position. The most important of these was to guarantee free daily rations for the soldiers, amounting to two pounds of bread or hardtack a day. These rations were supplemented as circumstances allowed by a source of protein such as meat or beans; soldiers were still responsible for purchasing these items outof-pocket but they were often available at below-market prices or even free at the expense of the state. He also made permanent a system of magazines which were overseen by local governors to ensure they were fully stocked. Part of these magazines were dedicated to frontier towns and fortresses to provide several months' worth of supplies in the event of a siege, while the rest were dedicated to supporting French armies operating in the field.* [7] With these reforms French armies enjoyed one of the best logistical systems in Europe, however there were still severe restrictions on its capabilities. Only a fraction of an army's supply needs could be met by the magazines, requiring that it continue to use plunder. In particular this was true for perishable goods or those too bulky to store and transport such as fodder. The administration and transportation of supplies remained inadequate and sub-

78 ject to the deprivations of private contractors. The primary aim of this system was still to keep an army supplied while conducting a siege, a task for which it succeeded, rather than an increased freedom of movement.* [8] 18th Century The British were seriously handicapped in the American Revolutionary War by the need to ship all supplies across the Atlantic, since the Patriots prevented most local purchases. The British found a solution after the war by creating the infrastructure and the experience needed to manage an empire. London reorganized the management of the supply of military food and transport that was completed in 1793–94 when the naval Victualling and Transport Boards undertook those responsibilities. It built upon experience the supply of the verylong-distance Falklands garrison (1767–72) to systematize needed shipments to distant places such as Australia, Nova Scotia, and Sierra Leone. This new infrastructure allowed Britain to launch large expeditions to the Continent during the French Revolutionary War and to develop a global network of colonial garrisons.* [9] 19th Century Napoleon Until the Napoleonic wars, the military supply was ensured by looting, requisition or private companies. In 1807, Napoleon created the first Train regiments, entirely dedicated to the supply and the transport of the equipment. However Napoleon typically tried to live off the country̶he called it “war feeding war.”However it made his army vulnerable to the scorched earth policy conducted by the Russians in 1812, which burned the food supplies Napoleon (and the Russian peasants) had counted upon. The French system failed as well in Spain, in the Peninsular wars, where the supplies found in the occupied territory were insufficient for French needs. The French scrambled to find alternative sources in the face of a guerrilla war that targeted supplies, and the British blockade of Spanish ports. Logistical operations largely took center stage in French strategy. The need to supply a besieged Barcelona made it impossible to control the province and ended French plans to incorporate Catalonia into Napoleon's Empire.* [10]

CONTENTS disrupt the enemy's logistics by destroying trackage and bridges.* [11] During the Seven Weeks War of 1866, railways enabled the swift mobilization of the Prussian Army, but the problem of moving supplies from the end of rail lines to units at the front resulted in nearly 18,000 tons trapped on trains unable to be unloaded to ground transport.* [12] The Prussian use of railways during the Franco-Prussian War is often cited as a prime example of logistic modernizations, but the advantages of maneuver were often gained by abandoning supply lines that became hopelessly congested with rear-area traffic.* [13] World War I During World War I, unrestricted submarine warfare had a significant impact on the ability of Britain's allies to keep shipping lanes open, while the great size of the German Army proved too much for its railways to support except while immobilized in trench warfare.* [14]

0.27.2 Modern developments See also: airlift and sealift Logistics, occasionally referred to as "combat ser-

Iraqi Army Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) specialist.

vice support", must address highly uncertain conditions. While perfect forecasts are rarely possible, forecast models can reduce uncertainty about what supplies or services will be needed, where and when they will be needed, or the best way to provide them.

The first theoretical analysis was by the Swiss writer, Antoine-Henri Jomini, who studied the Napoleonic wars. Ultimately, responsible officials must make judgments on In 1838, he devised a theory of war on the trinity of strat- these matters, sometimes using intuition and scientifically weighing alternatives as the situation requires and egy, ground tactics, and logistics. permits. Their judgments must be based not only upon professional knowledge of the numerous aspects of logisRailways Railways and steamboats revolutionized lo- tics itself but also upon an understanding of the interplay gistics by the mid-19th century. of closely related military considerations such as strategy, In the American Civil War (1861–65), both armies used tactics, intelligence, training, personnel, and finance. railways extensively, for transport of personnel, supplies, However, case studies have shown that more quantitative, horses and mules and heavy field pieces. Both tried to statistical analysis are often a significant improvement on

0.27. MILITARY LOGISTICS

79 the Berlin Airlift. Military logistics has pioneered a number of techniques that have since become widely deployed in the commercial world. Operations research grew out of WWII military logistics efforts. Likewise, military logistics borrows from methods first introduced to the commercial world.

Mobile workshop of the French Army.

The Kargil Conflict in 1999 between India and Pakistan also referred to as Operation Vijay (Victory in Hindi) is one of the most recent examples of high altitude warfare in mountainous terrain that posed significant logistical problems for the combating sides. The Stallion which forms the bulk of the Indian Army's logistical vehicles proved its reliability and serviceability with 95% operational availability during the operation.

0.27.3 Loss of Strength Gradient Main article: Loss of Strength Gradient

Roll-on/roll-off ship USNS Pililaau during Joint Logistics Overthe-Shore (JLOTS) exercise.

Geographic distance is a key factor in military affairs. The shorter the distance, the greater the ease with which force can be brought to bear upon an opponent. This is because it is easier to undertake the supply of logistics to a force on the ground as well as engage in bombardment. The importance of distance is demonstrated by the Loss of Strength Gradient devised by Kenneth Boulding. This shows the advantage of supply that is forward based.* [16]

0.27.4 U.S. Armed Forces classes of supply

human judgment. One such recent example is the use of Applied Information Economics by the Office of Naval Research and the Marine Corps for forecasting bulk fuel Main article: Classes of supply requirements for the battlefield.* [15] logistics support is grouped In major military conflicts, logistics matters are often cru- The United States Military into 10 classes of supply:* [17] cial in deciding the overall outcome of wars. For instance, tonnage war - the bulk sinking of cargo ships - was Supply chain management in military logistics often deals a crucial factor in World War II. The successful Allied with a number of variables in predicting cost, deterioraanti-submarine campaign and the failure of the German tion, consumption, and future demand. The US Military's Navy to sink enough cargo in the Battle of the Atlantic al- categorical supply classification was developed in such lowed Britain to stay in the war and establish the second a way that categories of supply with similar consumpfront against the Nazis; by contrast, the successful U.S. tion variables are grouped together for planning purposes. submarine campaign against Japanese maritime shipping For instance peacetime consumption of ammunition and across Asian waters effectively crippled its economy and fuel will be considerably less than wartime consumption its military production capabilities. In a tactical scale, in of these items, whereas other classes of supply such as the Battle of Ilomantsi, the Soviets had an overwhelming subsistence and clothing have a relatively consistent connumerical superiority in guns and men, but managed to sumption rate regardless of war or peace. Troops will alfire only 10,000 shells against the Finnish 36,000 shells, ways require uniform and food. More troops will require eventually being forced to abandon their heavy equipment equally more uniforms and food. and flee the battlefield, resulting in a decisive Finnish vic- In the table above, each class of supply has a consumer. tory. One reason for this was the successful Finnish ha- Some classes of supply have a linear demand relationship rassment of Soviet supply lines. - as more troops are added more supply items are needed More generally, protecting one's own supply lines and attacking those of an enemy is a fundamental military strategy; an example of this as a purely logistical campaign for the military means of implementing strategic policy was

- as more equipment is used more fuel and ammo is consumed. Other classes of supply must consider a third variable besides usage and quantity: time. As equipment ages more and more repair parts are needed over time,

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even when usage and quantity stays consistent. By recording and analyzing these trends over time and applying to future scenarios, the US Military can accurately supply troops with the items necessary at the precise moment they are needed.* [18] History has shown that good logistical planning creates a lean and efficient fighting force. Lack thereof can lead to a clunky, slow, and ill-equipped force with too much or too little supply.

0.27.5

See also

0.27.6

References

• Dupuy, R. Ernest; Trevor N. Dupuy (1970). The Encyclopedia of Military History (revised ed.). New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-011139-9. • Eccles, Henry E. (1959). Logistics in the National Defense. Harrisburg, Penn.: Stackpole Company. ISBN 0-313-22716-0. • Kress, Moshe (2002). Operational Logistics: The Art and Science of Sustaining Military Operations. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-70845. Further reading

Notes [1] AAP-6 2009, NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions. [2] Kress, pp.10-11 [3] Creveld, pp. 5-7 [4] Creveld, p. 8-10 [5] Creveld, pp.10-12 [6] Creveld, pp. 17–20 [7] Creveld, pp. 21-22 [8] Creveld, pp.23-26 [9] Morriss, Roger.“Colonization, Conquest, and the Supply of Food and Transport: The Reorganization of Logistics Management, 1780–1795,”War in History, (July 2007), 14#3 pp 310–324, [10] Morgan, John.“War Feeding War? The Impact of Logistics on the Napoleonic Occupation of Catalonia,”Journal of Military History, (Jan 2009), 73#1 pp 83–116 [11] Huston, James A. online The Sinews of War: Army Logistics, 1775–1953 U.S. Army, 1966 [12] Creveld, p.84. [13] Creveld, pp. 92–108. [14] Creveld, pp. 138–141. [15] Hubbard, Douglas. How to Measure Anything: Finding the Value of Intangibles in Business, John Wiley & Sons, 2007

• Ohl, John Kennedy (1994). Supplying the Troops: General Somervell and American Logistics in World War II. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois Press. ISBN 0-87580-185-4. Biography of Brehon B. Somervell, head of the United States Army's Army Service Forces during World War II. • Prebilič, Vladimir.“Theoretical aspects of military logistics”Defense and Security Analysis, June 2006, Vol. 22 Issue 2, pp 159–177 • Thorpe, George C. (1917). Pure Logistics: The Science of War Preparation. Kansas City, Mo.: Franklin Hudson Pub. Co. OCLC 6109722. • Thorpe, George C. (1986) [1917]. George C. Thorpe's Pure Logistics: The Science of War Preparation. Stanley L. Falk (introduction). Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press. • Thorpe, George C. (1997) [1917]. George C. Thorpe's Pure Logistics: The Science of War Preparation. Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press. • Thorpe, George C. (2002) [1917]. Pure Logistics: The Science of War Preparation. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 0-89875-732-0. • Huston, James A. (1966). The Sinews of War: Army Logistics, 1775–1953. United States Army. 755 pages. online.

[16] Boulding, Kenneth E. Conflict and Defence: A General Theory, Harper & Bros., 1962, p.262 [17] U.S. Army Field Manual 4-0 Combat Service Support [18] Joint Logistics Analysis Tool)

0.27.7 External links • Media related to Military logistics at Wikimedia Commons

Bibliography • Creveld, Martin van (1977). Supplying War: Lo- 0.28 Military organization gistics from Wallenstein to Patton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21730- Military organization (or military organisation) is the X. structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer

0.28. MILITARY ORGANIZATION

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military capability required by the national defense policy. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation's armed forces, though not considered military. Armed forces that are not a part of military or paramilitary organizations, such as insurgent forces, often mimic military organizations, or use ad hoc structures. Military organization is hierarchical. The use of formalized ranks in a hierarchical structure came into widespread use with the Roman Army. In modern times, executive control, management and administration of military organization is typically undertaken by the government through a government department within the structure of public administration, often known as a Ministry of Defense, Department of Defense, or A mixed aircraft and ship formation of military vehicles during Department of War. These in turn manage Armed Ser- an exercise with USN and JASDF vehicles. vices that themselves command combat, combat support and service support formations and units. • Bangladesh: Army, Navy, Air Force, Border Guards, Coast Guard

0.28.1

Executive control, management and administration

The usually civilian or partly civilian executive control over the national military organization is exercised in democracies by an elected political leader as a member of the government's Cabinet, usually known as a Minister of Defense. (In presidential systems, such as the United States, the president is the commander-in-chief, and the cabinet-level defense minister is second in command.) Subordinated to that position are often Secretaries for specific major operational divisions of the armed forces as a whole, such as those that provide general support services to the Armed Services, including their dependants. Then there are the heads of specific departmental agencies responsible for the provision and management of specific skill- and knowledge-based service such as Strategy advice, Capability Development assessment, or Defense Science provision of research, and design and development of technologies. Within each departmental agency will be found administrative branches responsible for further agency business specialization work.

0.28.2

Armed services

In most countries the armed forces are divided into three or four Armed Services (also called branches): an army, a navy, and an air force. Many countries have a variation on the standard model of three or four basic Armed Services. Some nations also organize their marines, special forces or strategic missile forces as independent armed services. A nation's coast guard may also be an independent military branch of its military, although in many nations the coast guard is a law enforcement or civil agency. A number of countries have no navy, for geographical reasons. Some other variations include:

• Brazil: Army, Navy, Air Force, Police, Firefighters • Canada: Army, Navy, Air Force • Chile: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police • Egypt: Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense • Greece: Army, Navy, Air Force • Germany: Army, Navy, Air Force, Joint Support Service, Joint Medical Services • Hungary: Army, Air Force • India: Army, Navy, Air Force, Strategic Forces Command, Coast Guard, Paramilitary Forces • Indonesia: Army, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Police • Italy: Army, Navy, Air Force, Military Police • Norway: Army, Navy, Air Force, Home Guard, Cyber Defence Force • Pakistan: Army, Navy, Air Force, Rangers, Frontier Corps, Pakistan Coast Guard, Maritime Security Agency, Gilgit Scouts, Pakistan National Guard, Airports Security Force, Frontier Constabulary, National Command Authority • Poland: Army, Navy, Air Force, Special Forces • People's Republic of China: Army, Navy, Air Force, Strategic Missile Force • Republic of China: Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Reserve Force, Military Police • Russian Federation: Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force plus three independent arms of service (Strategic Missile Troops, Aerospace Defence Troops and Airborne Troops)

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• South Africa: Army, Navy, Air Force, Military Health Service • Thailand: Army, Navy, Air Force • The Netherlands: Army, Navy, Air Force, Military Police • Turkey: Land Forces, Air Force, Naval Forces, Gendarmerie, Coast Guard, War Academies • United States: Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, Coast Guard • Venezuela: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Guard, National Militia In Japan, Lieutenant General J. Northcott CB MVO, Commander In Chief, British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF),

• Vietnam: Army, Navy, Air Force, Border Guard, inspects the guard of honour at HQ 9th New Zealand Infantry Brigade ; April 17th 1946. Coast Guard In larger armed forces the culture between the different Armed Services of the armed forces can be quite differheadquarters which is responsible to the national governent. ment or the national military headquarters. It is not unMost smaller countries have a single organization that encommon for a nation's services to each consist of their compasses all armed forces employed by the country in own command (such as Land Component, Air Compoquestion. Third-world armies tend to consist primarily nent, Naval Component, and Medical Component in the of infantry, while first-world armies tend to have larger Belgian Army), but this does not preclude the existence units manning expensive equipment and only a fraction of commands which are not service-based. of personnel in infantry units. A formation is a composite military organization that inIt is worthwhile to make mention of the term joint. In cludes a mixture of integrated and operationally attached western militaries, a joint force is defined as a unit or forsub-units, and is usually combat-capable. A formation mation comprising representation of combat power from is defined by the US Department of Defense as “two two or more branches of the military. or more aircraft, ships, or units proceeding together under a commander”.* [2] Example of formations include: divisions, brigades, battalions, wings, etc. Formation may Internal security forces also refer to tactical formation, the physical arrangement * Gendarmeries including equivalents such as Internal or disposition of troops and weapons. [3] Examples of Troops, Paramilitary Forces and similar are an internal formation in such usage include: pakfront, panzerkeil, security service common in most of the world, but un- testudo formation, etc. common in Anglo-Saxon countries where civil police are A typical unit is a homogeneous military organization (eiemployed to enforce the law, and there are tight restric- ther combat, combat-support or non-combat in capabiltions on how the armed forces may be used to assist.* [1] ity) that includes service personnel predominantly from a single arm of service, or a branch of service, and its administrative and command functions are self-contained. 0.28.3 Commands, formations, and units Any unit subordinate to another unit is considered its subunit or minor unit. It is not uncommon for unit and for“Military formation”redirects here. For the arrangement mation to be used synonymously, although formation is or deployment of moving military forces, see Tactical for- rarely used for small units like platoon or company. Other mation. examples of units are: divisions, brigades, battalions, etc. It is common, at least in the European and North Ameri- Different armed forces, and even different branches of can militaries, to refer to the building blocks of a military service of the armed forces, may use the same name to as commands, formations and units. denote different types of organizations. An example is In a military context, a command is a collection of units and formations under the control of a single officer. Although during the Second World War a Command was also a name given to a battle group in the US Army, in general it is an administrative and executive strategic

the “squadron”. In most navies a squadron is a formation of several ships; in most air forces it is a unit; in the U.S. Army it is a battalion-sized cavalry unit; and in Commonwealth armies a squadron is a company-sized sub-unit.

0.28. MILITARY ORGANIZATION

0.28.4

83

Table of organization and equip- During World War II the Red Army used the same basic organizational structure. However, in the beginning ment

A table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E) is a document published by the U.S. Army Force Management Support Agency that prescribes the organization, manning, and equipage of units from divisional size and down, but also including the headquarters of Corps and Armies.

many units were greatly underpowered and their size was actually one level below on the ladder that is usually used elsewhere; for example, a division in the early-WWII Red Army would have been about the size of most nations' regiments or brigades.* [4]* [5] At the top of the ladder, what other nations would call an army group, the Red Army called a front. By contrast, during the same period the German Wehrmacht Army Groups, particularly on the Eastern Front, such as Army Group Centre significantly exceeded the above numbers, and were more cognate with the Soviet Strategic Directions.

It also provides information on the mission and capabilities of a unit as well as the unit's current status. A general TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry) rather than a specific unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In this way, all units of the same branch (such as infantry) follow the same structural guidelines. Navies

Naval organization at the flotilla level and higher is less commonly abided by, as ships operate in smaller or larger 0.28.5 Modern hierarchy groups in various situations that may change at a moment's notice. However there is some common terminolArmies ogy used throughout navies to communicate the general The following table gives an overview of some of the concept of how many vessels might be in a unit. terms used to describe army hierarchy in armed forces Navies are generally organized into groups for a speacross the world. Whilst it is recognized that there are cific purpose, usually strategic, and these organizational differences between armies of different nations, many groupings appear and disappear frequently based on the are modeled on the British or American models, or both. conditions and demands placed upon a navy. This conHowever, many military units and formations go back in trasts with army organization where units remain static, history for a long time, and were devised by various mil- with the same men and equipment, over long periods of itary thinkers throughout European history. time. For example, Corps were first introduced in France in the 18th century, but have become integrated into the organization of most armies around the world. Readers interested in the detailed specifics of a national army (including the British and American) should consult the relevant entry for that country.

The five-star ranks of Admiral of the Fleet and Fleet Admiral have largely been out of use since the 1990s, with the exception of ceremonial or honorary appointments. Currently, all major navies are commanded by an admiral (four-star rank) or vice-admiral (three-star rank) depending on relative size. Smaller naval forces, such as the RNZN, or those navies that are effectively coastguards, Rungs may be skipped in this ladder: for example, typically NATO forces skip from battalion to brigade. Like- are commanded by a rear-admiral, commodore or even a captain. wise, only large military powers may have organizations at the top levels and different armies and countries Aircraft carriers are typically commanded by a captain. may also use traditional names, creating considerable Submarines and destroyers are typically commanded by confusion: for example, a British or Canadian armored a captain or commander. Some destroyers, particularly regiment (battalion) is divided into squadrons (compa- smaller destroyers such as frigates (formerly known as nies) and troops (platoons), whereas an American cavalry destroyer escorts) are usually commanded by officers squadron (battalion) is divided into troops (companies) with the rank of commander. Auxiliary ships, including corvettes, gunboats, minesweepers, patrol boats, military and platoons. Army, army group, region, and theatre are all large for- riverine craft, tenders and torpedo boats are usually commations that vary significantly between armed forces in manded by lieutenant-commanders or lieutenants. Ususize and hierarchy position. While divisions were the tra- ally, the smaller the vessel, the lower the rank of the ship's ditional level at which support elements (field artillery, commander. For example, patrol boats are often comhospital, logistics and maintenance, etc.) were added to manded by ensigns, while frigates are rarely commanded the unit structure, since World War II, many brigades now by an officer below the rank of commander. have such support units, and since the 1980s, regiments also have been receiving support elements. A regiment with such support elements is called a regimental combat team in US military parlance, or a battle group in the UK and other forces.

Historical navies were far more rigid in structure. Ships were collected in divisions, which in turn were collected in numbered squadrons, which comprised a numbered fleet. Permission for a vessel to leave one unit and join another would have to be approved on paper.

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The modern U.S. Navy is primarily based on a number of standard groupings of vessels, including the carrier strike group and the Expeditionary Strike Group.* [7] Additionally, Naval organization continues aboard a single ship. The complement forms three or four departments (such as tactical and engineering), each of which has a number of divisions, followed by work centers.

to enforce law and order, refers specifically only to the US Army and US Air Force. The US Marines and Navy are separately regulated, and the Coast Guard has a clear law enforcement role in its peacetime status. The statecontrolled Army National Guard (technically a branch of the US Army) is also excluded from the Posse Comitatus Act. The Insurrection Act specifically permits the President to use Federal military force to restore public order in extreme emergency situations: this Act was implemented during the “Rodney King Riots” in Los Angeles.

Air forces [2] United States Department of Defense, DOD Dictionary

The organizational structures of air forces vary between nations: some air forces (such as the United States Air Force and the Royal Air Force) are divided into commands, groups and squadrons; others (such as the Soviet Air Force) have an Army-style organizational structure. The modern Royal Canadian Air Force uses Air Division as the formation between wings and the entire air command. Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of squadrons.

0.28.6

Task Force

A Task Force is a unit or formation created as a temporary grouping for a specific operational purpose. Aside from administrative hierarchical forms of organization that have evolved since the early 17th century in Europe, fighting forces have been grouped for specific operational purposes into mission-related organizations such as the German Kampfgruppe or the U.S. Combat Team (Army) and Task Force (Navy) during the Second World War, or the Soviet Operational manoeuvre group during the Cold War. In the British and Commonwealth armies the battlegroup became the usual grouping of companies during the Second World War and the Cold War.

[3] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary [4] "Доклад НКО август 1939. doklad-nko-8-39.shtml”. Armor.kiev.ua. Retrieved 2013-11-20. [5] Центральный государственный архив Советской армии (с июня 1992 г. Российский государственный военный архив). В двух томах. Том 2. Путеводитель. 1993 (in Russian). Guides.rusarchives.ru. Retrieved 2013-11-20. [6] Group. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-08-30. [7] US Navy. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-08-30. [8] http://www.airpages.ru/ru/vvs1.shtml Red Army VVS Organisation(rus)

0.29 Military strategy Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals.* [1] Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century,* [2] was seen in its narrow sense as the “art of the general",* [3] 'the art of arrangement' of troops.* [4] Military strategy deals with the planning and conduct of campaigns, the movement and disposition of forces, and the deception of the enemy.

Within NATO, a Joint Task Force (JTF) would be such a temporary grouping that includes elements from more than one armed service, a Combined Task Force (CTF) would be such a temporary grouping that includes elements from more than one nation, and a Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF) would be such a temporary grouping The father of Western modern strategic study, Carl von that includes elements of more than one armed service Clausewitz, defined military strategy as“the employment of battles to gain the end of war.”B. H. Liddell Hart's and more than one nation. definition put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as “the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy”.* [5] Hence, both gave the 0.28.7 See also pre-eminence to political aims over military goals. • Command and control Sun Tzu is often considered as the father of Eastern military strategy and has influenced greatly the Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese historical and modern war tactics.* [6]The Art of War by Sun Tzu grew in popularity and saw practical use in Western society as 0.28.8 References well. It continues to influence many competitive endeav[1] In the United States it is a common misunderstanding that ors in Asia, Europe, and America including culture, poli* * * their armed forces are totally prohibited from doing so tics, [7] [8] and business, [9] as well as modern warfare. by the Posse Comitatus Act. This Act, which reserves The Eastern military strategy differs from the Western by to Congress the power to employ Federal military force focusing more on asymmetric warfare and deception.* [6] • Military administration

0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY Strategy differs from tactics, in that strategy refers to the employment of all of a nation's military capabilities through high level and long term planning, development and procurement to guarantee security or victory. Tactics is the military science employed to secure objectives defined as part of the military strategy; especially the methods whereby men, equipment, aircraft, ships and weapons are employed and directed against an enemy.* [10]

0.29.1

Fundamentals

Military strategy is the planning and execution of the contest between groups of armed adversaries. Strategy, which is a subdiscipline of warfare and of foreign policy, is a principal tool to secure national interests. It is larger in perspective than military tactics, which involves the disposition and maneuver of units on a particular sea or battlefield,* [11] but less broad than grand strategy otherwise called national strategy, which is the overarching strategy of the largest of organizations such as the nation state, confederation, or international alliance and involves using diplomatic, informational, military and economic resources. Military strategy involves using military resources such as people, equipment, and information against the opponent's resources to gain supremacy or reduce the opponent's will to fight, developed through the precepts of military science.* [12]

85 Background Military strategy in the 19th century was still viewed as one of a trivium of“arts”or“sciences”that govern the conduct of warfare; the others being tactics, the execution of plans and maneuvering of forces in battle, and logistics, the maintenance of an army. The view had prevailed since the Roman times, and the borderline between strategy and tactics at this time was blurred, and sometimes categorization of a decision is a matter of almost personal opinion. Carnot, during the French Revolutionary Wars thought it simply involved concentration of troops.* [16] Strategy and tactics are closely related and exist on the same continuum, modern thinking places the operational level between them. All deal with distance, time and force but strategy is large scale, can endure through years, and is societal while tactics are small scale and involve the disposition of fewer elements enduring hours to weeks. Originally strategy was understood to govern the prelude to a battle while tactics controlled its execution. However, in the world wars of the 20th century, the distinction between maneuver and battle, strategy and tactics, expanded with the capacity of technology and transit. Tactics that were once the province of a company of cavalry would be applied to a panzer army.

It is often said that the art of strategies defines the goals to achieve in a military campaign, while tactics defines the methods to achieve these goals. Strategic goals could be“We want to conquer area X”, or“We want to stop country Y's expansion in world trade in commodity Z"; while tactical decisions range from a general statement, e.g. “We're going to do this by a naval invasion of the NATO's definition of strategy is “presenting the man- North of country X”,“We're going to blockade the ports ner in which military power should be developed and ap- of country Y”, to a more specific“C Platoon will attack plied to achieve national objectives or those of a group while D platoon provides fire cover”. of nations.* [13] Strategy may be divided into 'Grand Strategy', geopolitical in scope and 'military strategy' that In its purest form, strategy dealt solely with military isconverts the geopolitical policy objectives into militarily sues. In earlier societies, a king or political leader was achievable goals and campaigns. Field Marshal Viscount often the same person as the military leader. If he was Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff and co- not, the distance of communication between the political chairman of the Anglo-US Combined Chiefs of Staff and the military leader was small. But as the need of a Committee for most of the Second World War, described professional army grew, the bounds between the politithe art of military strategy as: “to derive from the [pol- cians and the military came to be recognized. In many icy] aim a series of military objectives to be achieved: cases, it was decided that there was a need for a separato assess these objectives as to the military requirements tion. they create, and the pre-conditions which the achieve- As French statesman Georges Clemenceau said, “War ment of each is likely to necessitate: to measure avail- is too important a business to be left to soldiers.”This able and potential resources against the requirements and gave rise to the concept of the grand strategy which ento chart from this process a coherent pattern of priori- compasses the management of the resources of an entire ties and a rational course of action.”* [14] Field-Marshal nation in the conduct of warfare. In the environment of Montgomery summed it up thus “Strategy is the art of the grand strategy, the military component is largely redistributing and applying military means, such as armed duced to operational strategy -- the planning and control forces and supplies, to fulfil the ends of policy. Tactics of large military units such as corps and divisions. As the means the dispositions for, and control of, military forces size and number of the armies grew and the technology and techniques in actual fighting. Put more shortly: strat- to communicate and control improved, the difference beegy is the art of the conduct of war, tactics the art of fight- tween“military strategy”and“grand strategy”shrank. ing.”* [15] Fundamental to grand strategy is the diplomacy through

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which a nation might forge alliances or pressure another nation into compliance, thereby achieving victory without resorting to combat. Another element of grand strategy is the management of the post-war peace.

8. Surprise (Strike the enemy at a time, at a place, or in a manner for which he is unprepared) 9. Simplicity (Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and clear, concise orders to ensure thorough understanding)

As Clausewitz stated, a successful military strategy may be a means to an end, but it is not an end in itself.* [17] There are numerous examples in history where victory According to Greene and Armstrong, some strategists ason the battlefield has not translated into long term peace, sert adhering to the fundamental principles guarantees security or tranquility. victory, while others claim war is unpredictable and the general must be flexible in formulating a strategy. Others argue predictability is low, but could be increased if ex0.29.2 Principles perts were to perceive the situation from both sides in the conflict.* [20] Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke expressed strategy as a system of “ad hoc expedients” by which a general must take action while under presJutland sure. These underlying principles of strategy have survived relatively unscathed as the technology of warfare has developed.

Arausio

Vercellae

Noreia

Aquae Sextiae

Military stratagem in the Maneuver against the Romans by Cimbri and Teutons circa 100 B.C.

Strategy (and tactics) must constantly evolve in response to technological advances. A successful strategy from one era tends to remain in favor long after new developments in military weaponry and matériel have rendered it obsolete. World War I, and to a great extent the American Civil War, saw Napoleonic tactics of“offense at all costs” pitted against the defensive power of the trench, machine gun and barbed wire. As a reaction to her World War I experience, France entered World War II with a purely defensive doctrine, epitomized by the “impregnable” Maginot Line, but only to be completely circumvented by the German blitzkrieg in the Fall of France.

Many military strategists have attempted to encapsulate a successful strategy in a set of principles. Sun Tzu defined 0.29.3 13 principles in his The Art of War while Napoleon listed 115 maxims. American Civil War General Nathan Bedford Forrest had only one: to "[get] there first with the most men”.* [18] The concepts given as essential in the United States Army Field Manual of Military Operations (FM 3–0) are:* [19]

Development

1. Objective (Direct every military operation towards a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective) 2. Offensive (Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative) 3. Mass (Concentrate combat power at the decisive place and time) 4. Economy of Force (Allocate minimum essential Fortifications have been of great importance to military strategy. combat power to secondary efforts) Shown here is the Chittorgarh Fort in Rajasthan, India.

5. Maneuver (Place the enemy in a disadvantageous position through the flexible application of combat power) Antiquity 6. Unity of Command (For every objective, ensure The principles of military strategy emerged at least as far unity of effort under one responsible commander) back as 500 BC in the works of Sun Tzu and Chanakya. 7. Security (Never permit the enemy to acquire an un- The campaigns of Alexander the Great, Chandragupta expected advantage) Maurya, Hannibal, Qin Shi Huang, Julius Cæsar, Zhuge

0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY

87

Liang, Khalid ibn al-Walid and, in particular, Cyrus the Great demonstrate strategic planning and movement. Mahan describes in the preface to The Influence of Sea Power upon History how the Romans used their sea power to effectively block the sea lines of communication of Hannibal with Carthage; and so via a maritime strategy achieved Hannibal's removal from Italy, despite never beating him there with their legions.

average five horses per man – thus the entire army could move with astounding rapidity. Moreover since horse milk and horse blood were the staples of the Mongolian diet, Genghis' horse-herds functioned not just as his means of movement but as his logistical sustainment. All other necessities would be foraged and plundered. Khan's marauders also brought with them mobile shelters, concubines, butchers, and cooks. Through maneuver and continuous assault, Chinese, Persian, Arab and Eastern EuEarly strategies included the strategy of annihilation, and exhaustion, attrition warfare, scorched earth action, ropean armies could be stressed until they collapsed, were then annihilated in encirclement & pursuit.* [25] blockade, guerrilla campaign, deception and feint. Ingenuity and adeptness were limited only by imagination, Compared to the armies of Genghis, nearly all other accord, and technology. Strategists continually exploited armies were cumbersome and relatively static. It was not ever-advancing technology. The word “strategy”itself until well into the 20th century that any army was able derives from the Greek "στρατηγία" (strategia), “office to match the speed of deployment of Genghis's armies. of general, command, generalship”,* [21] in turn from When confronted with a fortified city, the Mongol imper"στρατηγός" (strategos), “leader or commander of an atives of maneuver and speed required that it be quickly army, general”,* [22] a compound of "στρατός" (stratos), subdued. Here the terror engendered by the bloody repu“army, host”+ "ἀγός" (agos), “leader, chief”,* [23] in tation of the Mongolians helped to intimidate and subdue. turn from "ἄγω" (ago),“to lead”.* [24] No evidence ex- So too did primitive biological warfare. A trebuchet or ists of it being used in a modern sense in Ancient Greek, other type of ballista weapon would be used to launch but we find it in Byzantine documents from the 6th cen- dead animals and corpses into a besieged city, spreading tury onwards, and most notably in the work attributed to disease and death, such as the Black Plague. If a particuEmperor Leo VI the Wise of Byzantium. lar town or city displeased the Mongolian Khan, everyone Middle Ages

in the city would be killed to set an example for all other cities. This was early psychological warfare. To refer to the nine strategic principles outlined above, the Mongol strategy was directed towards an objective (that schwerpunkt (main focus) being the morale & mental state of the opposing population) achieved through the offensive; this offensive was itself characterized by concentration of force, maneuver, surprise, and simplicity. Early Modern era

Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death

Genghis Khan and the Mongols As a counterpoint to European developments in the strategic art, the Mongol Emperor Genghis Khan provides a useful example. Genghis' successes, and those of his successors, were based on manoeuvre and terror. The main focus of Genghis' strategic assault was the psychology of the opposing population. By steady and meticulous implementation of this strategy, Genghis and his descendants were able to conquer most of Eurasia. The building blocks of Genghis' army and his strategy were his tribal levies of mounted archers, scorched earth-style methods, and, equally essential, the vast horse-herds of Mongolia.

In 1520 Niccolò Machiavelli's Dell'arte della guerra (Art of War) dealt with the relationship between civil and military matters and the formation of grand strategy. In the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden demonstrated advanced operational strategy that led to his victories on the soil of the Holy Roman Empire. It was not until the 18th century that military strategy was subjected to serious study in Europe. The word was first used in German as "Strategie" in a translation of Leo's work in 1777, shortly thereafter in French as "stratégie" by Leo's French translator, and was first attested in English 1810.* [26]

In the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), Frederick the Great improvised a“strategy of exhaustion”(see attrition warfare) to hold off his opponents and conserve his Prussian forces. Assailed from all sides by France, Austria, Russia and Sweden, Frederick exploited his central position, which enabled him to move his army along interior lines and concentrate against one opponent at a time. Unable to achieve victory, he was able to stave Each archer had at least one extra horse – there was an off defeat until a diplomatic solution emerged. Freder-

88 ick's “victory”led to great significance being placed on "geometric strategy" which emphasized lines of manoeuvre, awareness of terrain and possession of critical strong-points. Napoleonic The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars that followed revolutionized military strategy. The impact of this period was still to be felt in the American Civil War and the early phases of World War I. With the advent of cheap small arms and the rise of the drafted citizen soldier, armies grew rapidly in size to become massed formations. This necessitated dividing the army first into divisions and later into corps. Along with divisions came divisional artillery; light-weight, mobile cannon with great range and firepower. The rigid formations of pikemen and musketeers firing massed volleys gave way to light infantry fighting in skirmish lines. Napoleon I of France took advantage of these developments to pursue a brutally effective “strategy of annihilation”(see scorched earth) that terrorized the populace and cared little for the mathematical perfection of the geometric strategy. Napoleon invariably sought to achieve decision in battle, with the sole aim of utterly destroying his opponent, usually achieving success through superior manoeuvre. As ruler and general he dealt with the grand strategy as well as the operational strategy, making use of political and economic measures.

CONTENTS victory. Napoleon used two primary strategies for the approach to battle. His “Manoeuvre De Derrière”(move onto the rear) was intended to place the French Army across the enemy's lines of communications. This forced the opponent to either march to battle with Napoleon or attempt to find an escape route around the army. By placing his army into the rear, his opponent's supplies and communications would be cut. This had a negative effect on enemy morale. Once joined, the battle would be one in which his opponent could not afford defeat. This also allowed Napoleon to select multiple battle angles into a battle site. Initially, the lack of force concentration helped with foraging for food and sought to confuse the enemy as to his real location and intentions. The “indirect”approach into battle also allowed Napoleon to disrupt the linear formations used by the allied armies. As the battle progressed, the enemy committed their reserves to stabilize the situation, Napoleon would suddenly release the flanking formation to attack the enemy. His opponents, being suddenly confronted with a new threat and with little reserves, had no choice but to weaken the area closest to the flanking formation and draw up a battle line at a right angle in an attempt to stop this new threat. Once this had occurred, Napoleon would mass his reserves at the hinge of that right angle and launch a heavy attack to break the lines. The rupture in the enemy lines allowed Napoleon's cavalry to flank both lines and roll them up leaving his opponent no choice but to surrender or flee.

The second strategy used by Napoleon I of France when confronted with two or more enemy armies was the use of the central position. This allowed Napoleon to drive a wedge to separate the enemy armies. He would then use part of his force to mask one army while the larger portion overwhelmed and defeated the second army quickly. He would then march on the second army leaving a portion to pursue the first army and repeat the operations. This was designed to achieve the highest concentration of men into the primary battle while limiting the enemy's ability to reinforce the critical battle. The central position had a weakness in that the full power of the pursuit of the enemy could not be achieved because the second army Napoleon in Berlin (Meynier). After defeating Prussian forces needed attention. at Jena, the French Army entered Berlin on 27 October 1806. So overall the preferred method of attack was the flank march to cross the enemy's logistics. Napoleon used the While not the originator of the methods he used, central position strategy during the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon very effectively combined the relatively superior maneuver and battle stages into one event. Before this, General Officers had considered this approach to Waterloo battle as separate events. However, Napoleon used the maneuver to battle to dictate how and where the battle would progress. The Battle of Austerlitz was a perfect See also: Waterloo Campaign example of this maneuver. Napoleon withdrew from a strong position to draw his opponent forward and tempt Napoleon masked Wellington and massed against the him into a flank attack, weakening his center. This al- Prussian army, and then after the Battle of Ligny was lowed the French army to split the allied army and gain won, Napoleon attempted to do the same to the Al-

0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY

89 One notable exception to Napoleon's strategy of annihilation and a precursor to trench warfare were the Lines of Torres Vedras during the Peninsular campaign. French Armies lived off the land and when they were confronted by a line of fortifications which they could not out flank, they were unable to continue the advance and were forced to retreat once they had consumed all the provisions of the region in front of the lines. The Peninsular campaign was notable for the development of another method of warfare which went largely unnoticed at the time, but would become far more common in the 20th century. That was the aid and encouragement the British gave to the Spanish to harass the French behind their lines which led them to squander most of the assets of their Iberian army in protecting the army's line of communications. This was a very cost effective move for the British, because it cost far less to aid Spanish insurgents than it did to equip and pay regular British army units to engage the same number of French troops.

Map of the Waterloo campaign

As the British army could be correspondingly smaller it was able to supply its troops by sea and land without having to live off the land as was the norm at the time. Further, because they did not have to forage they did not antagonise the locals and so did not have to garrison their lines of communications to the same extent as the French did. So the strategy of aiding their Spanish civilian allies in their guerrilla or 'small war' benefited the British in many ways, not all of which were immediately obvious. Clausewitz and Jomini Clausewitz's On War has become the respected reference for strategy, dealing with political, as well as military, leadership. His most famous assertion being:

19th century musketeers from Wellington at Waterloo by Robert Alexander Hillingford, 18 June 1815

“War is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of policy carried out by other means.”

lied/British army located just to the south of Waterloo. His subordinate was unable to mask the defeated Prussian army, who reinforced the Waterloo battle in time to For Clausewitz, war was first and foremost a political act, and thus the purpose of all strategy was to achieve the defeat Napoleon and end his domination of Europe. political goal that the state was seeking to accomplish. It can be said that the Prussian Army under Blücher used As such, Clausewitz famously argued that war was the the “maneuver de derrière”against Napoleon who was “continuation of politics by other means”, and as such, suddenly placed in a position of reacting to a new enemy argued that the amount of force used by the state would threat. and should be proportional to whatever the political aim Napoleon's practical strategic triumphs, repeatedly lead- that the state was seeking to achieve via war. Clausewitz ing smaller forces to defeat larger ones, inspired a whole further dismissed “geometry”as an insignificant factor new field of study into military strategy. In particular, in strategy, believing instead that ideally all wars should his opponents were keen to develop a body of knowledge follow the Napoleonic concept of victory through a deciin this area to allow them to counteract a masterful indi- sive battle of annihilation and destruction of the opposing vidual with a highly competent group of officers, a Gen- force, at any cost. However, he also recognized that his eral Staff. The two most significant students of his work ideal of how war should be fought was not always practiwere Carl von Clausewitz, a Prussian with a background cal in reality and that limited warfare could influence polin philosophy, and Antoine-Henri Jomini, who had been icy by wearing down the opposition through a "strategy one of Napoleon's staff officers. of attrition".

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In contrast to Clausewitz, Antoine-Henri Jomini dealt mainly with operational strategy, planning and intelligence, the conduct of the campaign, and “generalship”rather than “statesmanship”. He proposed that victory could be achieved by occupying the enemy's territory rather than destroying his army.

noeuvre, Moltke also exploited the telegraph for control of large armies. He recognised the need to delegate control to subordinate commanders and to issue directives rather than specific orders. Moltke is most remembered as a strategist for his belief in the need for flexibility and that no plan, however well prepared, can be guaranteed As such, geometric considerations were prominent in his to survive beyond the first encounter with the enemy. theory of strategy. Jomini's two basic principles of strat- Field Marshal Schlieffen succeeded Moltke and directed egy were to concentrate against fractions of the enemy German planning in the lead up to World War I. He adforce at a time and to strike at the most decisive objec- vocated the “strategy of annihilation”but was faced by tive. Clausewitz and Jomini are required reading for to- a war on two fronts against numerically superior opposition. The strategy he formulated was the Schlieffen Plan, day's military professional officer.* [27] defending in the east while concentrating for a decisive victory in the west, after which the Germans would go on to the offensive in the east. Influenced by Hannibal's Industrial age success at the Battle of Cannae, Schlieffen planned for a single great battle of encirclement, thereby annihilating The evolution of military strategy continued in the his enemy. American Civil War (1861–65). The practice of strategy was advanced by generals such as Robert E. Lee, Ulysses Another German strategist of the period was Hans DelS. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman, all of whom brück who expanded on Clausewitz's concept of“limited had been influenced by the feats of Napoleon (Thomas warfare”to produce a theory on the“strategy of exhaus“Stonewall”Jackson was said to have carried a book of tion”. His theory defied popular military thinking of the time, which was strongly in favour of victory in battle, Napoleon's maxims with him.) yet World War I would soon demonstrate the flaws of a However, the adherence to the Napoleonic principles in mindless “strategy of annihilation”. the face of technological advances such as the long-range infantry breechloader rifles and minie ball guns generally At a time when industrialisation was rapidly changing led to disastrous consequences for both the Union and naval technology, one American strategist, Alfred Thayer Confederate forces and populace. The time and space Mahan, almost single-handedly brought the field of naval in which war was waged changed as well. Railroads en- strategy up to date. Influenced by Jomini's principles of abled swift movement of large forces but the manoeu- strategy, he saw that in the coming wars, where economic vring was constrained to narrow, vulnerable corridors. strategy could be as important as military strategy, conSteam power and ironclads changed transport and com- trol of the sea granted the power to control the trade and bat at sea. Newly invented telegraph enabled more rapid resources needed to wage war. Mahan pushed the concommunication between armies and their headquarters cept of the “big navy”and an expansionist view where capitals. Combat was still usually waged by opposing di- defence was achieved by controlling the sea approaches visions with skirmish lines on rural battlefields, violent rather than fortifying the coast. His theories contributed naval engagements by cannon-armed sailing or steam- to the naval arms race between 1898 and 1914. powered vessels, and assault on military forces defending a town. There was still room for triumphs for the strategy of ma- World War I noeuvre such as Sherman's March to the Sea in 1864, but these depended upon an enemy's unwillingness to entrench. Towards the end of the war, especially in defense of static targets as in the battles of Cold Harbor and Vicksburg, trench networks foreshadowed World War I. Many of the lessons of the American Civil War were forgotten, when in wars like the Austro-Prussian War or the Franco-Prussian War, manoeuvre won the day. In the period preceding World War I, two of the most influential strategists were the Prussian generals, Helmuth von Moltke and Alfred von Schlieffen. Under Moltke the Prussian army achieved victory in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), the latter campaign being widely regarded as a classic example of the conception and execution of military strategy. In addition to exploiting railroads and highways for ma-

At the start of World War I strategy was dominated by the offensive thinking that had been in vogue since 1870, despite the more recent experiences of the Second Boer War (1899–1902) and Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), where the machine gun demonstrated its defensive capabilities. By the end of 1914, the Western Front was a stalemate and all ability to maneuver strategically was lost. The combatants resorted to a "strategy of attrition". The German battle at Verdun, the British on the Somme and at Passchendaele were among the first wide-scale battles intended to wear down the enemy. Attrition was timeconsuming so the duration of World War I battles often stretched to weeks and months. The problem with attrition was that the use of fortified defenses in depth generally required a ratio of ten attackers to one defender, or a level of artillery support which was simply not fea-

0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY sible until late 1917, for any reasonable chance of victory. The ability of the defender to move troops using interior lines prevented the possibility of fully exploiting any breakthrough with the level of technology then attainable. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of strategy in World War I was the difference among the British between the “Western”viewpoint (held by Field Marshal Haig) and the “Eastern"; the former being that all effort should be directed against the German Army, the latter that more useful work could be done by attacking Germany's allies. The term“Knocking away the props”was used, perhaps as an unfortunate consequence of the fact that all of Germany's allies lay south of (i.e. 'beneath') her on the map. Apologists and defenders of the Western viewpoint make the valid point that Germany's allies were more than once rescued from disaster or rendered capable of holding their own or making substantial gains by the provision of German troops, arms or military advisers, whereas those allies did not at any time provide a similar function for Germany. That is, it was Germany which was the prop, and her allies (particularly Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary) did not suffer significant reverses until Germany's ability to come to their aid was grossly impaired. On other fronts, there was still room for the use of strategy of maneuver. The Germans executed a perfect battle of annihilation against the Russians at the Battle of Tannenberg (1914). In 1915 Britain and France launched the well-intentioned but poorly conceived and ultimately fruitless Dardanelles Campaign, combining naval power and an amphibious landing, in an effort to aid their Russian ally and knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war. The Palestine campaign was dominated by cavalry, which flourished in the local terrain, and the British achieved two breakthrough victories at Gaza (1917) and Megiddo (1918). Colonel T. E. Lawrence and other British officers led Arab irregulars on a guerrilla campaign against the Ottomans, using strategy and tactics developed during the Boer Wars. World War I saw armies on a scale never before experienced. The British, who had always relied on a strong navy and a small regular army, were forced to undertake a rapid expansion of the army. This outpaced the rate of training of generals and staff officers able to handle such a mammoth force, and overwhelmed the ability of British industry to equip it with the necessary weapons and adequate high-quality munitions until late in the war. Technological advances also had a huge influence on strategy: aerial reconnaissance, artillery techniques, poison gas, the automobile and tank (though the latter was, even at the end of the war, still in its infancy), telephone and radio telegraphy.

91 ers on the other. Society and economy were mobilized for total war. Attacks on the enemy's economy included Britain's use of a naval blockade and Germany employing submarine warfare against merchant shipping. Unity of command became a question when the various nation states began coordinating assaults and defenses. Under the pressure of horrendously destructive German attacks beginning on March 21, 1918, the Entente eventually settled under Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch. The Germans generally led the Central Powers, though German authority diminished and lines of command became confused at the end of the war. World War I strategy was dominated by the“Spirit of the Offensive”where generals resorted almost to mysticism in terms of a soldier's personal“attitude”in order to break the stalemate, this led to nothing but bloody slaughter as troops in close ranks charged machineguns. Each side developed an alternate thesis. The British under Winston Churchill developed tank warfare with which they eventually won the war. The Germans developed a “doctrine of autonomy”the forerunner of both blitzkrieg and modern infantry tactics using groups of Stormtroopers who would advance in small mutually covering groups from cover to cover with “autonomy”to exploit any weakness they discovered in enemy defenses. Almost all the blitzkrieg commanders of World War II, particularly Erwin Rommel were stormtroopers in World War I. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Germany launched and almost succeeded in a final offensive, however the new tactics of autonomy revealed a weakness in terms of overall coordination and direction. The March offensive, intended to drive a wedge between the French and British armies, turn on the latter and destroy it, lost direction and became driven by its territorial gains, its original purpose neglected. World War I ended when the ability of the German army to fight became so diminished that Germany asked for peace conditions. The German military, exhausted by the efforts of the March offensives and dispirited by their failure, was first seriously defeated during the battle of Amiens (8–11 August 1918) and the German homefront entered general revolt over a lack of food and destruction of the economy. Victory for the Entente was almost assured by that point, and the fact of Germany's military impotence was driven home in the following hundred days. In this time, the Entente reversed the gains the Germans had made in the first part of the year, and the British Army (spearheaded by the Canadians and Australians) finally broke the Hindenburg defensive system.

Though his methods are questioned, Britain's Field Marshal Haig was ultimately proved correct in his grand strategic vision: “We cannot hope to win until we have defeated the German Army.”By the end of the war, the More so than in previous wars, military strategy in World best German troops were dead and the remainder were War I was directed by the grand strategy of a coalition of under continuous pressure on all parts of the Western nations; the Entente on one side and the Central Pow- Front, a consequence in part of an almost endless supply

92 of fresh American reinforcements (which the Germans were unable to match) and in part of industry at last supplying the weakened Entente armies with the firepower to replace the men they lacked (whilst Germany wanted for all sorts of materials thanks to the naval blockade). Interior lines thus became meaningless as Germany had nothing more to offer its allies. The props eventually fell, but only because they were themselves no longer supported. The role of the tank in World War I strategy is often poorly understood. Its supporters saw it as the weapon of victory, and many observers since have accused the high commands (especially the British) of shortsightedness in this matter, particularly in view of what tanks have achieved since. Nevertheless, the World War I tank's limitations, imposed by the limits of contemporary engineering technology, have to be borne in mind. They were slow (men could run, and frequently walk, faster); vulnerable (to artillery) due to their size, clumsiness and inability to carry armour against anything but rifle and machine gun ammunition; extremely uncomfortable (conditions inside them often incapacitating crews with engine fumes and heat, and driving some mad with noise); and often despicably unreliable (frequently failing to make it to their targets due to engine or track failures). This was the factor behind the seemingly mindless retention of large bodies of cavalry, which even in 1918, with armies incompletely mechanised, were still the only armed force capable of moving significantly faster than an infantryman on foot. It was not until the relevant technology (in engineering and communications) matured between the wars that the tank and the airplane could be forged into the co-ordinated force needed to truly restore manoeuvre to warfare.

Inter war In the years following World War I, two of the technologies that had been introduced during that conflict, the aircraft and the tank, became the subject of strategic study. The leading theorist of air power was Italian general Giulio Douhet who believed that future wars would be won or lost in the air. The air force would carry the offensive and the role of the ground forces would be defensive only. Douhet's doctrine of strategic bombing meant striking at the enemy's heartland̶his cities, industry and communications. Air power would thereby reduce his willingness and capacity to fight. At this time the idea of the aircraft carrier and its capabilities also started to change thinking in those countries with large fleets, but no-where as much as in Japan. The UK and USA seem to have seen the carrier as a defensive weapon and their designs mirrored this, the Japanese Imperial navy seem to have developed a new offensive strategy based around the power projection these made possible.

CONTENTS tank battle at Cambrai, and his contemporary, B. H. Liddell Hart, were amongst the most prominent advocates of mechanization and motorization of the army in Britain. In Germany, study groups were set up by Hans von Seeckt, commander of the Reichwehr Truppenamt, for 57 areas of strategy and tactics to learn from World War I and to adapt strategy to avoid the stalemate and then defeat they had suffered. All seem to have seen the strategic shock value of mobility and the new possibilities made possible by motorised forces. Both saw that the armoured fighting vehicle demonstrated firepower, mobility and protection. The Germans seem to have seen more clearly the need to make all branches of the Army as mobile as possible to maximise the results of this strategy. It would negate the static defences of the trench and machine gun and restore the strategic principles of manoeuvre and offense. Nevertheless, it was the British Army which was the only one truly mechanised at the beginning of the Second World War, the Germans still relying on horse traction for a portion of their artillery. The innovative German Major (later General) Heinz Guderian developed the motorised part of this strategy as the head of one of the Truppenamt groups and may have incorporated Fuller's and Liddell Hart's ideas to amplify the groundbreaking Blitzkrieg effect that was seen used by Germany against Poland in 1939 and later against France in 1940. France, still committed to stationary World War I strategies, was completely surprised and summarily overwhelmed by Germany's mobile combined arms doctrine and Guderian's Panzer Corps. Technological change had an enormous effect on strategy, but little effect on leadership. The use of telegraph and later radio, along with improved transport, enabled the rapid movement of large numbers of men. One of Germany's key enablers in mobile warfare was the use of radios, where these were put into every tank. However, the number of men that one officer could effectively control had, if anything, declined. The increases in the size of the armies led to an increase in the number of officers. Although the officer ranks in the US Army did swell, in the German army the ratio of officers to total men remained steady.* [28] World War II German Pre-war

The main strategic goals of inter-war Germany under were the re-establishment of Germany as a European great power* [29] and complete annulment of the Versailles treaty. From the period of Nazi power beginning in 1933, Adolf Hitler's political goals for Germany also included the accumulation of Lebensraum (“Living space”) for the Germanic “race”and the destrucBritish general J. F. C. Fuller, architect of the first great tion of Communism. The destruction of European jewry,

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93

while not strictly a strategic objective, was a political goal of the Nazi regime linked to their vision of a Germandominated Europe, and especially to the Generalplan Ost for a depopulated east to be colonized by Germany.* [30]

USA and Germany declared war on the USA shortly afterwards. Through the summer and fall of 1942, German strategy to win the war remained based on defeating the USSR.

Until the mid-1930s, Germany's ability to realize these goals was limited by her weakened military and economic position. Hitler's strategy was to build up German military and economic strength through re-armament, while seeking to avoid an early war by diplomatic engagement with France, Britain and later, the Soviet Union (StalinHitler Pact). One by one, Hitler successfully repudiated the terms the Versailles treaty, using skilful diplomacy to avoid triggering war. After beginning with rearmament in 1935, he then completed the re-occupation of the Rhineland in 1936, and then the diplomatic annexation of Austria (Anschluss) and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939 (Munich Agreement). This risky political strategy proved initially successful, consolidating internal support for the regime and greatly strengthening Germany's strategic position.

With the failure of the 1942 campaign in the east (Case Blue), and the buildup of US forces in Africa and Britain, Germany was on the strategic defensive from 1943 onwards. In the latter part of the war Germany attempted to establish a peace negotiation position through limited military victories. In the end of the war, after the failure of the Battle of the Bulge, the final military operations focused on permitting evacuation of civilians after reports of atrocities on the Eastern Front.

But the 1939 annexation of the rump Czechoslovakia, in violation of the Munich Agreement signed only months before, forced a change in Franco-British policy from an emphasis on avoiding war (Appeasement) to an emphasis on war preparation, of which an important feature was the declaration of Franco-British guarantees of Polish independence. When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war.

British Since the Entente Cordiale which had won the First World War, Britain's strategy for continental war was based on alliance with France and later unsuccessful efforts to engage Fascist Italy and the USSR in an effort to contain Germany. Confronted with the rise of Hitler's power on the continent in 1933, and weakened economically by the Great Depression, Great Britain sought initially to avoid or delay war through diplomacy (Appeasement), while at the same time re-arming (Neville Chamberlain's European Policy). Emphasis for re-armament was given to air forces with the view that these would be most useful in any future war with Germany.

By 1939, Allied efforts to avert war had failed, and Germany had signed alliances with both Italy (Pact of Steel) War strategy and the USSR (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). In August 1939, in a final effort to contain Germany, Britain and Hitler's strategy for war is usually thought to be that laid France guaranteed Polish independence (Anglo-Polish out in Mein Kampf, although there is a historigraphic de- military alliance). bate regarding whether Hitler intended global or merely Upon the outbreak of war in September 1939, British European conquest, or whether he even had a plan for war rearmament was not yet complete, although the Royal in advance. (see Nazi foreign policy (historiographic deAir Force had been greatly expanded and programmes for bate)). In Mein Kampf, Hitler had imagined a short war new aircraft and equipment such as radar defences were against France, and then the conquest of the USSR. He just coming to fruition. Britain remained incapable of ofhad wrongly assumed that Britain would be an ally in the fensive operations except for strategic bombing, and this west against France, and so he did not foresee an enduring was relatively ineffective in the early war. war in the west. After the fall of France in mid 1940 and Italian entry Once the Second World War began with France and into the war on the Axis side, Britain and her commonBritain as allies, German strategy was to win a short war wealth allies found themselves alone against most of Euin France and force Britain to the negotiation table. Af- rope. British strategy was one of survival, defending the ter the conquest of France, Churchill's refusal to surren- British isles directly in the Battle of Britain and indirectly der or negotiate on terms favorable for Germany put their by defeating Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic and gamble in jeopardy. Germany could not match Britain the combined Axis powers in the North African Camon the open sea and had not prepared its army for oper- paign. Through this period, and until the German invaations across the Atlantic. Instead they hoped to strangle sion of the USSR in June 1941, there was no possibility Britain's economy through success in the Battle of the At- of Britain winning the war alone, and so British Grand lantic and Battle of Britain. Strategy aimed to bring the USA into the war on the alIn June 1941, Germany invaded the USSR (Operation lied side. Prime Minister Churchill devoted much of his Barbarossa) to preempt a possible Soviet attack. The diplomatic efforts to this goal. In August 1941, at the campaign was planned to defeat the USSR in a single Atlantic Conference he met US President Roosevelt in the summer / fall campaign, but failed to achieve any of its first of many wartime meetings wherein allied war stratmajor objectives. In December 1941 Japan attacked the egy was jointly decided.

94 In December 1941, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, the United States entered the war. Britain was now also at war with Imperial Japan, whose forces inflicted rapid defeats on British forces in Asia, capturing Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore and Burma. Nevertheless, Churchill expressed the view that with the entry of the USA into the war, ultimate victory was assured for the Allies. “All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force”. From this point onward, the strategy of the Allies, other than the USSR, is better addressed as joint Allied Strategy

European Allies In the December 1941, at the Arcadia Conference, the Allied leaders agreed to the "Germany first" principle whereby Germany was to be defeated first, and then Japan. However, Allied land forces would not be capable of invading the mainland of Europe for years, even as Joseph Stalin pressed for the western allies to alleviate pressure on the Eastern front. Supporting the Soviet war effort was a significant element of Allied strategy, and significant aid was shipped to the USSR through the Lend-Lease programme.

CONTENTS Soviet Early Soviet strategy aimed to avoid or delay war, while developing the central government's hold over the state and expanding the industrial base. Soviet economy and military was weak, but rapidly expanding in an intense industrialization process. The USSR had been overtly hostile to Nazi Germany for most of the pre-war period, but the failure of appeasement convinced Stalin that the Allies were actively seeking a Nazi-Soviet war. The Soviet government doubted that a war against Germany could be avoided. However, negotiations were continued in order to, at the very least, buy time and permit the Soviets to secure the Soviet-German border through expansion and pressure on strategically important states perceived as possible German allies in a future war. The signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact gave the USSR freedom to, in its view, preempt hostile action from nations along its Western border. The invasion in the Barbarossa campaign of 1941 came earlier than expected to the Soviet leadership, resulting in the catastrophic loss of over 4 million Soviet soldiers killed or captured. Nevertheless, the USSR managed to halt the German advance at the outskirts of Moscow and Leningrad. With spies providing the certain knowledge that Japanese forces in the far east would not attack Siberia, the Soviets were able to transfer large numbers of experienced forces from the far east, and in the Winter of 1941/1942 they used them to counter-attack the German Army Group Centre in front of Moscow.

Strategic warfare, and especially strategic bombing, was a supporting component of Allied strategy. Through 1942 and 1943, the Allies gradually won the war at sea and in the air, blockading Germany and subjecting her to a strategic bombing campaign of increasing effectiveness Strategic bombing during World War II. As the army was being defeated and giving up ground In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, the Al- in the initial assault, a gigantic operation was staged to lies agreed to demand Axis unconditional surrender, a move economic capacity from the Western areas that war aim which implied the physical occupation of Ger- were about to be overrun, to Eastern regions in the Urals many with land forces. While building up strength for and central Asia that were out of reach of the Germans. an invasion of continental Europe, the Allies pursued an Entire factories, including their labour force, were simindirect strategy by invading Europe from the South. Af- ply moved, and what couldn't be taken was destroyed ter defeating Axis forces in North Africa (the invasion of ("Scorched earth"). As a result, even though huge terFrench North-Africa), Sicily and southern Italy were in- ritories were captured by the Germans, the production vaded, leading to the defeat of Fascist Italy. Churchill es- potential of the Soviet economy was not correspondingly pecially favoured a Southern strategy, aiming to attack the harmed, and the factories shifted to mass production of “soft underbelly”of Axis Europe through Italy, Greece military equipment quickly. Even before the war, Soand the Balkans in a strategy similar to the First World viet industrialization had brought Soviet GDP to a level War idea of “knocking out the supports”. Roosevelt roughly equivalent to Germany. Although a significant favoured a more direct approach through northern Eu- part of the urban population had been captured by Gerrope, and with the Invasion of Normandy in June 1944, many in the 1941 campaign, the Soviet economy immethe weight of Allied effort shifted to the direct conquest diately went to a total war footing and was soon outproducing the German economy in war materiel. of Germany. From 1944, as German defeat became more and more inevitable, the shape of post-war Europe assumed greater importance in Allied strategy. At the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944, the Allies agreed to partition and de-industrialize a defeated Germany so as to render her permanently unable to wage war Morgenthau Plan. After the war, this plan was abandoned as unworkable. At the Tehran Conference Allied strategy adopted its final major component with the acceptance of Soviet conditions for a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, to include eastern Germany and Berlin.

It quickly became apparent that the war in the east would be pitiless and total. Soviet strategy was therefore aimed at preserving the state, at whatever cost, and then the ultimate defeat and conquest of Germany. This strategy was successful. By 1943, the USSR was confident in final victory and new aim of Soviet strategy became securing a favourable post-war Europe. At the Tehran Conference of 1943, Stalin secured acquiescence to a Soviet sphere in influence from his western allies.

0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY Japanese Japanese World War II strategy was driven by two factors: the desire to expand their territories on the mainland of Asia (China and Manchuria), and the need to secure the supply of raw resources they didn't have themselves, particularly oil. Since their quest after the former (conquest of Chinese provinces) endangered the latter (an oil boycott by the USA and its allies), the Japanese government saw no other option than to conquer the oil sources in South-East Asia. Since these were controlled by American allies, war with the USA was seen as inevitable; thus, Japanese leaders decided it would be best to deal a severe blow to the U.S. first. This was executed in the Pearl Harbor strike, crippling the American battle fleet.

95 rope. Fear from the north was so understated that at the outbreak of open warfare with Japan, Australia itself was extremely vulnerable to invasion (possible invasion plans were considered by the Japanese high command, though there was strong opposition). Australia's policy became based entirely on domestic defense following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and British assets in the South Pacific. Defying strong British opposition, Australian Prime Minister John Curtin recalled most troops from the European conflict for the defense of the nation. Australia's defensive doctrine saw a fierce campaign fought along the Kokoda track in New Guinea. This campaign sought to further stretch Japanese supply lines, preventing the invasion of the Australian mainland until the arrival of fresh American troops and the return of seasoned Australian soldiers from Europe. This can be seen as a variant of the war of attrition strategy, where the defender ̶out of necessity ̶had to hold the aggressor at a semi-static defensive line, rather than falling back in the face of superior numbers. This method is in stark contrast to the Russian scorched earth policy against Napoleon in 1812, where the defenders yielded home territory in favour of avoiding open battle. In both cases the lack of supplies was successful in blunting the assaults, following exhaustive defensive efforts.

Japan hoped it would take America so long to rebuild, by the time she was able to return in force in the Pacific, she would consider the new balance of power a “fait accompli”, and negotiate a peace. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor failed to destroy the crucial targets (aircraft carriers and, most crucially for Japan's ability to hold island bases,* [31] submarines) and ignored others (oil tank farms, power station), thus the U.S. Navy was not weakened enough to force withdrawal. The psychological effect also caused the U.S. population and armed forces to fully mobilize for war. South-East Asia was quickly conquered (Philippines, Indochina, Malaysia and the Dutch East Indies). After Japan's vital aircraft carrier force was destroyed in the Battle of Midway, the Japanese had to Communist China's strategy revert to a stiff defense they kept up for the remainder of the war. The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong developed a military strategy called people's war. It aimed at creating and maintaining support of the local population, and American With both Japan and the US fighting twodraw the enemy deep into the interior where the force front wars (against each other in the Pacific, and addiadopting the strategy would exhaust them through a mix tionally the USA in Europe and the Japanese in China) of guerrilla and conventional warfare. the far greater American economic power enabled the US forces to replace battle losses considerably faster and to The strategy was first used by the Communists against the eventually outgun the Japanese. In several aircraft car- forces of the Nationalist Government led by Chiang Kairier battles, the initiative was taken from the Japanese, shek in the Chinese Civil War in the 1930s. During and and after the Battle of Midway, the Japanese navy was after the arduous Long March, the Communist forces, rendered helpless, effectively giving the Americans vast who were dramatically reduced by physical exhaustion, disease and warfare, were in danger of destruction by the naval superiority. pursuing Nationalist forces. Mao then convinced other After the Japanese were forced into the defensive in the high-ranking political officers in the party to acquire the second half of 1942, the Americans were confronted with support of the local population whilst fighting their way heavily fortified garrisons on small islands. They decided northwards from the Nationalist forces. Shortly thereon a strategy of "island hopping", leaving the strongest after he formulated the concept of people's war, promisgarrisons alone, just cutting their supply, and securing ing land reform programs to the local populace and exebases of operation on the lightly defended isles instead. cution of the local landlords in the areas the Communists The most notable of these island battles was the Battle control. Using this strategy not only prevented the Comof Iwo Jima, where the American victory facilitated the munist leadership from collapsing, but also raised popuaerial bombing of the Japanese mainland, which culmilar support across China, which eventuallyallowed them nated in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to take total control over the Chinese mainland. that forced Japan to surrender. The people's war is not only a military strategy but also a political one. In its original formulation by Mao Zedong, Australian Australia's historical ties with Britain people's war exploits the few advantages that a small revmeant that with the commencement of World War II her olutionary movement has against a government's power armies were sent overseas to contribute to battles in Eu- including a large and well-equipped army. People's war

96 strategically avoids decisive battles, since their tiny military force would easily be routed in an all-out confrontation with the government´s army. Instead, it favours a three-stage strategy of protracted warfare, engaging only in carefully chosen battles that can realistically be won. Relying on the local population and using small military units, ensures that there are few problems concerning logistics and supplies. In stage one, the revolutionary force sets up in a remote area with mountainous or otherwise difficult terrain where its enemy is weak, and attempts to establish a local stronghold known as a revolutionary base area. As it grows in power, it enters stage two, establishes other revolutionary base areas, where it may exercise governing power and gain popular support through political programmes, such as land reform. Eventually in stage three, the movement has enough strength to encircle and capture cities of increasing size, until finally it seizes power in the entire country. Within the Chinese Red Army, later to be called as the People's Liberation Army, the concept of People's War was the basis of strategy against the Japanese and Nationalist forces, and also against a hypothetical Russian invasion of China. The concept of people's war became less important with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the increasing possibility of conflict with the United States over Taiwan.

CONTENTS countries, while elsewhere such as in Peru it has been unsuccessful. The people's war in the Philippines that was long since employed by the insurgent New People's Army, however, made the Communist insurgency there the longest in world history,.* [33] In India and Turkey there are still ongoing insurgencies where the rebels use this strategy. Cold War The strategy of the Cold War was that of containment and it was a generation dominated by the threat of total world annihilation through the use of nuclear weapons. Deterrence was a part of containment via retributive intimidation from the risk of mutually assured destruction. As a consequence it was also a war in which attacks were not exchanged between the two main rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union. Instead, the war was fought through proxies. Instead of mainly being confined to Europe or the Pacific, the entire world was the battlefield, with countries rather than armies acting as main players. The only constant rule was that troops of the Soviet Union and the United States could not overtly fight with each other. Military strategy involved bipolar powers with global actors who could strike an opponent with nationally debilitating destruction in a matter of minutes from land, air, and sea.

The strategy was utilized in the early 1950s by the hastilyformed People's Volunteer Army during the Korean War, to garner support from the local Korean populace to win the war by driving the United Nations forces from the peninsula. At the battles of Chongchon river valley and Lake Changjin, the army employed guerrilla tactics in full scale, following the people's war doctrine. However, as they marched towards the South under Mao's stern orders after their decisive victories in northern Korea, they were met by an indifferent and sometimes hostile Southern population* [32] who, despite intimidation, were not willing to help them. This prevented them from defeating the UN forces in Korea and, after their hard-fought victory at the Third Battle of Seoul, they were beaten in the open by UN forces in the conclusion of their Third Phase Campaign. Later on the war turned into a stalemated twoyear confrontation between the opposing forces. Thus, years after the war, the Chinese government began a series of army modernization and professionalization that will radically change the concept of the strategy, and in the 1980s and 1990s the concept of people's war was changed to include more high-technology weaponry.

With the advent of weapons of mass destruction that could decide a war by themselves, strategies shifted away from a focus on the application of conventional weaponry to a greater focus on Espionage and Intelligence assessment, especially after the exposure of the Atomic spies.

The people's war strategy was also employed in countries around the world such as Cuba, Nicaragua, Nepal, Philippines, the United Kingdom (where the IRA was in rebellion in Northern Ireland and applied this strategy to urban warfare) and elsewhere. The people's war in the first three countries mentioned have been spectacularly successful, marking government transitions in these

Strategies during the Cold War also dealt with nuclear attack and retaliation. The United States maintained a policy of limited first strike throughout the Cold War. In the event of a Soviet attack on the Western Front, resulting in a breakthrough, the United States would use tactical nuclear weapons to stop the attack. So, if the Warsaw Pact attacked using conventional weapons, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The difference between tactics, strategy and grand strategy began to melt during the Cold War as command and communication technologies improved to a greater extent, in first world armed forces. The third world armed forces controlled by the two superpowers found that grand strategy, strategy and tactics, if anything, moved further apart as the command of the armies fell under the control of super power leaders. American cold warriors like Dean Acheson and George C. Marshall quickly recognized that the key to victory was the economic defeat of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had adopted an aggressive posture of Communist expansionism following the end of World War II, with the United States and its strong navy quickly finding that it had to aggressively defend much of the world from the Soviet Union and the spread of communism.

0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY

97

(NATO) would use tactical nukes. The Soviet Union Post Cold War would respond with an all out nuclear attack, resulting in a similar attack from the United States, with all the See also: Asymmetric warfare and Network-centric consequences the exchange would entail. warfare By contrast, Soviet strategy in the Cold War was dominated by the desire to prevent, at all costs, the recurrence of an invasion of Russian soil. The Soviet Union nomi- Strategy in the post Cold War is characterized by a nally adopted a policy of no first use, which in fact was a number of potent powers in a multipolar array and has posture of launch on warning.* [34] Other than that, the come to be defined by the hyperpower status of the * USSR adapted to some degree to the prevailing changes United States, [37] which is increasingly relying on adin the NATO strategic policies that are divided by peri- vanced technology to minimize casualties and improve efficiency. The technological leaps brought by the Digital ods as: * Revolution are essential for this strategy. [35] • Strategy of massive retaliation (1950s) (Russian: стратегия массированного возмездия) • Strategy of flexible reaction (1960s) (Russian: стратегия гибкого реагирования) • Strategies of realistic threat and containment (1970s) (Russian: стратегия реалистического устрашения или сдерживания) • Strategy of direct confrontation (1980s) (Russian: стратегия прямого противоборства) one of the elements of which became the new highly effective high-precision targeting weapons.

The gap in strategy today (from a Western viewpoint) is in what the Americans call "asymmetric warfare": the battle against guerrilla forces by conventional national armed forces. The classical strategic triumvirate of politics/military/populace is very weak against protracted warfare of paramilitary forces such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army, Hezbollah, ETA, PKK, and AlQaeda. The ability of conventional forces to deliver utility (effect) from their hugely powerful forces is largely nullified by the difficulties of distinguishing and separating combatants from the civilian populace in whose company they hide. The use of the military by the politicians to police areas seen as bases for these guerrillas leads to them becoming targets themselves which eventually undermines the support of the populace from whom they come and whose values they represent.

The primary effect of insurgent elements upon conventional force strategy is realized in the twofold exploitation of the inherent violence of military operations. Conventional armies face political attrition for each action they take. Insurgent forces can cause harm and create chaos, whereby the conventional army suffers a loss of confidence and esteem; or they can drive the conventional elements into an attack which further exacerbates the civilFortunately for all sides, the all-out nuclear World War III ian condition. between NATO and the Warsaw Pact did not take place. The United States recently (April 2010) acknowledged a The militaries of today are largely set up to fight the new approach to its nuclear policy which describes the 'last war' and hence have huge armoured and convenweapons' purpose as “primarily”or “fundamentally” tionally configured infantry formations backed up by airforces and navies designed to support or prepare for these to deter or respond to a nuclear attack.* [36] forces.* [38] Many are today deployed against guerrillastyle opponents where their strengths cannot be used to effect. The mass formations of Industrial War are often seen as much less effective than the unconventional forces that these organisations also possess. The new opponents operate at a local level whereas Industrial armed forces work at a much higher 'theatre' level. The nervous system of these new opponents is largely political rather than military hierarchical and adapted to the local supporting populace who hide them. The centre provides the political idea and driving logic perhaps with overall direction and some funding. Local groups decide their own plans, Current major security alliances: raise much of their own funds and may be more or less NATO, ESDP SCO, CSTO aligned to the centre's aims. Defeat of forces when rePSC SADC vealed does not disable this type of organisation, many • Strategic Defense Initiative (also known as “Star Wars”) during its 1980s development (Russian: стратегическая оборонная инициатива – СОИ) which became a core part of the strategic doctrine based on Defense containment.

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modern attack strategies will tend to increase the power [15] Field-Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, A History of Warfare, Collins. London, 1968 of the group they are intended to weaken. A new more political strategy is perhaps more appropriate here with [16] Chaliand (1994), p. 638, military backing. Such a strategy has been illustrated in the war between the IRA, though an adoption and codifi- [17] Strachan, Hew (2007). Clausewitz in the twenty-first cencation are unclear. tury. Oxford University Press. p. 319. ISBN 978-0-19923202-4. Retrieved 2012-07-31.

Netwar

[18] Catton. Bruce (1971). The Civil War. American Heritage Press, New York. Library of Congress Number: 77119671.

A main point in asymmetric warfare is the nature of paramilitary organizations such as Al-Qaeda which are [19] Headquarters, Department of the Army (27 February involved in guerrilla military actions but which are not 2008). FM 3–0, Operations (PDF). Washington, DC: traditional organizations with a central authority defining GPO. pp. 4–32 – 4–39. ISBN 9781437901290. OCLC their military and political strategies. Organizations such 780900309. Retrieved 31 August 2013. as Al-Qaeda may exist as a sparse network of groups lacking central coordination, making them more difficult to [20] Kesten C. Greene and J. Scott Armstrong (2011 (forthcoming)). “Role thinking: Standing in other peopleʼ confront following standard strategic approaches. This s shoes to forecast decisions in conflicts” (PDF). Internew field of strategic thinking is tackled by what is now national Journal of Forecasting: . Check date values in: defined as netwar. |date= (help)

0.29.4

See also

[21] στρατηγία, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library

0.29.5

Notes

[22] στρατηγός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library

[1] Gartner (1999), pp. 163,

[23] ἀγός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library

[2] Carpenter (2005), p. 25 [3] Matloff (1996), p. 11 [4] Wilden (1987), p. 235 [5] Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy London:Faber, 1967 (2nd rev ed.) p. 321 [6] Matti Nojonen, Jymäyttämisen taito. Strategiaoppeja muinaisesta Kiinasta. [Transl.: The Art of Deception. Strategy lessons from Ancient China.] Gaudeamus, Finland. Helsinki 2009. ISBN ISBN 978-952-495-089-3. [7] Scott, Wilson (7 March 2013), “Obama meets privately with Jewish leaders”, The Washington Post (Washington, DC), retrieved 22 May 2013. [8] “Obama to challenge Israelis on peace”, United Press International, 8 March 2013, retrieved 22 May 2013. [9] Garner, Rochelle (16 October 2006), “Oracle's Ellison Uses 'Art of War' in Software Battle With SAP”, Bloomberg, retrieved 18 May 2013. [10] “Strategy vs. Tactic”. diffen.com. Retrieved 30 September 2014. [11] Headquarters, Department of the Army (27 February 2008). FM 3–0, Operations (PDF). Washington, DC: GPO. ISBN 9781437901290. OCLC 780900309. Retrieved 31 August 2013. [12] School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. [13] AAP-6(V) NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions [14] British Defence Doctrine, Edition 3, 2008

[24] ἄγω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library [25] May (2007), p. 115ff. [26] Heuser (2010), p. 4f. [27] See U.S. Army War College http://www.carlisle.army. mil/ and Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, U.K. [28] See Martin Van Creveld's Fighting Power for more on this topic. [29] Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Bd. 2: Die Errichtung der Hegemonie auf dem europäischen Kontinent [30] Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands ̶Europe between Hitler and Stalin. London: Vinatge books. pp. preface page ix–x. ISBN 978-0-09-955179-9. [31] Parillo; Blair [32] Shrader 1995, pp. 174–175. [33] Longest communist insurgency [34] Beatrice Heuser,ʻWarsaw Pact Military Doctrines in the 70s and 80s: Findings in the East German Archivesʼ, Comparative Strategy Vol. 12 No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1993), pp. 437-457. [35] Pupkov, et al. Weapons of anti-missile defense of Russia [36] http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/NPR%20FACT% 20SHEET%20April%202010.pdf

0.30. MILITARY TACTICS

[37] The term was coined by French politician Hubert Vérdine. See:International Herald Tribune,“To Paris, U.S. Looks Like a 'Hyperpower',”February 5, 1999. [38] The Utility of Force, General Sir Rupert Smith, Allen Lane, London, 2005, ISBN 0-7139-9836-9

0.29.6

References

• Carpenter, Stanley D. M., Military Leadership in the British Civil Wars, 1642-1651: The Genius of This Age, Routledge, 2005. • Chaliand, Gérard, The Art of War in World History: From Antiquity to the Nuclear Age, University of California Press, 1994. • Gartner, Scott Sigmund, Strategic Assessment in War, Yale University Press, 1999. • Heuser, Beatrice, The Evolution of Strategy: Thinking War from Antiquity to the Present (Cambridge University Press, 2010), ISBN 978-0-521-19968-1. • Matloff, Maurice, (ed.), American Military History: 1775-1902, volume 1, Combined Books, 1996.

99 • Tomes, Robert R., US Defense Strategy from Vietnam to Operation Iraqi Freedom: Military Innovation and the New American Way of War, 1973– 2003, Routledge Press, 2007.

0.30 Military tactics Military tactics are the science and art of organizing a military force, and the techniques for combining and using weapons and military units to engage and defeat an enemy in battle.* [1] Changes in philosophy and technology have been reflected in changes to military tactics; in contemporary military science tactics are the lowest of three planning levels: (i) strategic, (ii) operational, and (iii) tactical. The highest level of planning is strategy, how force is translated into political objectives, by bridging the means and ends of war. The intermediate level, operational level, the conversion of strategy into tactics deals with formations of units. In the vernacular, tactical decisions are those made to achieve the greatest, immediate value, and strategic decisions are those made to achieve the greatest, overall value, irrespective of the immediate results of a tactical decision.

• May, Timothy. The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System. Barnsley, 0.30.1 UK: Pen & Sword, 2007. ISBN 978-1844154760.

Concept

• Wilden, Anthony, Man and Woman, War and Peace: The Strategist's Companion, Routledge, 1987.

0.29.7

Further reading

• The US Army War College Strategic Studies Institute publishes several dozen papers and books yearly focusing on current and future military strategy and policy, national security, and global and regional strategic issues. Most publications are relevant to the International strategic community, both academically and militarily. All are freely available to the public in PDF format. The organization was founded by General Dwight D. Eisenhower after World War II. • Black, Jeremy, Introduction to Global Military History: 1775 to the present day, Routledge Press, 2005. • D'Aguilar, G.C., Napoleon's Military Maxims, free ebook, Napoleon's Military Maxims. • Freedman, Lawrence. Strategy: A History (2013) excerpt • Holt, Thaddeus, The Deceivers: Allied Military De- German World War I observation post disguised as a tree. ception in the Second World War, Simon and Schuster, June, 2004, hardcover, 1184 pages, ISBN 0- Military tactics are both a science and an art. They answer 7432-5042-7. the questions of how best to deploy and employ forces

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on a small scale.* [2] Some practices have not changed 0.30.4 External links since the dawn of warfare: ambushes, seeking and turn• Everycitizenasoldier.org - tactical principles ing flanks, maintaining reconnaissance, creating and using obstacles and defences, etc. Using ground to best • Contemporary Marine tactics for war fighting advantage has not changed much either. Heights, rivers, swamps, passes, choke points, and natural cover, can all • Napoleon's tactics and strategy be used in multiple ways. Before the nineteenth century, many military tactics were confined to battlefield • Small Unit Actions during German Campaign in concerns: how to maneuver units during combat in open Russia terrain. Nowadays, specialized tactics exist for many situations, for example for securing a room in a building. What changes constantly is the technological dimension, as well as the sociology of combatants. One might wish to reflect on the technological and societal differences that produced such varying types of soldier or warrior: Greek Hoplite, Roman Legionary, Medieval Knight, TurkMongol Horse Archer, Chinese Crossbowman, British Redcoat, or an Air Cavalry trooper. Each – constrained by his weaponry, logistics and social conditioning – would use a battlefield differently, but would usually seek the same outcomes from their use of tactics. In many respects the First World War changed the use of tactics as advances in technology rendered prior tactics useless.* [3]

0.30.2

0.31 Naval fleet

See also

References

A rare occurrence of a 5-country multinational fleet, during Operation Enduring Freedom in the Oman Sea. In four descending columns, from left to right: ITS Maestrale (F 570), FS De Grasse (D 612); USS John C. Stennis (CVN 74), FS Charles De Gaulle (R 91), FS Surcouf (F 711); USS Port Royal (CG-73), HMS Ocean (L 12), USS John F. Kennedy (CV 67), HNLMS Van Amstel (F 831); and ITS Luigi Durand de la Penne (D 560).

[1] Clausewitz, Carl (1832). On War.

A fleet or naval fleet is a large formation of warships, and the largest formation in any navy. A fleet at sea is the direct equivalent of an army on land.

• Great Stirrup Controversy • List of military tactics

0.30.3 Notes

[2] Rogers, Clifford J. (2006). “Strategy, Operational Design, and Tactics”. In Bradford, James C. International Encyclopedia of Military History. New York: Routledge.

Fleets are usually, but not necessarily, permanent formations and are generally assigned to a particular ocean or sea. Most fleets are named after that ocean or sea, but the convention in the United States Navy is to use numbers. [3] Paddy Griffith (1994). Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The British Army's Art of Attack, 1916–18. Yale Univer- A fleet is normally commanded by an admiral, who is ofsity Press. p. 20. ten also a commander in chief, but many fleets have been or are commanded by vice admirals or even rear admirals. Most fleets are divided into several squadrons, each Bibliography under a subordinate admiral. Those squadrons in turn are • Johnson, Rob, Michael Whitby, John France often divided into divisions. In the age of sail, fleets were (2010). How to win on the battlefield : 25 key tactics divided into van, centre and rear squadrons, named afto outwit, outflank, and outfight the enemy. Thames ter each squadronʼs place in the line of battle. In more modern times, the squadrons are typically composed of & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-25161-4. homogeneous groups of the same class of warship, such • Muhm, Gerhard. “German Tactics in the Italian as battleships or cruisers. Campaign”. Since many smaller navies only contain a single fleet, the • Gerhard Muhm : La Tattica nella campagna ass dʼItalia, in LINEA GOTICA AVAMPOSTO DEI BALCANI, (Hrsg.) Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas, Roma 1993.

term the fleet is often synonymous with the navy. Multinational fleets are not uncommon in naval history. For example, several nations made up the Holy League fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. In modern times,

0.32. NAVY

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NATO has formed standing combined fleets and operations from several national navies such as Operation Active Endeavour. See list of fleets for individual fleets.

0.31.1

The modern fleet

Modern fleets combine surface warships, submarines, support ships and ship-based aircraft to conduct naval operations at sea. Generally understood to be the blue water, or oceanic, green water or littoral versus the brown wa- INS Vikramaditya (R33) with a Sea Harrier aircraft in the ter or coastal/riverine forces. The fleets of larger navies Arabian Sea. It is the Indian Navy's largest aircraft carrier. are usually divided into smaller numbered or named fleets based on geographic operating areas or on administrative troops, or attack other navies, ports, or shore installagroupings of same type ships. tions). The strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to Modern fleets are usually administrative units. Typically, frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The individual task forces are formed to conduct specific op- strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deerations. terrence by use of Submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Naval operations can be broadly divided between riverine and littoral applications (brown-water navy), open-ocean applications (blue-water navy), and something in between 0.32 Navy (green-water navy), although these distinctions are more “Naval”and“Naval Force”redirect here. For other uses about strategic scope than tactical or operational division. of“Naval”, see Naval (disambiguation). For other uses In most nations, the term "naval", as opposed to "navy", of “Navy”, see Navy (disambiguation). is interpreted as encompassing all maritime military A navy (or maritime force) is a fleet of water- forces, e.g., navy, marine / marine corps, and coast guard forces.

0.32.1 Etymology and meanings

The Spanish Armada fighting the English navy at the Battle of Gravelines in 1588

borne military vessels (watercraft) and its associated naval aviation, both sea-based and land-based. It is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includes anything conducted by surface ships, amphibious ships, submarines, and seaborne aviation, as well as ancillary support, communications, training, and other fields; recent developments have included space-related operations. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a country's shores (for example, to protect sea-lanes, ferry

First attested in English in the early 14th century,* [1] the word“navy”came via Old French navie,“fleet of ships” , from the Latin navigium, “a vessel, a ship, bark, boat” ,* [2] from navis, “ship”.* [3] The word “naval”came from Latin navalis, “pertaining to ship";* [4] cf. Greek ναῦς (naus), “ship”,* [5] ναύτης (nautes), “seaman, sailor”.* [6] The earliest attested form of the word is in the Mycenaean Greek compound word , na-u-domo (*naudomoi), “shipbuilders”, written in Linear B syllabic script.* [n 1] There is also a possible connection to the tamil word Navai for boat/ship. The word formerly denoted fleets of both commercial and military nature. In modern usage “navy”used alone always denotes a military fleet, although the term "merchant navy" for a commercial fleet still incorporates the non-military word sense. This overlap in word senses between commercial and military fleets grew out of the inherently dual-use nature of fleets; centuries ago, nationality was a trait that unified a fleet across both civilian and military uses. Although nationality of commercial vessels has little importance in peacetime trade other than for tax avoidance, it can have greater meaning during wartime, when supply chains become matters of patriotic attack and defense, and when in some cases private vessels are even temporarily converted to military vessels.

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The latter was especially important, and common, before 20th-century military technology existed, when merely adding artillery and naval infantry to any sailing vessel could render it fully as martial as any military-owned vessel. Such privateering has been rendered obsolete in bluewater strategy since modern missile and aircraft systems grew to leapfrog over artillery and infantry in many respects; but privateering nevertheless remains potentially relevant in littoral warfare of a limited and asymmetric nature.

cannon and ships with sufficient capacity to carry the large guns, navy warfare primarily involved ramming and boarding actions. In the time of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, naval warfare centered on long, narrow vessels powered by banks of oarsmen (such as triremes and quinqueremes) designed to ram and sink enemy vessels or come alongside the enemy vessel so its occupants could be attacked hand-to-hand. Naval warfare continued in this vein through the Middle Ages until the cannon became commonplace and capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The Chola Dynasty of medieval India was known as one of the 0.32.2 History greatest naval powers of its time from 300 BC to 1279 AD. The Chola Navy, Chola kadarpadai comprised the Main articles: Naval warfare and Naval history naval forces of the Chola Empire along with several other Naval warfare developed when humans first fought from Naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Tamil kingdom, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands, Kadaaram (Present day Burma), Sri Vijaya (present day Southeast Asia), the spread of Hinduism, Tamil architecture and Tamil culture to Southeast Asia and in curbing the piracy in Southeast Asia in 900 CE. In ancient China, large naval battles were known since the Qin Dynasty (also see Battle of Red Cliffs, 208), employing the war junk during the Han Dynasty. However, China's first official standing navy was not established until the Southern Song Dynasty in the 12th century, a time when gunpowder was a revolutionary new application to warfare. The mass and deck space required to carry a large number of cannon made oar-based propulsion impossible, and ships came to rely primarily on sails. Warships were designed to carry increasing numbers of cannon and naval tactics evolved to bring a ship's firepower to bear in a broadside, with ships-of-the-line arranged in a line of battle.

HMS Victory, the oldest warship still in commission in the world.

The development of large capacity, sail-powered ships carrying cannon led to a rapid expansion of European navies, especially the Spanish and Portuguese navies which dominated in the 16th and early 17th centuries, and helped propel the age of exploration and colonialism. The repulsion of the Spanish Armada (1588) by the English fleet revolutionized naval warfare by the success of a guns-only strategy and caused a major overhaul of the Spanish Navy, partly along English lines, which resulted in even greater dominance by the Spanish. From the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch cannibalized the Portuguese Empire in the East and, with the immense wealth gained, challenged Spanish hegemony at sea. From the 1620s, Dutch raiders seriously troubled Spanish shipping and, after a number of battles which went both ways, the Dutch Navy finally broke the long dominance of the Spanish Navy in the Battle of the Downs (1639).

England emerged as a major naval power in the mid-17th century in the first Anglo-Dutch war with a technical vicDreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet of World War I. tory. Successive decisive Dutch victories in the second water-borne vessels. Prior to the introduction of the and third Anglo-Dutch Wars confirmed the Dutch mas-

0.32. NAVY tery of the seas during the Dutch Golden Age, financed by the expansion of the Dutch Empire. The French Navy won some important victories near the end of the 17th century but a focus upon land forces led to the French Navy's relative neglect, which allowed the Royal Navy to emerge with an ever-growing advantage in size and quality, especially in tactics and experience, from 1695. Throughout the 18th century the Royal Navy gradually gained ascendancy over the French Navy, with victories in the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), inconclusive battles in the War of Austrian Succession (1740– 1748), victories in the Seven Years' War (1754–1763), a partial reversal during the American War of Independence (1775–1783), and consolidation into uncontested supremacy during the 19th century from the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. These conflicts saw the development and refinement of tactics which came to be called the line of battle.

103 The Russian Navy was considered the third strongest in the world on the eve of the Russo-Japanese War, which turned to be a catastrophe for the Russian military in general and the Russian Navy in particular. Although neither party lacked courage, the Russians were defeated by the Japanese in the Battle of Port Arthur, which was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. The warships of the Baltic Fleet sent to the Far East were lost in the Battle of Tsushima. A further step change in naval firepower occurred when the United Kingdom launched HMS Dreadnought (1906), but naval tactics still emphasized the line of battle. The first practical military submarines were developed in the late 19th century and by the end of World War I had proven to be a powerful arm of naval warfare. During World War II, Nazi Germany's submarine fleet of U-boats almost starved the United Kingdom into submission and inflicted tremendous losses on U.S. coastal shipping. The German battleship Tirpitz, a sister ship of the Bismarck, was almost put out of action by miniature submarines known as X-Craft. The X-Craft severely damaged her and kept her in port for some months. A major paradigm shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto in 1940 and then at Pearl Harbor in 1941, the carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. The Battle of Leyte Gulf (1944) was arguably the largest naval battle in history; it was also the last battle in which battleships played a significant role. By the end of World War II, the carrier had become the dominant force of naval warfare.

U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68)

The next stage in the evolution of naval warfare was the introduction of metal plating along the hull sides. The increased mass required steam-powered engines, resulting in an arms race between armor and weapon thickness and firepower. The first armored vessels, the French Gloire and British HMS Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Another significant improvement came with the invention of the rotating turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of ship movement. The battle between the CSS Virginia and the USS Monitor during the American Civil War (1861–1865) is often cited as the beginning of this age of maritime conflict.

World War II also saw the United States become by far the largest Naval power in the world. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the United States Navy possessed over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater.* [11] Throughout the rest of the 20th century, the United States Navy would maintain a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest navies combined. During the Cold War, the Soviet Navy became a significant armed force, with large numbers of large, heavily armed ballistic missile submarines and extensive use of heavy, long-ranged antisurface missiles to counter the numerous United States carrier battle groups. Only 3 nations (United States, France, and Brazil) presently operate CATOBAR carriers of any size, while Russia, China and India operate sizeable STOBAR carriers (although all three are originally of Russian design). The UK is also currently constructing two Queen Elizabeth class carriers, which will be the largest STOVL vessels in service, and India is currently building one Vikrant-class aircraft carrier and considering another. France is also looking at a new carrier, probably using a CATOBAR system and possibly based on the British Queen Elizabeth design.

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0.32.3

CONTENTS

Operations

A "blue water navy" is designed to operate far from the coastal waters of its home nation. These are ships capable of maintaining station for long periods of time in deep ocean, and will have a long logistical tail for their support. Many are also nuclear powered to save having to refuel. By contrast a "brown water navy" operates in the coastal periphery and along inland waterways, where larger ocean-going naval vessels can not readily enter. Regional powers may maintain a "green water navy" as a means of localized force projection. Blue water fleets may require specialized vessels, such as mine sweepers, when operating in the littoral regions along the coast.

0.32.4 Traditions HMS Invincible sails towards the Falkland Islands during the Falklands War. The Falklands War was the largest naval conflict since World War II.

Main article: Naval tradition A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy

US Navy officers aboard the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72) monitor defense systems during maritime security operations. Navies may conduct military operations other than war.

A navy typically operates from one or more naval bases. The base is a port that is specialized in naval operations, and often includes housing, a munitions depot, docks for the vessels, and various repair facilities. During times of war temporary bases may be constructed in closer proximity to strategic locations, as it is advantageous in terms of patrols and station-keeping. Nations with historically strong naval forces have found it advantageous to obtain basing rights in other countries in areas of strategic inter- Ship bell of ORP Iskra II - Polish Navy school tall ship est. Navy ships can operate independently or with a group, which may be a small squadron of comparable ships, or a larger naval fleet of various specialized ships. The commander of a fleet travels in the flagship, which is usually the most powerful vessel in the group. Prior to the invention of radio, commands from the flagship were communicated by means of flags. At night signal lamps could be used for a similar purpose. Later these were replaced by the radio transmitter, or the flashing light when radio silence was needed.

are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of submarines, which are known as boats. The prefix on a ship's name indicates that it is a commissioned ship. An important tradition on board naval vessels of some nations has been the ship's bell. This was historically used to mark the passage of time, as warning devices in heavy fog, and for alarms and ceremonies. The ship's captain, and more senior officers are “piped” aboard the ship using a Boatswain's call.

0.32. NAVY

105

In the United States, the First Navy Jack is a flag that has the words, “Don't Tread on Me”on the flag. By English tradition, ships have been referred to as a “she”. However, it was long considered bad luck to permit women to sail on board naval vessels. To do so would invite a terrible storm that would wreck the ship. The only women that were welcomed on board were figureheads mounted on the prow of the ship. Firing a cannon salute partially disarms the ship, so firing a cannon for no combat reason showed respect and trust. As the tradition evolved, the number of cannon fired became an indication of the rank of the official be- INS Shivalik is a stealth frigate of the Indian Navy. ing saluted.

0.32.5

Naval organization

Ships

for the voyage (rather than merchant cargo). Often, other ships which were not built specifically for warfare, such as the galleon or the armed merchant ships in World War II, did carry armaments. In more recent times, navy ships have become more specialized and have included supply ships, troop transports, repair ships, oil tankers and other logistics support ships as well as combat ships. So long as they are commissioned, however, they are all“ships”... Modern navy combat ships are generally divided into seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines, and amphibious assault ships. There are also support and auxiliary ships, including the oiler, minesweeper, patrol boat, hydrographic and oceanographic survey ship and tender. During the age of sail, the ship categories were divided into the ship of the line, frigate, and sloop-of-war.

Sejong the Great class destroyer of the Republic of Korea Navy

Typhoon class submarines are the largest submarines ever built.

Main article: Naval ship

Naval ship names are typically prefixed by an abbreviation indicating the national navy in which they serve. For a list of the prefixes used with ship names (HMS, USS, LÉ, etc.) see ship prefix. Today ships are significantly faster than in former times, thanks to much improved propulsion systems. Also, the efficiency of the engines has improved, in terms of fuel, and of how many sailors it takes to operate them. In World War II, ships needed to refuel very often. However, today ships can go on very long journeys without refueling. Also, in World War II, the engine room needed about a dozen sailors to work the many engines, however, today, only about 4–5 are needed (depending on the class of the ship). Today, naval strike groups on longer missions are always followed by a range of support and replenishment ships supplying them with anything from fuel and munitions, to medical treatment and postal services. This allows strike groups and combat ships to remain at sea for several months at a time. Boats

Historically, navy ships were primarily intended for war- The term“boat”refers to small craft limited in their use fare. They were designed to withstand damage and to by size and usually not capable of making lengthy indeinflict the same, but only carried munitions and supplies pendent voyages at sea. The old navy adage to differen-

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CONTENTS boats, line handling boats, buoy boats, aircraft rescue boats, torpedo retrievers, explosive ordnance disposal craft, utility boats, dive boats, targets, and work boats. Boats are also used for survey work, tending divers, and minesweeping operations. Boats for carrying cargo and personnel are sometimes known as launches, gigs, barges or shore party boats. Units

Royal Canadian Navy's Orca class patrol vessel.

Naval forces are typically arranged into units based on the number of ships included, a single ship being the smallest operational unit. Ships may be combined into squadrons or flotillas, which may be formed into fleets. The largest unit size may be the whole Navy or Admiralty.

A task force can be assembled using ships from different tiate between ships and boats is that boats are capable of fleets for an operational task. being carried by ships. (Submarines by this rule are ships rather than boats, but are customarily referred to as boats reflecting their previous smaller size.) Navies use many types of boat, ranging from 9-foot (2.7 m) dinghies to 135-foot (41 m) landing craft. They are Ships of the multinational fleet Combined Task Force 150 powered by either diesels, out-board gasoline engines, or waterjets. Most boats are built of aluminum, fiberglass, or steel. Rigid-hulled inflatable boats are also used. Personnel Patrol boats are used for patrols of coastal areas, lakes and large rivers. Despite their acceptance in many areas of naval service, women sailors were not permitted to serve on board U.S. submarines until the U.S. Navy lifted the ban in April 2010.* [12] The major reasons historically cited by the U.S. Navy were the extended duty tours and close conditions which afford almost no privacy. The United Kingdom's Royal Navy has had similar restrictions. Australia, Canada, Norway, and Spain previously opened submarine service to women sailors.* [13] Ranks

Soviet PT-76 light amphibious tank moves down the ramp of an Aist class hovercraft.

Landing craft are designed to carry troops, vehicles, or cargo from ship to shore under combat conditions, to unload, to withdraw from the beach, and to return to the ship. They are rugged, with powerful engines, and usually armed. There are many types in today's navies including hovercraft. They will typically have a power-operated bow ramp, a cargo well and after structures that house engine rooms, pilot houses, and stowage compartments. These boats are sometimes carried by larger ships.

Chinese sailors, 2009

Special operations craft are high-speed craft used for insertion and extraction of special forces personnel and Main article: Naval officer ranks some may be transportable (and deployed) by air. A navy will typically have two sets of ranks, one for Boats used in non-combat roles include lifeboats, mail enlisted personnel and one for officers.

0.32. NAVY

107 captain, but in charge of all the merchant vessels in the convoy. The most senior rank employed by a navy will tend to vary depending on the size of the navy and whether it is wartime or peacetime, for example, few people have ever held the rank of Fleet Admiral in the U.S. Navy, the chief of the Royal Australian Navy holds the rank of Vice Admiral, and the chief of the Irish Naval Service holds the rank of Commodore.

Newly commissioned officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the a U.S. Naval Academy graduation and commissioning ceremony.

0.32.6 Naval infantry Main article: Marines Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a cate-

Typical ranks for commissioned officers include the following, in ascending order (Commonwealth ranks are listed first on each line; USA ranks are listed second in those instances where they differ from Commonwealth ranks): • Midshipman / Ensign / Corvette Lieutenant • Sub Lieutenant / Lieutenant Junior Grade / Frigate Lieutenant • Lieutenant (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-theLine Lieutenant / Captain Lieutenant Jaubert commandos of the French Navy demonstrating a mock,

• Lieutenant Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ seaborne assault on the support vessel Alcyon. Corvette Captain

• Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ Frigate gory of infantry that form part of a stateʼ s naval forces and Captain perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also per• Captain (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-theform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from Line Captain naval operations. • Commodore / Flotilla Admiral (in USA only: Rear During the era of the Roman empire, naval forces inAdmiral (lower half)) cluded marine legionaries for maritime boarding actions. These were troops primarily trained in land warfare, and • Rear Admiral (in USA only: Rear Admiral (upper did not need to be skilled at handling a ship. Much later half)) during the age of sail, a component of marines served a similar role, being ship-borne soldiers who were used • Vice Admiral (Commonwealth & USA) either during boarding actions, as sharp-shooters, or in • Admiral (Commonwealth & USA) raids along shorelines. • Admiral of the Fleet (Commonwealth) / Fleet Ad- The Spanish Infantería de Marina was formed in 1537, making it the oldest, current marine force in the world. miral (USA) / Grand Admiral The British, Royal Marines combine being both a ship-based force and also being specially trained in “Flag officers”include any rank that includes the word commando-style operations and tactics, operating in “admiral”(or commodore in services other than the US some cases separately from the rest of the Royal Navy. Navy), and are generally in command of a battle group, The Royal Marines also have their own special forces unit. strike group or similar flotilla of ships, rather than a single ship or aspect of a ship. However, commodores can also be temporary or honorary positions. For example, during World War II, a Navy captain was assigned duty as a convoy commodore, which meant that he was still a

In the majority of countries, the marine force is part of the navy. The United States Marine Corps is a separate armed service within the United States Department of the Navy, with its own leadership structure.

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0.32.7

CONTENTS

Naval aviation

• Richmond, Herbert. National Policy and National Strength and other Essays. London: Longman, Green and Co., 1928. • Sprout, Harold and Margaret Sprout. Toward a New Order of Sea Power: American Naval Policy ... 1918-1922. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940. • Starr, Chester G., The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, 1989, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505666-3 • Tangredi, Sam, “Globalization and Maritime Power”, 2002 - National Defense University, ISBN 1-57906-060-9 • Trafalgar 200 Through the Lens, ISBN 09553004-0-1

A Sea Harrier on the flight deck of an Indian Navy aircraft carrier in 2007.

• Wombacher, Joerg and Joerg Felfe. (2012) United We Are Strong: An Investigation into Sense of Community among Navy Crews, Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 38, No. 4

Main article: Naval aviation In World War I several navies used floatplanes and flying boats - mainly for scouting. By World War II the aircraft carrier could carry bomber aircraft capable of attacking naval and land targets as well as fighter aircraft for defence. Since World War II helicopters have been embarked on smaller ships in roles such as anti-submarine warfare. Some navies have also operated land-based patrol aircraft.

0.32.8

• Woolley, Peter J. “The Role of Strategy in Great Power Decline,”Naval War College Review. Vol. XLIX, no. 1 (1996). ISBN 1884733-06-9 • Fiction: • Alan Lewrie series by Dewey Lambdin • Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian

Additional reading

• Horatio Hornblower series by C. S. Forester • Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent (Pseudonym of Douglas Reeman)

• Non-fiction: • Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft and Systems - Naval Institute Press. Published annually. Comprehensive. • Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean in the Ancient World

• Tom Clancy, The Hunt for Red October, Red Storm Rising •

• Corbett, Sir Julian, Some Principles of Mar0.32.9 itime Strategy, 1911. • Hughes, Jr., Wayne P., Fleet Tactics and Coastal Combat, 1999, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-392-3 • Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery. New York: Scribner, 1976. ISBN 0-394-54674-1 • Mahan, Alfred Thayer, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, 1918, Little Brown, Boston. • Marder, Arthur. The Anatomy of British Seapower. New York: Octagon Books, 1940. • Marder, Arthur. “The Influence of History on Sea Power: The Royal Navy and the Lessons of 1914-1918,”Pacific Historical Review. November, 1972.

•

See also

• National navies: • The British East India Company's Marine or Honourable East India Company's Marine, a colonial precursor of the Indian Navy that existed from 1612 to 1686 • Bombay Marine, a colonial precursor of the Indian Navy that existed from 1686 to 1830 and from 1863 to 1877 • Deutsche Marine, the German Navy • Her Majesty's Indian Marine, a colonial precursor of the Indian Navy that existed from 1877 to 1892 • Koninklijke Marine, the Royal Dutch Navy • Marine nationale, the French Navy

0.33. NUMBERED AIR FORCE • Royal Indian Marine, a colonial precursor of the Indian Navy that existed from 1892 to 1934 • Blue-water navy • List of naval battles

109

[12] http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ ALeqM5iIMxaTQ7lpX-Ow6grVziJ7ZKeNpQD9FVUPKG3 [13] http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102-09.htm

http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-1302.html * [1]

• List of navies • Number of warships in service worldwide • List of submarine classes in service • List of naval ship classes in service • List of auxiliary ship classes in service • Modern naval tactics • Naval fleet • Naval warfare

0.32.11 External links • Naval Technology - News, projects, images and white papers on the naval industry • NOSI (Naval Open Source Intelligence) - a library of world naval operational news • Navy at Scottish Military Heritage Centre [1] http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-1302.html

• Navies of landlocked countries • Marines

0.32.10

Notes and references

Notes [1] Found on the KN U 736, PY Na 568, PY Vn 865 and PY Xn 990 tablets.* [7]* [8]* [9] Cf. ναυπηγός.* [10]

References [1] Harper, Douglas.“navy”. Online Etymology Dictionary. [2] navigium. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.

0.33 Numbered Air Force A Numbered Air Force (NAF) is a type of organization in the United States Air Force that is subordinate to a Major Command (MAJCOM) and has assigned to it operational units such as wings, squadrons, and groups.* [1] A Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) has the additional role as an Air Force Component Command exercising command and control over air and space forces supporting a Unified Combatant Command.* [2] Unlike MAJCOMs, which have a management role, a NAF is a tactical organization with an operational focus, and does not have the same functional staff as a MAJCOM.* [2] Numbered air forces are typically commanded by a major general or a lieutenant general.

Numerical designations for Numbered Air Forces are written out (e.g., Eighth Air Force instead of 8th Air Force), but Arabic numerals are used in abbreviations [4] navalis. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin (e.g., 8 AF).* [1]* [3] Units directly subordinate to a NAF Dictionary on Perseus Project. are generally numbered 6XX (where XX is the NAF * [5] ναῦς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek– number). [1] For example, the 618th Air and Space Operations Center (Tanker Airlift Control Center) is a unit English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. subordinate to the Eighteenth Air Force. [3] navis. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.

[6] ναύτης in Liddell and Scott.

[7] “The Linear B word na-u-do-mo”. Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages. [8] Raymoure, K.A. “na-u-do-mo”. Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean.

0.33.1 History

Numbered air forces began as named organizations in the United States Army Air Corps before World War * [9] “KN 736 U (unknown)".“PY 568 Na (1)".“PY 865 Vn II. [4] The first four NAFs were established as the North+ fr. (Ci)".“PY 990 Xn (unknown)". DĀMOS: Database east, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest Air Districts of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. on 19 October 1940 to provide air defense for the United States.* [5] These Air Districts were redesignated as the [10] ναυπηγός. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Air Forces, respectively, on 26 [11] Weighing the US Navy Defense & Security Analysis, Vol- March 1941. The Arabic numerals were changed to ume 17, Issue December 3, 2001 , pages 259 - 265 the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Air Forces on 18

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CONTENTS inated. This reorganization also reduced the number of major commands, and eliminated the air divisions to place numbered air forces directly in command of operational wings.

World War II Air Districts and Numbered Air Forces.

September 1942. Other organizations established during this period and that became Numbered air forces include the Philippine Department Air Force (became Fifth Air Force), the Panama Canal Air Force (became Sixth Air Force), the Hawaiian Air Force (became Seventh Air Force), and the Alaskan Air Force (became Eleventh Air Force).* [6] After World War II, the US Air Force continued to use both named and numbered air forces. While named air forces were used in both tactical and support roles, numbered air forces were generally employed only in tactical roles.* [4] As part of a peacetime restructuring in March 1946, the United States Army Air Forces were reorganized into three major operating commands: the Strategic Air Command (SAC), the Tactical Air Command (TAC), and the Air Defense Command (ADC).* [7] These commands reflected the basic air combat missions that evolved during the war, and each reported directly to General Carl Spaatz, the Commanding General, Army Air Forces. Numbered air forces served as an intermediate headquarters between these commands and the operational wings and groups. Eleven of the sixteen wartime air forces remained. The Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces were assigned to SAC; the Third, Ninth, and Twelfth Air Forces were assigned to TAC; and the First, Second, Fourth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Fourteenth Air Forces were assigned to ADC. Second Air Force would later be transferred to SAC in 1949.* [8] The numbered air forces had both operational and administrative authority, and existed as a command level between major commands and air divisions. Although variations existed, and number air forces were often reassigned, this basic arrangement persisted throughout the Cold War.

The role of numbered air forces was again changed in 2006 with the implementation of the Component Air Force (C-NAF) concept.* [10] Some numbered air forces have an additional mission as the Air Force Component Command exercising command and control over air and space forces supporting a Unified Combatant Command.* [2] C-NAFs have a second designation to identify their role. For example, First Air Force, a numbered air force assigned to Air Combat Command, is designated as Air Force Northern (AFNORTH) in its role as the air component of the United States Northern Command.* [11] Most C-NAFs have an Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) to provide command and control of air and space operations for the supported combatant commander.

0.33.2 List of Numbered Air Forces The table below lists current and historical numbered air forces of the US Air Force, their C-NAF designation (if applicable), their current shield and station, and the major command (MAJCOM) to which they are currently assigned. Note that the lineage of some numbered air forces is continued by non-NAF organizations (e.g., the 15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force continues the lineage of the Fifteenth Air Force). Boldface indicates a NAF or C-NAF that is currently active.

0.33.3 Named Air Forces Named Air Forces operate at the same level as Numbered Air Forces. General Headquarters Air Force, the first named air force of the United States Army's air arm, began operations in 1935. The GHQ Air Force became the Air Force Combat Command in 1941. Several of the numbered air forces began as named air forces.* [14] Since World War II other named air forces have existed in both operational and support commands. Air Forces Iceland, and the Central, Eastern, Japan, and Western Air Defense Forces, have provided air defense capability. The USAF Special Operations Force controlled operational special forces. The Crew, Flying, and Technical Training Air Forces served Air Training Command both in the air and on the ground. Pacific Air Force/FEAF (Rear) controlled both operational and support forces of Far East Air Forces. Air Materiel Force, European Area, and Air Materiel Force, Pacific Area, on the other hand, served primarily as logistical support establishments.* [14]

The role of numbered air forces changed in the 1990s during the Air Force reorganization initiated by Air Force Chief of Staff General Merrill McPeak. The goal of the reorganization was to “streamline, take layers out, flatten (Air Force) organizational charts, while at the same time clarifying the roles and responsibilities of essential supporting functions.”* [9] Numbered air forces were reorganized into tactical echelons focused on oper- Currently, United States Air Forces Central provides airations, and their administrative staff functions were elim- power in support of the Global War on Terrorism.

0.34. OPERATIONAL LEVEL OF WAR

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Source:* [14]

During the 18th and early 19th centuries, a synonymous term of grand tactics was often applied to describe manoeuvring of troops not tactically engaged, while in the 0.33.4 See also late 19th century and beyond the First World War a term minor strategy was also in use,* [2] in fact into • Organizational structure and hierarchy of the United the Second World War by some military commentaStates Air Force tors.* [3] The confusion over terminology was brought up in professional military publications that sought to identify "...slightly different shades of meaning, such as minor 0.33.5 References tactics, tactics, major tactics, minor strategy, major strategy, and grand strategy”.* [4] [1] AFI 38–101, Air Force Organization. 16 March 2011.

[2] AFI 38-205, Manpower & Quality Readiness and Contingency Management. 18 June 2002. [3] AFH 33-337, The Tongue and Quill. 1 August 2004. [4] Ravenstein, Charles (1986). Organization and Lineage of the United States Air Force. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History.

Operational mobility, beginning as a concept during the period of mechanisation of armed forces, became a method of managing movement of forces by strategic commanders from the staging area to their Tactical Area of Responsibility.* [5]

0.34.1 History

[5] Schaffel, Kenneth (1991). The Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense, 1945– 1960. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History.

At first, the operational level of war was conceived by the military theorists to describe the movement and logistics [6] Air Force Historical Research Agency – Numbered Air necessary for the coordinated concentration of many units for an offensive. Operational warfare is considered Forces on a large enough scale that the tactical factors, such as [7] Nalty, Bernard (1997). Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A line-of-sight and the time of day, are not recognizable, History of the United States Air Force, Volume 1. Wash- but smaller than the strategic scale, where production, ington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program. politics, and diplomacy come into play. [8] Factsheets : Second Air Force (AETC) [9] [10] [11] [12]

[13]

[14]

Formations are of the operational level if they are able to conduct operational movement on their own, that is opMcPeak, Merrill (1995). Selected Works: 1990–1994. erating independently, and are of sufficient size to be diMaxwell AFB, Alabama: Air University Press. rectly handled or have a significant impact on the enemy's decision-making at the strategic level of the military camAFDD 2, Operations and Organization. 3 April 2007. paign or even the war. These methods of conducting opFactsheets : 1st AF Mission. Accessed 29 January 2011. erational mobility were pioneered by the German Army “Air Force Announces Decision On Location Of 24th during the First World War and collaboratively developed Air Force”. Aero-News Network. Retrieved 13 August with the Soviet Red Army in the late 1920s and 1930s by Mikhail Tukhachevsky who began to develop the concept 2009. between 1925 and 1929 as the basis of the Red Army's McCullough, Amy, “ISR Agency Becomes 25th Air new field manual for the conduct of war. It was signifiForce”, Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force cantly tested and improved during the World War II by Association, November 2014, Volume 97 No. 11, p. 22 the Wehrmacht during the initial phases of Operation Ravenstein, Charles A. (1996), The Organization and Lin- Barbarossa, and by the Red Army for much of the rest eage of the United States Air Force. United States Air of the war after the Battle for Moscow. Force Historical Research Center ISBN 0-912799-17-X

[15] United States Air Forces Central Factsheet

0.34 Operational level of war

What constitutes the operational level has changed with the size and function of armies. During the Second World War, an operational-level formation was typically a corps or army. Curiously, the term was not widely used in the United States or Britain before 1980–1981,* [6]* [7]* [8] when it became much discussed and started to enter military doctrines and officer combat training courses.* [9] In part, it was popularised by its use in computer games, such as The Operational Art of War.

In the field of military theory, the operational level of war (also called the operational art, as derived from Russian: оперативное искусство, or the operational warfare) represents the level of command that coordinates the minute details of tactics with the overarching With the increase in combat power of individual units goals of strategy.* [1] during the Cold War era, an operational-level formation

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CONTENTS

became a mechanised division, and in the post-Cold War, the combat power of relatively small formations is today as great as that wielded by larger formations in the past. A brigade of some 6,000 personnel has emerged among many militaries (notably the United States Army) as an operational-level formation, replacing the division.

• Military strategy • Military tactics • Naval strategy • Principles of War • Strategy

0.34.2

Role in battle

Operational mobility functions to implement the overall strategy of an armed force by giving direction to tactical forces and providing them with the support needed to reach their tactical objectives. Operational formations contain sufficient assets to perform most or all military roles, and the Operational Manoeuvre Group of the Soviet Army besides elements of the combat arms included logistic, medical, and often supporting air assets such as armed helicopters from the overall military force, and hence are fully capable of independent operation. The tactical forces of the lowest level of operational units perform actual engagement of the enemy and the commanders of these units are responsible for determining how best to perform this combat task. Tactical decisions such as where entrenchments will be placed on defense, and the formations that attacking units will move in are determined at this level.

0.34.4 Notes [1] p.24, Simpkin [2] p.218, Jablonsky [3] p.28, Whitman [4] p.3, Bundel [5] p.64, National Research Council Staff [6] Zabecki, David T.“The German 1918 Offensives: A Case Study in the Operational Level of War”. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9781134252251. [7] The Operational Level of War. DIANE Publishing. p. v. ISBN 9781428915749. [8] Luttwak, Edward (1985). “Strategy and History”. p. 175. ISBN 9780887380655. [9] p. 111, Stone

The lowest operational units define the immediate objec- 0.34.5 References tives of these tactical units within their zones of command coordinating the offensive and defensive actions of the • Bundel, C. M., Col. FA, “What is Strategy?", in units as well as planning and applying supporting artillery Infantry Journal, v.34, United States Infantry Assofire as needed to accomplish those actions. Higher level ciation, 1929 operational units such as divisions and corps will support • Glantz, D. M., Soviet military operational art: In the lower level operational units with logistics and medpursuit of deep battle, Frank Cass, London, 1989 ical supplies, and have more extensive artillery and air support assets at their disposal. • Jablonsky, David, Roots of Strategy: 4 Military Classics, Stackpole Books, 1999 These supporting fires are concentrated at the higher level in order that their striking power can be used where it is needed most. In addition, these forces may order lower level fire support to be applied at particularly important targets, through the technique known as Time on Target. Toward the end of the Cold War, the United States Army developed the doctrine known as AirLand Battle which formalized U.S. operational doctrine around the concept of mobile warfare. This doctrine sought to create a coherent and integrated practice of all aspects of operational warfare from logistics to maneuver and the use of artillery and air support.

0.34.3

See also

• Grand strategy • Maskirovka • Military doctrine

• National Research Council Staff, Reducing the Logistics Burden for the Army After Next: Doing More With Less, Committee to Perform a Technology Assessment Focused on Logistics Support Requirements for Future Army Combat Systems, National Research Council (U.S.), National Academies Press, 1999 • Simpkin, Richard E., Deep battle: The brainchild of Marshal Tuchachevskii, Brassey's Defence Publishers, London, 1987 • Simpkin, Richard E, Race to the Swift: Thoughts on Twenty-First Century Warfare, Brassey's, 2000 • Stone, John, The Tank Debate: Armour and the Anglo-American Military Tradition, Routledge, 2000 • Whitman, J. E. A., How Wars are Fought: The Principles of Strategy and Tactics, Oxford University Press, 1941

0.36. PATROL

113

0.35 Operational manoeuvre group The Operational manoeuvre group (OMG) was a Soviet Army organisational maneuver warfare concept created during the early 1950s to replace the Cavalry mechanized group which performed the deep operations on the Eastern Front during the Second World War. The deep operations theory developed in cooperation between the Red Army and Wehrmacht theorists in the 1930s later influenced the Blitzkrieg operations and echelon-based doctrine. In the Soviet Army doctrine the Operational Manoeuvre Groups would be inserted to exploit a breakthrough by a Front during a potential war against NATO in Europe. In the Soviet doctrine, after the motor-rifle units, heavily supported by artillery, helicopters and Close Air Support aircraft would have broken NATO front, the operational manoeuvre groups would be inserted to exploit the break- UN Peacekeepers in Eritrea. through using elements of, or whole tank armies.* [1] At the Front level an Operational Manoeuvre Group could include two tank divisions and three to five motor-rifle In military tactics, a patrol is a sub-subunit or small tactical formation, sent out from a military organizadivisions. tion by land, sea or air for the purpose of combat, To counter the OMG's threat, NATO deployed a large reconnaissance, or a combination of both. The basic task number of special forces units with the task of sabotag- of a patrol is to follow a known route at which sent to ing and attacking the Rear Services (Russian 'tyl') logisti- investigate some feature of interest, or to fighting pacal depots (in particular fuel) to slow the OMG advance, trols (US combat patrol), sent to find and engage the enpermitting NATO units to counter-attack the base of the emy. A patrol can also mean a small cavalry or armoured insertion sector as was the practice of German comman- unit, subordinate to a troop or platoon. A patrol usually ders during the Second World War. comprises a section or squad of mounted troopers, or two AFVs (often tanks).

0.35.1

Notes

[1] pp.139-186, Simpkin

0.36.2 Law enforcement

In non-military law enforcement, patrol officers are uniformed police officers assigned to monitor specified ge0.35.2 References ographic areas̶that is, to move through their areas at regular intervals looking out for any signs of problems • Simpkin, Richard E. Race to the Swift: Thoughts on of any kind. They are the officers most commonly enTwenty-First Century Warfare. Brassey's, 2000. countered by the public, as their duties include responding to calls for service, making arrests, resolving disputes, taking crime reports, and conducting traffic enforcement, 0.36 Patrol and other crime prevention measures. A patrol officer is often the first to arrive on the scene of any incident; For other uses, see Patrol (disambiguation). what such an officer does or fails to do at the scene can greatly influence the outcome of any subsequent investiA patrol is commonly a group of personnel, such as gation. The patrol officer, as the person who is in the field police officers or soldiers, that are assigned to monitor daily, is often closest to potential crime and may have developed contacts who can provide information. a specific geographic area. This is also often referred to as a beat.

0.36.1

Military

See also: Patrolling

The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment, a randomized control trial conducted by Temple University, has shown that foot patrols reduce crime.* [1] With the resources to patrol 60 locations, researchers identified the highest violent crime corners in the city, using data from 2006 to 2008. Police commanders designed 120 foot patrol areas around these corners, and stratified randomization was

114

CONTENTS An emerging trend within patrol is the supplement of basic police patrol with that of private security agencies. The privatization of police is explored in James Pastor's book The Privatization of Police in America: An Analysis and Case Study.* [2]

0.36.3 Etymology From French patrouiller from Old French patouiller (“to paddle, paw about, patrol”) from patte (“a paw”).* [3]

0.36.4 Non-law enforcement patrols Schools Some elementary schools use the term patrol to refer to students who are selected to monitor safety in the classroom or to those students who assist crossing guards with safety of children crossing busy streets. Another common term for this use of patrol is hall monitor. Scouting A patrol performed by United States Secret Service officers.

In Scouting, a patrol is six to eight Scouts (youth members) under the leadership of one of their number who is appointed Patrol Leader and supported by a Second or Assistant Patrol Leader. This is the basic unit of a Scout troop. The Patrol method is an essential characteristic of Scouting by which it differs from all other organizations, using the natural dynamics of the gang for an educational purpose.* [4]

0.36.5 References [1] Public Health Law Research

US Border Patrol agent monitoring the US-Canada border in Montana

[2] Pastor, James. The Privatization of Police in America: An Analysis and Case Study. McFarland & Company, 2003. [3] Harper, Douglas. “patrol (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 6 June 2012.

used to assign pairs of foot patrols with similar crime rates [4] Thurman, John (1950) The Patrol Leader's Handbook, as either a comparison or a target area. Officers generThe Boy Scouts Association, London (pp. 4-10) ally patrolled in pairs with two pairs assigned to each foot patrol. After three months, relative to the comparison 0.36.6 External links areas, violent crime decreased 23%. Official records of police activities during the intervention period reveal the following in the target areas: • Drug‐related incident detections increased 15% • Pedestrian stops increased 64% • Vehicle stops increased 7% • Arrests increased 13%

0.37 Platoon This article is about a type of military unit. For other uses, see Platoon (disambiguation). A platoon is a military unit typically composed of more than two squads/sections. Platoon organization varies depending on the country and the branch, but typically a platoon consists of around 15 to 30 soldiers.

0.37. PLATOON

115 Use as a firing unit The platoon was originally a firing unit rather than an organization. The system was said to have been invented by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1618.* [3] In the French Army in the 1670s, a battalion was divided into 18 platoons who were grouped into three “firings"; each platoon in the firing either actually firing or reloading.* [4] The system was also used in the British, Austrian, Russian and Dutch armies.* [5]

0.37.2 Modern usage

Standard NATO military map symbol for a friendly infantry platoon.

A platoon is often led by a lieutenant, and is the smallest military unit typically led by a commissioned officer.

On 1 October 1913, under a scheme by General Sir Ivor Maxse, the regular battalions of the British Army were reorganised from the previous eight companies to a four company structure, with each company having four platoons as separate units each commanded by a lieutenant with a platoon sergeant as his deputy. Each platoon was divided into four sections, each commanded by a corporal.* [6] Due to a shortage of officers, a non commissioned officer rank of Platoon Sergeant Major was introduced from 1938 to 1940 for experienced non-commissioned officers who were given command of platoons.

In some armies, platoon is used throughout the branches of the army. In others, such as the British Army and other Commonwealth armies, platoons are associated with the infantry. In a few armies, such as the French Army, a platoon is specifically a cavalry unit, and the infantry use “section”as the equivalent unit. Australian organization A unit of several platoons is often called a company.

0.37.1

Early usage

Etymology

In the Australian Army, an infantry platoon has 24 soldiers organized into three eight-man sections plus a lieutenant as platoon commander and a sergeant as platoon second in command, accompanied by a platoon radioman and medic (full strength of twenty-eight men). A section comprises eight soldiers led by a corporal with a lance corporal as second in command. Each section has two fireteams of four men, one led by the corporal and the other by the lance corporal. Each fireteam (also called a “brick”by Australian soldiers) has one soldier with a F89A1 light machine gun and the other three armed with F88 assault rifles. One rifle is equipped with an attached M203 grenade launcher for the grenadier's role, while another has a C79 optical sight for the designated marksman role. Though recently, the designated marksman of an Australian fireteam has been issued the HK417 in Afghanistan and possibly afterwards. The platoon may also have three MAG 58 general-purpose machine guns, one M2 Browning heavy machine gun or a Mk 19 grenade launcher at its disposal.

According to Merriam-Webster,“The term was first used in the 17th century to refer to a small body of musketeers who fired together in a volley alternately with another platoon.”* [1] The word came from the 17th-century French peloton, from pelote meaning a small ball. The suffix "on”can be an augmentative suffix in French, but on the other hand is generally a diminutive suffix in relationship to animals, so the original intention in forming peloton from pelote is not clear. Nonetheless it is documented* [2] that it took the meaning of a group of soldiers firing a volley together, while a different platoon reloaded. This implies an augmentative intention in the etymology. Since soldiers were often organised in two or three lines, which were supposed to fire volleys together, this would have normally meant platoons organised with the intention of British organization a half or a third of the company firing at once.

The modern French word peloton, when not meaning pla- In the British Army, a rifle platoon from an infantry toon, can refer to the main body of riders in a bicycle race company consists of three sections of eight men, plus a (as opposed to any riders ahead or behind the main body). signaller (radio operator), a platoon sergeant (a Sergeant), Pelote itself originally comes from the low Latin“pilotta” the platoon commander (either a second lieutenant or from Latin “pila”, meaning “ball”, and the French lieutenant) and a mortar man operating a light mortar (full suffix "-on”derives from the Latin suffix "-onus”. strength of 27 men and one officer). This may not be the

116 case for all British Infantry units, since the 51mm mortars are not part of the TOE post-Afghanistan.* [7] Under Army 2020, a platoon in the Heavy Protected Mobility Regiments will consist of around 30 soldiers in four Mastiff/FRES UV vehicles.* [8] Each section is commanded by a corporal, with a lance corporal as second-in-command and six Riflemen divided into two four-man fireteams. Support Weapons platoons (such as mortar or anti-tank platoons) are generally larger and are commanded by a captain with a Colour Sergeant or WO2 as 2ic. Some sections are seven man teams. An armoured “platoon”is known as a “Troop”. Bangladeshi organization

CONTENTS a warrant officer WO III or a lieutenant. An officer was referred to as“platoon commander”, while a WO III in the same position was called a“Platoon Sergeant Major” or PSM.* [9] Colombian organization Within the Colombian Army, a training platoon (in Spanish pelotón) is often commanded by a higher-ranking soldier known as a dragoneante, who is selected for his excellence in discipline and soldiering skills. However, a dragoneante is still a soldier and can be removed from his position if his commander sees fit. For combatant platoons (platoons engaged in combat with guerrilla rebels), a corporal or sergeant would be the most likely commander.

In the Bangladesh Army, infantry regiments have platoons commanded by a major or a captain, assisted by two to four lieutenants (or combination of lieutenants French organization and Junior Commissioned Officers) and at least two sergeants. The platoon strength is typically 30 to 50 sol- In the French military, a peloton is a unit of cavalry or diers. armor corresponding to the platoon, equivalent in size to These platoons are equipped with at least one heavy an infantry section, and commanded by a lieutenant or machine gun, rocket launcher or anti-tank gun, with sergeant. It may also mean a body of officers in training the crews of these weapons commanded by a corporal. to become noncommissioned officers, sous-officiers or ofIn addition, there are at least two light machine guns, ficers (peloton de caporal, peloton des sous-officiers). Fieach commanded by a lance corporal. Each soldier is nally,“peloton d'exécution”is the French term for a firing armed with an automatic or semi-automatic rifle and all squad. commissioned officers carry a side arm. Georgian organization Canadian organization In the Canadian Army, the infantry Platoon Commander is a Lieutenant or Second Lieutenant, assisted by a Platoon Warrant (who may hold the rank of Warrant Officer, but is often a Sergeant). It is usually divided into three eight man sections and a heavy weapons detachment which will deploy a GPMG, and a Carl Gustav, depending on mission requirements. Sections are commanded by a Sergeant or Master Corporal with a Master-Corporal or Corporal in the second in command, or 2IC, position; six of the eight soldiers in a section will carry C7 or C8 assault rifles fitted with either optics or a grenade launcher and two members will carry C9 LMG's. A section is broken into two assault groups of four men, with one LMG and three assault rifles, similar to the British and Australian organization. Three to five infantry platoons will make up a typical infantry company, sometimes with a heavy weapons or support platoon in addition. Specialist platoons, like reconnaissance, or “recce”, platoons, that may be attached to a battalion may be led by a Captain and assisted by a Warrant Officer. Some very large specialist platoons will actually have a Lieutenant as the second-in-command. In many corps, platoon-sized units are called troops instead.

The Georgian Armed Forces equivalent of the platoon is the so-called Ozeuli. Translated, it means“Group of 20”, but has no more connection whatsoever with the number. It has been transferred into modern usage from medieval army reforms of the Georgian king David the Builder. Originally, it was meant to be a small detachment of exactly 20 men to be led by a leader of corresponding rank. Almost all smaller formations are based on the designations of those reforms, which originally suggested tactical flexibility by keeping the size of small units in round numbers (10, 20, 100). Battalions and brigades were not affected by that system. It is unknown whether that usage was abandoned in 1820s or earlier, but in present days a Georgian platoon still called“Ozeuili”has a similar size to that of other armies. Normally for infantry it has 32 men, but can vary depending on the type of unit. German organization

The German Army equivalent of the platoon is the Zug (same word as for a train), consisting of a Zugtrupp “ ( platoon troop”or platoon headquarters squad), of four to six men, and three squads (Gruppen) of eight to eleven men each. An Oberfeldwebel (“Sergeant first class”) is in Prior to 1940, a platoon might be commanded by either charge of the Zugtrupp. The Zugtrupp provides support

0.37. PLATOON

117 APC driver and the APC gunner. Each squad and the platoon headquarters is equipped with an BTR-80 Armoured personnel carrier. In total, the platoon comprises 29 soldiers, of whom eight are vehicle crew. New Zealand organization

In the New Zealand Army, an Infantry Platoon is commanded by a 2nd Lieutenant or a Lieutenant, with a Platoon Sergeant, a Platoon Signaller and a medic (where relevant) comprising the Platoon Headquarters. The Platoon is sub-divided into three section of between 7-10 Platoon (“Zug”in German) of the German Bundeswehr soldiers, each commanded by a Corporal with a LanceCorporal as the Section 2iC. Each section can be subfor the platoon leader and acts as a reserve force (such as divided into two fire-teams, commanded by the Section Commander and 2iC respectively, as well as normal two two additional snipers or an anti-tank weapon crew). man Scout, Rifle and Gun Teams. Three Züge make up a Kompanie (“company”), with the first platoon usually commanded by a Kompanieof- There are three Platoons in a Rifle Company, which is fizier “ ( company-grade officer”), an Oberleutnant “ ( first commanded by a Major, and three Rifle Companies in an lieutenant”) or Leutnant (“second lieutenant”), who Infantry Battalion, which is commanded by a Lieutenantis also the Kompanie's second-in-command. The second Colonel. An Infantry Battalion will also contain an orand third Zug are led by experienced NCOs, usually a ganic Support Company (Mortars, Machine-Guns etc.) Hauptfeldwebel (“master sergeant”). In the first pla- and a Logistics Company (Transport and Stores). toon, the platoon leader's assistant is a Hauptfeldwebel; in the second and third platoons, the assistant is an OberSingapore organization feldwebel. Each squad is led by an Oberfeldwebel, and its size corresponds to the typical passenger capacity of In the Singapore Army, a platoon is a Lieutenant's bilits squad vehicle (either wheeled or armoured). Another let. However, in practice, a Second Lieutenant is usuof these vehicles is used for the Zugtrupp. Sergeants of ally appointed and then eventually promoted. A typical inferior rank act as assistant squad leaders in the other infantry platoon consists of three seven-man sections of squads. riflemen and a machine gun team, both commanded by A Fallschirmjägerzug (“airborne infantry platoon”) has Third Sergeants, a platoon sergeant and a platoon medic special operations responsibilities, and has command po- for a total of 27 soldiers. Beginning in 1992, the Sinsitions one rank higher than corresponding positions in gapore Armed Forces has allowed warrant officers to be a standard infantry platoon. A captain (Hauptmann) is appointed as platoon commanders. the platoon leader, assisted by a first lieutenant and each squad has a second lieutenant or a master sergeant in charge, often supported by a long-service sergeant or Thai organization skilled senior corporal. In the Royal Thai Army, a platoon is commanded by either a Lieutenant or Second Lieutenant, assisted by a Platoon Sergeant, usually of the rank of sergeant major. In Hungarian organization infantry units, rifle platoons are generally made up of five In the Hungarian Armed Forces, a Rifle Platoon is com- squads (three rifle squads, one machine gun squad and manded by either a 2nd Lieutenant or a 1st Lieutenant, command squad). with a Platoon Sergeant (with the rank of Sergeant Major), a Platoon Signaller, an APC driver and an APC gunner comprising the Platoon Headquarters. There is also United States organization in the HQ's TO&E a designated marksman rifle - either United States Army an SVD or a Szép sniper rifle. The Platoon is sub-divided into three squads, each with eight soldiers. Each squad is commanded by a Sergeant. His/her deputy has an RPG, there are also two soldiers with PKM machine guns, two with AK-63 assault rifles - one is an RPG grenadier, the other is the Medic - the

Historical Background From the the 1700s up until the late 1800s, an infantry platoon in US use was a “half company”commanded by a lieutenant, assisted by two sergeants and two corporals (later increased to three

118 sergeants, to include a platoon sergeant, and four corporals). The sergeants, assisted by the corporals, led the two sections (half-platoons) of the platoon. Depending on the time period, the platoon could include from as few as 28 privates to as many as 44, with 14 to 22 privates per section. The corporals, and the sergeant, prior to the increase to two corporals per section, led the two squads of the section. The squads were primarily a non-tactical, sub-unit used mainly for drill (marching practice, formations, ceremonies, etc.) and“house-keeping”matters, such as interior guard duty, billeting, messing, fatigue details (i.e., working parties), etc. Indeed, the sections, as well as the platoons, were primarily administrative sub-units of the company, since tactically the company seldom employed in other than as a massed formation. The standard procedure, once the company had marched into its position in the line of battle, was for the company to form facing the enemy as two ranks, by platoon, one behind the other. The commanding officer (a captain), and the one to three lieutenants, serving as platoon leaders and the executive officer (again depending on the time period) would direct the fighting, leading from the front in the attack and on the flanks in the defense (the executive officer and the first sergeant were normally positioned behind the battle line so as to assist the company commander in overseeing the company and managing the rear (company trains, casualties, enemy prisoners, non-combatants, deserters, etc). The sergeants acted as “file closers”, working the line by putting men forward to replace casualties in the front rank, encouraging men to fire, reload, move forward, etc. and, if need be, physically assisting or restraining men who refused to move forward or attempted to flee. The corporals, physically led by example (much like modern fire team leaders) by taking their place in the line with their privates and fighting alongside them. Cavalry platoons had a similar organization to the infantry, but with fewer men; platoons rarely exceeded around 33 men, including the lieutenant, sergeants and corporals. Field artillery platoons, led by a lieutenant (who rode his own horse), with two or three to a battery, normally consisted of two gun sections. Each gun section was led by a sergeant (who also rode his own horse) and consisted of two half sections led by a corporal. One half section contained the gun and its implements, its limber (including one ammunition chest) and four to six horses (depending on gun weight and available horses), and several members of the gun crew. The corporal and one or two privates rode on the horses pulling the limber, while a couple of privates rode on the ammunition chest lid seat. The other half section consisted of the caisson (which carried two ammunition chests, tools, spare parts, baggage, and a spare wheel) with its limber (again with one ammunition chest), pulled by four to six horses, and two spare horses (when available) tethered to the rear of the caisson, and the remainder of the gun crew with the corporal and privates riding the horses or sitting on the several ammunition chests lid seats as described above. In total, the field artillery platoon (at full strength of men, horses, and

CONTENTS equipment) consisted of a lieutenant, two sergeants, four corporals, 24 privates, 31 horses, four limbers, two caissons, two field guns, two spare wheels, plus ammunition, implements, tools, spare parts, and baggage. Modern Use In the United States Army,* [10] Rifle Platoons are normally composed of 42 soldiers. They are led by a Platoon Leader (PL), usually a second lieutenant (2LT), and with a Platoon Sergeant (PSG), usually a Sergeant First Class (SFC, E-7). Rifle Platoons consist of three nine-man Rifle squads and one nine-man Weapons squad, each led by a Staff Sergeant (E-6). The Platoon Headquarters includes the PL, PSG, the PL's Radio-Telephone Operator (RTO), Platoon Forward Observer (FO), the FO's RTO and the Platoon Medic.

Platoon of the U.S. Marine Corps

United States Marine Corps In the United States Marine Corps, rifle platoons nominally (per TO) consist of 43 Marines and are led by a platoon commander, usually a second lieutenant (O-1), assisted by a platoon sergeant, a staff sergeant (E-6). The platoon headquarters also includes a platoon guide, a sergeant (E-5), who serves as the assistant platoon sergeant and a messenger (Pvt or PFC). Rifle platoons consist of three rifle squads of 13 men each, led by a sergeant (E-5). In the attack (especially if part of the assault echelon) or in a deliberate defense, rifle platoons are usually augmented with a two-man mortar forward observer team and are often reinforced with a seven-man machinegun squad and/or a four-man assault weapons squad. A weapons platoon will usually have a first lieutenant (O-2) and a gunnery sergeant (E-7) due to the generally larger number of Marines (up to 69 in the 81mm mortar platoon) in these platoons (the heavy machinegun platoon being the exception with only 28 members) and the more complex weapon systems employed. A rifle company weapons platoon has a 60mm mortar section of 13 Marines with three M224 LWCMS 60mm mortar squads, an assault section of 13 Marines and six SMAW rocket launchers divided into three squads of two teams each,

0.37. PLATOON and a medium machine gun section of 22 Marines and six M240G general-purpose machine guns divided into three squads of two teams each. The infantry battalion weapons company consists of three heavy weapons platoons: 81mm mortar, heavy machinegun (.50cal HMG and 40mm AGL), and antiarmor (Javelin missile and Antitank TOW missile). Each of these three platoons is divided into sections. Three sections of two squads each in the heavy machinegun platoon, two sections of four squads each in the 81mm mortar platoon, one section of two squads with four teams each in the Javelin missile section, and one section of four squads with two teams each in the antitank TOW missile section. Marine rifle or weapons platoons would also have from one to four Navy hospital corpsmen assigned along with the Marines.

119 of three 9-man rifle squads mounted in three vehicles. In both BMP and BTR squads, the driver and vehicle gunner stayed with the vehicle when the rest of the squad dismounted, and one squad in the platoon would have one of their rifleman armed with an SVD sniper rifle. There was either one empty seat in each BTR or two empty seats in each BMP to accommodate the platoon leader and assistant platoon leader.* [11]

Tank platoons prior to the late 1980s consisted of a platoon headquarters squad and three tank squads, each consisting of one T-64, T-72 or T-80 tank for 12 personnel and 4 tanks total; platoons that used the older T-54, T55 or T-62s added another crewmember for a total of 16. However, tank units operating in Eastern Europe began to standardize their platoons to just two tank squads, for Platoons are also used in reconnaissance, light armored a total of 3 tanks and 9 personnel.* [12]* [13] reconnaissance (scout dismounts), combat engineer, law enforcement (i.e., military police), Marine Security Force Regiment (MSFR), and Fleet Antiterrorism Secu- 0.37.3 See also rity Team (FAST) companies. • Military organization In armored vehicle units, platoons consist of sections con• Platoon (film) taining two or three vehicles and their crews: • tank and light armored reconnaissance platoons con0.37.4 References sist of two sections, each containing two tanks/light armored vehicles and crews [1] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/platoon • assault amphibian vehicle (AAV) platoons consist of four sections, each containing three AAVs and crews

[2] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/platoon

• combat engineer assault breacher sections consist of two CEV assault breacher vehicles and crews

[3] p.250 Curtis, Thomas The London Encyclopaedia: Or, Universal Dictionary of Science, Art, Literature, and Practical Mechanics... Volume 9 T. Tegg, 1829

In low altitude air defense (LAAD) batteries, the firing platoons consist of three sections, each consisting of a section leader and five two-man Stinger missile teams. In artillery batteries, the firing platoon consists of six artillery sections, each contaning one gun with its crew and prime mover (i.e., a truck to tow the artillery piece and transport the gun crew and baggage). United States Air Force The United States Air Force has a similarly sized and configured unit called a flight. A Flight usually ranges from a dozen people to over a hundred, or typically four aircraft. The typical flight commander is a Captain. The typical flight chief is a Master Sergeant. Letter designations can be used, such as Alpha Flight, Bravo Flight, etc.

[4] p.486 Lynn, John A. Giant of the Grand Siècle: The French Army, 1610-1715 Cambridge University Press, 14/12/2006 [5] p.404 Nimwegen, Olaf Van The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588-1688 Boydell & Brewer, 21/10/2010 [6] p.25 Gudmundsson, Bruce The British Expeditionary Force 1914-15 Osprey Publishing, 10/12/2005 [7] http://www.janes.com/article/29502/ british-army-infantry-to-revert-to-81-mm-mortar [8] http://www.scribd.com/doc/229240244/ UK-Army-Combat-Capability-for-the-Future [9] “Table of Ranks and Responsibilities”. Canadian Soldiers. Retrieved August 9, 2012. [10] US Army Table of Organization

USSR organization

[11] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4-3

A motorised rifle platoon in the Soviet Armed Forces [12] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organiwas mounted in either BTR armoured personnel carriers zation and Equipment, Paragraph 4-15 or BMP infantry fighting vehicles, with the former being more numerous into the late 1980s. Both were led by a [13] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-108 platoon leader and assistant platoon leader and consisted

120

CONTENTS

0.37.5

External links

• "Platoon". 1911.

0.38.1 Historical origin

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).

0.38 Regiment This article is about regiments in military ground forces. For regiments in air forces, see Aviation Regiment (disambiguation).

Standard NATO symbol for a regiment of several battalions, indicated by the III. The shape, colour and pattern indicate friendly infantry.

A regiment is a title used by some military units. The size of a regiment varies markedly, depending on the country and the arm of service. Originally the term “regiment”simply denoted a large body of men under a single leader.* [1] Historically, in the 17th century, a full-strength regiment was hypothetically a thousand men commanded by a colonel. Today, there is no set size for a unit calling itself a “regiment”, which may be:

The French term régiment entered military usage in Europe at the end of the 16th century, when armies evolved from collections of retinues who followed knights, to formally organised, permanent military forces. At that time, regiments were usually named after their commanding colonels, and disbanded at the end of the campaign or war; the colonel and his regiment might recruit from and serve several monarchs or countries. Later, it was customary to name the regiment by its precedence in the line of battle, and to recruit from specific places, called cantons. The oldest regiments which still exist, and their dates of establishment, include the Spanish 9th Light Infantry Regiment “Soria” (originally the Tercio de Nápoles)* [2] (1505), Swedish Life Guards (1521), the British Honourable Artillery Company (1537) and the King's Own Immemorial Regiment of Spain, first established in 1248 during the conquest of Seville by King Ferdinand the Saint.* [3] In the 17th century, brigades were formed as units combining infantry, cavalry, and artillery that were more effective than the older, single-arms regiments; in many armies, brigades replaced regiments. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, each under the command of a colonel. When at full strength an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each. In some armies an independent regiment with a smaller amount of companies was labelled a demiregiment.* [4] A cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity.* [5] On campaign, these numbers were soon reduced by casualties and detachments and it was sometimes necessary to amalgamate regiments or to withdraw them to a depot while recruits were obtained and trained.

• Less than a battalion-equivalent, e.g. Household With the widespread adoption of conscription in EuroCavalry Mounted Regiment pean armies during the nineteenth century, the regimen• A battalion-equivalent, e.g. 3rd Foreign Infantry tal system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, an infantry regiment in the French, German, Russian, Regiment and other smaller armies would comprise four battalions, • A number of battalions, e.g. Royal Regiment of each with a full strength on mobilization of about 1,000 Scotland, 2nd Infantry Regiment (United States) men. As far as possible, the separate battalions would be • An entire arm of service; in several Commonwealth garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regicountries, the entire artillery arm is often titled“reg- ment could be mobilized and campaign as a 4,000 strong iment”(e.g. the Regiment of Artillery), and may linked group of sub-units. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up a single entity of up to 1,000 troopers. A notable then be sub-divided into “field regiments”. exception to this practice was the British line infantry sys• Several battalions grouped together with or without tem where the two regular battalions constituting a regicombat support and/or combat service support units ment alternated between“home”and“foreign”service similar to a brigade and seldom came together as a single unit.

0.38. REGIMENT

121 For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions (e.g. infantry or artillery) of different origins (e.g. regular or reserve).

The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers on parade in England

0.38.2

Regimental system

In the regimental system, each regiment is responsible for recruiting, training, and administration; each regiment is permanently maintained and therefore the regiment will develop its unique esprit de corps because of its unitary history, traditions, recruitment, and function. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administrating all of a soldier's military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both. This is often contrasted to the “continental system” adopted by many armies. In the continental system, the division is the functional army unit, and its commander is the administrator of every aspect of the formation: his staff train and administer the soldiers, officers, and commanders of the division's subordinate units. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations: thus, in divisional administration, a battalion commanding officer is just another officer in a chain of command. Soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required.

Within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty. In addition to combat units, other organizations are very much part of the regimental family: regimental training schools, serving members on“extra-regimental employment”, regimental associations (retirees), bands and associated cadet groups. The aspects that an administrative regiment might have in common include a symbolic colonel-in-chief (often a member of the royal family), a colonel of the regiment or "honorary colonel" who protects the traditions and interests of the regimental family and insists on the maintenance of high standards, battle honours (honours earned by one unit of an administrative regiment are credited to the regiment), ceremonial uniforms, cap badges, peculiarities of insignia, stable belts, and regimental marches and songs. The regiment usually has a traditional“home station”or Regimental depot, which is often a historic garrison that houses the regimental museum and regimental headquarters. The latter has a modest staff to support regimental committees and administer both the regular members and the association(s) of retired members. Advantages and disadvantages

The regimental system is generally admired for the esprit de corps it engenders in its units' members, but efforts to implement it in countries with a previously-existing continental system usually do not succeed. The system presents difficulties for military planners, who must deal with the problems of trying to keep soldiers of a regiment together throughout their careers and of administering separate garrisons, training and mess facilities. The regimental community of serving and retired members often makes it very difficult for planners to restructure Some regiments recruited from specific geographical arforces by moving, merging or re-purposing units. eas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit In those armies where the continental system exists, the from a given age group within a nation (e.g. Zulu Impis), regimental system is criticised as parochial and as creatan ethnic group (e.g. the Gurkhas), or foreigners (e.g. the ing unnecessary rivalry between different regiments. The French Foreign Legion). In other cases, new regiments question is also raised as to whether it is healthy to dewere raised for new functions within an army; e.g. the velop soldiers more loyal to their regiment than to the milFusiliers, the Parachute Regiment (British Army), and itary in general. Regiments recruited from areas of political ferment (such as Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Quebec, the U.S. Army 75th Ranger Regiment. India, etc.), tend to perform particularly well because of Disadvantages of the regimental system are hazardous the loyalty their members exhibit to the regiments. Genregimental competition, a lack of interchangeability be- erally, the regimental system is found to function best tween units of different regiments, and more pronounced in countries with small-to medium-sized military forces "old boy networks" within the military that may hamper where the problems of administering vast numbers of efficiency and fairness. personnel are not as prevalent. The regimental system A key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment works particularly well in an environment in which the or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. prime role of the army consists of small-scale police acThis flows historically from the colonial period, when bat- tions and counterinsurgency operations, requiring protalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous, longed deployment away from home. In such a situation, but is easily adapted to a number of different purposes. co-ordination between regiments is rarely necessary, and

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the esprit de corps of the regiment provides an emotional substitute for the sense of public approval that an army receives at home. This is particularly relevant to British experience during the days of the empire, where the army was virtually continuously engaged in low-intensity conflict with insurgents, and full-scale warfare was the exception rather than the rule. A regimental system can also foster close links between the regiment and the community from which it is recruited. This sense of community 'ownership' over local regiments can be seen in the public outcry over recent regimental amalgamations in the United Kingdom. On the other hand, recruitment from a single community can lead to a concentrated and potentially devastating local impact if the regiment takes heavy casualties.

imately 600 soldiers, in addition to one or more reserve battalions. Canadian battalions are employed tactically and administratively within mechanized brigade groups for regular units, or light brigade groups for reserve units. In Australia, there is but one administrative infantry regiment in the regular army: the Royal Australian Regiment, consisting of all seven regular infantry battalions in the Army, including mechanized, motorized, light, and parachute infantry. The Australian Army Reserve also has state-based infantry regiments which administer the reserve infantry battalions.

In Pakistan, the word regiment is an administrative grouping. While individual battalions may have different roles (for example different battalions of the Frontier Force Regiment may be mechanized infantry, paratroop Further, the regimental system offers the advantage of infantry, or mountain troops), the regiment is considered grouping like units together for centralized administra- to encompass all of them. tive, training, and logistical purposes, thereby creating an “economies of scale”effect and its ensuing increased efBritish Army ficiency. An illustrative example of this is the modular integration employed by the United States Marine Corps, which can take elements from its regimentally grouped forces and specifically tailor combined arms task forces for a particular mission or the deployed Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU). This is achievable partially because of the Marines mission adaptability, flexibility, philosophy, shared culture, history and overall esprit de corps, which allows for near seamless interoperability.* [6]

0.38.3

See also: List of British Army regiments (1881), List of British Army regiments (1962), List of British Army Regiments (1994) and List of British Army Regiments (2008) The modern British regimental system came about as a

Commonwealth armies

In the British Army and armies modeled on it (such as the Australian, the New Zealand, the Canadian, the Indian and the Pakistani), the term regiment is used confusingly in two different ways: it can mean an administrative identity and grouping, or a tactical unit. In the former Dominion of Newfoundland, “Regiment”was used to describe the entirety of the fighting armed forces, such as the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. In the Commonwealth countries listed above, the large administrative regiment has been the normal practice for many years. In the case of India, “large regiments” of four to five battalions date from 1923 and, since the 1950s, many of these have expanded even further. As an example, the Punjab Regiment has expanded from four battalions in 1956 to its present strength of 20, while, in Pakistan, several regiments have over 50 battalions. In Canada, the regiment is a formation of one or more units; existing almost exclusively for reasons of heritage, the continuance of battle honors and esprit de corps. Most Canadian infantry regiments are reserve units composed entirely of one under-strength battalion of between 100250 soldiers. The three regular force infantry regiments each consist of three regular force battalions of approx-

Regimental badge of the Scots Guards.

result of the 19th century Cardwell Reforms. In the British Army, for most purposes, the regiment is the largest“permanent”organisational unit. Above regimental level, organisation is changed to meet the tasks at hand. Because of their permanent nature, many regiments have long histories, often going back for centuries: the oldest British regiment still in existence is the Honourable Artillery Company, established in 1537. The Royal Scots, formed in 1633, was the oldest infantry regiment. It now forms part of the Royal Regiment of Scot-

0.38. REGIMENT

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land.* [7]

Canadian Artillery. In Britain, the Royal Regiment of In the United Kingdom, there existed until recently a Artillery works in the same way. number of administrative“divisions”in the infantry that encompassed several regiments, such as the Guards Di- Infantry vision, the former Scottish Division (now a single regiment), or the Light Division (now also compressed into a Administrative infantry regiments are composed of one multi-battalion single regiment). The reduction and con- or more battalions. When a regiment has only one battalsolidation of British infantry regiments that began in the ion, the battalion may have exactly the same name as the late 1950s and concluded in 2006 has resulted in a system regiment. For example, The North Saskatchewan Regiof administrative regiments each with several battalions, ment is the only battalion in the administrative regiment a band, a common badge and uniform etc. of the same name. When there is more than one battalIn the British regimental system, the tactical regiment or ion, they are distinguished by numbers, subsidiary titles or battalion is the basic functional unit and its command- both. In Britain, every infantry battalion bears a number, ing officer more autonomous than in continental systems. even if it is the only remaining battalion in the regiment Divisional and brigade commanders generally do not im- (in that case it is the 1st Battalion, with the exception of merse themselves in the day-to-day functioning of a bat- The Irish Regiment of Canada, which has a 2nd Battalion talion – they can replace the commanding officer but will only). Until after the Second World War, every regiment not micro-manage the unit. The regimental sergeant ma- had at least two battalions. Traditionally, the regular batjor is another key figure, responsible to the CO for unit talions were the 1st and 2nd Battalions, the militia (later Special Reserve) battalion was the 3rd Battalion, and the discipline and the behaviour of the NCOs. Army Reserve battalions were the 4th Battalion, the 5th It should however be noted that amalgamations beginning Battalion and up. A few regiments had up to four regular in the late 1950s and ending in 2006 have diluted the battalions and more than one militia battalion, which disBritish regimental system through the now almost univer- rupted the numbering, but this was rare. For this reason, sal adoption of“large regiments”for the infantry of the although the regular battalion today (if there is only one) Army. As of 2014, only thirteen line infantry regiments will always be the 1st Battalion, the TA battalions may survive, each comprising up to six of the former battalions have non-consecutive numbers. that previously had separate regimental status. Only the five Guards regiments retain their historic separate iden- In practice, it is impossible to exercise all the administrative functions of a true regiment when the regiment tities. consists of a single unit. Soldiers, and particularly officers, cannot spend a full career in one battalion. Thus in Armour the Armoured Corps, the traditional administrative“regiment”tends to play more of a ceremonial role, while in Armoured regiments in Canada since the end of the practice, its members are administered by their corps or Second World War have usually consisted of a single tac- “branch”as in the Artillery. Thus soldiers and officers tical regiment. During the 1960s, three Canadian reg- can serve in many different “regiments”, changing hat iments had both regular and militia components, which badges without too much concern during their career. Inwere disbanded shortly after unification in 1968. Cur- deed, in the artillery, all regiments wear the same badge. rently, one regiment is organised with two tactical regiments, 12* e Régiment blindé du Canada and 12* e Régiment blindé du Canada (Milice) are both part of the ad- Corps ministrative regiment 12* e Régiment blindé du Canada. The only administrative armoured regiment of the British The British Army also has battalion-sized tactical regiArmy that consists of more than one tactical regiment is ments of the Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, the Royal Tank Regiment, which currently has two (1 and Army Air Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, and Royal Mili2 RTR), and once had many more. These two tactical reg- tary Police. iments will soon be amalgamated into a single regiment.

0.38.4 United States Army Artillery All of a nation's artillery units are considered part of a single administrative regiment, but there are typically several tactical artillery regiments. They are designated by numbers, names or both. For example, the tactical regiments 1st Regiment, Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, 7th Toronto Regiment, RCA and many others are part of the single administrative regiment The Royal Regiment of

See also: Category:Infantry divisions of the United States Army The United States Army was also once organized into regiments, but in the 20th century the division became the tactical and administrative unit. Industrial management techniques were used to draft, assemble, equip, train and then employ huge masses of conscripted civilians in very short order, starting with minimal resources.

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CONTENTS 1st Marine Regiment. Marine regiments are commanded by colonels and are usually composed of three to five battalions. The United States Marine Corps deploys battalions from its regiments in Marine Expeditionary Units or MEUs. However, a USMC regiment may deploy en masse as the ground combat element of a Marine Expeditionary Brigade or MEB. When attached to the MEB the regiment is reinforced and redesignated a Regimental Combat Team (RCT) or a Regimental Landing Team (RLT).

The Puerto Rican 65th Infantry Regiment's bayonet charge against a Chinese division during the Korean War.

Historically, a regiment consisted of four, later three battalions and the regiment headquarters (HQ) company. Training, administration and even tactical employment was centered at divisional level. Many, but not all combat support and logistics was also concentrated at that level. A new system, the Combat Arms Regimental System, or CARS, was adopted in 1957 to replace the old regimental system. CARS uses the Army's traditional regiments as parent organizations for historical purposes, but the primary building blocks are divisions, brigades, and battalions. Each battalion carries an association with a parent regiment, even though the regimental organization no longer exists. In some brigades several numbered battalions carrying the same regimental association may still serve together, and tend to consider themselves part of the traditional regiment when in fact they are independent battalions serving a brigade, rather than a regimental, headquarters. The CARS was replaced by the United States Army Regimental System (USARS) in 1981. There are exceptions to USARS regimental titles, including the Armored Cavalry Regiments (now defunct) and the 75th Ranger Regiment created in 1986. On 1 October 2005, the word “regiment”was formally appended to the name of all active and inactive CARS and USARS regiments. So, for example, the 1st Cavalry officially became titled the 1st Cavalry Regiment.

0.38.5

United States Marine Corps

See also: List of United States Marine Corps regiments The Marine Corps is divided into numbered regiments. Regardless of their purpose, marine regiments are always referred to generically as “Marines”or “Marine Regiments”– never as“Marine Rifle Regiment”or“Marine Artillery Regiment.”For example, a marine would consider himself to be a member of the 12th Marines or the

0.38.6 Russian Army The regiments (Russian: полк)* [8] of the Russian Army, and armed forces influenced by Russia consist of battalions (Russian: батальон), in the infantry or tank troops, divisions (Russian: дивизион) in the artillery troops, and squadrons (Russian: эскадрилья) in aviation troops. Land forces regiments also include support units – companies (Russian: рота) and/or platoons (Russian: взвод).

0.38.7 Soviet Armed Forces Motorised Rifle Regiment The Motorised Rifle Regiment was one of the basic tactical units within the Soviet Armed Forces, totaling around 2,500 officers and other ranks. While normally operating as part of a Motorised Rifle Division or Tank Division, it was capable of short-term independent operations. By the late 1980s, it consisted of a regimental headquarters in command of three Motorised Rifle Battalions, each numbering around five hundred personnel and equipped with either BMP infantry fighting vehicles or BTR armoured personnel carriers, and one Tank Battalion, typically consisting of thirty-one T-64, T-72 or T-80 tanks, although older models were present in units outside the European Theater of Operations. These were supported by a battalion of eighteen 122mm artillery pieces, either the self-propelled 2S1 Gvozdika in BMP regiments or towed D-30 howitzers in BTR regiments, though some BTR regiments also used the 2S1, with additional fire support from the organic mortar battery in each infantry battalion. Additional combat support came in the form of an air defence missile and artillery company with four SA-9 or SA-13s and four ZSU-23-4 or 2S6 Tunguskas, an antitank missile battery with nine BRDM-mounted AT-3 Sagger or AT-5 Spandrel launchers, a reconnaissance company mounted on BMPs, BRDMs and motorbikes and an engineer company. Other non-combat formations included a signals company, chemical protection platoon, material support company, maintenance company, and regimental medical point.* [9]

0.38. REGIMENT Tank Regiment The Tank Regiment was found in both Motorised Rifle Divisions and Tank Divisions, with slight organisational differences depending between the two. By the late 1980s, Tank Regiments operating as part of Motorised Rifle Divisions contained slightly over 1,100 officers and other ranks while those operating within Tank Divisions contained over 1,600. A regimental headquarters oversaw command of three Tank Battalions of thirtyone tanks each, typically T-64, T-72, or T-80 tanks although some units used older models, and an artillery battalion of eighteen 2S1 Gvozdika self-propelled howitzers, with some using the older towed D-30 howitzer. Tank Regiments operating as part of a Tank Division included a fifth combat battalion of motorised infantry, identical to those in BMP-equipped Motorised Rifle Regiments. Combat support and combat service support subunits were the same as in Motorised Rifle Regiments with the exception of the antitank missile battery.* [10]* [11] Artillery Regiment

125 tenance company and chemical protection platoon.* [13] Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment Antiaircraft artillery (AAA) regiments in the late 1980s took the place of SAM regiments in divisions which were assigned to rear areas. These were equipped with twenty-four S-60 57mm Anti Aircraft Guns organised into four firing batteries. Each firing battery along with the regimental headquarters were also equipped with three MANPADs, either the SA-7 Grail, SA-14 Gremlin or SA-16 Gimlet. Additional subunits include a command and control battery and service battery.* [14]

0.38.8 Irish Army The Irish Army field artillery units are called regiments. They are divided into batteries and together the regiments form the Artillery Corps. Air Defence units are organised as a single regiment with individual batteries stationed around the country.

The Artillery Regiment was used to provide fire support, but differed depending on whether it was part of a 0.38.9 See also Motorised Rifle Division or Tank Division. The artillery • Demi-brigade regiment of an MRD consisted of three battalions of eighteen 2S3 Akatsiyas each and a battalion of eighteen BM• Military organization 21 Grads, numbering just under 1,300 personnel total, while a TD artillery regiment had one less battalion of • Regimental combat team 2S3s and a little over one thousand personnel total. This was the standard model by the late 1980s, however not all • Regimental depot artillery regiments had yet to conformed to it and one or • Regimental police more of the battalions might have used older weapon systems like the D-30 howitzer. Each regiment was led by a command control battery and included an artillery reconnaissance battery, motor transport company, mainte- 0.38.10 References nance company, regimental medical point, chemical pro[1] Page39, Vol XXIII, Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Editection platoon and supply and service platoon.* [12] tion

SAM Regiment The SAM regiment was an important part of a Motorised Rifle Division or Tank Division's effort to envelop the battlefield in an extensive air defence network. Numbering a little over five hundred personnel total, the SAM regiment consisted of a regimental headquarters in charge of twenty SA-6 Gainfuls organised into five missile firing batteries; most were SA-6a platforms although since 1979 a limited number of SA-6bs were also deployed and some regiments used the SA-8 Gecko as an alternative. Each missile battery, along with the regimental headquarter and missile technical battery, were also equipped with three MANPADs, either the SA-7 Grail, SA-14 Gremlin or SA-16 Gimlet. Besides the missile technical battery, other support subunits included an artillery reconnaissance battery, motor transport company, main-

[2] VILLATORO, MANUEL P. (23 July 2014). “El regiment más antiguo de Europa empezó siendo un tercio español y combatió contra Napoleón">El regiment más antiguo de Europa empezó siendo un tercio español y combatió contra Napoleón”. abc. Retrieved 24 July 2014. [3] Historia del Regimiento Inmemorial del Rey n* o 1 http://www.ejercito.mde.es/unidades/Madrid/rinf1/ Historial/index.html [4] p. 72 Westcote, Thomas A View of Devonshire in MDCXXX: With a Pedigree of Most of Its Gentry W. Roberts, 1845 - Devon (England) [5] Christopher Duffy, pages 110 & 121 The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, ISBN 1-85326-690-6 [6] Flynn, G.J. (June 2010). “Lt. General” (PDF). Marine Corps Operating Concepts (Third Edition): 24. Retrieved May 4, 2013.

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[7] These claims are contested on various points of precedence; see FAQ: Regiments, in general and especially: FAQ: Oldest Regiment in the British Army [8] the word had common etymology with the Scandinavian fólk that in the ancient times meant something akin to a gathering of armed people [9] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-3 [10] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organisation and Equipment, 4-46

CONTENTS geography is concerned, the regions and subregions are described by the discipline of ethnography. A region has its own nature that could not be moved. The first nature is its natural environment (landform, climate, etc.). The second nature is its physical elements complex that were built by people in the past. The third nature is its socio-cultural context that could not be replaced by new immigrants.

0.39.1 Globalization

[11] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organisation and Equipment, 4-109 [12] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4-50 [13] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organisation and Equipment, 4-62 [14] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organisation and Equipment, 4-104

0.39 Region For other uses, see Region (disambiguation).

Map of the Earth

Global regions distinguishable from space, and are therefore clearly distinguished by the two basic terrestrial environments, land and water. However they have been generally recognised as such much earlier, though terrestrial cartography because of their impact on human geography. They are divided into largest of land regions, known as continents, and the largest of water regions known as oceans. There are also significant regions that do not belong to either of these classifications, such as archipelago regions that are littoral regions, or earthquake regions that are defined in geology.

In geography, regions are areas broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human-impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their imprecisely defined, and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national borders are clearly defined in law. With one exception, Australia, continents are not defined Apart from the global continental regions, there are by their human geography. also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the oceans, and discrete climates above the land and water masses of the planet. The land and water global regions are divided into subregions geographically bounded by large geological features that influence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features.

Continental regions

As a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and widely used among the many branches of geography, each of which can describe areas in regional terms. For example, ecoregion is a term used in environmental geography, cultural region in cultural geography, bioregion in biogeography, and so on. The field of geography that studies regions themselves is called regional geography.

Continental regions are usually based on broad experiences in human history and attempts to reduce very large areas to more manageable regionalisation for the purpose of study. As such they are conceptual constructs, usually lacking distinct boundaries. Oceanic division into maritime regions are used in conjunction with the relationship to the central area of the continent, using directions of the compass. Some continental regions are defined by the major continental feature of their identity, such as the Amazon basin, or the Sahara, which both occupy a significant percentage of their respective continental land area.

In the fields of physical geography, ecology, biogeography, zoogeography, and environmental geography, regions tend to be based on natural features such as ecosystems or biotopes, biomes, drainage basins, natural regions, mountain ranges, soil types. Where human

To a large extent, major continental regions are mental constructs created by considering an efficient way to define large areas of the continents. For the most part, the images of the World are derived as much from academic study s the media, or from personal experience of

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global exploration. They are a matter of collective hu- surface have changed over geologic time, palaeogeograman knowledge of its own planet, and attempts to better phers have coined various names for ancient regions that understand their environments. no longer exist, from very large regions such as the supercontinents Rodinia, Pangaea, and Pannotia, to relatively small regions like Beringia. Other examples include the Regional geography Tethys Ocean and Ancylus Lake. Palaeogeographic continental regions that include Laurentia, Proto-Laurasia, Main article: Regional geography Laurasia, Euramerica (the “Old Red Continent”), and Gondwana.The Paleogeographic region is also where paRegional geography is a branch of geography that studies leontologist find answers in history. regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region, 0.39.3 Regions in human geography which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the Main article: Human geography proper techniques of space delimitation into regions. Regional geography is also considered as a certain ap- Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses proach to study in geographical sciences (similar to on the study of patterns and processes that shape human quantitative or critical geographies, for more information interaction with various discrete environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic see History of geography). aspects among others that are often clearly delineated. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see physical geography), 0.39.2 Geographical regions it is hardly possible to discuss human geography withGeographical regions are representative of the diverse out referring to the physical landscape on which human sub-disciplines found in the discipline of Geography. activities are being played out, and environmental geogThey are, based on the discipline, defined by the data raphy is emerging as a link between the two. Regions of collected through boundary transition that can vary from human geography can be divided into many broad catethousands of kilometers at continental level to a few kilo- gories, such as: meters at local level, that for example describes areas of distinct ethnicity habitats. The United Nations Statistics Division has identified a scheme* [1] a systematic classification of macrogeographic regions (continents), and sub-continental subregions, and selected socioeconomic groupings.

• Cultural geography • Demography • Development geography • Economic geography

Regions in physical geography

• Ethnography

Main article: Physical geography

• Geopolitics

Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography of regions as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere) of specific regions, subregions, clusters and locales. Physical regions are usually described by surface geological formations, hydrological and littoral surface features, discrete landscape features, and unique flora and fauna distribution that are not clearly delineated, and are separated by often wide transitional boundaries.

• Health geography

Palaeogeographic regions Palaeogeography is the study of ancient geologic environments. Since the physical structures of the Earth's

• Historical geography • Language geography • Religion geography • Social geography • Time geography • Tourism geography • Transportation geography • Urban geography

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Historical regions

examples of regions created by a government or tourism bureau include the United Kingdom's Lake District* [4] The field of historical geography involves the study of and California's Wine Country.* [5] great plains region human history as it relates to places and regions, or, inversely, the study of how places and regions have changed Natural resource regions over time. D. W. Meinig, a historical geographer of America, describes many historical regions in his book The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History. For example, in identifying European “source regions”in early American colonization efforts, he defines and describes the Northwest European Atlantic Protestant Region, which includes sub-regions such as the “Western Channel Community”, which itself is made of sub-regions such as the English West Country of Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Dorset. In describing historic regions of America, Meinig writes of “The Great Fishery”off the coast of Newfoundland and New England, an oceanic region that includes the Grand Banks. He rejects regions traditionally used in describing American history, like New France, “West Indies”, the Middle Colonies, and the individual colonies themselves (Province of Maryland, for example). Instead he writes of “discrete colonization areas,”which may be named after colonies, but rarely adhere strictly to political boundaries. Historic regions of this type Meinig writes about include“Greater New England”and its major sub-regions of“Plymouth,” “New Haven shores”(including parts of Long Island),“Rhode Island”(or“Narragansett Bay”),“the Piscataqua,” “Massachusetts Bay,” “Connecticut Valley,”and to a lesser degree, regions in the sphere of influence of Greater New England, “Acadia”(Nova Scotia),“Newfoundland and The Fishery/The Banks.”

Natural resources often occur in distinct regions. Natural resource regions can be a topic of physical geography or environmental geography, but also have a strong element of human geography and economic geography. A coal region, for example, is a physical or geomorphological region, but its development and exploitation can make it into an economic and a cultural region. Some examples of natural resource regions include the Rumaila Field, the oil field that lies along the border or Iraq and Kuwait and played a role in the Gulf War; the Coal Region of Pennsylvania, which is a historical region as well as a cultural, physical, and natural resource region; the South Wales Coalfield, which like Pennsylvania's coal region is a historical, cultural, and natural region; the Kuznetsk Basin, a similarly important coal mining region in Russia; Kryvbas, the economic and iron ore mining region of Ukraine; and the James Bay Project, a large region of Quebec where one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world has been developed. Religious regions

Sometimes a region associated with a religion is given a name, like Christendom, a term with medieval and renaissance connotations of Christianity as a sort of social and political polity. The term Muslim world is sometimes used to refer to the region of the world where Islam is dominant. These broad terms are very vague when used Other examples of historical regions include Iroquoia, to describe regions. Ohio Country, Illinois Country, and Rupert's Land. Within some religions there are clearly defined regions. The Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and others, define eccleTourism region siastical regions with names such as diocese, eparchy, ecclesiastical provinces, and parish. Main article: Tourism region For example, the United States is divided into 32 Roman Catholic ecclesiastical provinces. The Lutheran Church– A tourism region is a geographical region that has been Missouri Synod is organized into 33 geographic districts, designated by a governmental organization or tourism buwhich are subdivided into circuits (the Atlantic District reau as having common cultural or environmental charac(LCMS), for example). The Church of Jesus Christ of teristics. These regions are often named after a geographLatter-day Saints uses regions similar to dioceses and ical, former, or current administrative region or may have parishes, but uses terms like ward and stake. a name created for tourism purposes. The names often evoke certain positive qualities of the area and suggest a coherent tourism experience to visitors. Countries, Political regions states, provinces, and other administrative regions are often carved up into tourism regions to facilitate attracting In the field of political geography regions tend to be based visitors. on political units such as sovereign states; subnational Some of the more famous tourism regions based units such as provinces, counties, townships, territories, on historical or current administrative regions include etc.; and multinational groupings, including formally deTuscany* [2] in Italy and Yucatán* [3] in Mexico. Famous fined units such as the European Union, the Association

0.39. REGION of Southeast Asian Nations, and NATO, as well as informally defined regions such as the Third World, Western Europe, and the Middle East.

129 • Tanzania • Togo (région) • Trinidad and Tobago (Regional Corporation)

Administrative regions The word “region”is taken from the Latin regio (derived from regere, to rule), and a number of countries have borrowed the term as the formal name for a type of subnational entity (e.g., the región, used in Chile). In English, the word is also used as the conventional translation for equivalent terms in other languages (e.g., the область (oblast), used in Russia alongside with a broader term регион).

The Canadian province of Québec also uses the“administrative region”(région administrative). Scotland had local government regions from 1975 to 1996. In Spain the official name of the autonomous community of Murcia is Región de Murcia. Also, some single-province autonomous communities such as Madrid use the term región interchangeably with comunidad autónoma.

The following countries use the term “region”(or its cognate) as the name of a type of subnational administra- Two län (counties) in Sweden are officially called 'regions': Skåne and Västra Götaland, and there is currently tive unit: a controversial proposal to divide the rest of Sweden into • Belgium (in French, région; in German, Region; the large regions, replacing the current counties. • • • •

Dutch term gewest is often translated as“region”) The government of the Philippines uses the term “region”(in Filipino, rehiyon) when it's necessary to group Chad (région, effective from 2002) provinces, the primary administrative subdivision of the country. This is also the case in Brazil, which groups its Chile (región) primary administrative divisions (estados;“states”) into grandes regiões (greater regions) for statistical purposes, Congo (région) while Russia uses экономические районы (economic reCôte d'Ivoire (région) gions) in a similar way, as does Romania and Venezuela.

• Denmark (effective from 2007) • England (not the United Kingdom as a whole) • Eritrea • France (région) • Ghana

The government of Singapore makes use of the term "region" for its own administrative purposes. The following countries use an administrative subdivision conventionally referred to as a region in English: • Bulgaria, which uses the област (oblast)

• Guinea (région)

• Russia, which uses the область (oblast'), and for some regions the край (krai)

• Guinea-Bissau (região)

• Ukraine, which uses the область (oblast')

• Guyana

• Slovakia (kraj)

• Hungary (régió) • Italy (regione) • Madagascar (région)

China has five ⾃治区 (zìzhìqū) and two 特別⾏政區 (or 特 ⾏政区; tèbiéxíngzhèngqū), which are translated as "autonomous region" and "special administrative region", respectively.

• Mali (région) • Namibia • New Zealand • Peru (región) • Portugal (região) • Philippines (rehiyon) • Senegal (région)

Local administrative regions There are many relatively small regions based on local government agencies such as districts, agencies, or regions. In general, they are all regions in the general sense of being bounded spatial units. Examples include electoral districts such as Washington's 6th congressional district and Tennessee's 1st congressional district; school districts such as Granite School District and Los Angeles Unified School District; economic districts such as the Reedy Creek Improvement District; metropolitan areas such as the Seattle

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metropolitan area, and metropolitan districts such as the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, the Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, the Metropolitan Police Service of Greater London, as well as other local districts like the York Rural Sanitary District, the Delaware River Port Authority, the Nassau County Soil and Water Conservation District, and CTRAN.

full name of the military formation is Army Region. The size of an Army Region can vary widely but is generally somewhere between about 1 million and 3 million soldiers. Two or more Army Regions could make up an Army Theater. An Army Region is typically commanded by a full General (US four stars), a Field Marshal, or General of the Army (US five stars), or Generalissimo (Soviet Union). Due to the large size of this formation, its use is rarely employed. Some of the very few examples of an Army Region are each of the Eastern, Western, and Traditional or informal regions southern (mostly in Italy) fronts in Europe during World War II. The military map unit symbol for this echelon of The traditional territorial divisions of some countries are formation (see Military organization and APP-6A) conalso commonly rendered in English as“regions”. These sists of six Xs. informal divisions do not form the basis of the modern administrative divisions of these countries, but still define and delimit local regional identity and sense of belonging. 0.39.4 See also Examples include: • Finland

• Autonomous region

• Japan

• Committee of the Regions

• Korea

• Continent

• Norway (landsdeler)

• Continental fragment

• Romania • Slovakia Functional region

• Euroregion • Latin names of regions • Military district

A functional region or Nodal region, is a region that has • Regional district a defined core that retains a specific characteristic that diminishes outwards. To be considered a Functional re• Regionalism (disambiguation) gion, at least one form of spatial interaction must oc• Regional municipality cur between the center and all other parts of the region. A functional region is organized around a node or focal • Subcontinent point with the surrounding areas linked to that node by transportation systems, communication systems, or other • Submerged continents economic association involving such activities as manufacturing and retail trading. A typical functional region • Subregion is a metropolitan area (MA) as defined by the Bureau of Census. For example, the New York MA is a func• Supercontinent tional region that covers parts of several states. It is linked by commuting patterns, trade flows, television and radio • United Nations geoscheme broadcasts, newspapers, travel for recreation and entertainment. Other functional regions include shopping regions centered on malls, area served by branch banks, and 0.39.5 Notes ports. [1] Unstats.un.org

Military regions [2] Turismo.intoscana.it. Retrieved 2009-11-25

See also: Military district In military usage, a region is shorthand for the name of a military formation larger than an Army Group and smaller than an Army Theater or simply Theater. The

[3] Visitmexico.com, Retrieved 2009-11-25 [4] Lakedistrict.gov.uk, Retrieved 2009-11-25 [5] Winecountry.com, Retrieved 2009-11-25

0.40. SECTION (MILITARY UNIT)

0.39.6

References

131

0.40.1 Commonwealth

• Bailey, Robert G. (1996) Ecosystem Geography. Australian Army New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-94586-5 Under the new structure of the infantry platoon, sec• Meinig, D.W. (1986). The Shaping of America: tions are made up of eight men divided into two fourA Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of Hisman fireteams. Each fireteam consists of a team leader tory, Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492-1800. New (corporal/lance-corporal), a scout with enhanced optics, Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03548a grenadier with an M203 and an LSW operator with an 9 F89 Minimi light support weapon.

0.39.7

External links

Typical fire team structure:

At the start of World War I, the Australian Army used • Map and descriptions of hydrologic unit regions of a section that consisted of 27 men including the section commander, who was a non-commissioned officer holdthe United States ing the rank of sergeant.* [1] • Federal Standards for Delineation of Hydrologic During World War II, a rifle section comprised ten solUnit Boundaries diers with a corporal in command with a lance-corporal as his second-in-command. The corporal used an M1928 • Physiographic regions of the United States Thompson submachine gun, while one of the privates used a Bren gun. The other eight soldiers all used No.1 Mk.3 Lee-Enfield rifles with a bayonet and scabbard. 0.40 Section (military unit) They all carried two or three No.36 Mills bomb grenades. Standard NATO military map symbol to Section

Post–World War II and indicative for the Vietnam War a rifle section consisted of ten personnel comprising: a command & scout group (three people – two sub-machineguns/M16A1 and a L1A1 SLR); a gun group (three people – an M60 machine gun and two L1A1 SLRs) and a rifle group (four people – L1A1 SLRs).* [2]* [3]

British Army Squad sized unit (8-12 soldiers)

Platoon sized unit (up to 39 soldiers)

The British Army section now consists of eight soldiers* [4] made up of a Corporal as the section commander, a Lance-Corporal as his second-in-command ( “2IC”) and six privates. Three sections together form a platoon. In conventional warfare, the section is split into two four-man fireteams (“Charlie”and“Delta”), commanded by the corporal and lance-corporal respectively. Second World War and after The “Rifle Section” of a Second World War Infantry Battalion was generally formed of 10 men;* [5] a Corporal as the section leader with six privates with Lee Enfield rifles forming a rifle group, and a light machine gun group of a Lancecorporal, a gunner with the Bren gun and a“loader”carrying a spare barrel and extra ammunition.

With the switch from .303 to 7.62mm NATO in the 1950s until the introduction of 5.56 mm calibre weapons A section is a military sub-subunit in some armies. In in the late 1980s, the typical section was armed with and many armies, it might be a squad of 2-3 fireteams (i.e. organized around the 7.62 mm L7 GPMG (general purseven to twelve soldiers). However, in France and armies pose machine gun). The section was typically divided based on the French model, it is the sub-division of a com- into two “groups": a rifle group and a gun group. pany (equivalent to a platoon). The rifle group comprised the Section Commander (Cor“Infantry”friendly / own armed forces

132 poral) with an L1A1 SLR, the Anti-Tank gunner with the 84mm Carl Gustav and a 9mm SMG, the Anti-Tank No 2 with spare 84mm rounds and an L1A1 and two riflemen with L1A1s. The gun group was commanded by the section 2IC (Lance Corporal) with an L1A1, and comprised the gunner with the GPMG and the gun No 2 with an L1A1. All section tactics were basically designed to bring the gun to bear on the enemy and support the gun; once the gun had suppressed the enemy (“winning the firefight”), the rifle group would assault and destroy the enemy position with the gun providing fire until the last safe moment.

CONTENTS level in recognition that the 5.56mm proved inadequate in Afghanistan. The L86A2 LSW is now almost entirely unused by Infantry Sections, due to the implementation of the L110A1 (FN Minimi) and L129A1 Sharpshooter rifle. Canadian Forces The Canadian Army also uses the section, which is roughly the same as its British counterpart, except that it is led by a sergeant, with a master corporal as the secondin-command. The section is further divided into assault groups, which are equivalent to the British fireteams (four soldiers). They are designated Assault Group 1 and Assault Group 2. Assault groups are broken down to even smaller fireteams, normally consisting of two soldiers, designated Alpha, Bravo, Charlie and Delta. Alpha and Bravo make up Assault Group 1; Charlie and Delta make up Assault Group 2.

This organization was abandoned in favour of fireteams when 5.56 mm assault rifles and SAWs were introduced in the late 1980s. These were the L85 IW and the longerbarrelled L86 LSW (“Light support weapon”). The firepower of the team has now been extended by the L110A1 LMG. The LSW is now generally used as a designated marksman's rifle and the LMG is the belt fed weapon for laying down suppressing fire. Each fire team has two IW, The section commander will have overall control of the one with an underslung grenade launcher, one LSW and section, and is assigned to Assault Group 1, Alpha Team. one LMG. His 2nd in command will be in command of Assault Group 2, and is assigned to Delta team. Current Organisation An infantry section now con- In a normal rifle section, the focus is around the pair of C9 LMGs(Light Machine Gun) that are carried by Bravo sists of: and Delta teams, one in each team. This results in a forCharlie Fireteam: mation of Bravo, Alpha, Charlie, Delta, with Bravo and Delta providing fire support with the C9s, Alpha as the • Corporal, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle. command element and Charlie as the assault team. • Rifleman, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle with 40mm underslung grenade launcher. 0.40.2 Danish Army • Rifleman, armed with an L110A1 5.56mm light maIn the Danish Army, the section consists of two squads, chine gun. usually commanded by a Sergeant First Class. Sec• Rifleman, armed with an L86A2 5.56mm light sup- tions are usually highly specialized support units providport weapon. ing heavy weapons support, EOD support etc. Delta Fireteam: • Lance Corporal, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle.

0.40.3 French Army

In the French Army, a section is the sub-division of a company (equivalent to a platoon) in traditional foot • Rifleman, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle with arms (e.g. infantry, engineering). In traditionally horsemounted arms of the French Army (e.g. armour), the 40mm underslung grenade launcher. sub-division of a company is a peloton (platoon). The • Rifleman, armed with an L110A1 5.56mm light ma- French equivalent of the British Army section is called a chine gun. Groupe de Combat (Combat Group). French squads are divided into a 300-meter fireteam armed with FAMAS • Rifleman, armed with an L86A2 5.56mm light sup5.56 mm assault rifles and carrying an AT4 anti-tank port weapon. weapon and a 600-meter fireteam with an FN Minimi, another FAMAS and a personal grenade launcher. Some units operating in Afghanistan reintroduced the GPMG as a section gun, on the scale of one per fire team, meaning that only two L85A2s were carried per section 0.40.4 Singapore Army and both are fitted with the UGL. This practice may be altered following the introduction of the L129A1 Sharp- Singapore Army's infantry section consists of seven men shooter rifle, bringing 7.62mm weapons back to Section led by a Third Sergeant and assisted by a Corporal as 2IC.

0.40. SECTION (MILITARY UNIT)

133

The section is divided into a 3-man “group”, which ing of the squads and teams that man the crew-served includes the section commander, and two 2-man groups. weapons. The weapons carried include two light anti-tank weapons, Weapons platoon, rifle company: two section automatic weapons (SAW), and two grenade launchers. • a machine gun section, consisting of a section leader and three machine gun squads, each containing two machine gun teams of three men each 0.40.5 United States Army • a LWCMS mortar section, consisting of a section Historically, a section of US Infantry was a “half plaleader and three 60mm mortar squads, each containtoon”(the platoon itself being a“half company”). The ing one mortar and four man crew section was led by a sergeant assisted by one or (later) two corporals and consisted of a total of from 12-24 sol• an assault section, consisting of a section leader and diers, depending on the time period. In the US Cavalry, three assault squads, each containg two assault teams a section was roughly equivalent to a squad in the US of two men each Infantry. In Armor, Armored Cavalry, Mechanized Infantry, and Stryker Infantry units, a section consists of two tanks/armored vehicles, with two sections to a pla- Weapons company, infantry battalion: toon. The platoon leader, leads one section and the platoon sergeant leads the other. Some branches, such as • an 81mm mortar platoon, consisting of two 81mm Air Defense Artillery and Field Artillery, use the term mortar sections, each containing four 81mm morsection to denote a squad-sized unit that may act indetar squads of six men each and an eight-man section pendently of each other in the larger platoon formation. headquarters. (I.e., the Firing Platoon consists of several gun sections, which are the basic firing elements of the unit.) The sec• an antiarmor platoon, consisting of a Javelin section, tion is used as an administrative formation and may be containing a section leader and two Javelin squads, bigger than the regular squad formation often overseen each having two teams of two men each, and an antiby a Staff Sergeant. tank (TOW) section, containing a section leader and four antitank squads, each having a squad leader and two TOW teams of two men each 0.40.6 United States Marine Corps The USMC employs sections as intermediate tactical echelons in infantry, armored vehicle units (individual vehicles being the base tactical element), and low altitude air defense (LAAD) units, and as the base tactical element in artillery units. Infantry sections can consist of as few as eight Marines (heavy machinegun section) to as many as 32 in an 81-mm mortar section. In headquarters, service, and support units throughout the USMC (CE, GCE, ACE, and LCE), sections are used as functional sub-units of headquarters or platoons. For example, the intelligence section (S-2) of a battalion or squadron headquarters; the communications-electronics maintenance section, communication platoon, regimental headquarters company; armory section, Marine aviation logistics squadron. In Marine aircraft squadrons, section is also used to designate a flight of two or three aircraft under the command of a designated section leader. Some sections, such as weapons platoon sections are led by a staff non-commissioned Officer (SNCO), usually a staff sergeant. Tank and other armored vehicle sections, as well as service and support sections, may be led by either an officer, usually a lieutenant (or a CWO, in the case of service and support units), or a SNCO ranging from staff sergeant to master sergeant. Headquarters and aircraft sections are always led by a commissioned officer.

• a heavy machine gun (HMG) platoon, consisting of three HMG sections, each having two HMG squads of four men each. In armored vehicle units, platoons consist of sections consisting of individual vehicles and their crews: • tank and light armored reconnaissance platoons consist of two sections, each containing two tanks/light armored vehicles and crews • assault amphibian vehicle (AAV) platoons consist of four sections, each containing three AAV's and crews • combat engineer assault breacher sections consist of two CEV assault breacher vehicles and crews In low altitude air defense (LAAD) batteries, the firing platoons consist of three sections, each consisting of a section leader and five two-man Stinger missile teams.

In artillery batteries, the firing platoon consists of six artillery sections, each containing one gun with its crew and prime mover (i.e., a truck to tow the artillery piece and In infantry units, weapons platoons have sections consist- transport the gun crew and baggage.)

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0.40.7

CONTENTS

Other

some armies or platoon structure (up to 39 soldiers) e.g. in France, and not to be confused with Squadron. In some air forces, a section is also a unit containing two In military terminology, a squad is a sub-subunit led by or three aircraft, commanded by a Lieutenant. The USAF uses the term “element”, in lieu of section, to designate units of two or three aircraft in a “flight”. In the German Luftwaffe in the Second World War, this would have been called a Rotte, (in the Soviet Union Red Air Force it would have been called a zveno or para). Two sections made up a flight, called a Schwarm, with three flights, along with headquarters and support personnel, comprising a Staffel. A section is also the name for a shift or team of police officers in various police forces, particularly in the Commonwealth. The term is no longer used in the British police, in which it originated and where it was the group of officers headed by a Sergeant.

0.40.8

See also

• Infantry Minor Tactics • Second World War Canadian Rifle Section • Contubernium

0.40.9

References

[1] Ryan, Alan (2003). Putting Your Young Men in the Mud: Change, Continuity and the Australian Infantry Battalion. Land Warfare Studies Centre Working Papers. Working Paper No. 124. Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory: Land Warfare Studies Centre. p. 11. ISBN 0-642-295956. [2] “Military Organisation and Structure – Army: Detailed Structure”. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 20 May 2011. [3] “PART 5 – Battalion Organisational Structure 1965 – 1972”. .4RAR Museum. Retrieved 20 May 2011. [4] http://www.army.mod.uk/join/22071.aspx [5] Kennedy, Gary. “British Infantry Battalion, June 1944 Rifle Company”. Battalion Organisation during the Second World War. Retrieved 4 May 2015.

Standard NATO military map symbol for a friendly infantry Squad.

a non-commissioned officer* [1] that is subordinate to an infantry platoon. In countries following the British Army tradition (Australian Army, Canadian Army, and others), this organization is referred to as a section. In most armies, a squad consists of eight to fourteen soldiers,* [2] and may be further subdivided into fireteams. The equivalent to squad is the Gruppe, a sub-unit of 8 to 12 soldiers, in the German Bundeswehr, Austrian Bundesheer and Swiss Army. Presentation Standard NATO symbol – squad (7 or 8 – 12 soldiers) – in NATO armed forces: • two single dots (●● squad in general); respectively • a lying rectangle with two dots above (squad as single sub-unit) on military maps

0.41.1 Organization United States

0.40.10

External links

Historically, a “squad”in the US Army was a sub-unit of a section, consisting of from as few as two soldiers to • canadiansoldiers.com article on the history of the Inas many as 12, and was primarily used for drill purposes, fantry Section. the smallest tactical sub-unit being the section, which was also known as a half-platoon (the platoon itself being a half company). Depending upon the time period, the 0.41 Squad squad“leader”could be a sergeant (in sections with only one corporal, who led the second squad), a corporal, or For other uses, see Squad (disambiguation). even a“senior”private. In 1891, the US Army officially Not to be confused with Section, which might have sub- defined a rifle “squad”as consisting of “seven privates unit structure (7 to 12 soldiers, equivalent to squad) in and one corporal.”* [3]

0.41. SQUAD In the United States Army, a squad is composed of two fireteams of four soldiers each, as well as a squad leader who is a Staff Sergeant. A Military Police squad is composed of three teams of three. In the United States Marine Corps, a rifle squad is typically composed of three fireteams of four Marines and a squad leader who is typically a Sergeant or Corporal. Other types of USMC infantry squads include: machinegun (7.62mm), heavy machinegun (.50 cal. and 40mm), LWCMS mortar (60-mm), 81-mm mortar, assault weapon (SMAW), antiarmor (Javelin missile), and anti-tank (TOW Missile). These squads range from as few as four Marines to as many as seven, depending upon the weapon system with which the squad is equipped. Squads are also used in reconnaissance, light armored reconnaissance (scout dismounts), combat engineer, law enforcement (i.e., military police), Marine Security Force Regiment (MSFR), and Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team (FAST) companies. In the US Air Force Security Forces a squad is made up of three fire teams of four members each led by a Senior Airman or Staff Sergeant and either a Staff Sergeant or Tech Sergeant squad leader.

135 company tasks, as well as Hazardous Materials (Hazmat) mitigation and other specialty rescue functions. FDNY's five “Rescue”companies primarily mitigate technical and heavy rescue incidents, and operate as a pure special rescue unit. Squads and Rescues within the FDNY are part of the departments Specialty Operations Command (SOC). In other departments, a squad is a name given to a type of apparatus that delivers Emergency Medical Services, and is staffed by firefighter/EMT's or firefighter/paramedics. This type of service delivery is common in the greater Los Angeles area of California, and was made famous in the 1970s show Emergency!, where the fictional Squad 51 highlighted the lives of two firefighter/paramedics of the LACoFD. Chinese National Revolutionary Army to 1949

The squad, 班, or NAE NAE YEET section was the basic unit of the National Revolutionary Army (the Republic of China), and would usually be 14 men strong. An infantry squad from an elite German-trained division would ideally have one light machine gun and 10 rifles, but only one USSR of the three squads in a non-elite Central Army division would have a light machine gun. Furthermore, the regular In the Soviet Armed Forces a motorised rifle squad was provincial army divisions had no machine guns at all.* [5] mounted in either a BTR armoured personnel carrier or BMP infantry fighting vehicle, with the former being more numerous by the late 1980s. BTR rifle squads 0.41.2 Leadership consisted of a Squad Leader/BTR Commander, Senior Rifleman/Assistant Squad Leader, a Machine Gunner A squad is led by an NCO known as a Squad Leader. armed with an RPK-74, a Grenadier armed with an RPGHis/her second in command is known as an Assistant 7, a Rifleman/Assistant Grenadier, a Rifleman/Medic, Squad Leader. In Britain and in the Commonwealth, a Rifleman, a BTR Driver/Mechanic and a BTR Mathese appointments are known as Section Commander chine Gunner. BMP rifle squads consisted of a Squad and Section 2IC (“second in command”), respectively. Leader/BMP Commander, Assistant Squad Leader/BMP Gunner, a BMP Driver/Mechanic, a Machine Gunner armed with an RPK-74, a Grenadier armed with an RPG- Squad leader 7, a Rifleman/Assistant Grenadier, a Rifleman/Medic, a Senior Rifleman and a Rifleman all armed with AKMs This article is about the military role. For the board or AK-74s. Within a platoon the Rifleman in one of game by Avalon Hill, see Squad Leader. the squads was armed with an SVD sniper rifle. In both BTR and BMP squads the vehicle's gunner and driver stayed with the vehicle while the rest of the squad dis- In the military, a squad leader is a non-commissioned officer who leads a squad of typically 9 soldiers (US mounted.* [4] Army: squad leader and two fireteams of 4 men each) or 13 Marines (US Marine Corps: squad leader and three Fire Service in the United States fireteams of 4 men each) in a rifle squad, or 3 to 8 men in a crew-served weapons squad. In the United States Army A squad is a term used in the US Fire and EMS services the TO&E rank of a rifle squad leader is staff sergeant (Eto describe several types of units and/or emergency ap- 6, or OR-6) and in the United States Marine Corps the TO paratus. Oftentimes, the names “Squad”and “Rescue rank is sergeant (E-5, or OR-5), though a corporal may Squad”are used interchangeably, however the function of also act as a squad leader in the absence of sufficient numthe squad is different from department to department. In bers of sergeants. Squad leaders of crew-served weapons some departments, a“Squad”and a“Rescue”are two dis- squads range from corporal through staff sergeant, detinct units. This is the case in New York City, where the pending upon the branch of service and type of squad. FDNY operates seven squads. These special“enhanced” In some armies, notably those of the British Commonengine companies perform both “truck”and “engine” wealth, in which the term section is used for units of this

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size, the NCO in charge, which in the British Army and Royal Marines is normally a Corporal (OR-4), is termed a section commander.

• Royal Netherlands Army: sergeant • Royal Netherlands Marines: Corporal

Ranks

• Russian Army: Junior Sergeant or Sergeant

Typical ranks for squad leaders are:

• Spanish Army (pelotón): Cabo 1º, Sargento • Swedish Army: Sergeant, First Sergeant • Swiss Army: Korporal)

Wachtmeister

(before

2004:

• Turkish Army: Çavuş • U.S. Army: Staff Sergeant or Sergeant • U.S. Marine Corps: Sergeant or Corporal

0.41.3 Other military uses A Romanian squad of a TAB-77 APC. This is a typical Soviet arrangement, with a PK general purpose machine gun and a RPK light machine gun in the center and two soldiers with AK-47 assault rifles and one RPG-7 grenade launcher on the flanks. Another soldier provides liaison or extra firepower where needed.

• • •

• • •

A squad can also be an ad hoc group of soldiers assigned to a task, for example, a firing squad.

The Canadian Forces Manual of Drill and Ceremonial defines a squad as “a small military formation of less than platoon size which is adopted to teach drill movements. (escouade)"* [6] However, the Manual provides direction Australian Army: Corporal for drill movements to be taught in“movements,” “parts,” or“stages.”* [6] The format of the commands in the manAustrian Army: Wachtmeister ual has given rise to a prevalent belief in the CF that these Brazilian Army: In the Brazilian Army, a Grupo de stages are called “squads”. This groupthink has such Combate is a platoon subdivision and is commanded strength that phrases such as “for ease of learning, this movement is broken down into 'squads'", are commonly by a third sergeant, as in a U.S. Army squad. used during periods of drill instruction. In actuality, were British Army: Corporal the lesson being given to a platoon, company or parade, Canadian Army (Armée canadienne): Sergeant or the word “squad”would be replaced by the appropriate unit. Thus, these stages, parts, or movements should not Master Corporal be referred to as “squads”. Danish Army: Sergeant

• Estonian Defence Forces: Seersant (reserve unit) or 0.41.4 Nooremveebel (professional unit)

See also

• Finnish Army: Alikersantti or Kersantti (Corporal or Sergeant)

• Contubernium

• German Army: Feldwebel or Oberfeldwebel (previously Unteroffizier / Unterfeldwebel; until 1945 Obergefreiter in the Wehrmacht or SS-Rottenführer in the Waffen-SS)

• Death squad

• Israeli Defence Force: Sergeant (Samál) or Staff Sergeant (Samár) • Norwegian Army: Sergeant (NOC is corporal and leads the light machine gun fire team of the squad). • Portuguese Army: the esquadra (squad) is led by a cabo (corporal).

• Execution by firing squad • Military organizations • Military science • Organization of Canadian Army rifle sections during World War II • Squadron

0.42. SQUADRON (ARMY)

0.41.5

137

References

[1] “Squad/Section”. Gruntsmilitary.com. Retrieved 201310-17. [2] “US Army Chain of Command”. Usmilitary.about.com. 2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-10-17. [3] http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/060/60-3-1/ cmhPub_60-3-1.pdf [4] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4-3 [5] ⼀⼨河⼭⼀⼨⾎: 淞沪会 Battle of Shanghai

Chinese Program on the

[6] The Canadian Forces Manual of Drill and Ceremonial. Retrieved 13 June 2010.

0.41.6

External links

0.42 Squadron (army)

companies, and the battalion was an administrative designation used only in garrison. The reorganizations converted companies to troops and battalions to squadrons, and made squadrons tactical formations as well as administrative ones.

0.42.2 Commonwealth In the British Army and many other Commonwealth armies, a squadron is the counterpart of an infantry company or artillery battery. A squadron is a sub-unit of a battalion-sized formation (usually a regiment), and is usually made up of two or more troops.* [1]* [2] The designation is also used for company-sized units in the Special Air Service, Special Reconnaissance Regiment, Honourable Artillery Company, Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Marine Commandos and Royal Logistic Corps, and in the now defunct Royal Corps of Transport.

Squadrons are commonly designated using letters or numbers (e.g. No. 1 Squadron or A Squadron). In some For other uses, see Squadron. British Army units it is a tradition for squadrons to also Not to be confused with Squad. be named after an important historical battle in which the A squadron was historically a cavalry subunit, a com- regiment has taken part. In some special cases, squadrons can also be named after a unique honour which has been bestowed on the unit.

0.42.3 France The modern French Army is composed of troupes à pied (foot soldiers including infantry and combat engineers) and troupes à cheval (mounted soldiers such as armored cavalry units, and transportation units). Nowadays, the term escadron (squadron) is used to describe a company (compagnie) of mounted soldiers but, for a long time, a cavalry escadron corresponded to an infantry battalion, Polish squadron in 1830–31 both units regrouping several companies (battalion and escadons were tactical units while the companies were pany sized military formation. The term is still used to administrative units).* [3] The term compagnie has been refer to modern cavalry units but can also be used as a discontinued and replaced by escadron in cavalry units designation for other arms and services. In some coun- since 1815 and in transportation units since 1968. tries, like Italy, the battalion-level cavalry unit is called In the“mounted arms”a captain (three galons, or braids) "Squadron Group". in charge of an escadron is thus called a chef d'escadron

0.42.1

United States

In the modern United States Army, a squadron is an armored cavalry, air cavalry, or other reconnaissance unit whose organizational role parallels that of a battalion and is commanded by a lieutenant colonel. Prior to the revisions in the US Army structure in the 1880s, US Cavalry regiments were divided into

(which is a title, not a rank). However, his superior in the hierarchy (four galons) has the rank of chef d'escadrons (the equivalent rank in infantry units being chef de bataillon). After 1815 (in fact around 1826), the army began to write chef d'escadrons with an s in cavalry units to reflect the fact that this officer who used to be in charge of one squadron* [4] (several companies before 1815) was now in charge of several squadrons (i.e., companies). In other mounted branches (such as gendarmerie and artillerie), chef d'escadron is still spelled without s.

138

CONTENTS

0.42.4

Sweden

In the Swedish cavalry a“skvadron”means a unit with the same size as a "kompani" in the rest of the army (about a hundred men). Even Jäger and MP units may have squadrons.

0.42.5

Norway

The Norwegian army operates with units called eskadroner (pl.), typically a company-equivalent unit, generally in armoured cavalry units although not always. The 2nd Battalion, Brigade Nord, has a companyequivalent unit called kavalerieskadronen, or“the cavalry squadron”. It serves as the main reconnaissance unit in the battalion. Like the mechanized infantry units, it wears the distinct khaki-coloured beret of the battalion instead of the normal black for cavalry units. The Armoured Battalion (Panserbataljonen) has the majority of its constituents labeled eskadroner. Including the Cavalry Squadron, the Armoured Squadron and the Assault Squadrons. It also includes the battalion's Support element, the Combat Support Squadron. Its members are also referred to as dragoons, reflecting the nature of the unit.

[4] Prior to 1776, a two-company squadron was led by the most senior of its two captains. The single-company squadron of 1766 was led by a captain assisted by a“captain in second”. Then, when the cavalry went back to two-company squadrons in 1788, the rank of “Chef d'escadron”was created but discontinued after a few years and, when re-instated, the chef d'escadron (without s) became a superior officier, typically in charge of two or more squadrons during the napoleonic wars while individual squadrons were again led by their senior captain. Then, when the company was abolished in 1815, squadrons were led (as in 1776) by a captain assisted by a second-captain while a chef d'escadron (without s) was in charge of several squadrons. A few years later (around 1826), the cavalry got into the habit of spelling chef d'escadrons with an s.

0.43 Squadron (aviation) For other uses, see Squadron. A squadron in air force, army aviation, or naval avi-

The Telemark Battalion also has a number of units labelled eskadroner. This includes the Armoured Squadron, the Cavalry Squadron and the Combat Support Squadron. Kampeskadronen (no:Kampeskadronen) (roughly translated to“The Battle Squadron”), a Squadron consisting of two Mechanized Infantry Platoons, mounted on CV90's, one Armoured Platoon with Leopard 2's and a Combat Service Support Unit. It's soldiers referred to as dragoons and consisting mostly of conscripted troops. Used as OPFOR in exercise operations with other parts of the Norwegian Army.

0.42.6

Notes and references

[1] “Squadron”. Oxford Dictionaries.com. Retrieved 24 December 2012.

A United States Air Force F-86 Sabre squadron during the Korean War, 1951.

ation is mainly a unit comprising a number of military aircraft and their aircrews, usually of the same type, typically with 12 to 24 aircraft, sometimes divided into three or four flights, depending on aircraft type and air force. Land based squadrons equipped with heavier type aircraft such as long-range bombers, or cargo aircraft, or air refueling tankers have around 12 aircraft as a typical authorization, while most fighter equipped units have an authorized number of 18 to 24.

In most armed forces, two or more squadrons will form a group or a wing. Some air forces (including the Royal Air [2] Jobson, Christopher (2009). Looking Forward, Looking Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, German Air Force, Back: Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army. Republic of Singapore Air Force, and United States Air Wavell Heights, Queensland: Big Sky Publishing. pp. 92– Force) also use the term squadrons for non-flying ground 93. ISBN 9780980325164. units (e.g., radar squadrons, missile squadrons, aircraft maintenance squadrons, security forces squadrons, civil [3] Before 1776, depending on the period, a cavalry squadron engineering squadrons, medical squadrons, etc.). was made up of two to four compagnies. From 1776 to 1788, a squadron was composed of a single – larger – company but the French Army then reverted to a twocompany squadron that – although deemed not optimal by many officers – lasted until 1815 when King Louis XVIII merged the two organizations and abolished the term “company”in the cavalry.

0.43.1 United States military air services For more details on U.S. Navy squadrons, see Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons.

0.44. SQUADRON (NAVAL)

In contrast to United States Air Force units where flying organizations are separate from supporting administrative and aircraft maintenance organizations, flying squadrons in U.S. Naval Aviation (United States Navy and United States Marine Corps) typically contain both embedded administrative support functions and organizational level aircraft maintenance functions, plus all their associated personnel as part of the total squadron manning.

139 A squadron, or naval squadron, is a significant group of warships which is nonetheless considered too small to be designated a fleet. A squadron is typically a part of a fleet. Between different navies there are no clear defining parameters to distinguish a squadron from a fleet (or from a flotilla), and the size and strength of a naval squadron varies greatly according to the country and time period. Groups of small warships, or small groups of major warships, might instead be designated flotillas by some navies according to their terminology. Since the size of a naval squadron varies greatly, the rank associated with command of a squadron also varies greatly.

In United States Marine Corps Aviation the nomenclature “squadron”is also used to designate all battalionequivalent, aviation support organizations. These squadrons include: wing headquarters, tactical air com- Before 1864 the entire fleet of the Royal Navy was dimand, air control, air support, aviation logistics, wing vided into three squadrons, the red, the white, and the blue. Each Royal Navy squadron alone was more powsupport, and wing communications squadrons. erful than most national navies. Today, a squadron Also in contrast to USAF flying units, sea-based and land- might number three to ten vessels, which might be based U.S. Naval Aviation squadrons (USN + USMC) major warships, transport ships, submarines, or small rarely have more than 12 aircraft authorized/assigned at craft in a larger task force or a fleet. A squadron any one time. may be composed of one type of ship of various types Although part of U.S. naval aviation, United States Coast tasked with a specific mission such as coastal patrol, Guard aviation units are centered around an air station blockade, or minesweeping. In the United States Navy, versus a squadron or group/wing organizational structure. the term squadron has always been used for formations The one exception to this is the Coast Guard's Helicopter of destroyers and submarines. Interdiction Squadron (HITRON), which is engaged primarily in counter-narcotics (CN) interdiction operations.

0.44.1 Command element

In U.S. Army Aviation, flying units may be organized in battalions or squadrons (air cavalry only) reporting to an A fleet is usually commanded by a flag officer such as a aviation brigade. vice admiral or a rear admiral, but squadrons are sometimes commanded by commodores or simply the most senior captain (often the same thing), depending on the importance of the command. A large squadron will some0.43.2 Others times be divided into two or more divisions, each of An escadron is the equivalent unit in France's Armée de which might be commanded by a subordinate captain. l'Air. It is normally subdivided into escadrilles of eight Like a fleet, a squadron is usually, but not necessarily, a permanent formation. aircraft. In the Air Training Corps of the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth nations, a Squadron is a group of 0.44.2 cadets who parade regularly.

Squadron types

In the U.S. Civil Air Patrol, a squadron is the basic ad- There are several types of squadron: ministrative unit. • Independent squadrons. In effect, these are formaIn the Swedish Air Force a squadron (helikopterskvadron) tions that are too small to be called a fleet. Indepenis a detachment from the“Helicopter Wing”(Helikopterdent squadrons may be assigned to and named after a * flottiljen). [1] particular ocean or sea, and the admiral commanding the squadron may be the naval commander in chief in that theatre.

0.43.3

References

[1] Helikopterflottiljen (Swedish)

0.44 Squadron (naval) For other uses, see Squadron (disambiguation).

• Temporary sub-divisions of a fleet. In the Age of Sail, fleets were divided into van, centre, and rear squadrons, named after each's place in the line of battle. A temporary detachment from a fleet would also be called a squadron. • Permanent battle formations. As warships evolved during the 19th century, larger warships began to

140

CONTENTS

The 2nd Battle Squadron of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet during the First World War. From left to right: King George V, Thunderer, Monarch, and Conqueror.

be formed into and trained as permanent, numbered squadrons of the same class of warship such as the 5th Battle Squadron of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet. U.S. Navy squadron types have included Battleship Squadrons, Cruiser Squadrons (CruRons), Destroyer Squadrons (DesRons), Escort Squadrons, Transport Squadrons (TransRons),* [1] and Submarine Squadrons (SubRons). In modern navies, squadrons have tended to become administrative units. Most navies began to abandon the squadron as a tactical formation during the Second World War. The need to provide capital ships with the antisubmarine protection of a destroyer screen and air cover from an aircraft carrier led to the increasing use of the carrier battle group, or ad hoc task forces, composed of whichever ships were available for a particular operation.

An organisation chart depicting the New Zealand Army's top level T/O as at 2007. The chart uses the NATO Military Symbols for Land Based Systems to depict the different kinds of units in the Army at this time.

of Defense which prescribes the organization, staffing, and equippage of units. Also used in acronyms as 'T/O' and 'T/E'.

As warships have grown larger, the term squadron has It also provides information on the mission and capabiligradually replaced the term flotilla for formations of ties of a unit as well as the unit's current status. A general destroyers, frigates and submarines in many navies. TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry) rather than a specific unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In this way, all units of the same branch (such as Infantry) 0.44.3 See also follow the same structural guidelines. • Division (naval)

0.45.1 Army 0.44.4

References

In the U.S. Army, there are four basic types of TOEs:

[1] OPNAV 29-P1000

0.44.5

External links

• Squadron. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-0830.

• The Base Table of Organization and Equipment (BTOE) • An organizational design document based on current doctrine and available equipment. It shows the basics of a unit's structure and their wartime requirements (both for personnel and equipment).

0.45 Table of organization and equipment

• The Objective table of organization and equipment (OTOE)

A table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E) is a document published by the U.S. Department

• An updated form of the BTOE, usually formed within the last year. It is a fully modern doc-

0.46. TASK FORCE ument and is up to date with current policies and initiatives.

141

0.46 Task force

“Taskforce”and “Task group”redirect here. For the • A Modification table of organization and equipment sociological and anthropological use, see Action group (MTOE) (sociology). For other uses, see Taskforce (disambiguation). • A document that modifies a Basic TOE (BTOE) in regard to a specific unit. Used when a unit's needs are substantially different A task force (TF) is a unit or formation established to work on a single defined task or activity. Originally introfrom the BTOE. duced by the United States Navy, the term has now caught on for general usage and is a standard part of NATO ter• A Table of distribution and allowances (TDA) minology. Many non-military organizations now create • A type of temporary TOE that is applicable to “task forces”or task groups for temporary activities that a specific mission. Used in an instance when might have once been performed by ad hoc committees. there is no applicable TOE. Each TOE has a unique number that identifies it. When 0.46.1 Naval changes are needed, a table is not modified, instead, a new The concept of a naval task force is as old as navies, but table is drafted from scratch. the term came into extensive use originally by the United States Navy around the beginning of 1941, as a way to increase operational flexibility. Prior to that time the as0.45.2 Marine Corps sembly of ships for naval operations was referred to as fleets, divisions, or on the smaller scale, squadrons, and Marine T/O&Es are based on a generic template for each flotillas. specific type and size of unit, for example, a weapons company of an infantry battalion, or a heavy helicopter Before World War II ships were collected into divisions squadron. These templates are then modified as needed derived from the Royal Navy's “division”of the line by the individual unit. The Marine Corps also relies on of battle in which one squadron usually remained unother documents to report what personnel and equipment der the direct command of the Admiral of the Fleet, one squadron was commanded by a Vice Admiral, and one by a unit actually possesses. a Rear Admiral, each of the three squadrons flying differThe T/O section denotes every authorized billet within ent coloured flags, hence the terms flagship and flag offia unit by rank and Military Occupational Specialty recer. The flag of the Fleet Admiral's squadron was red, the quired to fulfill the necessary duties. The T/E section deVice Admiral's was white and the Rear Admiral's blue. notes authorized equipment by National Stock Number (The names“Vice”(possibly from advanced) and“Rear” and quantity. might have derived from sailing positions within the line at the moment of engagement.) In the late 19th century ships were collected in numbered squadrons, which were 0.45.3 See also assigned to named (such as the Asiatic Fleet) and later numbered fleets. • Military organization A task force can be assembled using ships from different divisions and squadrons, without requiring a formal • Military doctrine and permanent fleet reorganization, and can be easily dissolved following completion of the operational task. The • Military science task force concept worked very well, and by the end of • Military unit World War II about 100 task forces had been created in the U.S. Navy alone. • Order of battle United States Navy

0.45.4

External links and sources

• U.S. Army TOE • TRADOC Regulation 71-15 • What is a TOE (WWII example)

These are temporary organizations composed of particular ships, aircraft, submarines, military land forces, or shore service units, assigned to fulfill certain missions. The emphasis is placed on the individual commander of the unit, and references to “CTF”are common. CTF is an abbreviation for “Commander, Task Force”.

142 In the U.S. Navy, task forces as part of numbered fleets have been assigned a two-digit number. “In March of 1943, Cominch [Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet, Admiral Ernest J. King] instituted the system of numbering all fleets, assigning the even numbers to the Atlantic and the odd to the Pacific. This resulted in adding fleet designations to the titles of the various forces in the theater: Naval Forces, Europe, became the Twelfth Fleet; South Atlantic Force the Fourth Fleet; and Naval Forces, Northwest African Waters, the Eight Fleet. The Atlantic Fleet, itself, was designated the Second Fleet. The standardization of fleet designation led to a definite system in task force designation.* [1] A force was numbered with two digits - the first being that of the fleet from which the force was taken and the second indicating the sequence in that fleet. Task group within a force were numbered by an additional digit separated from the TF number by a decimal point. To indicate a task unit within a group, another decimal point and digit were added. Thus, the third task unit of the fifth task group of the second task force of the Sixth Fleet would be numbered 62.5.3.” This arrangement was typically abbreviated, so references like TF 11 are commonly seen. Likewise the force is broken down as following: task force, task group, task unit, and task element. In addition, a task force could be broken into several task groups,* [2] identified by decimal points, as in TG 11.2, and finally task units, as in TU 11.2.1. Individual ships are task elements, for example TE 11.2.1.2 would be the second ship in TU 11.2.1. Note that there is no requirement for uniqueness over time. The United States Seventh Fleet used TF 76 in World War II, and off Vietnam, and continued to use TF70-79 numberings throughout the rest of the twentieth century, and up to 2012.

CONTENTS • Task Force 77 - including in the Battle off Samar. 'Taffy 3', or Task Unit 77.4.3, gained significant fame during this portion of the larger Battle of Leyte Gulf. Task Force 77 continued in existence, and was the large Carrier Task Force in the Sea of Japan during the Korean War, and in the Gulf of Tonkin during the Vietnam War. • Task Force 80 • Task Force 88 • Task Force 129 during the Bombardment of Cherbourg, 1944 The U.S. Navy has used numbered task forces in the same way since 1945. The U.S. Department of Defense often forms a Joint Task Force if the force includes units from other services. Joint Task Force 1 was the atomic bomb test force during the post-World War II Operation Crossroads.* [3] In naval terms, the multinational Australian/US/UK/Canadian/NZ Combined Communications Electronics Board mandates through Allied Communications Publication 113 (ACP 113) the present system, which allocated numbers from TF 1 to apparently TF 999.* [4] For example, the Royal Navy's Illustrious battle group in 2000 for Exercise Linked Seas, subsequently deployed to Operation Palliser, was Task Group 342.1.* [5] The French Navy is allocated the series TF 470–474, and Task Force 473 has been used recently for an Enduring Freedom task force deployment built around the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91). Task Force 142 is the U.S. Navy's Operational Test and Evaluation Force.

Some US Navy task forces during the Second World War: Royal Navy • Task Force 1 in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. Used as Army/Navy Joint Task Force 1 during Operation Earlier in the Second World War, the British Royal Navy Crossroads and then as Task Force 1 during had devised its own similar system of Forces, which were assigned a letter rather than a number. For example, Operation Sea Orbit (solely U.S. Navy). the force stationed at Gibraltar was known as Force H, • Task Forces 2-10 in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. the force stationed at Malta was known as Force K, and the force stationed at Singapore in December 1941 was • Task Force 11 known as Force Z. • Task Force 16 During the Falklands War in 1982 Royal Navy assembled a Task Force to achieve sea and air supremacy in • Task Force 17 the Total Exclusion Zone, before the amphibious forces arrived. The Argentine Navy formed three lesser Task • Task Force 31 Groups (Grupo de Tareas) for pincer movements. • Task Force 34 • Task Force 38 of aircraft carriers in the Central Pa- 0.46.2 cific

Army

• Task Force 58 of aircraft carriers in the Central Pa- In the U.S. Army, a task force is a battalion-sized (usually, although there are variations in size) ad hoc unit formed cific by attaching smaller elements of other units. A company• Task Force 61 sized unit with an armored or mechanized infantry unit

0.47. THEATER (WARFARE) attached is called a company team. A similar unit at the brigade level is called a brigade combat team (BCT), and there is also a similar Regimental combat team (RCT). In the British Army and the armies of other Commonwealth countries, such units are known as battlegroups.

0.46.3

143 part in, often resulting in a climatic battle against the villain of the story arc. • In the TV series Hawaii Five-O, Steven“Steve”McGarrett created the so-called “Five-O Task Force” which was group of state police based in Hawaii, hence Hawaii Five-O.

Government

In government or business a task force is a temporary organization created to solve a particular problem. It is considered to be a more formal ad hoc committee.

0.46.6 See also • Joint Task Force

A taskforce, or more-commonly task force, is a spe• Task Force Consulting SAS, Task Force Consulting cial committee, usually of experts, formed expressly for SAS Official website the purpose of studying a particular problem. The task force usually performs some sort of an audit to assess the current situation, then draws up a list of all the current 0.46.7 References problems present and evaluates which ones merit fixing and which ones are actually fixable. The task force would [1] HyperWar, Chapter 4: Fleet Administration, accessed then formulate a set of solutions to the problems and pick August 2012 the “best”solution to each problem, as determined by some set of standards. For example, a task force set up [2] Group. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-08-30. to eliminate excessive government spending might consider a “best”solution to be one that saves the most [3] Nichols, K.D. (1987). The Road to Trinity. New York: money. Normally, the task force then presents its findMorrow. ISBN 068806910X. ings and proposed solutions to the institution that called for its formation; it is then up to the institution itself to [4] Combined Communication Electronics Board (Septemactually act upon the task force's recommendations. ber 2004). “Annex A: Task Force Allocations” (PDF).

0.46.4

Other data regarding US task forces

• Some task forces are named after their commander, such as Dunsterforce.

ACP 113(AF) Call Sign Book for Ships. Joint Chiefs of Staff. pp. A–1–A–2 (197–198). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 28, 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2010. [5] Operations in Sierra Leone, August 9, 2000, Jane's Defence Weekly.

• Task Force Tarawa, the name given the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade during the 2003 invasion of Iraq Operation Iraqi Freedom. They were a Marine Air-Ground Task Force commanded by Brigadier 0.46.8 Further reading General Richard Natonski, attached to the I Marine Expeditionary Force. • Timothy M. Bonds, Myron Hura, Thomas-Durrell Young, 'Enhancing Army Joint Force Headquarters • Task Force Leatherneck is the name given the 2nd Capabilities,' Santa Monica, CA; RAND CorporaMarine Expeditionary Brigade during their 2009 option, 2010 - includes list of joint task forces erations in Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. They are a Marine Air-Ground Task Force commanded by Brigadier General Larry Nicholson, assigned to work under the International Security Assistance Force.

0.47 Theater (warfare) For other uses, see Theatre of War (disambiguation).

0.46.5

Task forces in popular culture

In warfare, a theater (US English) or theatre (British • In Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, some of the English) is an area or place in which important military main characters are from an elite, international speevents occur or are progressing.* [1]* [2] A theater can incial operations task force called Task Force 141. clude the entirety of the air, space, land and sea area that • In City of Heroes, a task force was a large-scale story is or that may potentially become involved in war operaarc of several missions in which 3–8 players took tions.* [3]

144

0.47.1

CONTENTS

Theater of war

nental geographic territories with their bordering maritime areas, islands, adjacent coasts* [5] and airspace. In his book On War, Carl von Clausewitz defines the term The division of large continental and maritime areas asas one that: sists in determining the limits within which the plans for operation of strategic military groups of forces are developed, allowing conduct of military operations on speDenotes properly such a portion of the cific significant strategic directions known as fronts which space over which war prevails as has its boundwere named in accordance to their theater of operations, aries protected, and thus possesses a kind of for example Southwestern Front (Russian Empire), 1st independence. This protection may consist in Ukrainian Front, Northern Front (Soviet Union). In a fortresses, or important natural obstacles prepeacetime due to loss of a strategic direction fronts were sented by the country, or even in its being septransformed into military regions (districts) responsible arated by a considerable distance from the rest for an assigned section of operations. of the space embraced in the war. Such a portion is not a mere piece of the whole, but The Russian term is театр военных действий, teatr voena small whole complete in itself; and consenykh deistvii, abbreviated ТВД, TVD. quently it is more or less in such a condition that changes which take place at other points in the seat of war have only an indirect and no 0.47.4 United States direct influence upon it. To give an adequate idea of this, we may suppose that on this porThe term “theater of operations”was defined in the tion an advance is made, whilst in another quar[American] field manuals as the land and sea areas to ter a retreat is taking place, or that upon the one be invaded or defended, including areas necessary for an army is acting defensively, whilst an offenadministrative activities incident to the military operasive is being carried on upon the other. Such tions (chart 12). In accordance with the experience of a clearly defined idea as this is not capable of World War I, it was usually conceived of as a large land universal application; it is here used merely to mass over which continuous operations would take place indicate the line of distinction.* [4] and was divided into two chief areas-the combat zone, or the area of active fighting, and the communications zone, or area required for administration of the theater. 0.47.2 Theater of operations As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new Theater of operations (TO) is a sub-area within a theater geographic areas of control.* [6] of war. The boundary of a TO is defined by the commander who is orchestrating or providing support for specific combat operations within the TO.* [2] 0.47.5 Images and diagrams Theater of operations are divided into strategic directions or military regions depending whether it's a war or peace Clicking onto image/diagram creates enlargement. time. The United States Armed Forces split into Unified Combatant Commands (regions) that are assigned to a particular theater of military operations. Strategic direction is a group of armies also known as task (field) forces or battlegroups. Also in the US Armed Forces the term of strategic is often associated with missile command (troops) dropping word missile out of use such as the United States Strategic Command. However it is an important strategic command that could be effectively deployed in any theater of military operations. A strategic command or direction in Unified Combatant Command general essence would combine a number of tactical military formations or operational command. In modern military, a strategic command is better known as a combat command that may be a combination of army groups. 0.47.6 See also

0.47.3

Soviet and Russian Armed Forces

For example a large geographic subdivision used by the Soviet and Russian Armed Forces to classify the conti-

• Battlespace • China Burma India Theater • European Theater of Operations

0.48. TROOP

145

0.48 Troop For other uses, see Troop (disambiguation). A troop is a military sub-subunit, originally a small for-

K Troop, US 9th Cavalry

Chart 12.- Typical organization of a theater of operations as envisaged by War Department Doctrine, 1940

• European Theatre of World War II • Locus of control • Unified Combatant Command • Western Theater of the American Civil War • Formations of the Soviet Army

0.47.7

mation of cavalry, subordinate to a squadron. In many armies a troop is the equivalent element to the infantry section or platoon. Exceptions are the Royal Horse Artillery and the US Cavalry, where troop are subunits and refers to an infantry company or artillery battery. A cavalry soldier of private rank is called a trooper in many Commonwealth armies (abbreviated Tpr, not to be confused with trouper). A related sense of the term troops refers to members of the military collectively, as in the troops; see Troop (disambiguation). In some countries, like Italy, the company-level cavalry unit is called "Squadron".

References

[1] “Definition of theatre noun (MILITARY) from Cambridge Dictionary Online: Free English Dictionary and Thesaurus”. Dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 201108-31.

0.48.1 Troops in various forces Today, a troop is defined differently in different armed forces. In the Australian Army a troop is the equivalent of a pla-

[2] “Theater (warfare) - definition of Theater (warfare) by toon sized element in units of certain corps, those bethe Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia” ing:* [1] . Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2011-08-31. [3] http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/ THEATREOFWAR [4] “Carl Von Clausewitz, On War”. Clausewitz.com. Retrieved 2011-08-31. [5] See Военный энциклопедический словарь (ВЭС), Москва (М.), Военное издательство (ВИ), 1984 год (г.), 863 страниц (стр). с иллюстрациями (ил.), 30 листов (ил.), стр. 732; [6] “Chapter VII: Prewar Army Doctrine for Theater”. History.amedd.army.mil. Retrieved 2011-08-31.

• Royal Australian Armoured Corps • Royal Australian Engineers • Royal Australian Corps of Signals • Australian Army Aviation • Royal Australian Corps of Transport • Royal Australian Survey Corps (now disbanded) • Special Air Service Regiment (SASR)

146 The SASR is the only unit in the Royal Australian Infantry Corps to use the term troop to refer to its platoon size elements. SASR troops are also unusual as they are commanded by a captain̶most troop/platoon sized elements are commanded by a lieutenant. In all cases, units which refer to platoon sized elements as troops refer to company-sized elements as squadrons and battalion-sized elements as regiments. Privates in the RAAC and SASR hold the rank“trooper”, however this is not the case for any other Corps/units which use the term troops.* [2]

CONTENTS In the Russian Imperial Army (cavalry) troop was equivalent to a squadron (Russian eskadron) or sotnia (Cossack formation).

0.48.2 Troops in civilian organizations In the United States, state police forces are often regionally divided into troops. This usage came about from these organizations modelling themselves on the US Army, and especially the older cavalry units. For this same reason the state police and highway patrol personnel of most states are known as “trooper”rather than “officer”. In Scouting, a troop is a unit made up of scouts or guides from the same locality under a leader. In the case of Guides, the term “company”is used more often, and was used by the founder in his first books about guiding.

0.48.3 References

12th Royal Lancers on manoeuvres.

In the British Army the definition of a troop varies by corps. • Household Cavalry and Royal Armoured Corps: Three or four armoured fighting vehicles commanded by a subaltern, i.e. effectively the same level element as an infantry platoon. A unit of two to four guns or launchers, or an equivalent headquarters unit. In the Royal Horse Artillery, a troop used to be the equivalent to a battery in other artillery units. • Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, Royal Logistic Corps, Special Air Service and Honourable Artillery Company: A unit equivalent in size to a platoon in other corps, divided into sections or patrols. Other army corps do not use the term. In the Royal Marines, a troop is the equivalent to an army platoon; a carryover from the organisation of the British Commandos in World War II. In the Canadian Army, a troop is the equivalent of a platoon within the armoured, artillery, engineer, and signals branches. Two to four troops comprise the main elements of a squadron. In the United States Army, in the cavalry branch, a troop is the equivalent unit to the infantry company, commanded by a captain and consisting of three or four platoons, and subordinate to a squadron (battalion). Companies were renamed troops in 1883.* [3]

[1] Jobson, Christopher (2009). Looking Forward, Looking Back: Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army. Wavell Heights, Queensland: Big Sky Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 9780980325164. [2] Jobson 2009, p. 15. [3] http://www.25thida.com/4thcav.html

0.49 United States Air Force “USAF”redirects here. For other uses, see USAF (disambiguation). “The U.S. Air Force”redirects here. For the song, see The U.S. Air Force (song). The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947.* [6] It is the most recent branch of the U.S. military to be formed, and is the largest and one of the world's most technologically advanced air forces. The USAF articulates its core functions as Nuclear Deterrence Operations, Special Operations, Air Superiority, Global Integrated ISR, Space Superiority, Command and Control, Cyberspace Superiority, Personnel Recovery, Global Precision Attack, Building Partnerships, Rapid Global Mobility and Agile Combat Support.* [7] The U.S. Air Force is a military service within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The USAF is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The highest-ranking military officer in the Department of the Air Force is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force who exercises supervision over Air Force units, and serves as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Air Force combat forces and mobility forces are assigned, as directed by the Secretary of Defense, to the Combatant Commanders, and neither the Secretary of the Air Force nor the Chief of Staff have operational command authority over them.

147 The stated mission of the USAF today is to “fly, fight, and win in air, space, and cyberspace”.* [10] Vision “The United States Air Force will be a trusted and reliable joint partner with our sister services known for integrity in all of our activities, including supporting the joint mission first and foremost. We will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and Power for the nation”.* [10]

The U.S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces* [8] and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2012, the service operates more than 5,638 military aircraft, 450 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $140 billion budget with 309,339 active duty personnel, 185,522 civilian personnel, 71,400 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 106,700 Air National Guard per- Core functions sonnel.* [3] Recently, the Air Force refined its understanding of the core duties and responsibilities it performs as a Military Service Branch, streamlining what previously were six 0.49.1 Mission, vision, and functions distinctive capabilities and seventeen operational functions into twelve core functions to be used across the docMissions trine, organization, training, equipment, leadership, and According to the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat. education, personnel, and facilities spectrum. These core functions express the ways in which the Air Force is par502), which created the USAF: ticularly and appropriately suited to contribute to national security, but they do not necessarily express every aspect In general the United States Air of what the Air Force contributes to the nation. It should Force shall include aviation forces be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are both combat and service not othernot doctrinal constructs.* [11] wise assigned. It shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and Nuclear Deterrence Operations The purpose of Nudefensive air operations. The Air clear Deterrence Operations (NDO) is to operate, mainForce shall be responsible for the tain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capreparation of the air forces necpability to deter an adversary from taking action against essary for the effective prosecution vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US of war except as otherwise assigned should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear opand, in accordance with integrated tions. The sub-elements of this function are:* [11] joint mobilization plans, for the exAssure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the pansion of the peacetime compoAir Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike opnents of the Air Force to meet the erations mission as well as from specific actions taken to needs of war. assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuad§8062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the ing others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, contributes to promoting secuUSAF as:* [9] rity and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter • to preserve the peace and security, and provide for various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or the defense, of the United States, the Territories, non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains Commonwealths, and possessions, and any areas ocand presents credible deterrent capabilities through succupied by the United States; cessful visible demonstrations and exercises which assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries • to support national policy; from actions that threaten US national security or the pop• to implement national objectives; ulations and deployed military forces of the US, its allies * • to overcome any nations responsible for aggressive and friends. [11] acts that imperil the peace and security of the United Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear States.

148 in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either the Continental United States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance.* [11] Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. The Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (a Broken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function.* [11]

CONTENTS

First F-35 Lightning II of the 33rd Fighter Wing arrives at Eglin AFB

Offensive Counterair (OCA) is defined as“offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible”(JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense.* [11]

Defensive Counterair (DCA) is defined as“all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace”(JP 1-02). A major goal of DCA operations, in concert with OCA operations, is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is “the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy”(JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and air breathing threat defense, and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is “measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative”(JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, Air Superiority Main articles: Air supremacy and Air counter-measures, and stealth.* [11] superiority fighter Airspace control is “a process used to increase operaAir Superiority is “that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force” (JP 1-02).* [11]

tional effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace”(JP 1-02). It promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates integration of joint air operations.* [11]

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

149

Space Superiority Further information: Militarisation vehicles; maintaining and sustaining spacecraft on-orbit, of space and Space warfare rendezvous and proximity operations; disposing of (inSpace superiority is “the degree of dominance in space cluding de-orbiting and recovering) space capabilities; and reconstitution of space forces, if required”(JP 102).* [11] Cyberspace Superiority Main article: Cyberwarfare Cyberspace Superiority is“the operational advantage in, through, and from cyberspace to conduct operations at a given time and in a given domain without prohibitive interference”(AFDD 3-12, Cyberspace Operations).* [11] Cyberspace Force Application is combat operations in, through, and from cyberspace to achieve military objectives and influence the course and outcome of conflict by U.S. Air Force airmen from the 720th STG jumping out of a C- taking decisive actions against approved targets. It will 130J Hercules aircraft during water rescue training in the Florida incorporate computer network attack (CNA), computer network exploitation (CNE), and may involve aspects of panhandle influence operations. It is highly dependent on ISR, fused activiof one force over another that permits the conduct of op- all-source intelligence, sophisticated attribution * ties, situational awareness, and responsive C2. [11] erations by the former and its related land, sea, air, space, and special operations forces at a given time and place This is the passive, active, and dynamic employment of without prohibitive interference by the opposing force” capabilities to respond to imminent or on-going actions (JP 1-02). Space superiority may be localized in time against Air Force or Air Force-protected networks, the and space, or it may be broad and enduring. Space su- Air Force's portion of the Global Information Grid, or periority provides freedom of action in space for friendly expeditionary communications assigned to the Air Force. forces and, when directed, denies the same freedom to Cyberspace defense incorporates CNE, computer netthe adversary.* [11] work defense (CND), and CNA techniques and may Space Force Enhancement is defined as the“combat sup- be a contributor to influence operations. It is highly port operations and force-multiplying capabilities deliv- dependent upon ISR, fused all-source intelligence, auered from space systems to improve the effectiveness of tomated indications and warning, sophisticated attribusituational awareness, assessment, military forces as well as support other intelligence, civil, tion/characterization, * and commercial users. This mission area includes: intel- and responsive C2. [11] ligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance; integrated tactical warning and attack assessment; command, control, and communications; positioning, navigation, and timing; and environmental monitoring”(JP 1-02).* [11] Space Force Application is defined as“combat operations in, through, and from space to influence the course and outcome of conflict. This mission area includes ballistic missile defense and force projection”(JP 1-02).* [11]

Cyberspace Support is foundational, continuous, or responsive operations ensuring information integrity and availability in, through, and from Air Force-controlled infrastructure and its interconnected analog and digital portion of the battle space. Inherent in this mission is the ability to establish, extend, secure, protect, and defend in order to sustain assigned networks and missions. This includes protection measures against supply chain components plus critical C2 networks/communications links and nuclear C2 networks. The cyberspace support mission incorporates CNE and CND techniques. It incorporates all elements of Air Force Network Operations, information transport, enterprise management, and information assurance, and is dependent on ISR and all-source intelligence.* [11]

Space Control is defined as “operations to ensure freedom of action in space for the US and its allies and, when directed, deny an adversary freedom of action in space. This mission area includes: operations conducted to protect friendly space capabilities from attack, interference, or unintentional hazards (defensive space control); operations to deny an adversary's use of space capabilities (offensive space control); and the requisite current and predictive knowledge of the space environment and the oper- Command and Control Main article: Command and ational environment upon which space operations depend control (space situational awareness)" (JP 1-02).* [11]

Space Support is defined as “operations to deploy and Command and control is “the exercise of authority and sustain military and intelligence systems in space. This direction by a properly designated commander over asmission area includes: launching and deploying space signed and attached forces in the accomplishment of

150 the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission”(JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, space, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives.* [11] At the Strategic Level Command and Control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater.* [11] At the Operational Level Command and Control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives.* [11]

CONTENTS ods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO).* [11] Processing and exploitation is “the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence”(JP 2-01). It provides the ability, across the ROMO, to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action.* [11] Analysis and production is “the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements”(JP 201). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness.* [11] Dissemination and Integration is “the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions”(JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision makers.* [11]

Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of Global Precision Attack Further information: war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics Precision bombing and Strategic bombing of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. Global Precision Attack is the ability to hold at risk The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative.* [11]

Global Integrated ISR Main article: Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance Global Integrated Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations.* [11] Planning and Directing is “the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies”(JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision makers.* [11]

Combat Controllers participating in Operation Enduring Freedom provide air traffic control to a C-130 taking off from a remote airfield.

or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains.* [11]

Strategic Attack is defined as “offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or Collection is“the acquisition of information and the pro- will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic obvision of this information to processing elements”(JP 2- jectives without necessarily having to achieve operational 01). It provides the ability to obtain required information objectives as a precondition”(AFDD 3–70, Strategic Atto satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and meth- tack).* [11]

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Air Interdiction is defined as “air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air lnterdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required”(AFDD 3-03, Counterland Operations).* [11]

151 assets, and capabilities throughout the ROMO at a chosen initiative, speed, and tempo.* [11] Aviation Foreign Internal Defense operations directly execute US security and foreign policy as lead airpower elements that shape the battlefield and conduct stability operations to enable global reach and strike. This is accomplished by applying the mission set (assess, train, advise, and assist foreign aviation forces) across a continuum of operating venues described as indirect assistance, direct assistance (not including combat) and combat operations.* [11] Battlefield Air Operations is a unique set of combat proven capabilities (combat control, pararescue, combat weather, and tactical air control party) provided by regular and reserve component special operations forces (SOF) Battlefield Airmen who integrate, synchronize, and control manned and unmanned capabilities to achieve tactical, operational, and strategic objectives.* [11]

Command and Control is the exercise of the commander's authority and direction over assigned and attached forces by trained, organized, and equipped C2 elements. Operational C2 elements consist of personnel and equipA Pararescueman from the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron ment with specialized capability to plan, direct, coordiprovides medical attention to a wounded Afghan nate, and control forces in the conduct of joint/combined special operations.* [11] Close Air Support is defined as “air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in Information Operations is the integrated employment of close proximity to friendly forces and which require de- the capabilities of influence operations, electronic wartailed integration of each air mission with the fire and fare operations, and network warfare operations, in conmovement of those forces”(JP 1-02). This can be as cert with specified integrated control enablers, to ina pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture fluence, disrupt, corrupt, or usurp adversarial human decision making while protecting one's (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the and automated * own. [11] * ROMO. [11] Today the USAF believes that it accomplishes the CAS mission “better than anyone”actually Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance is the syndoes.* [12] chronization and integration of platforms and sensors with the planning and direction, collection, processing and exploitation, analysis, and production and disseminaSpecial Operations Special Operations are “opera- tion processes. These activities provide actionable intellitions conducted in hostile, denied, or politically sensi- gence, weather, environmental awareness, and prediction tive environments to achieve military, diplomatic, infor- across all SOF command echelons.* [11] mational, and/or economic objectives employing mili- Military Information Support Operations are planned optary capabilities for which there is no broad conventional erations to convey selected information and indicators to force requirement. These operations may require covert, foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, clandestine, or low-visibility capabilities. Special opera- objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of fortions are applicable across the ROMO. They can be con- eign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals. ducted independently or in conjunction with operations The purpose of military information support operations is of conventional forces or other government agencies and to induce or reinforce foreign attitudes and behavior famay include operations through, with, or by indigenous vorable to the originator's objectives.* [11] or surrogate forces. Special operations differ from conventional operations in degree of physical and political Precision Strike provides CCDRs with an integrated carisk, operational techniques, mode of employment, inde- pability to find, fix, track, target, engage, and assess tarpendence from friendly support, and dependence on de- gets using a single weapons system or a combination of tailed operational intelligence and indigenous assets”(JP systems. This includes close air support, air interdiction, and armed reconnaissance missions.* [11] 1-02).* [11] Agile Combat Support is the capability to effectively cre- Specialized Air Mobility is the conduct of rapid, global ate, prepare, deploy, employ, sustain, and protect Air infiltration, exfiltration, and resupply of personnel, equipForce Special Operations Command (AFSOC) Airmen, ment, and materiel using specialized systems and tac-

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tics. These missions may be clandestine, low visibility, Aeromedical Evacuation is “the movement of patients or overt and through hostile, denied, or politically sensi- under medical supervision to and between medical treattive airspace.* [11] ment facilities by air transportation”(JP 1-02). JP 4Specialized Refueling is the conduct of rapid, global refu- 02, Health Service Support, further defines it as “the eling using specialized systems and tactics. This includes fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and beaerial refueling of vertical lift aircraft and ground refu- tween medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or eling during forward arming and refueling point opera- contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained extions. These missions may be clandestine, low visibility, plicitly for this mission.”Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward as fixed-wing aircraft are able or overt and in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive ento conduct airland operations.* [11] * vironments. [11] Personnel Recovery Personnel Recovery (PR) is deRapid Global Mobility Main article: Airlift Rapid Global Mobility is the timely deployment, em- fined as “the sum of military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to prepare for and execute the recovery and reintegration of isolated personnel”(JP 1-02). It is the ability of the US government and its international partners to effect the recovery of isolated personnel across the ROMO and return those personnel to duty. PR also enhances the development of an effective, global capacity to protect and recover isolated personnel wherever they are placed at risk; deny an adversary's ability to exploit a nation through propaganda; and develop joint, interagency, and international capabilities that contribute to crisis response and regional stability.* [11]

An F-16 in OpFor colors soars over the Alaska Range in 2010

ployment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the Rescuemen of the USAFP, 58th Rescue Squadron exercise recovinitiative through speed and surprise.* [11] Airlift is “operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives”(AFDD 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis.* [11] Air Refueling is “the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft”(JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft.* [11]

ering a downed pilot

Combat Search and Rescue is “the tactics, techniques, and procedures performed by forces to effect the recovery of isolated personnel during combat”(JP 1-02). Combat search and rescue is the primary Air Force recovery method utilized to conduct PR taskings.* [11] Civil Search and Rescue is “the use of aircraft, surface craft, submarines, and specialized rescue teams and equipment to search for and rescue distressed persons on land or at sea in a permissive environment”(JP 102).* [11] Disaster Response can be described as the capability to support and assist US government agencies and embassies during national and international disasters with rapidly deployable and flexible air/ground rescue forces.* [11] Humanitarian Assistance Operations are“programs conducted to relieve or reduce the results of natural or manmade disasters or other endemic conditions such as human pain, disease, hunger, or privation that might present

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE a serious threat to life or that can result in great damage to or loss of property. Humanitarian assistance provided by US forces is limited in scope and duration. The assistance provided is designed to supplement or complement the efforts of the host nation civil authorities or agencies that may have the primary responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance”(JP 1-02).* [11]

153 Recover the Total Force includes preparing forces to remain in place, redeploy, relocate, and be reconstituted to prescribed levels of readiness; restoring operating locations and/or environments to planned conditions; protecting the dynamic levels of force structure; and ensuring Air Force mission elements can be effectively applied at the direction of national leadership.* [11]

Medical evacuation refers to dedicated medical evacuation platforms staffed and equipped to provide en route medical care using predesignated tactical and logistic aircraft, boats, ships, and other watercraft temporarily equipped and staffed with medical attendants for en route care. Casualty evacuation involves the unregulated movement of casualties aboard ships, land vehicles, or aircraft (JP 4-02, Health Service Support).* [11]

Agile Combat Support Agile Combat Support (ACS) is the ability to field, protect, and sustain Air Force forces across the ROMO to achieve joint effects.* [11] Ready the Total Force includes organizing, training, and equipping forces; establishing quality of life and maintaining core security; and fielding and planning for the use of operational and support forces to meet global mission requirements.* [11] Prepare the Battlespace includes assessing, planning, and posturing for rapid employment; prepositioning resources F-15E Strike Eagles of the 48th Fighter, “Statue of Liberty Wing” training at RAF Lakenheath, UK operated by United and conditioning specific theaters and/or contingency loStates Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) cations in a manner to meet closure timing; and establishing sustainment levels for potential operations.* [11] Building Partnerships Building Partnerships is dePosition the Total Force includes preparing to deploy, de- scribed as airmen interacting with international airmen ploying, receiving, and bedding down tailored and pri- and other relevant actors to develop, guide, and sustain reoritized forces; establishing initial operations and sup- lationships for mutual benefit and security. Building Partport cadres in a joint operations area; distributing pre- nerships is about interacting with others and is therefore positioned resources; establishing initial reachback con- an inherently inter-personal and cross-cultural undertaknectivity; securing operating locations; and preparing for ing. Through both words and deeds, the majority of inmission operations.* [11] teraction is devoted to building trust-based relationships Protecting the Total Force key focus areas include per- for mutual benefit. It includes both foreign partners as sonnel, critical assets, and information. These areas are well as domestic partners and emphasizes collaboration the persistent detection and understanding of threats in with foreign governments, militaries and populations as the operational environment and the timely dissemination well as US government departments, agencies, industry, of accurate decisions, warnings and taskings to protect and NGOs. To better facilitate partnering efforts, Airmen should be competent in the relevant language, reagainst attacks and/or threats.* [11] * Employ Combat Support Forces includes engaging sup- gion, and culture. [11] Communicate refers to developing and presenting information to domestic audiences to improve understanding. It is also the ability to develop and present information to foreign adversary audiences to affect their perceptions, will, behavior and capabilities in order to further security and/or shared global security interSustain the Total Force includes producing assured ca- US national * [11] ests. pacities and levels of support; accomplishing the long term mastery of an operational environment (peacetime Shape refers to conducting activities to affect the percepand wartime) requiring persistent and effective materiel tions, will, behavior, and capabilities of partners, military and personnel support through both local and reachback forces, and relevant populations to further U.S. national security or shared global security interests.* [11] processes.* [11] port forces in support of mission operations; initializing, launching, recovering, and regenerating operational elements; executing support through supporting-supported relationships; and commencing reachback operations to strategic levels of support.* [11]

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0.49.2

CONTENTS

History

Main article: History of the United States Air Force The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. In World War II, almost 68,000 U.S airmen died helping to win the war; only the infantry suffered more enlisted casualties.* [13] In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but officials wanted formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on on 26 July 1947 by President Harry S Truman, which established the Department of the Air Force, but it was not not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed.* [14]* [15] The act created the National Military Establishment (renamed Department of Defense in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.* [16] Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army (for landbased operations), the Navy (for sea-based operations from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft), and the Marine Corps (for close air support of infantry operations). The 1940s proved to be important in other ways as well. In 1947, Captain Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America.* [17]

• Aviation Section, Signal Corps 18 July 1914 – 20 May 1918 • Division of Military Aeronautics (20 May 1918 to 24 May 1918) • U.S. Army Air Service (24 May 1918 to 2 July 1926) • U.S. Army Air Corps (2 July 1926 to 20 June 1941) and • U.S. Army Air Forces (20 June 1941 to 18 September 1947) Recent history During the early 2000s, the USAF fumbled several high profile aircraft procurement projects, such as the missteps on the KC-X program. Winslow Wheeler has written that this pattern represents “failures of intellect and – much more importantly – ethics.”* [18] As a result the USAF fleet is setting new records for average aircraft age and needs to replace its fleets of fighters, bombers, airborne tankers, and airborne warning aircraft, in an age of restrictive defense budgets.* [19] Finally in the midst of scandal and failure in maintaining its nuclear arsenal, the civilian and military leaders of the air force were replaced in 2008.* [20] Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement of Basic Military Training (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a surreal environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and enemy forces in a deployment exercise.* [21]

In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned Roundels that have appeared on U.S. aircraft to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty per1.) 5/1917–2/1918 sonnel to 316,000.* [22] The size of the active duty force 2.) 2/1918–8/1919 in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was 3.) 8/1919–5/1942 at the end of the first Gulf War in 1991.* [23] However, 4.) 5/1942–6/1943 the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 per5.) 6/1943–9/1943 sonnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of 6.) 9/1943–1/1947 combatant commanders and associated mission require7.) 1/1947– ments.* [22] These same constraints have seen a sharp re* The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air duction in flight hours for crew training since 2005 [24] and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and PersonForce are: nel directing Airmen's Time Assessments.* [25] • Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps 1 August 1907 – 18 July 1914

On 5 June 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, accepted the resignations of both the Secretary of the Air

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

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Force, Michael Wynne, and the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General T. Michael Moseley. Gates in effect fired both men for “systemic issues associated with declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance.”This followed an investigation into two embarrassing incidents involving mishandling of nuclear weapons: specifically a nuclear weapons incident aboard a B-52 flight between Minot AFB and Barksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan. The resignations were also the culmination of disputes between the Air Force leadership, populated primarily by non-nuclear background fighter pilots, versus Gates.* [26] To put more emphasis on nuclear as- The F-117 Nighthawk was a stealth attack aircraft (retired from sets, the USAF established the nuclear-focused Air Force service in April 2008). Global Strike Command on 24 October 2008.* [27] Forces On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.* [28] On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.* [29] One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.* [30] In 2011, the Air Force disallowed the wear of so-called “Friday Name Tags”by aircrew personnel on flight suits and flight jackets per the new dress and appearance standards.* [31] This has been a tradition regarding call signs that dated to World War I.* [32] Conflicts

• Cold War • Korean War • Vietnam War • Operation Eagle Claw (1980 Iranian hostage rescue) • Operation Urgent Fury (1983 US invasion of Grenada) • Operation El Dorado Canyon (1986 US Bombing of Libya) • Operation Just Cause (1989–1990 US invasion of Panama) • Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm (1990– 1991 Persian Gulf War) • Operation Southern Watch (1992–2003 Iraq no-fly zone) • Operation Deliberate Force (1995 NATO bombing in Bosnia and Herzegovina) • Operation Northern Watch (1997–2003 Iraq no-fly zone) • Operation Desert Fox (1998 bombing of Iraq) • Operation Allied Force (1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia) • Operation Enduring Afghanistan War)

Freedom

(2001–present

The SR-71 Blackbird was a Cold War reconnaissance plane.

• Operations Iraqi Freedom and New Dawn (2003– 2011 Iraq War)

The United States has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. Air combat operations before, and since the official conception of the USAF include:

• Operation Odyssey Dawn (2011 Libyan no-fly zone) • Operation Inherent Resolve (2014-15 intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant)

• World War I* [33] as Aviation Section, U.S. Signal In addition since the USAF dwarfs all allied air forces, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to Corps and United States Army Air Service which the United States is otherwise not involved, for ex• World War II* [33] as United States Army Air ample the 2013 French campaign in Mali.* [34]

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Humanitarian operations

Administrative organization

The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitar- The Department of the Air Force is one of three miliian operations. Some of the more major ones include the tary departments within the Department of Defense, and following:* [35] is managed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary of Defense. The senior officials in the Office of the Sec• Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles), 1948–1949 retary are the Under Secretary of the Air Force, four • Operation Safe Haven, 1956–1957 Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force and the General • Operations Babylift, New Life, Frequent Wind, and Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The senior uniNew Arrivals, 1975 formed leadership in the Air Staff is made up of the Chief of Staff of the Air Force and the Vice Chief of Staff of • Operation Provide Comfort, 1991 the Air Force. • Operation Sea Angel, 1991 The directly subordinate commands and units are named • Operation Provide Hope, 1992–1993 Field Operating Agency (FOA), Direct Reporting Unit (DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating • Operation Provide Promise, 1992-1996 Agency. • Operation Unified Assistance, December 2004 – The Major Command (MAJCOM) is the superior hierApril 2005 archical level of command. Including the Air Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. The Numbered Air Force (NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, fol• Operation Tomodachi, 12 March 2011 – 1 May lowed by Operational Command (now unused), Air Di2011 vision (also now unused), Wing, Group, Squadron, and Flight. • Operation Unified Response, 14 January 2010– present

Budget sequestration Headquarters Air Force Due to the Budget sequestration in 2013, the USAF was forced to ground many of its squadrons. The Commander • Office of the Secretary of the Air Force, The of Air Combat Command, General Mike Hostage indiPentagon, Arlington County, Virginia cated that the USAF must reduce its F-15 and F-16 fleets and eliminate platforms like the A-10 in order to focus • The Air Staff, The Pentagon, Arlington on a fifth-generation jet fighter future.* [36] In response to County, Virginia squadron groundings and flight time reductions, many Air Force pilots have opted to resign from active duty and enter the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard while Major Commands (Force Structure) pursuing careers in the commercial airlines where they can find flight hours on more modern aircraft.* [37] • Air Combat Command (ACC), headquarSpecific concerns include a compounded inability for the tered at Joint Base Langley-Eustis, Virginia Air Force to replace its aging fleet, and an overall reduction of strength and readiness.* [38] The USAF attempted • First Air Force, headquartered at Tyndall to make these adjustments by primarily cutting the Air Air Force Base, Panama City, Florida National Guard and Air Force Reserve aircraft fleets and their associated manpower, but Congress reversed this • Ninth Air Force, headquartered at Shaw initiative and the majority of the lost manpower will come Air Force Base, Sumter, South Carolina from the active forces.* [39] However, Congress did allow for $208 million of reprogramming from fleet moderniza• Twelfth Air Force, headquartered at tion to enable some portion of the third of the grounded Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arifleet to resume operations.* [40] zona

0.49.3

Organization

Main articles: Structure of the United States Air Force and Department of the Air Force structure

•

Twenty-Fifth Air Force, headquartered at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas

•

United States Air Forces Central, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

•

•

•

•

United States Air Force Warfare Center, headquartered at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada

•

Tenth Air Force, headquartered at the Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas

Air Education and Training Command (AETC), headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas

•

Twenty-Second Air Force, headquartered at Dobbins Air Reserve Base, Marietta, Georgia

•

Air Reserve Personnel Center, headquartered at Buckley Air Force Base, Aurora, Colorado

•

Second Air Force, headquartered at Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi

•

Nineteenth Air Force, headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas

•

Air University, at Maxwell-Gunter Air Montgomery, Alabama

•

Wilford Hall Medical Center, headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas

•

Air Force Recruiting Service, headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas

headquartered Force Base,

Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC), headquartered at Barksdale Air Senior Airman Nayibe Ramos runs through a checklist in April Force Base, Louisiana •

Eighth Air Force, headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana

•

Twentieth Air Force, headquartered at Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, Cheyenne, Wyoming

2005 during Global Positioning System satellite operations. The operations center here controls a constellation of 29 orbiting satellites that provides navigation data to military and civilian users worldwide. Airman Ramos is a satellite system operator for the 2d Space Operations Squadron at Schriever AFB, Colorado.

•

Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC), headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio •

• •

•

•

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Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio Air Force Test Center, headquartered at Edwards Air Force Base, Palmdale, California Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center, headquartered at Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque, New Mexico

•

Fourteenth Air Force, headquartered at Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc, California

•

Twenty-Fourth Air Force, headquarters at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas

•

Space and Missile Systems Center, headquartered at Los Angeles Air Force Base, El Segundo, California

•

Air Force Network Integration Center, headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois

Air Force Research Laboratory, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio •

Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), headquartered at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia •

Air Force Space Command (AFSPC), headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado

Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Florida •

Fourth Air Force, headquartered at March Air Reserve Base, California

Special Operations Training Center, headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Mary Esther, Florida

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CONTENTS at McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base, Knoxville, Tennessee The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 30 September 2006, are the following:* [41] • Active duty forces

Several aircraft in a squadron at Hurlburt Field, December 2005. 6th Special Operations Squadron personnel and their aircraft. The two closest are UH-1Ns; the white aircraft on the left is a C-47T Turboprop conversion (the USAF is still flying the C-47); the white plane on the right is an Antonov An-26 (a Russian turboprop transport aircraft), and the helicopter in the back is a Mi-8 (a Russian helicopter).

• 57 flying wings, eight space wings, and 55 nonflying wings • nine flying groups, eight non-flying groups • 134 flying squadrons, 43 space squadrons • Air Force Reserve Command • 35 flying wings, one space wing

•

•

Air Mobility Command (AMC), headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Belleville, Illinois •

Eighteenth Air Force, headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Belleville, Illinois

•

United States Air Force Expeditionary Center, headquartered at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey

• four flying groups • 67 flying squadrons, six space squadrons • Air National Guard • 87 flying wings • 101 flying squadrons

squadrons,

four

space

The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., U.S. Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a Africa (USAFE), headquartered at Ramstein Air total of 302 flying squadrons.* [42] Base, Germany •

•

Third Air Force, headquartered at Operational organization Ramstein Air Base, Germany Main article: List of active United States Air Force Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), headquartered aircraft squadrons

at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii The organizational structure as shown above is responsiFifth Air Force, headquartered at Yokota ble for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of aerospace units for operational missions. When Air Base, Japan required to support operational missions, the Secretary • Seventh Air Force, headquartered at of Defense (SECDEF) directs the Secretary of the Air Osan Air Base, South Korea Force (SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative • Eleventh Air Force, headquartered alignment to the operational command of a Regional at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Combatant Commander (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, Anchorage, Alaska AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, Air National Guard (ANG) AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Re• First Air Force, headquartered at Tyndall gional CCDR. Air Force Base, Panama City, Florida •

•

Air National Guard Readiness Cen- Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force ter, headquartered at Joint Base Andrews, “Chopped”units are referred to as forces. The top-level Maryland structure of these forces is the Air and Space Expedi• I.G. Brown Air National Guard Train- tionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force ing and Education Center, headquartered presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment •

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC).

159 communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, security forces, and search and rescue specialties.* [43]

Beyond combat flight crew personnel, perhaps the most dangerous USAF jobs are Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Combat rescue officer, Pararescue, Security Forces, Combat Control, Combat Weather, Tactical Air Control Party, and AFOSI agents, who deploy with infantry and special operations units who disarm bombs, rescue downed or isolated personnel, call in air strikes and set up landing zones in forward locations. Most of these are enlisted positions augmented by a smaller number of commissioned officers. Other career fields that have seen increasing exposure to combat include civil engineers, veCommander, Air Force Forces hicle operators, and Air Force Office of Special InvestiThe Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the gations (AFOSI) personnel. senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of Nearly all enlisted career fields are“entry level”, meanair power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAF- ing that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees FOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field beor attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and fore actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC trained to support the operational mission. at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Operations Center The Air Operations Center Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for (AOC) is the JFACC's Command and Control (C2) cen- nearly all enlisted technical training. ter. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force world-wide. These centers are responsible for Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 planning and executing air power missions in support of (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of JFC objectives. training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions, sometimes taking Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by The AETF generates air power to support COCOM ob- AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically-rated offijectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air cers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are respon- well in excess of one year. sible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJUSAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, nonCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and launching and recovering these forces, and eventually reranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the comturning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control missioned officer rank of General (O-10). Enlisted proSystems control employment of forces during these mismotions are granted based on a combination of test sions. scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. process Promotions among 0.49.4 Personnel enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by airmen is the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC). bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot, four stars (one to five stars in war-time). combat systems officer, missile launch officer, intelligence officer, aircraft maintenance officer, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from Commissioned officers flight combat operations such as a gunner, to working in a dining facility to ensure that members are properly Main article: United States Air Force officer rank fed. There are additional occupational fields such as com- insignia puter specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew,

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The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories: company grade officers, field grade officers, and general officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above.* [44]

the warrant officer level, although this was not publicly acknowledged until years later. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,* [46] the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade, Chief Master Sergeant. Most of the existing Air Force warrant officers entered the commissioned officer Air Force officer promotions are governed by the Defense ranks during the 1960s, but small numbers continued to Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 and its exist in the warrant officer grades for the next 21 years. companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the James H. Long, retired in 1980 and the last Air Force Air National Guard. DOPMA also establishes limits on Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in the number of officers that can serve at any given time 1992.* [47] Upon his retirement, he was honorarily proin the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second moted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after to hold this grade.* [46] Barrow died in April 2008.* [48] two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully ranks, while still authorized by law, are not used. completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection Enlisted airmen board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center at Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11 year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the thirteen year (for officers who were promoted to major early“below the zone”) and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be selected below zone (i.e., “early”), in zone (i.e., “on time”) or above zone (i.e., “late”) for promotion to lieutenant colonel. This process Pararescuemen and a simulated“survivor”watch as an HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter comes in for a landing. will repeat at the 16 year mark (for officers previously promoted early to major and lieutenant colonel) to the 21 Main article: United States Air Force enlisted rank year mark for promotion to full colonel. insignia The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. armed forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk Enlisted members of the USAF have pay grades from E1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted). While all USAF from its Cold War highs.* [45] military personnel are referred to as Airmen, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level of non-commissioned officers (NCOs). Warrant officers Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through Although provision is made in Title 10 of the United E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are furStates Code for the Secretary of the Air Force to ap- ther subdivided into “NCOs”(pay grades E-5 and E-6) point warrant officers, the Air Force does not currently and “Senior NCOs”(pay grades E-7 through E-9); the use warrant officer grades, and is the only one of the term “Junior NCO”is sometimes used to refer to staff and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and EU.S. Armed Services not to do so. The Air Force inher- sergeants * [49] 6). ited warrant officer ranks from the Army at its inception in 1947, but their place in the Air Force structure was never made clear. When the Congress authorized the creation of two new senior enlisted ranks in 1958, Air Force officials privately concluded that these two new “super grades”could fill all Air Force needs then performed at

The USAF is the only branch of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an airman reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., a Corporal in the Army* [50] and Marine Corps, Petty Officer Third

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Class in the Navy and Coast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a Senior Airman wearing three stripes without a star or a Sergeant (referred to as“Buck Sergeant”), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a Senior Airman who has completed Airman Leadership School can be a supervisor according to the AFI 36-2618.

161 earned after working in a missile system maintenance or missile operations capacity for at least one year.

Training Main article: United States Air Force Basic Military Training

All non-prior service enlisted Airmen attend Basic Military Training (BMT) at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas for 7 1/2 weeks. The Air Force acMain article: Uniforms of the United States Air Force cepts the basic training programs of other U.S. military branches in lieu of BMT for airmen who enlist having The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed completed prior service in the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine and patented "Uxbridge Blue”after “Uxbridge 1683 Corps or Coast Guard. Blue”, developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.* [51] The current Service Dress Uni- Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from form, which was adopted in 1993 and standardized in the United States Air Force Academy, upon gradua1995, consists of a three-button, pocketless coat, similar tion from another college or university through the Air to that of a men's“sport jacket”(with silver“U.S.”pins Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) proon the lapels, with a silver ring surrounding on those of gram, or through the Air Force Officer Training School enlisted members), matching trousers, and either a ser- (OTS). OTS, previously located at Lackland AFB, Texas vice cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, “Air Force until 1993 and located at Maxwell Air Force Base in Blue”(a darker purplish-blue). This is worn with a light Montgomery, Alabama since 1993, in turn encompasses blue shirt (Shade 1550) and Shade 1620 herringbone pat- two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer terned necktie. Enlisted members wear sleeve insignia on Training (BOT), which is for line-officer candidates of both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank the active-duty Air Force and the U.S. Air Force Reserve; insignia pinned onto the coat, and Air Force Blue slide- and the Academy of Military Science (AMS), which is for on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned line-officer candidates of the Air National Guard. (The to Base Honor Guard duties wear, for certain occasions, term “line officer”derives from the concept of the line a modified version of the standard service dress uniform, of battle and refers to an officer whose role falls somebut with silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the where within the“Line of the Air”, meaning combat or addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), wheel cap combat-support operations within the scope of legitimate with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device, and a silver aigu- combatants as defined by the Geneva Conventions.) illette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer accoutrement. Training (COT) for officers of all three components who The Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) became the sole au- are direct-commissioned to non-line positions due to their thorized utility uniform (except the flight suit for air, mis- credentials in medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, sile and space crews) of the USAF on 1 November 2011. or healthcare administration. Originally viewed as a The ABU replaced the Battle Dress Uniform (BDU) pre- “knife and fork school”that covered little beyond basic wear of the uniform, COT in recent years has been fully viously worn by all U.S. military forces. integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leaderAwards and badges ship, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Main articles: Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force and Badges of the United States Air Force Air Force Fitness Test Main article: United States Air Force Fitness Assessment Uniforms

In addition to basic uniform clothing, various badges are used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-based awards. Over time, various badges have been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Authorized badges include the Shields of USAF Fire Protection, and Security Forces, and the Missile Badge (or “pocket rocket”), which is

The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of the Fit to Fight program, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which

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A-10 Thunderbolt II ground-attack aircraft USAF members training at Lackland AFB

as close air support to ground forces, their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle the USAF had used for several years had been replaced rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based The A-10 had been projected to be retired by 2019 and on performance consisting of four components: waist replaced by the F-35, but the A-10 fleet might possibly be circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile retained through upgrades until at least 2028. The AC(2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 130J is currently under development and is scheduled to 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference replace all current AC-130 variants. The AC-130W's are as 20%, and both strength test counting as 10% each. former MC-130W Combat Spear aircraft. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment • A-10C Thunderbolt II Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel may test once a year if he or she earns a score above a 90%. • AC-130J Ghostrider Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these test will not get you a passing score • AC-130U Spooky II of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a • AC-130W Stinger II failure for the entire test.

0.49.5

Aircraft inventory

B – Strategic bombers

Main article: List of active United States military aircraft The U.S. Air Force has over 5,638 aircraft in service as of September 2012.* [52] Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense aerospace vehicle designation. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: B-2 Spirit stealth strategic bomber

A – Ground attack The ground-attack aircraft of the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not possible with bomber aircraft listed below. They are typically deployed

In the US Air Force, the distinction between bombers, fighters that are actually fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred. Many attack aircraft, even ones that look like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Many fighter aircraft, such as the F-16, are often used as 'bomb trucks', despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the

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B-1B Lancer supersonic strategic bomber

one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling, which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations. The US, Russia, and the People's Republic of China operate strategic bombers.

C-17 Globemaster III, the USAF's newest and most versatile transport plane

The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. The B-52 Stratofortress airframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service C-5 Galaxy heavy airlift for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. Plans for successors to the current strategic bomber force remain only paper projects, and political and funding pressures suggest that they are likely to remain paper-bound for the foreseeable future. • B-1B Lancer • B-2A Spirit • B-52H Stratofortress C – Cargo transport The Air Force can provide rapid global mobility, which lies at the heart of U.S. strategy in this environment̶ without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As U.S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, making the unique mobility capabilities of the USAF even more in demand. Air mobility is a national asset of growing importance for responding to emergencies and protecting American interests around the globe. Cargo and transport aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations

CV-22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft

around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF Air Mobility Command are the C-130 Hercules, C-17 Globemaster III, and C-5 Galaxy. These aircraft are largely defined in terms of their range capability as strategic airlift (C-5), strategic/tactical (C-17), and tactical (C-130) airlift to reflect the needs of the land forces they most often support. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrainfollowing radar. Some aircraft serve specialized transportation roles such as executive/embassy support (C-12), Antarctic Support (LC-130H), and USSOCOM support

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(C-27J, C-145A, and C-146A). The WC-130H aircraft are former weather reconnaissance aircraft, now reverted to the transport mission.

• EC-130J Commando Solo

Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft.

• E-4B “Nightwatch”

• E-3B, E-3C and E-3G Sentry

• E-8C JSTARS • E-9A Widget • E-11A

• C-5A, C-5B, C-5C and C-5M Galaxy • C-12C, C-12D, C-12F and C-12J Huron

F – Fighter

• C-17A Globemaster III • C-27J Spartan • C-130H, LC-130H, and WC-130H Hercules • C-130J and C-130J-30 Super Hercules • C-145A Skytruck • C-146A Wolfhound • CV-22B Osprey E – Special electronic missions

F-22 Raptor stealth air superiority fighter

E-3 Sentry airborne warning and control system

F-15E Strike Eagle strike fighter

The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EMS and ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called “The Eye in the Sky.”The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include Electronic Warfare/Jamming (EC-130H), Psychological Operations/Communications (EC-130J), Airborne Early Warning and Control (E-3), Airborne Command Post (E-4B), ground targeting radar (E-8C), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A) • EC-130H Compass Call

The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for airto-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., the F-16 Fighting Falcon); the term “fighter”is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, the Thunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-rated F-4 Phantom II are retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as Full Scale Aerial Targets (FSAT) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF has 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012.* [52] • F-15C and F-15D Eagle • F-15E Strike Eagle

165 • KC-46A Pegasus • KC-135R and KC-135T Stratotanker M – Multi-mission

• F-16C and F-16D Fighting Falcon • F-22A Raptor • F-35A Lightning II H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used for search and rescue and combat search and rescue on land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH60U are replacement aircraft for “G”models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH60W helicopters are under development to replace both the “G”and “U”model Pave Hawks. • HC-130N and HC-130P Combat King • HC-130J Combat King II • HH-60G and HH-60U Pave Hawk K – Tanker

MC-12W Liberty at Beale AFB

Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling for SOF teams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace “H” and “P”models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) role. • MC-130H Combat Talon II • MC-130J Commando II • MC-130P Combat Shadow • MC-12W Liberty

KC-10 Extender tri-jet air-to-air tanker

The USAF's aerial refueling aircraft are derivatives of civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with“probe and drogue”refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in largescale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesserknown “tanker”aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. The KC-46A Pegasus is currently undergoing testing projected to start fielding in 2016. • KC-10A Extender

MQ-9 unmanned aerial vehicle

Q – Multi-mission Remote Piloted Aircraft Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-toground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV). • MQ-1B Predator • MQ-9B Reaper

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O – Observation These aircraft are modified to observe (through visual or other means) and report tactical information concerning composition and disposition of forces. The OC-135 is specifically designed to support the Treaty on Open Skies by observing bases and operations of party members under the 2002 signed treaty. • OC-135B Open Skies R – Reconnaissance RQ-170 Sentinel stealth unmanned aerial vehicle reconnaissance aircraft

T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. • T-1A Jayhawk Lockheed U-2 spy plane

• T-6A Texan II

• T-38A, T-38B, T-38C and AT-38B Talon The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no arma• Diamond T-52A ment. Although the U-2 is designated as a 'utility' aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include TG - Trainer Gliders general monitoring (RC-26B), Ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), Electronic Intelligence gathering (RCSeveral gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for 135U), Signal Intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. high altitude surveillance (U-2) • RC-26B • RC-135S Cobra Ball • RC-135U Combat Sent • RC-135V and RC-135W Rivet Joint

• TG-10B, TG-10C and TG-10D • TG-15A • TG-15B

• U-2S “Dragon Lady” U – Utility Q – Reconnaissance Remote Piloted Aircraft

Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, a Huey may be used to transSeveral unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance port personnel around a large base or launch site, while it aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recan also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all cently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility around use aircraft. of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. • U-28A • RQ-4A Global Hawk • UH-1N Iroquois • RQ-11 Raven • RQ-170 Sentinel

• UV-18B Twin Otter

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

167

0.49.6 Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots and so the pilots of various aircraft types have driven its priorities over the years. At first there was a focus on bombers (driven originally by the Bomber Mafia), followed by a focus on fighters (Fighter Mafia and following).* [54]* [55]* [56] In response to the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz, a former tactical VC-25A (Air Force One) airlift and special operations pilot was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.* [57] The Washington Post reV – VIP staff transport ported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle system of the USAF, particularly in the ofThese aircraft are used for the transportation of Very the rigid class * ficer corps. [58] Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the President, Vice President, Cabinet secretaries, govern- In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals ment officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the in the Air Force's missile launch officer officer commuJoint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. nity, Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James admitted that there remained a “systemic problem”in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission.* [59] • VC-25A (two used as Air Force One) Daniel L. Magruder, Jr defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.* [60] • C-21A Learjet Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. adds that the • C-32A and C-32B U.S. Air Force's culture also includes an egalitarianism bred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's • C-37A and C-37B principal “warriors”working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard • C-38A Courier crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt • C-40B and C-40C they needed the formal social “distance”from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of W – Weather reconnaissance its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its ofThese aircraft are used to study meteorological events ficers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being prisuch as hurricanes and typhoons. marily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as members of multi• WC-130J Hurricane Hunter crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat • WC-135C and WC-135W Constant Phoenix different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military.* [61] Undesignated foreign aircraft used by Special OperCultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been ations Squadrons cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in needed UAV operators.* [62] In spite of an urgent need for UAVs or • CN-235-100* [53] (427th Special Operations drones to provide round the clock coverage for American Squadron) troops during the Iraq War,* [63] the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus LGM - Ballistic Missile again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,* [64] • LGM-30G Minuteman III Intercontinental Ballistic and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of Missile drone programs.* [65] Paul Scharre has reported that the • C-20A, C20B, C20C, C-20G and C20H

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cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handing innovations.* [66] Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from the Royal Air Force (e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as the U.S. Army Air Service, U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from “Friday Name Tags”in flying units to an annual “Mustache Month.”The use of “challenge coins” is a recent innovation that was adopted from the U.S. Army while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the“roof stomp”, practiced by Air Force members to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement.

• List of active United States military aircraft • List of United States Air Force installations • List of United States Airmen • List of U.S. Air Force acronyms and expressions • National Museum of the United States Air Force • Project Blue Book – USAF's UFO investigation (1947–1969) • United States Air Force Band • United States Air Force Chaplain Corps • United States Air Force Combat Control Team • United States Air Force Medical Service

Slogans and creeds

• United States Air Force Thunderbirds

The United States Air Force has had numerous recruiting slogans including “No One Comes Close”and Uno 0.49.8 References Ab Alto (“One From On High”). For many years, the U.S. Air Force used“Aim High”as its recruiting slogan; [1] http://www.airforce.com/learn-about/history/part2/ Missions Part Two: Air Power Comes of Age in World War more recently, they have used “Cross into the Blue”, II, U.S. Air Force. “We've been waiting for you”and“Do Something Amaz* * ing”, [67]“Above All”, [68] and the newest one, as of [2] “Air Force Personnel Center - Air Force Personnel De7 October 2010, considered a call and response, “Aim mographics”. af.mil. high”followed with the response,“Fly-Fight-Win”* [69] Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own slo- [3] http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/ Magazine%20Documents/2012/May%202012/ gan(s). Information and logos can usually be found on * 0512facts_figs.pdf the wing, group, or squadron websites. [70] The Air Force Core Values are: “Integrity first”,“Service before self”, “Excellence in all we do”.* [71] The Airman's Creed is a statement introduced in early 2007 to summarize the culture of the Air Force.

[4] “Aim High ... Fly-Fight-Win to be Air Force motto USAF”. United States Air Force. 7 October 2010. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2010.

To help further knowledge of their mission and functions, the Air Force has also produced videos, such as“Setting the Conditions for Victory”and“How We Fight”,* [72] to outline the Air Force role in the war on terrorism and how the service succeeds in its domains of air, space, and cyberspace. The Above All campaign continues to support the message of “air, space and cyberspace”dominance.* [68]

[5] “The Air Force Flag” (PDF). Air Force Historical Research Agency. United States Air Force. 24 March 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2009.

0.49.7

[8] “Air Force Core Functions”

See also

• Air Force Association • Air Force Combat Ammunition Center • Air Force Knowledge Now • Civil Air Patrol - auxiliary of the USAF • Company Grade Officers' Council • Department of the Air Force Police

[6] United States Air Force (September 2009). “The U.S. Air Force”. United States Air Force website. Washington, DC: U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 27 September 2009. [7] 2010 United States Air Force Posture Statement. USAF, 9 February 2010.

[9] “10 USC 8062”. Law.cornell.edu. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [10] Air Force Welcome Page (2011). . Retrieved 28 December 2011. [11] Air Force Basic Doctrine, Organization, and Command (AFDD1 – 14 October 2011) [12] Davenport, Christian (12 April 2014).“Air Force plan to get rid of A-10s runs into opposition”. www.stripes.com. The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 April 2014.

0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

[13] Robert Pitta, Gordon Rottman, Jeff Fannell (1993). "US Army Air Force (1)". Osprey Publishing. p.3. ISBN 185532-295-1 [14] “The Air Force Fact Sheet”. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 30 December 2014. [15] National Security Act of 1947. U.S. Intelligence Community, October 2004. Retrieved 14 April 2006. [16] U.S. Department of State. National Security Act of 1947. Retrieved 3 October 2010. [17] Wildsmith, Snow (2012). Joining the United States Air Force. United States of America: McFarland. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-7864-4758-9. [18] Francis, Mike.“The gang that couldn't fly straight.”The Oregonian, 22 November 2010 [19] Bennett, John T.“Panetta Selects Trusted Hand for New Air Force Chief.” U.S. News & World Report, 14 May 2012. [20] Thompson, Loren. “New Air Force Chief Must Reverse Service's Downward Spiral/" Forbes Magazine, 6 August 2012. [21] “Air Force Basic Military Training - Home”. af.mil. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [22] Needed: 200 New Aircraft a Year, Air Force Magazine, October 2008. [23] “2008 USAF Almanac: People” (PDF). AIR FORCE Magazine. Retrieved 2 September 2011. 1991: 510,000; 2007: 328,600 [24] 2008/0108scarce.aspx Scarce Flying Hours [25] This story was written by Maj. Timothy Farr. “Airmen's time tour makes follow-up visits”. Af.mil. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [26] “Washington watch”, AIR FORCE Magazine, July 2008, Vol. 91 No. 7, pp. 8. [27] Chavanne, Bettina H.“USAF Creates Global Strike Command”. Aviation Week, 24 October 2008. [28] “Plan reshapes U.S. air power”. Airforcetimes.com. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [29] This story was written by Gerry J. Gilmore. “Unmanned aircraft take on increased importance”. Af.mil. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [30] 7 October 2009̶(7 October 2009). “Future U.S. Defense Needs in a High Technology Present – Up Front Blog – Brookings Institution”. Brookings.edu. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [31] “Air Force Personnel Center – dress”. Afpc.af.mil. Retrieved 8 August 2011. [32] Olds, Robin (2010). Fighter Pilot. New York: St Martin's Press.

169

[33] “Air Force Pamphlet 36-2241”. USAF, 1 July 2007. [34] ""USAF to help transport French troops to Mali."". airforcetimes.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [35] The primary source for the humanitarian operations of the USAF is the United States Air Force Supervisory Examination Study Guide (2005) [36] Tegler, Eric (28 October 2013). “ACC Gen. Mike Hostage Says Recapitalization Is Best of Bad Options” . www.defensemedianetwork.com. Defense Media Network. Retrieved 28 October 2013. [37] Shoop, Tom (November 14, 2013). “Fanning: Air Force Having Trouble Keeping Pilots, and Pay Isn't the Problem”. www.defenseone.com. National Journal Group, Inc. Retrieved 15 January 2014. [38] “Air Forceʼs aging fleet gets no relief from budget cuts” . daytondailynews.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [39] Ignatius, David (1 July 2013). “Politics tops public interest”. www.heraldtribune.com. HeraldTribune. Retrieved 14 July 2013. [40] “AF lifts grounding of combat squadrons, Thunderbirds” . Military Times. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [41] “2007 USAF Almanac: Major Commands”(PDF). AIR FORCE Magazine. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2008. [42] “2007 USAF Almanac: USAF Squadrons By Mission Type”(PDF). AIR FORCE Magazine. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2008. [43] Air Force Specialty Code Information, United States Air Force, July 2008. [44] United States Air Force officer rank insignia [45] Schwellenbach, Nick. “Brass Creep and the Pentagon: Air Force Leads the Way As Top Offender.” POGO, 25 April 2011. [46] “Warrant Officer Programs of Other Services”. United States Army Warrant Officer Association. Retrieved 18 March 2007. [47] “Warrant Officers of the US Military”. Militaryranks.us. 16 November 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [48] Air National Guard Retired Fire Chiefs. [https://www.angrfc.us:453/11/?no_cache=1&tx_ ttnews{[}tt_news{]}=9&tx_ttnews{[}backPid{]}=10& cHash=b341eff1cf “CWO4 Bob Barrow"]. Retrieved 27 January 2009. [49] “Department of Defense Enlisted Rank Insignias”. Defenselink.mil. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [50] However, the Army has dual ranks at the E-4 paygrade with Specialists not considered NCOs. Since the 1980s, the Army corporal rank has come to be awarded infrequently and is rarely found in modern units.

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[51] “Getting the Blues, by Tech. Sgt. Pat McKenna”. Air Force Link. Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 24 September 2007. [52] “USAF Almanac, The Air Force in Facts and Figures” (PDF). Air Force Magazine. May 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2013. [53] “Photos: Airtech CN-235 Aircraft Pictures”. Airliners.net. 23 December 2004. Retrieved 30 August 2010.

[69] “Aim High ... Fly-Fight-Win”. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2010. [70] US Air Force Mottos. Military-quotes.com. Retrieved 4 June 2006. [71] Our Mission – Learn About The U.S. Air Force. AirForce.com. [72] "'Setting the Conditions for Victory' video premieres online”. USAF, 3 October 2007

[54] “Air Force Culture and Conventional Strategic Airpower” . Stormingmedia.us. Retrieved 30 August 2010. References to U.S. Army predecessors of today's U.S. Air [55] Thompson, Mark (8 July 2013).“The Air Force's Future May Be in Drones, But Its Generals Won't Be”. www. time.com. Time Inc. Retrieved 8 July 2013.

Force are cited under their respective articles.

0.49.9 External links

[56] Worden, Michael (November 1997). “The Rise of the Fighter Generals”. www.dtic.mil. Air University Press. Retrieved 12 March 2014.

• Official USAF site

[57] Barnes, Julian E.; Spiegel, Peter (10 June 2008). “A different type of Air Force leader”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 30 August 2010.

• Air Force Blue Tube page on youtube.com

[58] “Combat Generation: Drone operators climb on winds of change in the Air Force”. The Washington Post. 27 February 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [59] Everstine, Brian (29 January 2014). “James: AF is addressing 'systemic' problem in nuclear force”. airforcetimes.com. Gannett Government Media. Retrieved 29 January 2014.

• Official USAF Recruiting site

• Air Force Live official blog Other • Searchable database of Air Force historical reports • USAF emblems • USAF Communications Troops

[60] http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/journal/docs-temp/ 272-magruder.pdf

• Members of the US Air Force on RallyPoint

[61] “Understanding Airmen: A primer for soldiers”(PDF). Retrieved 13 December 2011.

• Aircraft Investment Plan, Fiscal Years (FY) 2011– 2040, Submitted with the FY 2011 Budget

[62] “US Air Force Lacks Volunteers To Operate Drones”. Defense News. Retrieved 1 April 2015.

• National Commission on the Structure of the Air Force: Report to the President and the Congress of the United States

[63] Whitlock, Craig (November 13, 2013). “Drone combat missions may be scaled back eventually, Air Force chief says”. www.washingtonpost.com (The Washington Post). Retrieved 14 May 2014. [64] Wasserbly, Daniel (12 May 2014).“AUVSI 2014: USAF looking to refine RPA training regime, reduce accidents”. www.janes.com (IHS Jane's Defence Weekly). Retrieved 14 May 2014.

• Works by or about United States Air Force at Internet Archive

0.50 War

This article is about war in general. For other uses, see War (disambiguation) and The War (disambiguation). War is a state of armed conflict between autonomous organizations (such as states and non-state actors) or coalitions of such organizations. It is generally characterized [66] Scharre, Paul (29 July 2014).“How to Lose the Robotics by extreme collective aggression, destruction, and usually Revolution”. warontherocks.com (War on the Rocks). high mortality. The set of techniques used by a group to Retrieved 29 July 2014. carry out war is known as warfare. An absence of war is [67] ""Do Something Amazing”web site”. Dosomethinga- usually called "peace.” [65] Cox, Matthew (Apr 24, 2014). “Air Force Criticized for Mismanaging Drone Program”. www.military.com (A Monster Company). Retrieved 14 May 2014.

mazing.com. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [68] “Air Force rolls out new advertising campaign”, Airforcetimes.com, 20 February 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2012

While some scholars see warfare as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature,* [1] others argue that it is only a result of specific socio-cultural or ecological circumstances.* [2]

0.50. WAR

171 The English word war derives from the late Old English (c.1050) words wyrre and werre; the Old French werre; the Frankish werra; and the Proto-Germanic werso. The denotation of war derives from the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren: “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”.* [9] Another posited derivation is from the Ancient Greek barbaros, the Old Persian varhara, and the Sanskrit varvar and barbara. In German, the equivalent is Krieg; the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian term for“war” is guerra, derived from the Germanic werra “fight” ( “ , tumult”).* [10] Etymologic legend has it that the Romanic peoples adopted a foreign, Germanic word for“war”, to avoid using the Latin bellum, because, when sounded, it tended to merge with the sound of the word bello (“beautiful”). The scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology (/ˌpɑːləˈmɑːlədʒi/ pah-lə-MAHL-ə-jee), from the Greek polemos, meaning“war”, and -logy, meaning“the study of”.

0.50.2 Types The War by Tadeusz Cyprian (1949), a photograph in the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw showing ruins of Poland's capital in the aftermath of World War II

In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths down from 72,000 deaths in 1990.* [3] The deadliest war in history, in terms of the cumulative number of deaths since its start, is the Second World War, with 60–85 million deaths, followed by the Mongol conquests.* [4] Proportionally speaking, the most destructive war in modern history is the War of the Triple Alliance, which took the lives of over 60% of Paraguay's population, according to Steven Pinker. In 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth (of ten) biggest problems facing humanity for the next fifty years.* [5] War usually results in significant deterioration of infrastructure and the ecosystem, a decrease in social spending, famine, large-scale emigration from the war zone, and often the mistreatment of prisoners of war or civilians.* [6]* [7]* [8] Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant casualties.

0.50.1

Main article: Types of war War must entail some degree of confrontation using weapons and other military technology and equipment by armed forces employing military tactics and operational art within a broad military strategy subject to military logistics. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, and to reduce it to a military science.

Etymology Ruins of Guernica (1937). The Spanish Civil War was one of Europe's bloodiest and most brutal civil wars.

Mural of War (1896), by Gari Melchers

Modern military science considers several factors before a national defence policy is created to allow a war to commence: the environment in the area(s) of combat operations, the posture that national forces will adopt on the commencement of a war, and the type of warfare that troops will be engaged in.

172 • Asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Asymmetric conflicts often result in guerrilla tactics being used to overcome the sometimes vast gaps in technology and force size. • Chemical warfare involves the intentional use of chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a chemical weapon was principally used during World War I, and resulted in an estimated 1.3 million casualties, including 100,000–260,000 civilians. Tens of thousands or more civilians and military personnel died from chemical weapon effects such as scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the Great War ended.* [11] Various treaties have sought to ban its further use. Nonlethal chemical weapons, such as tear gas and pepper spray, are widely used, sometimes with deadly effect.

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0.50.3 Behaviour and conduct The behaviour of troops in warfare varies considerably, both individually and as units or armies. In some circumstances, troops may engage in genocide, war rape and ethnic cleansing. Commonly, however, the conduct of troops may be limited to posturing and sham attacks, leading to highly rule-bound and often largely symbolic combat in which casualties are much reduced from that which would be expected if soldiers were genuinely violent towards the enemy.* [14] Situations of deliberate dampening of hostilities occurred in World War I by some accounts, e.g., a volley of gunfire being exchanged after a misplaced mortar hit the British line, after which a German soldier shouted an apology to British forces, effectively stopping a hostile exchange of gunfire.* [15] Other examples of non-aggression, also from World War I, are detailed in "Good-Bye to All That.”These include spontaneous ceasefires to rebuild defences and retrieve casualties, alongside behaviour such as refusing to shoot at enemy during ablutions and the taking of great risks (described as 1 in 20) to retrieve enemy wounded from the battlefield. The most notable spontaneous ceasefire of World War I was the Christmas truce.

• Civil war is a war where the forces in conflict belong to the same nation or political entity and are vying for control of or independence from that nation or The psychological separation between combatants, and political entity. the destructive power of modern weaponry, may act to override this effect and facilitate participation by com• Conventional warfare is an attempt to reduce the batants in the mass slaughter of combatants or civilians. enemy's capability through open battle. It is a de- The unusual circumstances of warfare can incite apparclared war between existing states in which nuclear, ently normal individuals to commit atrocities.* [16] Socibiological, or chemical weapons are not used or only ologists and historians often view dehumanization as censee limited deployment in support of conventional tral to war. military goals and maneuvers.

0.50.4 History

• Globalizing war refers to a form of war which extends beyond the national or regional boundaries of Main article: Military history the immediate combatants to have implications for In prehistorical post-Paleolithic societies, war likely conthe whole planet.* [2] An obvious example of this form of war is World War II, but others such as the Vietnam War also qualify. Globalizing war thus includes world war- with that category tending to be restricted by convention to the two main examples. Transnational war, a cognate concept, refers to wars fought locally, but with implications or hostilities across the boundaries of nation-states* [12] • Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear weapons are the primary, or a major, method of coercing the capitulation of the other side, as opposed to a supporting tactical or strategic role in a conventional conflict. The percentages of men killed in war in eight tribal societies, and Europe and the U.S. in the 20th century. (Lawrence H. Keeley, Archeologist)

• Unconventional warfare, the opposite of conventional warfare, is an attempt to achieve military victory through acquiescence, capitulation, or clandes- sisted of small-scale raiding. One half of the people found in a Nubian cemetery dating to as early as 12,000 tine support for one side of an existing conflict.

0.50. WAR years ago had died of violence.* [17] Since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago,* [18] military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare. According to Conway W. Henderson, “One source claims that 14,500 wars have taken place between 3500 BC and the late 20th century, costing 3.5 billion lives, leaving only 300 years of peace (Beer 1981: 20).”* [19]

173 and mutilated during an attack on their village a century and a half before Columbus's arrival (ca. AD 1325)' ".* [24]

It is problematic however to suggest that people in past societies were any more violent than people are today. Martin and colleagues in their recent book have pulled together some of the foremost researchers studying violence in the past to show that though there may have been events like massacres in the past, the frequency and maniIn War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, a profes- festation of warfare vary greatly both within and between sor at the University of Illinois, says that approximately cultures. 90–95% of known societies throughout history engaged in at least occasional warfare,* [20] and many fought constantly.* [21]

Japanese samurai attacking a Mongol ship, 13th century According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 whites and 30,000 Indians.* [25]

In Western Europe, since the late 18th century, more than 150 conflicts and about 600 battles have taken place.* [26] During the 20th century, war resulted in a dramatic intensification of the pace of social changes, and was a crucial catalyst for the emergence of the Left as a force to be reckoned with.* [27]

F-15E deploys flares during a flight over Afghanistan, 12 November 2008

Recent rapid increases in the technologies of war, and therefore in its destructiveness (see mutual assured destruction), have caused widespread public concern, and have in all probability forestalled, and may altogether prevent the outbreak of a nuclear World War III. At the end of each of the last two World Wars, concerted and popular efforts were made to come to a greater understanding of the underlying dynamics of war and to thereby hopefully reduce or even eliminate it altogether. These efforts materialized in the forms of the League of Nations, and its successor, the United Nations.

Keeley describes several styles of primitive combat such as small raids, large raids, and massacres. All of these forms of warfare were used by primitive societies, a finding supported by other researchers.* [22] Keeley explains that early war raids were not well organized, as the participants did not have any formal training. Scarcity of re- Shortly after World War II, as a token of support for this sources meant that defensive works were not a cost effec- concept, most nations joined the United Nations. During tive way to protect the society against enemy raids.* [23] this same post-war period, with the aim of further deleWilliam Rubinstein wrote that “Pre-literate societies, gitimizing war as an acceptable and logical extension of even those organised in a relatively advanced way, were foreign policy, most national governments also renamed renowned for their studied cruelty ... 'archaeology yields their Ministries or Departments of War as their Ministries evidence of prehistoric massacres more severe than any or Departments of Defense, for example, the former US recounted in ethnography [i.e., after the coming of the Department of War was renamed as the US Department Europeans]'. At Crow Creek, South Dakota, as noted, ar- of Defense. chaeologists found a mass grave of 'more than 500 men, In 1947, in view of the rapidly increasingly destructive women, and children who had been slaughtered, scalped, consequences of modern warfare, and with a particu-

174 lar concern for the consequences and costs of the newly developed atom bomb, Albert Einstein famously stated, “I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones.”* [28] Mao Zedong urged the socialist camp not to fear nuclear war with the United States since, even if “half of mankind died, the other half would remain while imperialism would be razed to the ground and the whole world would become socialist.”* [29] The Human Security Report 2005 documented a significant decline in the number and severity of armed conflicts since the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. However, the evidence examined in the 2008 edition of the Center for International Development and Conflict Management's“Peace and Conflict”study indicated that the overall decline in conflicts had stalled.* [30] Throughout history Main article: Wars

CONTENTS • The Spanish naval victory of the Battle of Lepanto, 1571, the last battle to be fought primarily between galleys • Battle of White Mountain, 1620, an early battle in the Thirty Years' War • The Four Days' Battle, 1–4 June 1666, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War • The Battle of Poltava (1709), a decisive battle between Russian and Swedish troops • Depicting French Cuirassiers charging onto the British squares during the Battle of Waterloo • The 20th Foot at the Battle of Inkerman, Crimean War, 1854 • American Civil War, Union captures Fort Fisher, 1865 • 2nd Canadian Division soldiers score key WW1 victory in the Battle of Vimy Ridge, April 1917 • A Soviet soldier waving a flag in victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the largest, deadliest battle in history.

Nine largest (by death toll) Main article: List of wars by death toll

• Canadian Army in Operation Overlord on D-Day at Juno Beach, June 1944.

Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century. These are the 0.50.5 Effects two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese Nations customarily measure the 'costs of War (which is sometimes considered part of World War war' in dollars, lost production, or the number II, or overlapping with that war). Most of the others inof soldiers killed or wounded. Rarely do volved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of military establishments attempt to measure World War II, being 60 million plus, surpasses all other the costs of war in terms of individual human war-death-tolls. This may be due to significant recent suffering. Psychiatric breakdown remains advances in weapons technologies, as well as recent inone of the most costly items of war when creases in the overall human population. expressed in human terms. * [31] ̶No More Heroes, Richard Gabriel* [26] Historic famous battles • Greek hoplite and persian warrior depicted fighting, On military personnel on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC • The Battle of Tewkesbury (1471) during the Wars of Military personnel subject to combat in war often suffer mental and physical injuries, including depression, the Roses in England posttraumatic stress disorder, disease, injury, and death. • A cattle raid during the Swabian War (Luzerner Schilling) In every war in which American soldiers have fought in, the chances of becoming a • The Battle of Ravenna, in which France defeated the psychiatric casualty – of being debilitated for Spaniards on Easter Sunday in 1512 some period of time as a consequence of the stresses of military life – were greater than the • Swiss and Landsknecht pikemen fight at "push of chances of being killed by enemy fire. pike" during the Italian Wars ̶No More Heroes, Richard Gabriel* [26] • Russo-Polish war, Battle of Orsha in 1514

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Disability-adjusted life year for war per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004* [44] no data less than 100 100–200 200–600 600–1000 1000–1400 1400–1800 1800–2200 2200–2600 2600–3000 3000–8000 8000–8800 more than 8800

175 One-tenth of mobilised American men were hospitalised for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1945, and after thirty-five days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees. ̶14–18: Understanding the Great War, Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker* [26]

Additionally, it has been estimated that anywhere from 18% to 54% of Vietnam war veterans suffered from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.* [14] Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white American males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18% in the South.* [45] The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 military personnel. United States military casualties of war since 1775 have totaled over two million. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured.* [46]

The Apotheosis of War (1871) by Vasily Vereshchagin

During World War II, research conducted by US Army Brigadier General S.L.A. Marshall found that, on average, only 15% to 20% of American riflemen in WWII combat fired at the enemy.* [14] In Civil War Collectorʼs Encyclopedia, F.A. Lord notes that of the 27,574 discarded muskets found on the Gettysburg battlefield, nearly 90% were loaded, with 12,000 loaded more than once and 6,000 loaded 3 to 10 times. These studies suggest that most military personnel resist firing their weapons in combat, that – as some theorists argue – human beings have an inherent resistance to killing their fellow human beings.* [14] Swank and Marchandʼs WWII study found that after sixty days of continuous combat, 98% of all surviving military personnel will become psychiatric casualties. Psychiatric casualties manifest themselves in fatigue cases, confusional states, conversion hysteria, anxiety, obsessional and compulsive states, and character disorders.* [14]

Why?, from The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra), by Francisco Goya, 1812–15. A collection of depictions of the brutalities of the Napoleonic-Peninsular War.

The remains of dead Crow Indians killed and scalped by Sioux c. 1874

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CONTENTS traded between France and Germany on three different occasions.

Typically speaking, war becomes very intertwined with the economy and many wars are partially or entirely based on economic reasons. Some economists believe war can stimulate a country's economy (high government spending for World War II is often credited with bringing the USA out of the Great Depression by most Keynesian Les Grandes Misères de la guerre depict the destruction un- economists) but in many cases, such as the wars of Louis XIV, the Franco-Prussian War, and World War I, warleashed on civilians during the Thirty Years' War. fare serves only to damage the economy of the countries involved. For example, Russia's involvement in World During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow, more French War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it almilitary personnel died of typhus than were killed by the most collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the Russians.* [47] Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Russian Revolution of 1917. Neman on 25 June 1812, less than 40,000 returned. More military personnel were killed from 1500–1914 by typhus than from military action.* [48] In addition, if it were not World War II One of the starkest illustrations of the for modern medical advances there would be thousands effect of war upon economies is the Second World War. more dead from disease and infection. For instance, dur- The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations ining the Seven Years' War, the Royal Navy reported that creased their production of war materials to serve the war it conscripted 184,899 sailors, of whom 133,708 died of effort.* [56] The financial cost of World War II is estidisease or were 'missing'.* [49] mated at about a trillion U.S. dollars worldwide, making * * It is estimated that between 1985 and 1994, 378,000 peo- it the most costly war in capital as well as lives. [57] [58] ple per year died due to war.* [50]

By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with 70% of the industrial infrastructure destroyed.* [59] Property damage in the Soviet Union inOn civilians flicted by the Axis invasion was estimated at a value of 679 billion rubles. The combined damage consisted of See also: Civilian casualties complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 Most wars have resulted in significant loss of life, along industrial establishments, 40,000 mi (64,374 km) of railwith destruction of infrastructure and resources (which road, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 * may lead to famine, disease, and death in the civilian schools, and 43,000 public libraries. [60] population). During the Thirty Years' War in Europe, the population of the Holy Roman Empire was reduced by 15 to 40 percent.* [51]* [52] Civilians in war zones may also On the arts be subject to war atrocities such as genocide, while survivors may suffer the psychological aftereffects of wit- War leads to forced migration causing potentially large displacements of population. Among forced migrants nessing the destruction of war. there are usually relatively large shares of artists and other Most estimates of World War II casualties indicate that types of creative people, causing so the war effects to be around 60 million people died, 40 million of which were particularly harmful for the countryʼs creative potential civilians.* [53] Deaths in the Soviet Union were around in the long-run.* [61] 27 million.* [54] Since a high proportion of those killed were young men who had not yet fathered any children, War is further argued to have a direct impact on artistic population growth in the postwar Soviet Union was much output, as it disrupts the production processes and distribution of artworks. Since creativity in the arts is often an lower than it otherwise would have been.* [55] expression of intense feeling, and as war affects the frame of mind of an artist, it has a negative effect on an artistsʼ On the economy individual life-cycle output.* [62] See also: Military Keynesianism Once a war has ended, losing nations are sometimes required to pay war reparations to the victorious nations. In certain cases, land is ceded to the victorious nations. For example, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has been

It is not uncommon that during Wars, cultural institutions, such as libraries, are seen as“targets in themselves; their elimination was a way to denigrate and demoralize the enemy population.”It is important to know about and understand the impact such destruction can have on a society because “in an era in which competing ideologies fuel internal and international conflict, the destruction of

0.50. WAR libraries and other items of cultural significance is neither random nor irrelevant. Preserving the worldʼs repositories of knowledge is crucial to ensuring that the darkest moments of history do not endlessly repeat themselves.” * [63]

0.50.6

Factors ending a war

177 overwhelming military force as an attempt to prevent further harm to life and property. For example, the Empire of Japan gave an unconditional surrender to the Allies after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see Surrender of Japan) and the preceding massive strategic bombardment of Japan. A settlement or surrender may also be obtained through deception or bluffing. Many other wars, however, have ended in complete destruction of the opposing territory, such as the Battle of Carthage of the Third Punic War between the Phoenician city of Carthage and Ancient Rome in 149 BC. In 146 BC the Romans burned the city, enslaved its citizens, and razed the buildings. Some wars or aggressive actions end when the military objective of the victorious side has been achieved. Others do not, especially in cases where the state structures do not exist, or have collapsed prior to the victory of the conqueror. In such cases, disorganised guerilla warfare may continue for a considerable period. In cases of complete surrender conquered territories may be brought under the permanent dominion of the victorious side. A raid for the purpose of looting may be completed with the successful capture of goods. In other cases an aggressor may decide to end hostilities to avoid continued losses and cease hostilities without obtaining the original objective, such as happened in the Iran–Iraq War.

Some hostilities, such as insurgency or civil war, may persist for long periods of time with only a low level of military activity. In some cases there is no negotiation of any official treaty, but fighting may trail off and eventually stop after the political demands of the belligerent groups have been reconciled, a political settlement has been negotiated, the combatants are gradually killed or decide the conflict is futile, or the belligerents cease active military engagement but still threaten each other. A good example is the Chinese Civil War which was essentially over by 1950, but in the second half of the 20th century the American and Filipino troops surrender to the Japanese at People's Republic of China began fighting to isolate the Bataan. Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) diplomatically, and still sporadically threatens the island with The political and economic circumstances, in the peace an invasion. For this reason, some historians consider the that follows war, usually depend on the facts on the war not ended but continuing. ground. Where evenly matched adversaries decide that the conflict has resulted in a stalemate, they may cease hostilities to avoid further loss of life and property. They 0.50.7 Ongoing conflicts may decide to restore the antebellum territorial boundaries, redraw boundaries at the line of military control, Main article: List of ongoing military conflicts or negotiate to keep or exchange captured territory. Negotiations between parties involved at the end of a war There are currently dozens of ongoing armed conflicts often result in a treaty, such as the Treaty of Versailles of around the world, the deadliest of which is the Syrian 1919, which ended the First World War. Civil War. A warring party that surrenders or capitulates may have little negotiating power, with the victorious side either imposing a settlement or dictating most of the terms of 0.50.8 Efforts to limit or stop wars any treaty. A common result is that conquered territory is brought under the dominion of the stronger military Main article: Anti-war movement power. An unconditional surrender is made in the face of See also: Aestheticization of violence

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Religious groups have long formally opposed or sought

Execution at Verdun at the time of the mutinies of 1917, when parts of the French Army refused to conduct further offensive operations

to limit war as in the Second Vatican Council document Gaudiem et Spes:“Any act of war aimed indiscriminately at the destruction of entire cities of extensive areas along with their population is a crime against God and man himself. It merits unequivocal and unhesitating condemnation.”* [64] Anti-war movements have existed for every major war in the 20th century, including, most prominently, World War I, World War II, and the Vietnam War. In the 21st century, worldwide anti-war movements occurred ever since the United States invaded Afghanistan and Iraq. In 2001, the US government decided to invade Afghanistan to fight against international terrorism that caused the September 11 attacks. Protests opposing the War in Afghanistan occurred in cities in Europe, Asia, and all over the United States. Organizations like Stop the War Coalition, based in the United Kingdom, work on campaigning against the war. They raise awareness of the war, organize demonstrations, and lobby the governments.* [65] Significant worldwide opposition to the Iraq War also exists. Critics oppose the war based on the argument of violation of sovereignty, absence of the UN approval, and perceived illegitimacy. The Mexican Drug War, with estimated casualties of 40,000 since December 2006, has been recently facing a fundamental opposition.* [66] In 2011, the movement for peace and justice has started a popular middle-class movement against the war. It has won the recognition of President Calderon, who started the war, but has not ended it.* [67]

The Ottoman campaign for territorial expansion in Europe in 1566, Crimean Tatars as vanguard. The Tatars essentially sought booty, especially slaves.

dertaking the war. For example, in the Third Punic War, Rome's leaders may have wished to make war with Carthage for the purpose of eliminating a resurgent rival, while the individual soldiers may have been motivated by a wish to make money. Since many people are involved, a war may acquire a life of its own from the confluence of many different motivations. An interpretation of the ancient Jewish commentary (BeReshit Rabbah) on the fight between Cain and Abel in Genesis 4 (Parashot BeReshit XXII:7) states that there are three universal reasons for wars: (A) Economics, (B) Power, and (C) Religion.* [69] As the strategic and tactical aspects of warfare are always changing, theories and doctrines relating to warfare are often reformulated before, during, and after every major war. Carl von Clausewitz said, 'Every age had its own kind of war, its own limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions.'* [70] The one constant factor is warʼ s employment of organized violence and the resultant destruction of property and/or lives that necessarily follows.

Governments also use the method of disarmament to stop and prevent the cost of war. Psychoanalytic psychology Dutch psychoanalyst Joost Meerloo held that, “War is often...a mass discharge of accumulated internal rage (where)...the inner fears of mankind are discharged in There is no scholarly agreement on which are the most mass destruction.”* [71] Thus war can sometimes be a common motivations for war.* [68] Motivations may be means by which man's own frustration at his inability to different for those ordering the war than for those un- master his own self is expressed and temporarily relieved

0.50.9

Theories for motivation

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179

via his unleashing of destructive behavior upon others. In als, April 18, 1946* [76] this destructive scenario, these others are made to serve as the scapegoat of man's own unspoken and subconscious Evolutionary frustrations and fears. Other psychoanalysts such as E.F.M. Durban and John See also: Prehistoric warfare Bowlby have argued that human beings are inherently vi- Several theories concern the evolutionary origins of warolent.* [72] This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement and projection where a person transfers his or her grievances into bias and hatred against other races, religions, nations or ideologies. By this theory, the nation state preserves order in the local society while creating an outlet for aggression through warfare. If war is innate to human nature, as is presupposed and predetermined by many psychological theories, then there is little hope of ever escaping it. The Italian psychoanalyst Franco Fornari, a follower of Melanie Klein, thought that war was the paranoid or pro- Increasing population and constant warfare among the Maya jective“elaboration”of mourning.* [73] Fornari thought city-states over resources may have contributed to the eventual that war and violence develop out of our“love need”: our collapse of the Maya civilization by AD 900. wish to preserve and defend the sacred object to which we are attached, namely our early mother and our fusion with her. For the adult, nations are the sacred objects that generate warfare. Fornari focused upon sacrifice as the essence of war: the astonishing willingness of human beings to die for their country, to give over their bodies to their nation. Despite Fornari's theory that man's altruistic desire for self-sacrifice for a noble cause is a contributing factor towards war, in history only a tiny fraction of wars have originated from a desire for war from the general populace.* [74] Far more often the general population has been reluctantly drawn into war by its rulers. One psychological theory that looks at the leaders is advanced by Maurice Walsh.* [75] He argues that the general populace is more neutral towards war and that wars only occur when leaders with a psychologically abnormal disregard for human life are placed into power. War is caused by leaders that seek war such as Napoleon and Hitler. Such leaders most often come to power in times of crisis when the populace opts for a decisive leader, who then leads the nation to war. Naturally, the common people don't want war; neither in Russia nor in England nor in America, nor for that matter in Germany. That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy or a fascist dictatorship or a Parliament or a Communist dictatorship. ... the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country. ̶Hermann Göring at the Nuremberg tri-

Women and priests retrieve the dead bodies of Swabian soldiers just outside the city gates of Constance after the battle of Schwaderloh. (Luzerner Schilling)

fare. There are two main schools: One sees organized warfare as emerging only in or after the Mesolithic as a result of complex social organization and greater population density and competition over resources; the other school sees human warfare as a more ancient practice that derives from common animal tendencies, such as territoriality and sexual competition.* [77] The latter school argues that since warlike behavior patterns are found in many primate species such as chimpanzees,* [78] as well as in many ant species,* [79]

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group conflict may be a general feature of animal social behavior. Some proponents of the idea argue that war, while innate, has been intensified greatly by developments of technology and social organization such as weaponry and states.* [80] Psychologist and linguist Steven Pinker in his book The Blank Slate claims that raiding or warfare between groups of humans in the ancestral environment was often beneficial for the victors. This includes gaining control over scarce resources as well as the women of the defeated or raided group. He argues that various features of modern warfare such as alliances between groups and preemptive wars were likely part of these conflicts. In order to have a credible deterrence against other groups (as well as on an individual level), it was important to have a reputation for retaliation, causing humans to develop instincts for revenge as well as for protecting a group's (or an individual's) reputation ("honor"). In The Better Angels of Our Nature Pinker argues that the development of the state and the police have dramatically reduced the level of warfare and violence compared to the ancestral environment. Whenever the state breaks down, which can be very locally such as in poor areas of a city, humans again organize in groups for protection and aggression and concepts such as violent revenge and protecting honor again become extremely important. Ashley Montagu strongly denied universalistic instinctual arguments, arguing that social factors and childhood socialization are important in determining the nature and presence of warfare. Thus, he argues, warfare is not a universal human occurrence and appears to have been a historical invention, associated with certain types of human societies.* [81] Montagu's argument is supported by ethnographic research conducted in societies where the concept of aggression seems to be entirely absent, e.g. the Chewong and Semai of the Malay peninsula.* [82] Bobbi S. Low has observed correlation between warfare and education, noting that societies where warfare is commonplace encourage their children to be more aggressive.* [83] Crofoot and Wrangham have argued that warfare, if defined as group interactions in which“coalitions attempt to aggressively dominate or kill members of other groups” , is a characteristic of most human societies. Those in which it has been lacking“tend to be societies that were politically dominated by their neighbors”.* [84]

Economic War can be seen as a growth of economic competition in a competitive international system. In this view wars begin as a pursuit of markets for natural resources and for wealth. While this theory has been applied to many conflicts, such counter arguments become less valid as the increasing mobility of capital and information level the distributions of wealth worldwide, or when consid-

Kuwaiti oil wells on fire, during the Gulf War, 1 March 1991

ering that it is relative, not absolute, wealth differences that may fuel wars. There are those on the extreme right of the political spectrum who provide support, fascists in particular, by asserting a natural right of a strong nation to whatever the weak cannot hold by force.* [85]* [86] Some centrist, capitalist, world leaders, including Presidents of the United States and US Generals, expressed support for an economic view of war. Is there any man, is there any woman, let me say any child here that does not know that the seed of war in the modern world is industrial and commercial rivalry? – Woodrow Wilson, September 11, 1919, St. Louis.* [87] I spent 33 years and four months in active military service and during that period I spent most of my time as a high class muscle man for Big Business, for Wall Street and the bankers. In short, I was a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism. – Major General Smedley Butler (simultaneously the highest ranking and most decorated United States Marine (including two Medals of Honor) and Republican Party primary candidate for the United States Senate) 1935.* [88]

The enemy aggressor is always pursuing a course of larceny, murder, rapine and barbarism. We are always moving forward with high mission, a destiny imposed by the Deity to regenerate our victims, while incidentally capturing their markets; to civilise savage and senile and paranoid peoples, while blundering accidentally into their oil wells. – John T. Flynn, conservative American author, 1944.* [89] For the corporation executives, the military metaphysic often coincides with their interest in a stable and planned flow of profit; it enables

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181 Demographic Demographic theories can be grouped into two classes, Malthusian theories and youth bulge theories.

Belligerents of the Second Congo War, with all sides taking advantage of the anarchy to plunder the Congo's natural resources.

them to have their risk underwritten by public money; it enables them reasonably to expect that they can exploit for private profit now and later, the risky research developments paid for by public money. It is, in brief, a mask of the subsidized capitalism from which they extract profit and upon which their power is based. – C. Wright Mills, Causes of World War 3, 1960. In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex. The potential for disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. – Dwight Eisenhower, Farewell Address, January 17, 1961.

U.S. Marine helicopter on patrol in Somalia as part of the Unified Task Force, 1992

Malthusian Malthusian theories see expanding population and scarce resources as a source of violent conflict. Pope Urban II in 1095, on the eve of the First Crusade, spoke: For this land which you now inhabit, shut in on all sides by the sea and the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furnishes food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another, that you wage wars, and that many among you perish in civil strife. Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels end. Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulchre; wrest that land from a wicked race, and subject it to yourselves.* [91]

This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to be called the Malthusian theory of war, in which wars are Marxist caused by expanding populations and limited resources. The Marxist theory of war is quasi-economic in that it Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) wrote that populations alstates that all modern wars are caused by competition for ways increase until they are limited by war, disease, or * resources and markets between great (imperialist) pow- famine. [92] ers, claiming these wars are a natural result of the free This theory is thought by Malthusians to account for the market and class system. Part of the theory is that war will relative decrease in wars during the past fifty years, espeonly disappear once a world revolution, over-throwing cially in the developed world, where advances in agriculfree markets and class systems, has occurred. Marxist ture have made it possible to support a much larger popuphilosopher Rosa Luxemburg theorized that imperialism lation than was formerly the case, and where birth control was the result of capitalist countries needing new markets. has dramatically slowed the increase in population. Expansion of the means of production is only possible if there is a corresponding growth in consumer demand. Since the workers in a capitalist economy would be un- Youth bulge Youth bulge theory differs significantly able to fill the demand, producers must expand into non- from Malthusian theories. Its adherents see a combinacapitalist markets to find consumers for their goods, hence tion of large male youth cohorts – as graphically repredriving imperialism.* [90] sented as a“youth bulge”in a population pyramid – with

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Median age by country. A youth bulge is evident for Africa, and to a lesser extent for South and Southeast Asia and Central America.

a lack of regular, peaceful employment opportunities as a risk pool for violence. While Malthusian theories focus on a disparity between a growing population and available natural resources, youth bulge theory focuses on a disparity between noninheriting, 'excess' young males and available social positions within the existing social system of division of labour. Contributors to the development of youth bulge theory include French sociologist Gaston Bouthoul,* [93] U.S. sociologist Jack A. Goldstone,* [94] U.S. political scientist Gary Fuller,* [95]* [96]* [97] and German sociologist Gunnar Heinsohn.* [98] Samuel Huntington has modified his Clash of Civilizations theory by using youth bulge theory as its foundation: I don't think Islam is any more violent than any other religions, and I suspect if you added it all up, more people have been slaughtered by Christians over the centuries than by Muslims. But the key factor is the demographic factor. Generally speaking, the people who go out and kill other people are males between the ages of 16 and 30. During the 1960s, 70s and 80s there were high birth rates in the Muslim world, and this has given rise to a huge youth bulge. But the bulge will fade. Muslim birth rates are going down; in fact, they have dropped dramatically in some countries. Islam did spread by the sword originally, but I don't think there is anything inherently violent in Muslim theology.* [99]

Palestinian militant with an M16 rifle, 2009

when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a nation belong to the“fighting age”cohorts from 15 to 29 years of age. It will follow periods with total fertility rates as high as 4–8 children per woman with a 15–29-year delay. A total fertility rate of 2.1 children born by a woman during her lifetime represents a situation in which the son will replace the father, and the daughter will replace the mother, accounting for a small proportion of deaths to factors such as illness and accidents. Thus, a total fertility rate of 2.1 represents replacement level, while anything below represents a sub-replacement fertility rate leading to population decline. Total fertility rates above 2.1 will lead to population growth and to a youth bulge. A total fertility rate of 4–8 children per mother implies 2–4 sons per mother. Consequently, one father has to leave not 1, but 2 to 4 social positions (jobs) to give all his sons a perspective for life, which is usually hard to achieve. Since respectable positions cannot be increased at the same speed as food, textbooks and vaccines, many “angry young men”find themselves in a situation that tends to escalate their adolescent anger into violence: they are 1. Demographically superfluous, 2. Might be out of work or stuck in a menial job, and 3. Often have no access to a legal sex life before a career can earn them enough to provide for a family. See: Hypergamy, Waithood.

Youth Bulge theories represent a relatively recent development but seem to have become more influential in guiding U.S. foreign policy and military strategy as both Gold- The combination of these stress factors according to * stone and Fuller have acted as consultants to the U.S. Heinsohn [101] usually heads for one of six different exGovernment. CIA Inspector General John L. Helgerson its: referred to youth bulge theory in his 2002 report “The National Security Implications of Global Demographic 1. Emigration (“non-violent colonization") Change”.* [100] 2. Violent crime According to Heinsohn, who has proposed youth bulge theory in its most generalized form, a youth bulge occurs 3. Rebellion or putsch

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183 Youth bulge theories have been criticized as leading to racial, gender and age “discrimination”.* [113] Rationalist

Mexican soldiers detain cartel suspects in Michoacán, 2007

4. Civil war and/or revolution 5. Genocide (to take over the possessions of the slaughtered) 6. Conquest (violent colonization, frequently including U.S. soldiers directing artillery on enemy trucks in A Shau Valley, genocide abroad). April 1968. Religions and ideologies are seen as secondary factors that are being used to legitimate violence, but will not lead to violence by themselves if no youth bulge is present. Consequently, youth bulge theorists see both past“Christianist”European colonialism and imperialism and today's “Islamist”civil unrest and terrorism as results of high birth rates producing youth bulges* [102] – with the Israeli-occupied Gaza Strip now being seen as another example of youth-bulge-driven violence. Among prominent historical events that have been linked to the existence of youth bulges is the role played by the historically large youth cohorts in the rebellion and revolution waves of early modern Europe, including the French Revolution of 1789,* [103] and the importance of economic depression hitting the largest German youth cohorts ever in explaining the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s.* [104] The 1994 Rwandan Genocide has also been analyzed as following a massive youth bulge.* [105] While the implications of population growth have been known since the completion of the National Security Study Memorandum 200 in 1974,* [106] neither the U.S. nor the WHO have implemented the recommended measures to control population growth to avert the terrorist threat. Prominent demographer Stephen D. Mumford attributes this to the influence of the Catholic Church.* [107]

Rationalist theories of war assume that both sides to a potential war are rational, which is to say that each side wants to get the best possible outcome for itself for the least possible loss of life and property to its own side. Given this assumption, if both countries knew in advance how the war would turn out, it would be better for both of them to just accept the post-war outcome without having to actually pay the costs of fighting the war. This is based on the notion, generally agreed to by almost all scholars of war since Carl von Clausewitz, that wars are reciprocal, that all wars require both a decision to attack and also a decision to resist attack. Rationalist theory offers three reasons why some countries cannot find a bargain and instead resort to war: issue indivisibility, information asymmetry with incentive to deceive, and the inability to make credible commitments.* [114] Issue indivisibility occurs when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining because the thing over which they are fighting cannot be shared between them, only owned entirely by one side or the other. Religious issues, such as control over the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, are more likely to be indivisible than economic issues.

A bigger branch of the theory, advanced by scholars of international relations such as Geoffrey Blainey, is that both sides decide to go to war and one side may have miscalculated. Looking at wars in history he argues, “war is usually the outcome of a diplomatic crisis which cannot Youth Bulge theory has been subjected to statistical analbe solved because both sides have conflicting estimates of * ysis by the World Bank, [108] Population Action Internatheir bargaining power.”* [115] * tional, [109] and the Berlin Institute for Population and Development.* [110] Detailed demographic data for most Some scholars focus on information asymmetry with incountries is available at the international database of the centives to misrepresent. The two countries may not United States Census Bureau.* [111] Statistic data about agree on who would win a war between them, or whether historical development of demographic and economic pa- victory would be overwhelming or merely eked out, berameters over the last 200 years for each country can be cause each side has military secrets about its own capabilvisualized at Gapminder.* [112] ities. They will not avoid the bargaining failure by sharing

184 their secrets, since they cannot trust each other not to lie and exaggerate their strength to extract more concessions. For example, Sweden made efforts to deceive Nazi Germany that it would resist an attack fiercely, partly by playing on the myth of Aryan superiority and by making sure that Hermann Göring only saw elite troops in action, often dressed up as regular soldiers, when he came to visit.

CONTENTS ory, for example, the Peace War Game, not a wargame as such, rather a simulation of economic decisions underlying war. The rationalist theory focused around bargaining is currently under debate in the field. The Iraq War proved to be an anomaly that undercuts the validity of applying rationalist theory to some wars.* [121] Political science The statistical analysis of war was pioneered by Lewis Fry Richardson following World War I. More recent databases of wars and armed conflict have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project, Peter Brecke and the Uppsala Conflict Data Program. The following subsections consider causes of war from system, societal, and individual levels of analysis. This kind of division was first proposed by Kenneth Waltz in Man, the State, and War (1959) and has been often used by political scientists since then.* [122]* :143

U.S. Marines direct a concentration of fire at the enemy, Vietnam, 8 May 1968

System-level theories There are several different international relations theory schools. Supporters of realism in international relations argue that the motivaThe American decision to enter the Vietnam War was tion of states is the quest for security, and conflicts can made with the full knowledge that the communist forces arise from the inability to distinguish defense from ofwould resist them, but did not believe that the guerrillas fense, which is called the security dilemma.* [122]* :145 had the capability to long oppose American forces. Within the realist school as represented by scholars Thirdly, bargaining may fail due to the states' inability such as Henry Kissinger and Hans Morgenthau, and the to make credible commitments.* [116] In this scenario, neorealist school represented by scholars such as Kenneth the two countries might be able to come to a bargain that Waltz and John Mearsheimer, two main sub-theories are would avert war if they could stick to it, but the benefits of the bargain will make one side more powerful and lead 1. Balance of power theory: States have the goal of it to demand even more in the future, so that the weaker preventing a single state from becoming a hegeside has an incentive to make a stand now. mon. Wars result if the would-be hegemon doesn't Within the rationalist tradition, some theorists have suggested individuals engaged in war suffer a normal level of cognitive bias,* [117] but are still “as rational as you and me”.* [118] According to philosopher Iain King,“Most instigators of conflict overrate their chances of success, while most participants underrate their chances of injury....”* [119] King asserts that“Most catastrophic military decisions are rooted in GroupThink" which is faulty, but still rational.* [120]

back down from trying to acquire power. According to this view, an international system with more equal distribution of power is more stable, and “movements toward unipolarity are destabilizing.”* [122]* :147 However, evidence has shown that power polarity is not actually a major factor in the occurrence of wars.* [122]* :147–148 2. Power transition theory: Hegemons take control and impose stabilizing conditions on the world order, but they eventually decline, and wars occur when a declining hegemon either is challenged by another rising power or aims to preemptively suppress the new rising power.* [122]* :148 On this view, unlike for balance-of-power theory, wars become more probable when power is more equally distributed. This “power preponderance”hypothesis has empirical support.* [122]* :148

Rationalist explanations of war can be critiqued on a number of grounds. The assumptions of cost-benefit calculations become dubious in the most extreme genocidal cases of World War II, where the only bargain offered in some cases was infinitely bad. Rationalist theories typically assume that the state acts as a unitary individual, doing what is best for the state as a whole; this is problematic when, for example, the country's leader is beholden to a very small number of people, as in a personalistic dictatorship. While these two theories appear to contradict each other, Rationalist theories are usually explicated with game the- they could both be correct depending on the system. For

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instance, balance-of-power theory might better describe Europe's history, while power-transition theory might better describe the world overall.* [122]* :148 Liberals in international relations cite other factors as relevant to conflicts, such as trade. If two countries have a profitable trading relationship, it's assumed that war would hurt both of them economically, making it less attractive. Realists respond that military force may sometimes be at least as effective as trade at achieving economic benefits, especially historically if not as much today.* [122]* :149 Also, trade can create dependence that allows for coercion, which can escalate conflict.* [122]* :150 Empirical data on the relationship of trade to peace are mixed, and moreover, some evidence suggests that countries at war don't necessarily trade less Morning after the Battle of Waterloo, by John Heaviside Clark, 1816 with each other.* [122]* :150 Societal-level theories

cumstances, and those who believe that war is sometimes necessary and can be moral.

There are two different aspects to ethics in war, according to the most prominent and influential thought on justice and war: the Just War Theory.* [126]* [127] First is jus ad bellum (literally translated as “right to war”), which dictates which unfriendly acts and circumstances justify a proper authority in declaring war on another nation. There are six main criteria for the declaration of a just war: first, any just war must be declared by a lawful authority; second, it must be a just and righteous cause, with sufficient gravity to merit large-scale violence; third, the just belligerent must have rightful intentions – namely, that they seek to advance good and curtail evil; fourth, a just belligerent must have a reasonable chance of success; fifth, the war must be a last resort; and sixth, the • Democratic peace theory suggests that democracies ends being sought must be proportional to means being are less likely to go to war with each other. used.* [128]* [129] • Diversionary theory, also known as the “scapegoat hypothesis”, suggests that politicians may use war to distract or rally together domestic popular support.* [122]* :152 This idea is supported by literature showing that outgroup hostility enhances ingroup bonding, and a significant domestic “rally effect”has been demonstrated when conflicts begin.* [122]* :152–153 However, studies looking for increased use of force as a function of need for internal political support are more mixed.* [122]* :152– 153 US war-time presidential popularity surveys taken during the presidencies of several recent US leaders have supported diversionary theory.* [123]

Individual-level theories These theories suggest that differences in people's personalities, decision-making, emotions, belief systems, and biases are important in determining whether conflicts get out of hand.* [122]* :157 For instance, it has been proposed that conflict is modulated by bounded rationality and various cognitive biases,* [122]* :157 such as prospect theory.* [124] Other relevant factors can include ethic, moral, and religious differences, including declarations of independence by certain groups.

0.50.10

War ethics

Once a just war has been declared, the second standard, or aspect, is put into effect. Jus in bello, which literally translates to“right in war”, are the ethical rules of conduct when conducting war. The two main principles in jus in bello are proportionality and discrimination. Proportionality regards how much force is necessary and morally appropriate to the ends being sought and the injustice suffered.* [130] The principle of discrimination determines who are the legitimate targets in a war, and specifically makes a separation between combatants, who it is permissible to kill, and non-combatants, who it is not.* [130] Failure to follow these rules can result in the loss of legitimacy for the just war belligerent, and so thereby forfeit the moral right and justice of their cause.* [127] The Just War standard is as old as Western Civilization itself, and still has significant impact on thinking about the morality of wars and violence today.* [132] Just War Theory was foundational in the creation of the United Nations and in International Law's regulations on legitimate war.* [125]

The seeming contradiction between warfare and morality has led to serious moral questions, which have been the subject of debate for thousands of years.* [125] The debate in the West, generally speaking, has two main viewpoints: Pacifists, who believe that war is inherently immoral and therefore is never justified regardless of cir- These two positions generally cover the broad philosoph-

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CONTENTS

0.50.11 See also • Outline of war General reference • Undeclared war • Colonial war • Religious war • Breakaway states In besieged Leningrad. “Hitler ordered that Moscow and Leningrad were to be razed to the ground; their inhabitants were to be annihilated or driven out by starvation. These intentions were part of the 'General Plan East'.”– The Oxford Companion to World War II.* [131]

ical and ethical bents of mainstream society. However, there are several theories on and about war which are in the minority in culture, but which, because of the influence they have had in recent history, demand mention here. These strains of thought on human society and war can be broken up into two main camps: Marxist and Fascist, both of which view war as purely practical.

• Casus belli • Fault line war • Horses in warfare • War cycles • Nuclear war • World peace marathon • War as metaphor

Marxism, and other such historicist ideals, hold that his- War-related lists tory advances through a set of dialectics (as stated by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus: thesis, antithesis, synthe• List of battles sis). Marx, and his followers, in particular held that his• List of battles and other violent events by death toll tory advances through violence. Marxism–Leninism, in fact, held the belief that outright incitement to violence • List of battles by death toll and war was necessary to topple capitalism and free the proletariat. In these theories, the question of ethics has • List of invasions no place, as the value of the war is entirely dependent on whether it advances the revolution or synthesis. • Lists of wars Fascism, and the ideals it encompasses, such as • List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death Pragmatism, racism, and social Darwinism, hold that vi* * toll olence is good. [133] [134] Pragmatism holds that war and violence can be good if it serves the ends of the peo• List of ongoing conflicts ple, without regard for universal morality. Racism holds that violence is good so that a master race can be estab• List of orders of battle lished, or to purge an inferior race from the earth, or both. Social Darwinism thinks that violence is sometimes nec• List of terrorist incidents essary to weed the unfit from society so that civilization • List of war crimes can flourish. These are broad archetypes for the general position that the ends justify the means. Social Darwin• List of wars by death toll ism as elaborated by the late U.S. sociologist and social evolutionist, William Sumner, states competition, conflict, inequality, and hierarchy is natural and good as it allows able-bodied and intelligent individuals and societies 0.50.12 References to lead and prosper. Lewis Coser, U.S. conflict theorist [1] Šmihula, Daniel (2013): The Use of Force in International and sociologist, argued that conflict provides a function Relations, p. 67, ISBN 978-80-224-1341-1. and a process whereby a succession of new equilibriums are created. Thus, the struggle of opposing forces, rather [2] James, Paul; Friedman, Jonathan (2006). Globalization than being disruptive, may indeed be a means of balancand Violence, Vol. 3: Globalizing War and Intervention. London: Sage Publications. ing and maintaining a social structure or society.* [135]

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[96] Fuller, Gary (2004).“The Youth Crisis in Middle Eastern Society” (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-24. [97] Fuller, Gary (2003): “The Youth Factor: The New Demographics of the Middle East and the Implications for U.S. Policy” [98] Gunnar Heinsohn (2003): Söhne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen (“Sons and Imperial Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations”), Zürich 2003), available online as free download (in German) ; see also the review of this book by Göran Therborn: “Nato´s Demographer”, New Left Review 56, March/April 2009, 136–144 [99]ʻSo, are civilizations at war?ʼ, Interview with Samuel P. Huntington by Michael Steinberger, The Observer, Sunday October 21, 2001

[83] “An Evolutionary Perspective on War”, Bobbi S. Low, published in Behavior, Culture, and Conflict in World Pol- [100] Helgerson, John L. (2002): “The National Security Imitics, The University of Michigan Press, p. 22 plications of Global Demographic Trends” [84] Mind the Gap: Tracing the Origins of Human Universals [101] Heinsohn, G.(2006). “Demography and War” (PDF). By Peter M. Kappeler, Joan B. Silk, 2009, Chapter 8,“InWebcitation.org. Retrieved 2011-01-24. tergroup Aggression in Primates and Humans; The Case for a Unified Theory”, Margaret C. Crofoot and Richard [102] Heinsohn, G.(2005): “Population, Conquest and Terror in the 21st Century.” W. Wrangham [85] Roger Griffin and Matthew Feldman, eds., Fascism: Fas- [103] Jack A. Goldstone (4 March 1993). Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World. University of Califorcism and Culture, New York: Routledge, 2004. nia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08267-0. Retrieved 31 May [86] Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and 2012. American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Na[104] Moller, Herbert (1968):ʻYouth as a Force in the Modern ture as Threat, Cambridge University Press, 1997. Worldʼ, Comparative Studies in Society and History 10: 238–260; 240–244 [87] The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, Arthur S. Link, ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), vol. [105] Diessenbacher, Hartmut (1994): Kriege der Zukunft: Die 63, pp. 45–46. Bevölkerungsexplosion gefährdet den Frieden. Muenchen: Hanser 1998; see also (criticizing youth bulge theory) [88] 1935 issue of left of the magazine, Common Sense. Marc Sommers (2006): “Fearing Africa´s Young Men: [89] Flynn, John T. (1944) As We Go Marching. p.240 The Case of Rwanda.”The World Bank: Social Development Papers – Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction, [90] O'Callaghan, Einde (25 October 2007). “The Marxist Paper No. 32, January 2006 Theory of Imperialism and its Critics”. Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 24 April 2011. [106] “National Security Study Memorandum 200 (NSSM 200) – April 1974”. Population-security.org. Retrieved 2011[91] Safire, William (2004). Lend me your ears: great speeches 01-24. in history. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 94. ISBN 9780-393-05931-1. [107] Stephen D. Mumford: The Life and Death of NSSM 200: How the Destruction of Political Will Doomed a U.S. Pop[92] Waugh, David (2000). Geography: an integrated apulation Policy proach. Nelson Thornes. p. 378. ISBN 978-0-17444706-1. [108] Urdal, Henrik (2004): “The Devil in the Demographics: The Effect of Youth Bulges on Domestic Armed Conflict,” [93] Bouthoul, Gaston: “L`infanticide différé" (deferred in, fanticide), Paris 1970 [109] Population Action International: “The Security Demo[94] Goldstone, Jack A.: Revolution and Rebellion in the Early graphic: Population and Civil Conflict after the Cold War” Modern World, Berkeley 1991; Goldstone, Jack A.:“Population and Security: How Demographic Change can Lead to Violent Conflict”, [110] Kröhnert, Steffen (2004): “Warum entstehen Kriege? Welchen Einfluss haben demografische Veränderungen [95] Fuller, Gary: “The Demographic Backdrop to Ethnic auf die Entstehung von Konflikten?" Conflict: A Geographic Overview”, in: CIA (Ed.): The Challenge of Ethnic Conflict to National and International [111] “United States Census Bureau: International Database” . Census.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-24. Order in the 1990s, Washington 1995, 151–154

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[112] Gapminder World: Development of total fertility rates [129] Mosley, Alexander. “The Jus Ad Bellum Convention” and income per person, 1801–2009 . Just War Theory. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 1, 2011. [113] Hendrixson, Anne: “Angry Young Men, Veiled Young Women: Constructing a New Population Threat” [130] Moseley, Alexander. “The Principles Of Jus In Bello” . Just War Theory. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [114] Fearon, James D. 1995. “Rationalist Explanations for Retrieved August 1, 2011. War.”International Organization 49, 3: 379–414. [131] Ian Dear, Michael Richard Daniell Foot (2001). The Ox[115] Geoffrey Blainey (1988). Causes of War (3rd ed.). p. ford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. 114. p.88. ISBN 0-19-860446-7 [116] Powell, Robert. 2002. “Bargaining Theory and Inter[132] Moseley, Alexander. “Introduction”. Just War Theory. national Conflict.”Annual Review of Political Science 5: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 1, 1–30. 2011. [117] Chris Cramer, 'Civil War is Not a Stupid Thing', ISBN [133] Griffin and Feldman, eds, Roger and Matthew (2004). 978-1850658214 Fascism: Fascism and Culture. Routledge. p. 185. [118] From point 10 of Modern Conflict is Not What You Think [134] Woodley, Daniel (2010). Fascism and political theory crit(article), accessed 16 December 2014. ical perspectives on fascist ideology (PDF). London: Routledge. p. 276. ISBN 0-203-87157-X. [119] Quote from Iain King, in Modern Conflict is Not What You Think [135] Ankony, Robert C., “Sociological and Criminological Theory: Brief of Theorists, Theories, and Terms,”CFM [120] Point 6 in Modern Conflict is Not What You Think Research, Jul. 2012. [121] Lake, David A. (2010/11). “Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory: Assessing Rationalist Explanations of the Iraq War”. International Security: 7–52. Check date values Bibliography in: |date= (help) [122] Levy, Jack S. (Jun 1998). “The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace” (PDF). Annual Review of Political Science 1: 139–165. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.139. [123] “Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy (pg. 19)". 2001. Retrieved 2010-02-07. Leaders may use war as instant popularity boost. More recently, empirical studies (Lebow 2008, Lindemann 2010) demonstrated that striving for self-esteem (i.e. virile self images), and recognition as a Great Power or non-recognition (exclusion and punishment of great powers, denying traumatic historical events) is a principal cause of international conflict and war. [124] Levy, Jack S. (Mar 1997). “Prospect Theory, Rational Choice, and International Relations”(PDF). International Studies Quarterly 41 (1): 87–112. [125] DeForrest, Mark Edward. “Conclusion”. JUST WAR THEORY AND THE RECENT U.S. AIR STRIKES AGAINST IRAQ. Gonzaga Journal of International Law. Retrieved August 1, 2011. [126] DeForrest, Mark Edward. “GENERALLY RECOGNIZED PRINCIPLES OF JUST WAR THEORY”. JUST WAR THEORY AND THE RECENT U.S. AIR STRIKES AGAINST IRAQ. Gonzaga Journal of International Law. Retrieved August 1, 2011. [127] Codevilla, Seabury, Angelo, Paul (1989). War: Ends and Means. New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 304. ISBN 0465-09067-2. [128] Aquinas, Thomas. “Part II, Question 40”. The Summa Theologica. Benziger Bros. edition, 1947. Retrieved August 1, 2011.

• Geoffrey Blainey. The Causes of War (1973) • Barzilai Gad, Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996). • Chagnon, N. The Yanomamo, Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1983. • Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976), On War (Princeton and New Jersey: Princeton University Press) • Codevilla, Angelo and Seabury, Paul, War: Ends and Means (Potomac Books, Revised second edition by Angelo Codevilla, 2006) • Codevilla, Angelo, No Victory, No Peace (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005) • Fornari, Franco (1974). The Psychoanalysis of War. Tr. Alenka Pfeifer. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Press. • Fry, Douglas. 2004. “Conclusion: Learning from Peaceful Societies.”In Keeping the Peace, Graham Kemp, editor. New York: Routledge. • Fry, Douglas P., 2005, The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence, Oxford University Press. • Fry, Douglas. 2009. Beyond War. Oxford University Press. • Gat, Azar 2006 War in Human Civilization, Oxford University Press.

0.51. WEAPON • Heinsohn, Gunnar, Söhne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen (“Sons and Imperial Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations”), Orell Füssli (September 2003), available online as free download (in German) • Howell, Signe, and Roy Willis. 1990. Societies at Peace: Anthropological Perspectives. London: Routledge. • James, Paul; Friedman, Jonathan (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 3: Globalizing War and Intervention. London: Sage Publications. • James, Paul; Sharma, RR (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 4: Transnational Conflict. London: Sage Publications. • Keegan, John, (1994) A History of Warfare, (Pimlico) • Keeley, Lawrence. War Before Civilization, Oxford University Press, 1996. • Kelly, Raymond C., 2000, Warless Societies and the Origin of War, University of Michigan Press. • Kemp, Graham, and Douglas Fry. 2004. Keeping the Peace. New York: Routledge.

191 • Small, Melvin; Singer, Joel David (1982). Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-1776-7. • Smith, David Livingstone (February 2009). The Most Dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the Origins of War. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-31253744-9. • Sponsel, Leslie, and Thomas Gregor. 1994. Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence. Lynne Rienner Publishing. • Strachan, Hew (2013), The Direction of War. • Turchin, P. 2005. War and Peace and War: Life Cycles of Imperial Nations. New York, NY: Pi Press. • Van Creveld, Martin The Art of War: War and Military Thought London: Cassell, Wellington House • Walzer, Michael (1977) Just and Unjust Wars (Basic Books). • Wade, Nicholas. Before the Dawn, Penguin: New York 2006. • Zimmerman, L. The Crow Creek Site Massacre: A Preliminary Report, US Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District, 1981.

• Kolko, Gabriel (1994). Century of War: Politics, Conflicts, and Society since 1914. New York, NY: 0.50.13 The New Press. ISBN 978-1-565-84191-8. • Lebow, Richard Ned 2008, A Cultural Theory of International Relations Cambridge University Press. • Lindemann, Thomas 2010, Causes of War. The Struggle for Recognition Colchester, ECPR Press

External links

• War zone safety travel guide from Wikivoyage

0.51 Weapon

• Maniscalco, Fabio (2007). World heritage and war: linee guida per interventi a salvaguardia dei beni culturali nelle aree a rischio bellico. Massa. ISBN 97888-87835-89-2. Retrieved 31 May 2012.

For other uses, see Weapon (disambiguation). See Military technology for a comprehensive list of weapons and doctrines. “Weapons”and “Weaponry”redirect here. For the 2012 Lostprophets album, see Weapons (album). For the • McIntosh, Jane. 2002. A Peaceful Realm: The 2007 film, see Weapons (film). For the radio program, Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Oxford, UK: see Weaponry (radio program). Westview Press. • Metz, Steven and Philip R. Cuccia, 2011, Defining A weapon, arm, or armament is any device used in orWar for the 21st Century, Strategic Studies Institute, der to inflict damage or harm to living beings, structures, U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1-58487-472-0 or systems. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime, law • Montagu, Ashley. 1978. Learning Nonaggression. enforcement, self-defense, and warfare. In a broader conNew York: Oxford University Press. text, weapons may be construed to include anything used • Otterbein, Keith, 2004, How War Began. College to gain a strategic, material or mental advantage over an adversary. Station TX: Texas A&M University Press. • Pauketat, Timothy. North American Archaeology While just about any ordinary objects such as sticks, stones, cars, or pencils can be used as weapons, many 2005. Blackwell Publishing. are expressly designed for the purpose – ranging from • Pearson, Richard. 2004. “New Perspectives on simple implements such as clubs, swords and guns, and Jomon Society.”Bulletin of the International Jomon to complicated modern intercontinental ballistic missiles, biological and cyberweapons. Culture Conference, Vol. 1.

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0.51.1

CONTENTS

History

Main article: History of weapons

Prehistoric

The development of metal tools, beginning with copper during the Copper Age (about 3,300 BC) and followed shortly by bronze led to the Bronze Age sword and similar weapons. The first defensive structures and fortifications appeared in the Bronze Age,* [8] indicating an increased need for security. Weapons designed to breach fortifications followed soon after, for example the battering ram was in use by 2500 BC.* [8] Although early Iron Age swords were not superior to their bronze predecessors, once iron-working developed, around 1200 BC in Sub-Saharan Africa,* [9]* [10] iron began to be used widely in weapon production* [11] Domestication of the horse and widespread use of spoked wheels by ca. 2000 BC,* [12] led to the light, horse-drawn chariot. The mobility provided by chariots were important during this era. Spoke-wheeled chariot usage peaked around 1300 BC and then declined, ceasing to be militarily relevant by the 4th century BC.* [13]

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.

The use of objects as weapons has been observed among chimpanzees,* [1] leading to speculation that early hominids first began to use weapons as early as five million years ago.* [2] However, this can not be confirmed using physical evidence because wooden clubs, spears, and unshaped stones would not have left an unambiguous record. The earliest unambiguous weapons to be found are the Schöninger Speere: eight wooden throwing spears dated as being more than 300,000 years old.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7]

Cavalry developed once horses were bred to support the weight of a man. The horse extended the range and increased the speed of attacks. Ships built as weapons or warships such as the trireme were in use by the 7th century BC.* [14] These ships were eventually replaced by larger ships by the 4th century BC. Middle Ages

Ancient and classical

A four-wheeled ballista drawn by armored cataphract horses, c. 400.

Ancient weapons were evolutionary improvements of late neolithic implements, but then significant improvements in materials and crafting techniques created a series of revolutions in military technology:

This picture shows medieval weapons utilized by the Mughal Army.

European warfare during the middle ages was dominated by elite groups of knights supported by massed infantry (both in combat and ranged roles). They were involved in mobile combat and sieges which involved various siege weapons and tactics. Knights on horseback developed

0.51. WEAPON

193

The bayonet is used as both knife and polearm.

The age of edged weapons ended abruptly just before World War I with rifled artillery. Howitzers were able to destroy masonry fortresses and other fortifications. This single invention caused a Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) and established tactics and doctrine that are still in use today. See Technology during World War I for a detailed discussion. An important feature of industrial age warfare was technological escalation – innovations were rapidly matched through replication or countered by yet another tactics for charging with lances providing an impact on innovation. The technological escalation during World the enemy formations and then drawing more practi- War I (WW I) was profound, producing armed aircraft cal weapons (such as swords) once they entered into the and tanks. melee. Whereas infantry, in the age before structured formations, relied on cheap, sturdy weapons such as spears This continued in the inter-war period (between WW I and billhooks in close combat and bows from a distance. and WW II) with continuous evolution of all weapon sysAs armies became more professional, their equipment tems by all major industrial powers. Many modern milwas standardized and infantry transitioned to pikes. Pikes itary weapons, particularly ground-based ones, are relare normally seven to eight feet in length, in conjunction atively minor improvements of weapon systems developed during World War II. See military technology during with smaller side-arms (short sword). World War II for a detailed discussion. In Eastern and Middle Eastern warfare, similar tactics were developed independent of European influences. Modern The introduction of gunpowder from the Far East at the end of this period revolutionized warfare. Formations of musketeers, protected by pikemen came to dominate open battles, and the cannon replaced the trebuchet as the dominant siege weapon. Ancient Chinese cannon displayed in the Tower of London.

Early modern The European Renaissance marked the beginning of the implementation of firearms in western warfare. Guns and rockets were introduced to the battlefield. Firearms are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they release energy from combustible propellants such as gunpowder, rather than from a counter-weight or spring. This energy is released very rapidly and can be replicated without much effort by the user. Therefore even early firearms such as the arquebus were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. Firearms became increasingly important and effective during the 16th century to 19th century, with progressive improvements in ignition mechanisms followed by revolutionary changes in ammunition handling and propellant. During the U.S. Civil War various technologies including the machine gun and ironclad warship emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today, particularly in limited conflicts. In the 19th century warship propulsion changed from sail power to fossil fuel-powered steam engines.

The Vickers was the successor to the Maxim gun and remained in British military service for 79 consecutive years.

Since the mid-18th century North American FrenchIndian war through the beginning of the 20th century, human-powered weapons were reduced from the primary weaponry of the battlefield yielding to gunpowder-based weaponry. Sometimes referred to as the “Age of Rifles”,* [15] this period was characterized by the development of firearms for infantry and cannons for support, as well as the beginnings of mechanized weapons such as the machine gun, the tank and the wide introduction of aircraft into warfare, including naval warfare with the introduction of the aircraft carriers.

194

CONTENTS the point of being able to ensure the destruction of the entire planet (see nuclear holocaust) then a new tactic had to be developed. With this realization, armaments development funding shifted back to primarily sponsoring the development of conventional arms technologies for support of limited wars rather than nuclear war.* [16]

0.51.2 Classification The new assault rifle CZ-805 BREN (produced in Czech Republic and Slovakia).

By user - what person or unit uses the weapon

World War I marked the entry of fully industrialized warfare as well as weapons of mass destruction (e.g., chemical and biological weapons), and weapons were developed quickly to meet wartime needs. Above all, it promised to the military commanders the independence from the horse and the resurgence in maneuver warfare through extensive use of motor vehicles. The changes that these military technologies underwent before and during the Second World War were evolutionary, but defined the development for the rest of the century. World War II however, perhaps marked the most frantic period of weapons development in the history of humanity. Massive numbers of new designs and concepts were fielded, and all existing technologies were improved between 1939 and 1945. The most powerful weapon invented during this period was the atomic bomb, however many more weapons influenced the world in different ways. Nuclear age and beyond

• Personal weapons (or small arms) – designed to be used by a single person. • Light weapons – 'man-portable' weapons that may require a small team to operate. The 1997 UN Panel of Governmental Experts originally listed “heavy machine guns, hand-held under-barrel and mounted grenade launchers, portable anti-aircraft guns, portable anti-tank guns, recoil-less rifles, portable launchers of anti-tank missile and rocket systems; portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS); and mortars of calibers of less than 100 mm.”* [17] • Heavy weapons – typically mounted or selfpropelled explosive weapons that are larger than light weapons (see SALW). • Hunting weapon – primarily for hunting game animals for food or sport • Infantry support weapons – larger than personal weapons, requiring two or more people to operate correctly. • Fortification weapons – mounted in a permanent installation, or used primarily within a fortification. Usually high caliber. • Mountain weapons – for use by mountain forces or those operating in difficult terrain. This includes modifications of existing weapons for paratroopers. • Vehicle weapons – to be mounted on any type of combat vehicle.

The unmanned aerial vehicle CBP's MQ-9 Guardian.

Since the realization of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), the nuclear option of all-out war is no longer considered a survivable scenario. During the Cold War in the years following World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms race. Each country and their allies continually attempted to out-develop each other in the field of nuclear armaments. Once the joint technological capabilities reached

• Railway weapons – designed to be mounted on railway cars, including armored trains. • Aircraft weapons – carried on and used by some type of aircraft, helicopter, or other aerial vehicle. • Naval weapons – mounted on ships and submarines. • Space weapons – are designed to be used in or launched from space. • Autonomous weapons – are capable of accomplishing a mission with limited or no human intervention.

0.51. WEAPON By function - the construction of the weapon and principle of operation

195 By target - the type of target the weapon is designed to attack

• Antimatter weapons (theoretical) would combine matter and antimatter to cause a powerful explosion.

• Anti-aircraft weapons target missiles and aerial vehicles in flight.

• Archery weapons operate by using a tensioned string and bent solid to launch a projectile.

• Anti-fortification weapons are designed to target enemy installations.

• Artillery are firearms capable of launching heavy projectiles over long distances.

• Anti-personnel weapons are designed to attack people, either individually or in numbers.

• Biological weapons spread biological agents, causing disease or infection.

• Anti-radiation weapons target sources of electronic radiation, particularly radar emitters.

• Chemical weapons, poisoning and causing reactions.

• Anti-satellite weapons target orbiting satellites.

• Energy weapons rely on concentrating forms of energy to attack, such as lasers or sonic attack.

• Anti-ship weapons target ships and vessels on water.

• Explosive weapons use a physical explosion to create blast concussion or spread shrapnel.

• Anti-submarine weapons target submarines and other underwater targets.

• Firearms use a chemical charge to launch projectiles.

• Anti-tank weapons are designed to defeat armored targets.

• Improvised weapons are common objects, reused as weapons, such as crowbars and kitchen knives.

• Area denial weapons target territory, making it unsafe or unsuitable for enemy use or travel.

• Incendiary weapons cause damage by fire.

• Hunting weapons are civilian weapons used to hunt animals.

• Non-lethal weapons are designed to subdue without killing.

• Infantry support weapons are designed to attack various threats to infantry units.

• Magnetic weapons use magnetic fields to propel projectiles, or to focus particle beams.

0.51.3 Legislation

• Mêlée weapons operate as physical extensions of the user's body and directly impact their target. The production, possession, trade and use of many weapons are controlled. This may be at a local or central • Missiles are rockets which are guided to their tar- government level and in some cases is governed by interget after launch. (Also a general term for projectile national treaty. weapons). Examples of such controls include: • Nuclear weapons use radioactive materials to create nuclear fission and/or nuclear fusion detonations. • Primitive weapons make little or no use of technological or industrial elements. • Ranged weapons (unlike Mêlée weapons), target a distant object or person. • Rockets use chemical propellant to accelerate a projectile • Suicide weapons exploit the willingness of their operator to not survive the attack.

• The right of self-defense • Knife legislation • Air gun laws • Gun law • Arms trafficking laws • Arms control treaties • Space Preservation Treaty

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CONTENTS

0.51.4

See also

• Arms industry • List of martial arts weapons • List of practice weapons • Lists of weapons • Military technology • Riot control • Toy weapon • Weapon mount

0.51.5

References

[1] Pruetz, J. D.; Bertolani, P. (2007). “Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, Hunt with Tools”. Current Biology 17 (5): 412–7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042. PMID 17320393. [2] Weiss, Rick (February 22, 2007) “Chimps Observed Making Their Own Weapons”, The Washington Post [3] Thieme, Hartmut and Maier, Reinhard (eds.) (1995) Archäologische Ausgrabungen im Braunkohlentagebau Schöningen. Landkreis Helmstedt, Hannover.

[12] “Wheel and Axle Summary”. BookRags.com. 201011-02. Retrieved 2011-06-13. [13]“Science Show: The Horse in History”. abc.net.au. 199911-13. Retrieved 2011-06-13. [14] “The Trireme (1/2)". Mlahanas.de. Retrieved 2011-0613. [15] p.263, Hind [16] Estabrooks, Sarah (2004). “Funding for new nuclear weapons programs eliminated”. The Ploughshares Monitor 25 (4). Report on congressional refusal to fund additional nuclear weapons research.There was a guy named Henry Bond he was around 74 years old [17] “1997 Report of the Panel of Governmental Experts on Small Arms”. un.org. 27 August 1997. Retrieved 6 August 2012.

0.51.6 External links • The dictionary definition of weapon at Wiktionary • Quotations related to Weapon at Wikiquote • Media related to Weapons at Wikimedia Commons

0.52 Wing (military aviation unit)

[4] Thieme, Hartmut (2005). “Die ältesten Speere der Welt – Fundplätze der frühen Altsteinzeit im Tagebau Schöningen”. Archäologisches Nachrichtenblatt 10: 409–417.

In military aviation, a wing is a unit of command. In most military aviation services, a wing is a relatively large formation of planes. In Commonwealth countries a wing [5] Baales, Michael; Jöris, Olaf (2003). “Zur Altersstel- usually comprises three squadrons, with several wings lung der Schöninger Speere”. Erkenntnisjäger. Kultur forming a group (around 10 squadrons). Each squadron und Umwelt des frühen Menschen. Veröffentlichungen des will contain around 20 planes. Landesamtes für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt (Festschrift Dietrich Mania) 57: 281–288.

[6] Jöris, O. (2005) “Aus einer anderen Welt – Europa zur Zeit des Neandertalers”. In: N. J. Conard et al. (eds.): Vom Neandertaler zum modernen Menschen. Ausstellungskatalog Blaubeuren. pp. 47–70.

0.52.1 Commonwealth usage Origins

On its establishment in 1912, the British Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was intended to be an inter-service, combined force of the British Army and Royal Navy. Given the rivalry that existed between the army and navy, new terminology was used, in order to avoid marking the corps [8] Gabriel, Richard A.; Metz, Karen S.“A Short History of out as having an army or navy ethos. While the term War”. au.af.mil. Retrieved 2010-01-08. “wing”had been used in the cavalry, its more general [9] Miller, D. E.; Van Der Merwe, N. J. (2009). “Early use predominated. Accordingly, the word“wing”, with Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Re- its allusion of flight, was chosen as the term of subdivision cent Research”. The Journal of African History 35: 1–36. and the corps was split into a “Military Wing”(i.e. an doi:10.1017/S0021853700025949. JSTOR 182719. army wing) and a “Naval Wing”. Each wing consisted [10] Stuiver, Minze; Van Der Merwe, N.J. (1968).“Radiocar- of a number of squadrons (the term“squadron”already bon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa” being used by both the Army and the Navy). [7] Thieme, H. (1997). “Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany”. Nature 385 (6619): 807. doi:10.1038/385807a0.

. Current Anthropology. [11] Gabriel, Richard A.; Metz, Karen S. “A Short History of War – Iron Age Revolution”. au.af.mil. Retrieved 2010-01-08.

By 1914, the naval wing had become the Royal Naval Air Service, and gained its independence from the Royal Flying Corps. In 1915, the Royal Flying Corps had significantly expanded and it was felt necessary to create

0.52. WING (MILITARY AVIATION UNIT)

197

organizational units which would control two or more such as 16 Wing at CFB Borden and 1 Wing at CFB squadrons; the term “wing”was re-used for these new Kingston) were re-designated Wing Commanders (or Wg organizational units. Comd). As well as continuing their functions as the comThe Royal Flying Corps was amalgamated with the Royal manding officers of the bases they were assigned to, they Naval Air Service in 1918, creating the Royal Air Force. also serve as formation commanders to all squadrons and The RFC usage of wing was maintained in the new ser- units duly assigned to them by 1 CDN AIR DIV HQ and AIRCOM HQ (regardless if they are physically located vice.* [1] on the base in question or elsewhere; as witness 12 Wing in Nova Scotia, which has one unit, 443 Maritime Helicopter Squadron, based at Patricia Bay near CFB EsCurrent use quimalt in British Columbia, on the other side of the In most Commonwealth air forces, as well as some others, country from Shearwater). a wing is usually made up of three or four squadrons. In these air forces a wing is inferior to a group. Originally all wings were usually commanded by a wing comman- 0.52.3 United States Air Force usage der (equivalent to a lieutenant colonel). From World War II onwards, operational flying wings have usually been commanded by group captains (equivalent to colonels), whereas ground-based wings have continued to be commanded by wing commanders. A wing may also be used for non-flying units, such as the infantry forces of the RAF Regiment, (in which a wing equates to a battalion). Additionally, RAF stations are administratively divided into wings. In 2006, expeditionary air wings were established at the RAF's main operating bases. These expeditionary air wings consist of the deployable elements of the main operating base and other supplementary forces. Expeditionary air wings may be subordinated to an expeditionary air group. In the British Air Training Corps, a wing consists of a number of squadrons within a designated geographical area, usually named after the county in which it is based. In this context, a wing is inferior to a "region" which is made up of six wings. In all, there are 36 Air Training Corps wings in six regions within the United Kingdom, each of which is commanded by a RAFVR(T) wing commander.

0.52.2

Canadian usage

While the original pre-unification Royal Canadian Air Force followed the British pattern, the modern Royal Canadian Air Force is an example of a Commonwealth air force which does not follow British usage. The size of a wing (base) follows US usage (see below); it varies greatly and may comprise personnel numbering in the thousands. In the 1990s, the Canadian Forces Air Command (the post-1968 RCAF until 2011) altered the structure of those bases under its control, declaring them to be Wings under the overall control of 1 Canadian Air Division in Winnipeg. For instance, CFB Trenton in Ontario was redesignated 8 Wing Trenton. The base commander of these bases (as well as other wings whose headquarters were stood up on bases not controlled by Air Command,

Diagram of a typical US Air Force wing organizational structure.

By comparison, in the United States Air Force, a wing is normally the organizational tier below a Numbered Air Force. Most USAF wings are commanded by a Colonel, but some are commanded by Brigadier Generals. USAF wings structured to fulfill a mission from a specific base, and contain a headquarters and four groups: an operations group, a maintenance group, a medical group and a mission support group. Such a wing is referred to as a Combat Wing Organization, which is comparable to a brigade in the US Army. Other wings, such as Air Expeditionary Wings, exist for various other purposes, and their scope may extend to one base, one theater or worldwide. In United States Air Force usage, a military organization above a squadron level (group, wing, division, command, air force) is an establishment, while that of a squadron and lower (squadron, flight, detachment) is a unit.* [2] “The U.S. Army Air Service/U.S. Army Air Corps/U.S. Army Air Forces wings that existed before 1947 are not comparable with the wings of the USAF. World War II wings, for example, were very large administrative and

198 operational organizations that usually controlled several combat groups and numerous service organizations, often located at widely scattered locations. Many of the World War II wings were redesignated as air divisions after the war. Modern wings, as we know them, began their existence with a service test of combat wings in 1947-1948. These wings were temporary Table of Distribution (T/D) organizations, each having a combat group (the only Table of Organization establishment of the wings), an airdrome group, a maintenance and supply group, and a station medical group. In 1948, at the end of the service test, HQ USAF replaced these T/D wings with permanent Table of Organization and Equipment (constituted) combat wings having a combat group, an air base group, maintenance and supply group, and a medical group.

CONTENTS

0.52.4 U.S. Naval Aviation and Civil Air Patrol The United States Navy follows the British structure in that a Wing is an administrative formation commanding two or more squadrons of aircraft that are based on land. Several Wings are combined into a Naval Air Force. The several wings assigned to each Fleet Naval Air Force contol the wing's type squadrons. A Carrier Air Wing (CVW, formerly known as a Carrier Air Group) consists of several squadrons and is an operational formation that is based on an aircraft carrier. The squadrons of a CVW are also assigned to administrative type wings (such as Strike Fighter Wing Atlantic). Naval Air Forces are commanded by either a Rear Admiral (Upper Half) or a Vice Admiral and wings are commanded by Captains, with the title of Commodore. Carrier Air Wings are commanded by either a Navy Captain or a USMC Colonel with the title of “CAG”(Commander, Air Group), a legacy title from the former Carrier Air Groups.

"Constituted combat wings are always numbered in a single series beginning with Arabic “1st.”Examples: 1st Fighter Wing, 21st Space Wing, and the Strategic Air Command's 509th Bomb Wing. All constituted wings have one, two, or three digits in their numerical designations. In the United States Marine Corps, a wing is an over“In many cases, the numerical designation of the wing all command, equivalent to a Marine Division, consistcame from the combat group that preceded it and became ing of at least two Marine Aircraft Groups, a Marine Air an integral part of the post-World War II wing. In other Control Group (MACG), a Marine Wing Headquarters words, when the 14th Fighter Wing (later, 14th Flying Squadron (MWHS), and a Marine Wing Headquarters Training Wing) came into existence, it received the 14th (the Wing Commander and his staff). Being equivalent numerical designation from the 14th Fighter Group which to a division in size, its commander is usually a Major had already existed for a number of years and which be- General. came the wingʼs combat component. At the same time, In the Civil Air Patrol, there are 52 wings (each of the the other component establishments, and units of these 50 states plus Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico). Each establishments, also received the 14th numerical desig- wing supervises the individual groups and squadrons, nations, aligning each of them directly to the 14th Wing. which are the basic operational unit of the organization. The tactical squadrons of the combat group, however, re- Some wings, for example Delaware Wing have only one tained their separate and distinct numerical designations. group due to the small size of the wing. “The Air Force has three basic types of wings: operational, air base, and specialized mission. According to Air Force Instruction 38-101 (1994): 0.52.5 • an operational wing is a wing that has an operations group and related operational mission activity assigned to it. When an operational wing performs the primary mission of the base, it usually maintains and operates the base. In addition, an operational wing is capable of self-support in functional areas like maintenance, supply, and munitions, as needed. When an operational wing is a tenant organization, the host command provides it with varying degrees of base and logistics support.

Equivalents in other countries

Most other Western air forces tend to follow the USAF nomenclature, with squadrons coming directly under groups. Immediately above this however, some air forces have foreign terms which are equivalent to a US“wing”. For example: Geschwader in the German Luftwaffe; Polk (Regiment) in Russia, see Aviation Regiment; Stormo in Italy; and escadre in pre-World War II French Air Force, which is also the official French translation of a wing in modern-day Canadian Forces.

• An air base wing usually maintains and operates a German usage base, and often provides functional support to a major command headquarters. Main article: Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933–45) • A specialized mission wing may be either a host wing The World War II German Luftwaffe used Geschwader, or a tenant wing and performs a specialized mission Gruppe, Staffel similar to“wing, group, squadron”of the United States Army Air Forces of the same era. such as intelligence or training.”

0.52. WING (MILITARY AVIATION UNIT)

0.52.6

Footnotes

[1] Command Development_P [2] Strategic Air Command An Organizational History, The Battermix Publishing Company, and Organizational History Branch, Research Division, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Organization descriptions

199

Chapter 1

undefined 1.1 Ammunition

The purpose of ammunition is to project force against a selected target. However, the nature of ammunition use also includes delivery or combat supporting munitions For the Chamillionaire EP, see Ammunition (EP). such as pyrotechnic or incendiary compounds. Since the “Ammo”redirects here. For other uses, see Ammo (disdesign of the cartridge, the meaning has been transferred ambiguation). to the assembly of a projectile and its propellant in a sinAmmunition (colloquially shortened to ammo) is gle package. Ammunition involves the application of fire to targets, general use of weapons by personnel, explosives and propellants, cartridge systems, high explosive projectiles (HE), warheads, shaped charge forms of attack on armour and aircraft, carrier projectiles, fuzes, mortar ammunition, small arms ammunition, grenades, mines, pyrotechnics, improved conventional munitions, and terminally guided munition.

1.1.1 Glossary

A belt of 0.50 caliber ammunition loaded to an M2 Browning. Every fifth round with a red tip is an M20 (armour piercing incendiary tracer).

Box of ammunition from first half of the 20th century. From the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection

propellant and projectile, or broadly anything that can be used in combat including bombs, missiles, warheads, landmines, naval mines, and anti-personnel mines. The word comes from the French la munition which is all material used for war. The collective term for all types of ammunition is munitions. 200

• A “round”, is a single unit of ammunition. For a modern small arms cartridge this is the combination of bullet, propellant, primer and cartridge case in a single unit. • A“round”is a term synonymous with a single cartridge containing a projectile, propellant, primer and casing.

1.1. AMMUNITION

201

• Large caliber cannon often fire explosive-filled projectiles known as shells, non-explosive projectiles may be used for practice (see artillery). • Large numbers of small projectiles intended to be fired all at once in a single discharge are also called shot; hand-held guns designed for this type of ammunition are generally known as shotguns. • Duds are fully loaded ordnance that fail to function as intended. A cartridge that fails to fire in the weapon is known as a misfire. A partially functioning round is named a hang fire. Dud ammunition, unexploded ordnance (UXO), is regarded as highly dangerous, and most safety officials inform civilians to report finding of any large-bore duds to the local police or military. • Dum-dum rounds were early attempts to cause contact-initiated expansion. Many were leadnose Cannonballs from the American Civil War bullets with “X”marks cut across the nose. • A“bomb”or more specifically a guided or unguided bomb (also called aircraft bombs or aerial bombs) typically refers to airdropped, unpowered explosive weapons. Mines, warheads used in guided missiles and rockets are also referred to as bomb-type ammunition.* [1] Historical (c. World War I) These general conditions apply to the storage of ammunition in fortresses. Here the positions for the magazine and ammunition stores are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection from an enemy's fire. Huge earth parapets cover these buildings, which are further strengthened, where possible, by traverses protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptying, and examining cannon cartridges and shell, a laboratory is generally provided at some distance from the magazine. The various stores for explosives are classified into those under magazine conditions (such as magazines, laboratories, and cartridge stores) and those with which these restrictions need not be observed (such as ammunition and shell stores). The interior walls of a magazine are lined, and the floors laid so that there may be no exposed iron or steel. At the entrance, there is a lobby or barrier, inside which persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for a special suit, and their boots for a pair made without nails. In an ammunition or shell store these precautions need not be taken except where the shell store and the adjacent cartridge store have a common entrance; persons entering may do so in their ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine and several subsidiary magazines, from which the stock of cartridges is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns or in the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shell stores, expense stores, and recesses.

The supply of ammunition are either for guns forming the movable armament or for guns placed in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of guns and howitzers of small and medium caliber, and it is necessary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell stores close to the available positions. They can generally be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the projected face of traverses or other strong formations, and should be arranged for a twenty-four hour supply of ammunition. These stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under cover of darkness. Light railways join the various positions. The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into groups of two or three guns each, and usually each group will require but one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell store and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed and labeled that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immediately selected. In the shell store, the common shell are separated from the armour-piercing or shrapnel. Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to render identification easy. The fuzes and tubes are placed in the general store with the tools and accessories belonging to the guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns of the group by numerals; thus A/1 is number one gun of group A. The magazine and shell stores are also indicated by the group letter, and so that mistakes, even by those unaccustomed to the fort, may be avoided, the passages are pointed out by finger posts and direction boards. For the immediate service of each gun, a few cartridges and projectiles are stored in small receptacles (called cartridge and shell recesses respectively) built in the parapet as near the gun position as practicable. In some cases, a limited number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the parapet if this is conveniently situated near the breech of

202 the gun and not exposed to hostile fire. In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the efficient service of modern guns, hydraulic, electric, or hand-power, hoists are employed to raise the cartridges and shell from the cartridge store and shell store to the gun floor, whence they are transferred to a derrick or loading tray attached to the mounting for loading the gun. Projectiles for BL guns above 6 inch (152 mm) calibre are stored in shell stores ready filled and fuzed standing on their bases, except shrapnel and high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when about to be used. Smaller sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers, each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below to prevent injury to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in brass corrugated cases or in zinc cylinders. The corrugated cases are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened and the cartridges removed and transferred to a leather case when required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to the gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid removal of the empty cylinders.

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED systems may be difficult to appreciate; but forces in the fight see the accuracy as just another survival tool against the enemy. A single cluster bomb, deliverable by any of the above systems, can sow softball-sized bomblets across a 100-yard (90-m) American football–sized field in sufficient density to kill any personnel, even penetrating sandbagged trenches and body armour. Operation Desert Storm saw widespread usage of cluster bombs̶the Iraqi forces called them "steel rain". There is little doubt that their usage is also seen as a psychological tool. The aforementioned bomblets are armed upon dispersal by the spinning action which is hastened by a design resembling a “softball with small wings”.

1.1.2 Design The design of the ammunition is determined by its purpose; anti-personnel ammunition is often designed to break up or tumble inside the target, in order to maximize the damage done. Anti-personnel shells contain shrapnel and are designed to explode in mid-air, so its fragments will spread over a large area. Armor-piercing ammunition tends to be hard, sharp, and narrow, often with lubrication. Incendiary projectiles include a material such as white phosphorus which burns fiercely. Tracer ammunition emits light as it travels, allowing the gunner to see the path of bullets in flight while using a machine gun.

The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress depends on questions of policy and location, the degrees of resistance the nature of the works and personnel could reasonably be expected to give, and finally on the nature of the armament. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for light QF guns it might amount to one Popular types of military rifle and machine gun ammunition include the 5.45 mm, 5.56 mm, and 7.62 mm. thousand or more rounds per gun. Main battle tanks use KE-penetrators to combat other MBTs and armoured fighting vehicles, and HE-Frag (High Explosive-Fragmentation) for soft targets such as Modern era infantry.

1.1.3 Components

Female ordnance workers inspecting cartridge cases in Los Angeles, 1943 Preparing 105mm M119 howitzer ammunition: powder propel-

Modern ammunition includes not only shells for tube lant, cartridge and shell with fuze. artillery and mortars, but increasingly aircraft-delivered bombs, smart bombs, rockets and other explosive-bearing The components of ammunition intended for rifles and projectiles. The destructive power and lethality of these munitions may be divided into these categories:

1.1. AMMUNITION • explosive materials and propellants • projectiles of all kinds • cartridges Fuzes Main article: Fuze (munitions) The term“fuze”is used, by English speakers, to denote detonators for explosives, differentiating it from “fuses” , which are either circuit breakers or a means of transmitting fire (e.g. the fuse on a firecracker). Common artillery fuzes include point detonating, delay, time, and proximity. Point detonating fuzes detonate upon contact with the target. Delay fuzes are designed to penetrate a target before detonating. Time fuzes, as the name implies, detonate a certain time after being fired in order to achieve a burst at a specific time after being fired. Proximity fuzes contain a radio transceiver activated after firing to detonate the projectile when the signal reflected from the ground reaches a certain strength, e.g. 7 meters above the ground. Fuzes are usually armed by the acceleration of the projectile imparted by firing and usually arm several meters after clearing the bore of the weapon.

1.1.4

Storage

203 the infantry generally carries, in pouches, bandoliers, etc., one hundred rounds of small-arms ammunition (S.A.A.), and it is usual to supplement this, when an action is imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below). Every reduction in the caliber (size) of the rifle's ammunition means an increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of the Martini-Henry ammunition weighed 10 pounds 10 ounces (4.8 kg); the same weight gives 155 rounds of 0.303 in (7.7 mm) ammunition and at 0.256 in (6.5 mm) the number of rounds is still greater. The regimental reserves were historically carried in six S.A.A. carts and on eight pack animals. The six carts are distributed, one as reserve to the machine gun, three as reserve to the battalion itself, and two as part of the brigade reserve, which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve communicates directly with the brigade ammunition columns of the artillery (see below). The eight pack animals follow the eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line, the remaining cart being with the reserve companies. Men also are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous that picked men only are detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The amount of S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the possession of each soldier, 2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, and 16,000 to 17,600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 4000 rounds with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fifth cart.

Currently, every army of an internationally recognized See ammunition dump and magazine for discussion of country (except those who rely on others for defense, such modern ammunition storage facilities. as Andorra) has adopted assault rifles as the main infantry weapon.

1.1.5

For firearms

In western (NATO) forces, the 7.62 mm NATO round has been mostly replaced by the lighter 5.56 mm NATO round, which is better suited for automatic fire than the larger round and allows each soldier to carry more ammunition. The larger caliber ammunition is still retained where range and weight of shot is important, e.g. machine guns and sniper rifles. Other nations, especially forces with former ties to the Soviet Union tend to use rifles related to or developed from the AK-47 with similar sized rounds to the NATO ones. In 7.62x39mm and 5.45x39mm for assault rifles and 7.62x54mmR for sniper rifles and light machine guns.

1.1.6 Ordnance Main article: Shell (projectile) Artillery ordnance ammunition is classified in three types: fixed, semi-fixed and separate loading. Fixed and Various rifle cartridges compared to the height of a US$1 bill. semi-fixed ammunition (rounds) appear in the form of a projectile mated with a cartridge case which contains the Ammunition for infantry refers to the ammunition carried propellant and they resemble small arms rounds. The difby a typical foot (infantry) soldier. Someone serving in ference between fixed and semi-fixed ammunition is that

204

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED

M107 Shells

is used: the projectile and propelling charge are supplied and loaded separately. The projectile is rammed home in the chamber, the powder charge(s) are loaded (usually by hand), then the breech is closed and the primer is inserted into the primer holder on the back the breech. Separate loading ammunition is typically used on 155 mm and larger howitzers. Several propellant types are available for 155 mm howitzer. Modern 120 mm tank gun cartridges with different projectiles

All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in the fuze well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed and a fuze is screwed in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by the fire direction center and carried out by the gun crew.

The armaments fitted to early tanks were contemporary field or naval artillery pieces and used the same ammunition. When tank versus tank combat became more important, and specific tank guns did not exist, it became common to adapt anti-aircraft guns (artillery) which fired shells of high velocity, which were needed for high altitude targets. As the armour applied to tanks increased, ammunition for tank use paralleled that of anti-tank guns. Current tank gun ammunition is a single fixed round ( “shell”and charge combined in a single piece) for quick loading, the propellant is in a combustible case, thus Base cap of a combustible cartridge from a 120mm tank gun. negating empty shell casings. The primary anti-armor (anti-tank) warhead is the sabot round, a shaped charge the latter allows the propellant charge to be adjusted.* [2] or sensor fuzed warhead. The canister is outfitted with a primer on its base which fires upon contact from the firing pin. Gunpowder, precision machined to burn evenly, is contained inside of cloth bags that are numbered. US/NATO 105 mm howitzers use semi-fixed ammunition, containing seven powder bags referred to as increments or charges. Putting the powder in bags allows the howitzer crew to remove the increments when firing at closer targets. The unused increments are disposed of by analysing burning in a powder pit at a safe distance from the guns.

The tank made horse cavalry obsolete, and while an infantryman could deal with a horse-mounted enemy, new weapons were needed to defeat a tank or other armored fighting vehicle. The first anti-tank weapons given to the infantrymen were based upon small arms; for example the anti-tank rifle. As even the later designs of tanks carried more armour, the limit of a man-portable rifle that could fire a round with sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate the armour was reached.

The introduction of the shaped charge warhead gave the Above a certain size, semi-fixed rounds are impracticable; infantryman a weapon that used chemical energy rather the weight of the whole assembly is too much to be car- than kinetic to penetrate armour in a focused manner, ried effectively. In this case separate loading ammunition which made them more effective than large grenades.

1.1. AMMUNITION When propelled by a rocket, the shaped charge gained range as well. Weapons such as the US Bazooka and German Panzerfaust, although bulky, were suitable for infantry use̶though they were designed to be short ranged weapons, which simplified accuracy for striking a vehicle's weak points. After World War 2, the advent of the missile delivered both great range and accuracy and provided infantry with a weapon that could reliably destroy the heaviest tanks at long distances. Today's infantryman can deploy sophisticated multispectral man-portable surface-to-air missiles equipped with the ability to reject decoys and defeat countermeasures.

205 ships are typically much greater than that at which land warfare is observed. However, many exceptions can occur. The targets are also generally machines, not men. Naval ammunition is therefore optimized for great velocity (to reach those great ranges, to hit aircraft flying at altitude and also with the benefit of reducing the lead that has to be applied to hit a distant moving target) and to disable said machines, rather than rending human flesh. Naval gun ammunition of World War II vintage came in two main varieties, armor-piercing shells to attack hardened warships or high explosive incendiary shells (with point detonating fuses to start fires on ships, or mechanical time fuses designed to fragment and create clouds of shrapnel to defeat aircraft). With the demise of the armored warship, contemporary naval gun ammunition is solely the high explosive variety, but new fuses and guidance options are available to increase lethality, especially against high speed missile or aircraft threats.

Since aircraft are relatively light in weight, and delicate in construction, this, combined with their highly flammable fuel, made aircraft more susceptible to fatal damage since their first mass usage in World War I; sometimes being brought down by single bullet, when striking something 1.1.8 Field supply vital in the airplane. The main weaknesses of ammunition provided to infantry to deal with aircraft were limWith every successive improvement in military arms ited range and small warheads; both due to the necessity there has necessarily been a corresponding modification of maintaining man-portable weapons. in the method of supplying ammunition and in the quanAn example of a modern surface-to-air missile for in- tity required to be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons fantry is the FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS (Man Portable were the principal implements of battle, there was no such Air Defence System), provided as an all-up round in a need. But in the Middle Ages, the archers and crosscanister it is attached to a launcher unit and is ready to bowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended expend. Numerous other missiles in this class exist from in action, and during a siege, stone bullets of great size, different nations of origin. Infantry machine guns and ri- as well as heavy arrows, were freely used. The missiles fles may improve their ability against aircraft by utilising of those days were however interchangeable, and at the tracer ammunition, to allow the aimer to better gauge the Battle of Towton (1461), part of the Wars of the Roses, lead aim necessary to strike his target. the commander of the Yorkist archers induced the enemy Weapons developed primarily for anti-tank roles can add to loose arrows in order to obtain them for future use, simproximity fusing to increase the probability of a kill by ilarly to a story in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms having the warhead detonate nearby the target without (孔明借箭). This interchangeability of war material was even possible for many centuries after the invention of having to make contact. firearms. At the Battle of Liegnitz (1760) a general officer was specially commissioned by Frederick II of Prussia to pack up and send away, for Prussian use, all the 1.1.7 Naval muskets and ammunition left on the field of battle by the defeated Austrians. In earlier periods of warfare, captured material was often utilized. In the First Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese went so far as to prepare beforehand spare parts for the Chinese guns they expected to capture. By the end of the 19th century, it was rare to find a modern army trusting to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only instance of the practice from that time was that of the 1891 Chilean Civil War in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges. What was possible with weapons of comparatively rough make is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms. Battleship ammunition

After World War II, the widespread availability of massproduced small arms have resulted in many conflicts in The ranges at which engagements are conducted by war- which both sides use the same weapons (e.g. the AK-

206

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED

47) and ammunition types, making captured ammunition the Vietnam War, Project Eldest Son was a U.S. effort once again a potentially important consideration. to leak sabotaged AK-47 ammunition to the Vietcong. The tactic was likely also used by Soviet forces in the Afghan civil war in the 1980s. In the most recent phase of that war, U.S. forces have sabotaged mortar rounds 1.1.9 Environmental problems intended for use by the insurgent Taliban. And in the onAs of 2013, lead-based ammunition production is the going Syrian civil war, the tactic has been reported to be * second largest annual use of lead in the US, accounting for used by government forces. [9] over 60,000 metric tons consumed in 2012, second only to the manufacture of storage batteries.* [3] Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass 1.1.11 See also or body become a persistent toxicant in the environment. • Ammunition box Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant. Since 1991, US fed• Ammunition column eral law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states * have some type of restriction. [4] For humans eating wild • Ammunition dump game, lead-based ammunition is a significant source of • Armor-piercing shot and shell lead exposure.* [5] In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate“spent lead”, yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.* [6] The U.S. military has been replacing lead with copper as a slug in their green bullets. Two green ammunition cartridges are the 5.56×45mm NATO M855A1 and the MK281 40 mm grenade. Switching to the 5.56 mm green bullet, the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round, or EPR, in 2010 has eliminated nearly 2,000 tons of lead from the waste stream.* [7] U.S. Army representatives at a 2013 House Armed Services Committee hearing have credited the 5.56mm M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round“close to”those of a 7.62mm in its performance capabilities.* [8]

• Breaching round • Bullet • Cartridge (firearms) • Expanding bullet • Explosive material • Fuse (explosives) • Full metal jacket bullet • Handloading • High explosive incendiary • Hollow-point bullet • Howitzer

1.1.10

Sabotage

• International Ammunition Association

As an unconventional warfare tactic, parties to an armed conflict may attempt to supply ammunition to their opponents that has been sabotaged such that some rounds explode when fired, disabling the weapon and killing or injuring its user. Apart from the direct damage so inflicted, this tactic has the advantage of undermining the enemy's confidence in their ammunition supply. Sabotaging ammunition is not without drawbacks, however: it involves the supply of some working ammunition to the enemy, and it incurs the risk that the sabotaged ammunition may find its way to friendly troops. Over time, the enemy may also become aware of the deception and find ways to identify the sabotaged rounds.* [9]

• KE munition

Because of its indiscriminate nature, the use of sabotaged ammunition is not widespread in warfare, and its legality under the laws of warfare is uncertain.* [9] It has, however, found use in several modern conflicts. In World War II, it was used by the British and German forces. During

• Shell (projectile)

• Lead shot • List of handgun cartridges • List of rifle cartridges • Naval artillery • Proximity fuze • Rheological ammunition • Rotation of ammunition

• Tracer ammunition • Tubes and primers for ammunition

1.2. AUTOMATIC RIFLE

1.1.12

207

References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ammunition". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. [1] “Aircraft ordnance” (PDF). United States Naval Academy. Retrieved 6 May 2015. [2] Michael Green; Gladys Green (2000). Weapons of Patton's Armies. Zenith Imprint. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-161060-774-2. Retrieved 1 September 2013. [3] USGS (January 2013).“Mineral Industry Surveys, Lead” . United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 30 December 2014. [4] Michael Todd (October 14, 2013). “Gunning for Lead Bullets”. Pacific Standard. Retrieved 30 December 2014. [5] “Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment - A Consensus Statement of Scientists”. University of California, Santa Cruz: Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology,. 22 March 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2014. [6] Zack Colman (December 23, 2014).“EPA can't regulate lead bullets, says federal court”. Washington Examiner. Retrieved 30 December 2014. [7] Audra Calloway (1 July 2013). “Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded”. Army.mil. Retrieved 30 December 2014.

2nd Lt. Val Browning with the Browning Automatic Rifle in France during World War I.

1.2.1 History

The world's first automatic rifle was the Italian CeiRigotti. Introduced in 1900, these 6.5mm Carcano or 7.65×53mm gas-operated, selective-fire, carbines attracted considerable attention at the time.* [1]* [2] They [9] Chivers, C. J. (19 October 2012).“Syrians Place Booby- used 10, 20 and 50 round detachable box magazines.* [2] Trapped Ammunition in Rebelsʼ Guns”. New York Times. Unfortunately, they had several failings, including freRetrieved 20 October 2012. quent jams and erratic shooting.* [2] In the end, no Army took an interest in the design and the rifle was abandoned before it could be further developed.* [2] [8] Scott R. Gourley (May 7, 2013). “U.S. Army Touts M855A1 Round Performance 'Close to' a 7.62”. Defense Media Network. Retrieved 30 December 2014.

1.1.13

External links

• Ammunition at the Open Directory Project. • European Ammunition Box Translations • International Ammunition Association

1.2 Automatic rifle

The Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) was one of the first practical automatic rifles. The BAR made its successful combat debut in World War I and approximately 50,000 were made before the war came to an end.* [3]* [4] The BAR arose from the concept of “Walking Fire”, an idea urged upon the Americans by the French who used the Chauchat light machine gun to fulfill that role.* [5] The BAR never entirely lived up to the designers hopes; being neither a rifle nor a machinegun.* [6] “For its day, though, it was a brilliant design produced in record time by John Browning, and it was bought and used by many countries around the world. It was the standard squad light automatic of the U.S. infantry during World War II and saw use in every theater of war.”* [7]“The US forces abandoned the BAR in the middle 1950s, though it was retained in reserve stocks for several years; it survived in smaller countries until the late 1970s.”* [8]

An automatic rifle is a type of magazine-fed rifle that uses either its recoil or a portion of the gas propelling the projectile to remove the spent cartridge case, cock the rifle, load a new cartridge and fire again repeatedly, as long as the trigger is held down or until the magazine is exhausted. Automatic rifles are distinguished from semiautomatic rifles in their ability to fire more than one shot in succession once the trigger is pulled. Many automatic rifles are select-fire weapons which are capable of firing The FG 42 was a selective fire automatic rifle produced in fully automatic and semi-automatic modes, or in some in Germany during World War II. The weapon was decases, even being capable of burst-fire. veloped specifically for the use of the Fallschirmjäger

208 airborne infantry in 1942 and was used in limited numbers until the end of the war. It served as a squad automatic rifle in much the same role as the Browning BAR. It was considered one of the most advanced weapon designs of World War II,* [9]* [10] the FG 42 influenced postwar small arms development and most of its design was copied by the US Army when they developed the M60 GPMG.* [11]

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED signers reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Soviets: an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small caliber, high velocity cartridge.* [24] However, senior American commanders having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War,* [25]* [26]* [27]* [28]* [29] insisted that a single powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development.* [30]* [31] This culminated in the development of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and the M14 rifle* [30] which was basically an improved select-fire M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine.* [32] The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG.* [30] Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.

The Germans were the first to pioneer the assault rifle concept, during World War II, based upon research that showed that most firefights happen within 400 meters and that contemporary rifles were over-powered for most small arms combat. The Germans sought to develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and range of a rifle. This was done by shortening the standard 7.92×57mm cartridge to 7.92×33mm and giving it a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed The FN FAL is a 7.62×51mm NATO, selective fire, aufor more controllable automatic fire. The result was the tomatic rifle produced by the Belgian armaments manuSturmgewehr 44.* [12]* [13]* [14]* [15] facturer Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (FN). During the Like the Germans, the Soviets were influenced by ex- Cold War it was adopted by many North Atlantic Treaty perience showing most combat happens within 400 me- Organization (NATO) countries, most notably with the ters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned British Commonwealth as the L1A1. It is one of the by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed most widely used rifles in history, having been used by with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles.* [16]* [17] The So- more than 90 countries.* [33] The FAL was predomiviets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that nantly chambered for the 7.62mm NATO round, and beafter World War II, they held a design competition to de- cause of its prevalence and widespread use among the velop an assault rifle of their own.* [18]* [19] The win- armed forces of many western nations during the Cold ner was the AK-47.* [15] It was finalized, adopted and War it was nicknamed “The right arm of the Free entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the World".* [34] early 1950s.* [17] Its firepower, ease of use, low pro- The H&K G3 is a 7.62×51mm NATO, selective fire, auduction costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the tomatic rifle produced by the German armament manRed Army's new mobile warfare doctrines.* [17] The AK- ufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH (H&K) in collabora47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with tion with the Spanish state-owned design and developthe USSR and the blueprints were shared with several ment agency CETME (Centro de Estudios Técnicos de friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing Materiales Especiales).* [35] The rifle proved successful out among these with the Type 56).* [17] in the export market, being adopted by the armed forces of over 60 countries.* [36] After WWII, German technicians involved in developing the Sturmgewehr 45, continued their research in France at CEAM. The StG45 mechanism was modified by Ludwig Vorgrimler and Theodor Löffler at the Mulhouse facility between 1946 and 1949. Vorgrimler later went to work at CETME in Spain and developed the line of CETME automatic rifles based on his improved Stg45 design. Germany eventually purchased the license for the CETME design and manufactured the Heckler & Koch G3 as well as an entire line of weapons After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 built on the same system, one of the most famous being the MP5 SMG. Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 “Grease Gun” and Thompson submachine The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 gun.* [15] However, early experiments with select-fire (assault rifle vs battle rifle) came in the early part of the versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.* [21] Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 Carbine was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not largely replaced submachine guns in US service.* [22] Al- carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the though, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine AK-47.* [37] A replacement was needed: A medium beround was underpowered.* [23] American weapons de- tween the traditional preference for high-powered rifles The U.S. Army was influenced by combat experience with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and M1 carbine, which enjoyed a significant advantage over enemies armed primarily with bolt-action rifles.* [20] Although U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional views and preference for high-powered semi-automatic rifles.* [15]

1.2. AUTOMATIC RIFLE

209

such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 caliber, high velocity cartridges. Carbine. In 1977, Austria introduced the 5.56×45mm Steyr AUG As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 bullpup rifle, often cited as the first successful bullpup rirequest by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of fle, finding service with the armed forces of over twenty the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to de- countries. It was highly advanced for the 1970s, comvelop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weigh- bining in the same weapon the bullpup configuration, a ing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round maga- polymer housing, dual vertical grips, an optical sight as zine.* [15] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a stan- standard, and a modular design. Highly reliable, light, dard U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a and accurate, the Steyr AUG showed clearly the potenvelocity in excess of the speed of sound, while match- tial of the bullpup layout. In 1978, France introduced ing or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine the 5.56×45mm FAMAS bullpup rifle. In 1985, the cartridge.* [38] British introduced the 5.56×45mm L85 bullpup rifle. In This request ultimately resulted in the development of a the late 1990s, Israel introduced the Tavor TAR-21 and scaled-down version of the Armalite AR-10, called AR- China's People's Liberation Army's (the world's largest 15 rifle.* [39]* [40]* [41] However, despite overwhelming army) adopted QBZ-95. By the turn of the century, the evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bullpup design had achieved world-wide acceptance. bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle.* [41] In January 1963, Secretary of Defense 1.2.2 Gallery Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 pro• M1918A2 Browning Automatic Rifle duction.* [41] At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle available that could fulfill the requirement of a universal • Both early (top) and late-war (bottom) variants of infantry weapon for issue to all services. After modificathe FG 42. tions (Most notably: the charging handle was re-located • The German StG 44, the first assault rifle manufacfrom under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear tured in significant numbers * of the receiver), [40] the new redesigned rifle was subse* * quently adopted as the M16. [41] [42] • An AK-47 with machined receiver In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO • M1 Garand Rifle and M1 Carbine forces adopt the 5.56x45mm cartridge.* [43] This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's • U.S. M14 rifle, advanced by the proponents of the long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of battle rifle concept the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rifle type weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started • British L1A1 (FN FAL) and tests of various rounds were carried out starting • Norwegian AG-3 (HK G3) in 1977.* [43] The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in • American 5.56×45mm M16A1 the face of the wider introduction of body armor.* [15] In the end the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was cho• Russian 5.45×39mm AK-74M rifle sen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980.* [43] The SS109 • The Steyr AUG was one of the first bullpup rifles to round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new enter widespread use. stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifi• FAMAS G2 with bayonet cally, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet * at 600 meters). [15] • British SA-80 (L85A1) rifle in 1996. During the 1970s, the USSR developed the AK-74 and • Israeli Tavor 21 the 5.45x39mm cartridge, which has similar physical characteristics to the U.S. 5.56×45mm cartridge.* [44] • China's People's Liberation Army's QBZ-95 Also during the 1970s, Finland, Israel, South Africa and Sweden introduced AK type rifles in 5.56×45mm.* [45] During the 1990s, the Russians developed the AK- 1.2.3 See also 101 in 5.56×45mm NATO for the world export mar• Semi-automatic rifle ket.* [46]* [47] In addition, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and former countries of Yugoslavia • Assault rifle have also rechambered their locally produced AK vari* * ants to 5.56mm NATO. [48] [49] The adoption these • Battle rifle cartridges cemented the world-wide trend toward small • Marksman rifle

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• Sniper rifle • Light machine gun • Squad automatic weapon • List of firearms

1.2.4

References

[1] http://www.forgottenweapons.com/ early-semiauto-rifles/cei-rigotti/ [2] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. page 260 [3] Hogg, Ian V., and Weeks, John. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century 7th Edition Krause Publications 2000 , p.285, “US Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30in M1918M1922 (Brownings)". [4] The Browning Automatic Rifle. Robert Hodges. Osprey Publishing. 2012. pages 12–13 [5] Hogg, Ian V., and Weeks, John. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century 7th Edition Krause Publications 2000 , p.285, “US Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30in M1918M1922 (Brownings)". [6] Hogg, Ian V., and Weeks, John. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century 7th Edition Krause Publications 2000 , p.285, “US Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30in M1918M1922 (Brownings)". [7] Hogg, Ian V., and Weeks, John. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century 7th Edition Krause Publications 2000 , p.285, “US Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30in M1918M1922 (Brownings)". [8] Hogg, Ian V., and Weeks, John. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century 7th Edition Krause Publications 2000 , p.285, “US Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30in M1918M1922 (Brownings)".

[15] Major Thomas P. Ehrhart Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry HalfKilometer. US Army. 2009 [16] Chapter 1. Symbol of violence, war and culture. oneworld-publications.com [17] Weapon Of Mass Destruction. Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-19. [18] History of AK-47 Gun – The Gun Book Review. Popular Mechanics (2010-10-12). Retrieved on 2012-02-09. [19] “Scribd”. Scribd. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [20] Richard R. Hallock, Colonel (retired) of US Army M16 Case Study March 16, 1970 [21] http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf |CUT DOWN in its Youth, Arguably Americas Best Service Rifle, the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove Itself. By Philip Schreier, SSUSA, September 2001, p 24-29 & 46 [22] Gordon Rottman (2011). The M16. Osprey Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-84908-690-5. [23] Arms of the Chosin Few. Americanrifleman.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-23. [24] Donald L. Hall An effectiveness study of the infantry rifle (PDF). Report No. 593. Ballistic Research Laboratories. Maryland. March 1952 (released March 29, 1973) [25] Fanaticism And Conflict In The Modern Age, by Matthew Hughes & Gaynor Johnson, Frank Cass & Co, 2005 [26] “An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes”. Pacificwar.org.au. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [27] “South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu”. History.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [28] HyperWar: The Big 'L'-American Logistics in World War II. Ibiblio.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-24. [29] The Logistics of Invasion. Almc.army.mil. Retrieved on 2011-11-23.

[9] Senich, Peter: The German Assault Rifle: 1935–1945, page 239. Paladin Press, 1987.

[30] Col. E. H. Harrison (NRA Technical Staff) New Service Rifle (PDF). June 1957

[10] Miller, David: Fighting Men of World War II: Axis Forces : Uniforms, Equipment and Weapons, page 104. Stackpole Books, 2007.

[31] Anthony G Williams Assault Rifles And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects. Quarry.nildram.co.uk (revised 3 February 2012). Retrieved on 2011-11-23.

[11] Bishop, Chris: The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II, page 217. Sterling Publishing, 2002.

[32] M14 7.62mm Rifle. Globalsecurity.org (1945-09-20). Retrieved on 2011-11-23.

[12] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide, Ian Hogg & Terry Gander, HarperCollins Publisher, 2005, p.287 [13] “Machine Carbine Promoted: MP43 Is Now Assault Rifle StG44, WWII Tactical and Technical Trends, No. 57, April 1945”. Lone Sentry. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 201208-23. [14] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.243

[33] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005 page 275 [34] Bishop, Chris. Guns in Combat. Chartwell Books, Inc (1998). ISBN 0-7858-0844-2. [35] Woźniak, Ryszard: Encyklopedia najnowszej broni palnej ̶tom 2 G-Ł, page 7. Bellona, 2001. [36] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005 page 288

1.3. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN

211

[37] Lee Emerson M14 Rifle History and Development. October 10, 2006 [38] Hutton, Robert (ed.), The .223, Guns & Ammo Annual Edition, 1971. [39] Ezell, Edward Clinton (1983). Small Arms of the World. New York: Stackpole Books. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-088029-601-4. [40] Peter G. Kokalis Retro AR-15. nodakspud.com [41] Danford Allan Kern The influence of organizational culture on the acquisition of the m16 rifle. m-14parts.com. A thesis presented to the Faculty of the US Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE, Military History. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 2006

US Marine Corps Designated Marksman, armed with the Designated Marksman Rifle (DMR), derived from an M14 rifle with a telescopic sight.

[42] Report of the M16 rifle review panel. Department of the Army. dtic.mil. 1 June 1968

are trained in quick and precise shooting, but unlike the more specialized “true”sniper, they are also attached to an infantry fireteam and intended to lay down accurate rapid fire at valuable targets as needed, thus extending the [44] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. reach of the fireteam. [43] Per G. Arvidsson Weapons & Sensors. NATO Army Armaments Group

page 271 [45] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. pages 235, 258, 274, 278

1.3.1 DM / sniper differences Main articles: Sniper team and Fire team

[46] LEGION Ltd. – the producer of high-quality firearms with period artistic treatment (threading, engraving, incrustation) and improved finishing. izhmash.ru

The DM role differs significantly from that of a specially trained sniper. A sniper is a specialist highly trained in fieldcraft, who carries out a range of ISTAR-specific mis[47] http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp? sions independent of others, and more specialized than smallarms_id=256 |The Kalashnikov AK-101 is an export assault rifle in operational service withat least nine standard infantry tasks. In contrast, a DM is a soldier who has received some additional marksmanship trainnations worldwide ing. Within a fireteam, the DM's role is to provide an [48] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by additional capability to the infantry platoon, which is the Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. ability to engage targets at greater ranges than the other pages 233, 257, 266, 296 members of the squad or section.* [1] [49] http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/5.56_ arsenal_assault_rifle_ar-m1_ar-m1f.htm | Arsenal AR-M1 5.56mm assault rifle

1.3 Designated marksman The designated marksman (DM) or squad designated marksman (SDM) is a military marksman role in an infantry squad. The term sniper was used in Soviet doctrine although the soldiers using the Dragunov SVD were the first to use a specifically designed designated marksman's rifle. The analogous role in the Israeli army is sharpshooter.

The DM operates as an integral member of the infantry platoon, providing a niche capability contributing to the overall firepower of the platoon in the same way as a grenadier with a rifle-mounted grenade launcher, allowing the team to have a better chance against groups of enemies and armored vehicles; or the automatic rifleman who employs the squad/section machine gun to lay down suppressing fire for an amount of area denial to the enemy.* [2] The DM weapon provides a capability to the infantry platoon in the shape of increased precision at a greater range than that provided by the standard infantry rifle, by virtue of its sighting system and/or larger caliber. By comparison, the sniper role is much more specialized with very comprehensive selection, training and equipment.* [3]

The DM's role is to supply rapid accurate fire on enemy targets at ranges up to 550 yards (500 m) with a rifle capa- Snipers are ordinarily equipped with specialized, ble of semi-automatic fire called a designated marksman purpose-built bolt-action or semi-automatic sniper rifles rifle equipped with a telescopic sight. Like snipers, DMs or anti-materiel rifles; while DMs are often equipped

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CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED

with accurized battle rifles or assault rifles fitted with optical sights and heavy barrels. Snipers are mainly employed for targets at ranges from 500 metres (550 yd) up to more than 2,000 metres (2,190 yd) using rifles with larger caliber ammunition. DMs are utilized for targets at ranges between 250 and 500 metres (270 and 550 yd) using a rifle chambered with standardissue rifle ammunition. In addition, snipers often take a fixed strategic position and camouflage themselves (e.g. with a Ghillie suit), while a DM will tactically move with his unit and is otherwise equipped in the same way as other members of the infantry platoon.* [1]

1.3.2

Equipment

Rifles Main article: Designated marksman rifle The designated marksman is intended to fill the gap beSR-25 in Australian service. tween the typical infantry rifle and longer-range sniper rifles. The typical service rifle is intended for use at ranges up to 500 meters while sniper rifles are generally used at amongst its four-man infantry sections.* [6] ranges of 1,000 meters and greater. Designated marksman rifles are designed to fill this gap, typically being emBritish military ployed at ranges of 250 to 500 metres (270 to 550 yd). In some cases, the designated marksman rifle is simply an accurized version of the standard service rifle (e.g. Mk 12 SPR) while in other cases, the rifle is a larger caliber rifle design.

Recently, the role of the L86A2 Light Support Weapon has been in the designated marksman role due to its increased range of up to 1000m while also capable of giving accurate automatic fire, now usually delivered by the Regardless of which of the three categories a designated Minimi. The Royal Marines and United Kingdom Special marksman rifle fits into, it retains semi-automatic firing Forces also use the HK417 rifle in the designated markscapability and a magazine capacity of 10–30 rounds de- man role. pending on the firearm in question. On 28 December 2009 the UK Ministry of Defence announced the adoption of the L129A1 rifle made by Lewis Machine & tool of the US for use as a semi automatic DM Sidearm rifle, firing the 7.62mm NATO round, providing accurate fire of up to 900m as an urgent operational requirement Designated marksmen will carry whichever service pistol in Afghanistan.* [7] is specified in their unit's TOE for their billet or MOS, if one is specified or available at all. Indian Army

1.3.3

Worldwide use

The Indian Army uses a locally manufactured licensed variant of the SVD Dragunov in the Designated MarksAustralian Army man role. The Dragunov is used in conjunction with the INSAS family of weapons to give flexibility and striking A typical Australian Army fireteam of four soldiers will power at short to mid range firefights, to Indian Army ininclude a scout employing a F88S Austeyr (5.56 NATO) fantry units engaged with opposing forces. fitted with an enhanced optic device, usually either an ACOG or ELCAN C79. Additionally, 7.62 mm marksman rifles (SR-25s) are employed by the maneuver sup- Israel Defense Forces (IDF) port teams in the platoon.* [4] However HK417 rifles have been procured by the Army as a substitute for The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) implemented significant the F88S during operations in Afghanistan and possi- changes to sharpshooting doctrine in the 1990s. Docbly thereafter.* [5] The SASR also uses the Mk 14 EBR trine, training program, and courseware were completely

1.3. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN

213 500m range. The 82nd ABN DIV deployed with designated marksmen, trained on the M-4 using ACOG's with great success out to 600m, some 82nd ABN units were issued M14s. The U.S. Army 3rd Infantry Division saw limited use of a modified M16 which was accurized in a manner similar to the SAM-R, unofficially designated the AMU Squad Designated Marksman Rifle (SDM-R) This rifle was designed for engagements up to 1000m. The U.S. Army DM also uses the predecessor of the M16 rifle, the M14, in certain infantry line units. These are commonly equipped with Leupold optics, a Sage stock and are designated the M14SE Crazy Horse.* [9]

SR-25 rifle

United States Navy The United States Navy SEAL Teams employs SDM rifles in roughly the same manner as the Marine Corps and Army, although there is no specific “Designated Marksman”role in a SEAL platoon. Known used weapons include, but are not limited to, the Mk 14 Mod 0 Enhanced Battle Rifle, M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System, MK11/SR-25, the MK12 Mod X, the much elusive "SEAL Recon Rifle" and in some cases even regular M14 Rifles fitted with optical scopes. Soviet snipers Main article: Snipers of the Soviet Union

Although referred to as “snipers”, the Soviet Union and its allies have since World War II employed speciallyequipped and trained “sharpshooting”soldiers at a section ("squad") level to increase the range of their section rewritten and snipers were issued the bolt-action M24 to 1,000 meters (1,100 yd). This is commonly accepted SWS instead of the M14 rifle. A major change was the as the first example of what came to be known as a desintroduction of a new battle profession – the designated ignated marksman as opposed to a true sniper.* [10] marksman (‫קלע סער‬,“kala sa'ar”in Hebrew) – intended to improve the accuracy and firepower of an infantry pla- Since 1963 these soldiers have been equipped with the toon and compromise between the role of a sniper and Dragunov SVD rifle that shares all the characteristics an assault rifleman. These soldiers were generally called typical of a designated marksman rifle (Semi-automatic “squad snipers”to describe their role. They are armed fire, telescopic sight, chambered for standard military riwith SR-25 rifle and sharpshooter variations of the IMI fle cartridge). Tavor TAR-21 (STAR-21), M16A2E3 and M4 carbine. The IMI Tavor STAR-21 designated marksman variant (Guatemalan Navy special forces).

1.3.4 See also United States Armed Forces Related military roles United States Marine Corps The U.S. Marines use M14s which are rebuilt at Marine Corps Base Quantico and designated as Designated Marksman Rifles, which are being replaced by M39 Enhanced Marksman Rifle.* [8] The Corps also utilizes two different adaptations of the M16 assault rifle: the Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle (SAM-R), and the Mk 12 Mod 1 SPR. United States Army The 101st ABN (Air Assault) Division recognized the need for a Squad Designated Marksman, when they encountered fires beyond the 300-

• Soviet sniper, the Soviet equivalent of a Designated Marksman. • Sniper, more specialized military marksmen. Rifles • Dragunov Sniper Rifle • M21, the scoped and accurized version of the M14.

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• United States Army Squad Designated Marksman Rifle • U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle • U.S. Marine Corps Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle • United States Navy Mark 12 Mod X Special Purpose Rifle • SR-25, designed by Knight's Armament Company

1.4 FGM-148 Javelin For the British Javelin missile, see Javelin surface-to-air missile. The FGM-148 Javelin is a United States–made manportable fire-and-forget anti-tank missile fielded to replace the M47 Dragon anti-tank missile in US service.* [7]

1.4.1 Overview

Javelin is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on before launch and automatic self-guidance. The system takes a top-attack flight profile against armored vehicles (attack[1] Stirling, Robert (18 December 2012). Special Forces ing the top armor, which is generally thinner), but can Sniper Skills. Osprey Publishing. pp. 163–165. ISBN also take a direct-attack mode for use against buildings. This missile also has the ability to engage helicopters in 978-1-78200-765-4. the direct attack mode.* [7] It can reach a peak altitude [2] Dougherty, Martin J. Sniper: SAS and Elite Forces Guide: of 150 m (500 ft) in top-attack mode and 60 m in directSniping skills from the world's elite forces. Amber Books fire mode. It is equipped with an imaging infrared seeker. Ltd. pp. 54–56. ISBN 978-1-909160-38-5. The tandem warhead is fitted with two shaped charges: a precursor warhead to detonate any explosive reactive ar[3] Halberstadt, Hans (18 March 2008). Trigger Men: mor and a primary warhead to penetrate base armor.

1.3.5

References

Shadow Team, Spider-Man, the Magnificent Bastards, and the American Combat Sniper. St. Martin's Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-4299-7181-2. [4] Australia Defense Force news – February 2010 [5] [6]

The missile is ejected from the launcher so that it reaches a safe distance from the operator before the main rocket motors ignite; a "soft launch arrangement”.* [8] This makes it harder to identify the launcher; however, backblast from the launch tube still poses a hazard to nearby personnel. Thanks to this “fire and forget”system, the firing team may change their position as soon as the missile has been launched, or prepare to fire on their next target while the first missile is still in the air.* [6]

The missile system is most often carried by a two man team consisting of a gunner and an ammo bearer, although it can be fired with just one person if necessary. While the gunner aims and fires the missile, the ammo [8] Pushies, Fred (15 November 2011). MARSOC: U.S. Ma- bearer scans for prospective targets, watches for threats rine Corps Special Operations Command. MBI Publishing such as enemy vehicles and troops, and ensures personCompany. pp. 113–115. ISBN 978-1-61059-750-0. nel and obstacles are clear of the missile's back blast. [7] “UK selects 7.62 mm Sharpshooter weapon for Afghan ops”. www.janes.com. 2009-12-28. Retrieved 2009-0125.

[9] Kokalis, Peter (2005). “M14 reborn: Crazy Horse and the Romanian Option”. Shotgun News 50 (12): 20–22, 24, 26.

1.4.2 Development

In 1983, the United States Army introduced its AAWSM (Advanced Anti-Tank Weapon System̶Medium) requirement and, in 1985, the AAWS-M was approved for development. In August 1986, the Proof-of-Principle (POP) phase of the development began, with a $30 million contract awarded for technical proof demonstrators: Ford Aerospace (laser-beam riding), Hughes Aircraft 1.3.6 External links Missile System Group (imaging infra-red combined with a fiber-optic cable link) and Texas Instruments (imag• Field Manual 3–22.9; Rifle Marksmanship – See ing infra-red).* [9] In late 1988, the POP phase ended Chapter 7, Section VII – Squad Designated Marks- and, in June 1989, the full-scale development contract man Training was awarded to a joint venture of Texas Instruments and [10] Cutshaw, Charles Q. (2011). Tactical Small Arms of the 21st Century: A Complete Guide to Small Arms From Around the World. Iola, Wisconsin: Gun Digest Books. p. 259. ISBN 1-4402-2482-X.

1.4. FGM-148 JAVELIN

215

Martin Marietta (now Raytheon and Lockheed-Martin). program (an additional test phase of the so-called Product The AAWS-M received the designation of FGM-148. Verification Test),* [10] which included live firings with In April 1991, the first test-flight of the Javelin succeeded, the full-rate configuration weapon. and in March 1993, the first test-firing from the launcher succeeded. In 1994, low levels of production were authorized,* [7] and the first Javelins were deployed with US Army units in 1996.* [7]

Per initiatives and as a DT&E function, the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA) and the Defense Department's Director of Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) became involved in three development test activities, including: 1) reviewing initial operational test and evaluation plans; 2) monitoring initial operational test and evaluation; and 3) structuring follow-on test and evaluaTest and evaluation tion activities. The results of these efforts detected problems (training included) and corrected significant probDevelopment test and evaluation (DT&E) is conducted to lems which led to modified test plans, savings in test costs, demonstrate that the engineering design and development and GAO satisfaction. process is complete. It is used to reduce risk, validate and qualify the design, and ensure that the product is ready for government acceptance. The DT&E results are evaluated Qualification testing to ensure that design risks have been minimized and the system will meet specifications. The results are also used The Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS) is a moto estimate the systemʼs military utility when it is in- bile test set for Javelin All-Up-Round (AUR) and the troduced into service. DT&E serves a critical purpose Command Launch Unit (CLU). It can be configured to in reducing the risks of development by testing selected functionally test the AUR or the CLU individually or high-risk components or subsystems. DT&E is the gov- both units in a mated tactical mode. This mobile unit ernment developing agency tool used to confirm that the may be repositioned at the various environmental testing system performs as technically specified and that the sys- facilities. The mobile system is used for all phases of tem is ready for field testing. Javelin qualification testing. There is also a non-mobile DT&E is an iterative process of designing, building, test- JETS used for stand-alone CLU testing. This system is ing, identifying deficiencies, fixing, retesting, and repeat- equipped with an environmental chamber and is primaring. It is performed in the factory, laboratory, and on the ily used for Product Verification Testing (PRVT). Capaproving ground by the contractors and the government. bilities include: Javelin CLU testing; Javelin AUR testing; in various enContractor and government testing is combined into one Javelin Mated Mode testing; Javelin testing * vironmental conditions; and CLU PRVT. [11] integrated test program and conducted to determine if the performance requirements have been met and to provide The All-up-Round Test Sets includes: Extreme temdata to the decision authority. perature testing; Missile tracker testing (Track rate erThe General Accounting Office (GAO) published a re- ror, Tracking sensitivity); Seeker/focal plane array testing port questioning the adequacy of Javelin testing. The re- (Cool-down time, Dead/defective pixels, Seeker identiport, called“Army Acquisition̶Javelin Is Not Ready for fication); Pneumatic leakage; Continuity measurements; Multiyear Procurement”, opposed entering into full-rate Ready time; and Guidance sections (Guidance comproduction in 1997 and expressed the need for further mands, Fin movement). operational testing due to the many redesigns undergone. In 1995, Secretary of Defense William Perry had set forth 1.4.3 Components five new operational test initiatives. These included: 1) getting operational testers involved early in development; Missile 2) use of modeling and simulation; 3) integrating development and operational testing; 4) combining testing and training; and 5) applying concepts to demos and acquisitions. The late-phase development of the Javelin retroactively benefited from the then new operational test initiatives set forth by the Secretary of Defense, as well as a further test conducted as a consequence of the Army's response to the GAO report. Before the Milestone III decision, and before fielding to 3rd Battalion 75th Ranger Regiment at Fort Benning (also Army Rangers, Special Forces, airborne, air assault, and light infantry), the Javelin was subjected to limited parts of the five operational test and eval- Missile components. uation initiatives, as well as a portability operational test

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CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED on missile conditions (target lock check), ESAF initiates final arming to enable the warheads for detonation upon target impact. When the missile strikes the target, ESAF enables the tandem warhead function (provide appropriate time between the detonation of the precursor charge and the detonation of the main charge).

US Marine carrying a Javelin missile during Operation Moshtarak in Marjeh, Afghanistan 2010

Warhead The Javelin missileʼs tandem warhead is a HEAT type.* [7] This round utilizes an explosive shaped charge to create a stream of superplastically deformed metal formed from trumpet-shaped metallic liners. The result is a narrow high velocity particle stream that can penetrate armor.

Though the Javelin tandem HEAT warhead has proven efficient at destroying tanks, most threats it was employed against in Iraq and Afghanistan were weapon crews and teams, buildings, and lightly armored and unarmored vehicles. To make the Javelin more useful in these scenarios, the Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center developed a multi-purpose warhead (MPWH) for the FGM-148F. While it is still lethal against tanks, the new warhead has a naturally fragmenting steel warhead case that provides double the effectiveness against personnel due to enhanced fragmentation. The MPWH does not add weight or cost and has a lighter composite missile mid-body to enable drop-in replacement to current Javelin tubes.* [12]* [13]

The Javelin counters the advent of explosive reactive armor (ERA). ERA boxes or tiles lie over a vehicleʼs main armor and explode when struck by a warhead. This explosion does not harm the vehicleʼs main armor, but causes steel panels to fly across the path of the HEAT roundʼs narrow particle stream, disrupting its focus leaving it unable to cut through the main armor. The Javelin uses two shaped-charge warheads in tandem. The weak, smaller diameter HEAT precursor charge pushes through the ERA without setting it off, and punches a channel through it for the much larger diameter HEAT warhead, which then penetrates the targetʼs primary armor. A two-layered molybdenum liner is used for the precursor and a copper liner for the main warhead. To protect the main charge from the explosive blast, shock, and debris caused by the impact of the missile's nose and the detonation of the precursor charge, a blast shield is used between the main and precursor charge. This was the first composite material blast shield and the first that had a hole through the middle to provide a jet that is less diffuse. A newer main charge liner produces a higher velocity jet. While making the warhead smaller, this change makes it more effective, leaving more room for propellant for the main rocket motor, and thus increasing the missile's range. Electronic arming and fusing, called Electronic Safe Arming and Fire (ESAF), is used. The ESAF system enables the firing and arming process to proceed, while imposing a series of safety checks on the missile. ESAF cues the launch motor after the trigger is pulled. When the missile reaches a key acceleration point (indicating that it has cleared the launch tube), the ESAF initiates a second arming signal to fire the flight motor. After another check

U.S. soldier firing Javelin.

Propulsion Most rocket launchers require a large clear area behind the gunner to prevent injury from backblast. To address this shortcoming, without increasing recoil to an unacceptable level, the Javelin system uses a soft launch mechanism. A launch motor using conventional rocket propellant ejects the missile from the launcher, but stops burning before the missile clears the tube. The flight motor is ignited only after a delay to allow for sufficient clearance from the operator. To save weight, the two motors are integrated with a burst disc between them; it is designed to tolerate the pressure of the launch motor from one side, but to easily rupture from the other when the flight motor ignites. Both motors use a common nozzle, with the flight motor's exhaust flowing through the expended launch motor. Because the launch motor casing remains in place, an unusual annular (ring-shaped) igniter is used to start it; a normal igniter would be blown out the back of the missile when the flight motor ignited and could injure the operator. Since the launch motor uses

1.4. FGM-148 JAVELIN

217

a standard NATO propellant, the presence of lead betaresorcinol as a burn rate modifier causes an amount of lead and lead oxide to be present in the exhaust; for this reason, gunners are asked to hold their breath after firing.

connection is broken and coolant gas is supplied internally by an onboard argon gas bottle. The gas is held in a small bottle at high pressure and contains enough coolant for the duration of the flight of approximately 19 seconds.

In the event that the launch motor malfunctions and the launch tube is overpressurized̶for example, if the rocket gets stuck ̶the Javelin missile includes a pressure release system to prevent the launcher from exploding. The launch motor is held in place by a set of shear pins, which fracture if the pressure rises too high and allow the motor to be pushed out the back of the tube.

The seeker is calibrated using a chopper wheel. This device is a fan of 6 blades: 5 black blades with very low IR emissivity and one semi-reflective blade. These blades spin in front of the seeker optics in a synchronized fashion such that the FPA is continually provided with points of reference in addition to viewing the scene. These reference points allow the FPA to reduce noise introduced by response variations in the detector elements.

Seeker As a fire-and-forget missile, after launch the missile has to be able to track and destroy its target without the gunner. This is done by coupling an on-board imaging IR system (different from CLU imaging system) with an on-board tracking system. The gunner uses the CLUʼ s IR system to find and identify the target then switches to the missileʼs independent IR system to set a track box around the target and establish a lock. The gunner places brackets around the image for locking. The seeker stays focused on the targetʼ s image continuing to track it as the target moves or the missileʼs flight path alters or as attack angles change. The seeker has three main components: focal plane array (FPA), cooling and calibration and stabilization.

Stabilization The platform on which the seeker is mounted must be stabilized with respect to the motion of the missile body and the seeker must be moved to stay aligned with the target. The stabilization system must cope with rapid acceleration, up/down and lateral movements. This is done by a gimbal system, accelerometers, spinning-mass gyros (or MEMS), and motors to drive changes in position of the platform. The system is basically an autopilot. Information from the gyros is fed to the guidance electronics which drive a torque motor attached to the seeker platform to keep the seeker aligned with the target. The wires that connect the seeker with the rest of the missile are carefully designed to avoid inducing motion or drag on the seeker platform.

Focal plane array (FPA) Main article: Staring array The seeker assembly is encased in a dome which is transparent to long-wave infrared radiation. The IR radiation passes through the dome and then through lenses that focus the energy. The IR energy is reflected by mirrors on to the FPA. The seeker is a two-dimensional staring FPA of 64x64 MerCad (HgCdTe) detector elements.* [14] The FPA processes the signals from the detectors and relays a Top attack flight profile. signal to the missileʼs tracker. The staring array is a photo-voltaic device where the incident photons stimulate electrons and are stored, pixel by pixel, in a readout integrated circuits attached at the rear of the detector. These electrons are converted to voltages which are multiplexed out of the ROIC on a frame-byframe basis. Cooling/Calibration The FPA must be cooled and calibrated. The CLUʼs IR detectors are cooled using a Dewar flask and a closed-cycle Stirling engine. But there is insufficient space in the missile for a similar solution. So, prior to launch, a cooler mounted on the outside of the launch tube activates the electrical systems in the missile and supplies cold gas from a Joule-Thomson expander to the missile detector assembly while the missile is still in the launch tube. When the missile is fired, this external

Direct attack flight path.

Tracker The tracker is key to guidance/control for an eventual hit. The signals from each of the 4,096 detector elements (64x64 pixel array) in the seeker are passed to the FPA readout integrated circuits which reads then creates a video frame that is sent to the tracker system for processing. By comparing the individual frames the

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tracker determines the need to correct so as to keep the missile on target. The tracker must be able to determine which portion of the image represents the target. The target is initially defined by the gunner who places a configurable frame around it. The tracker then uses algorithms to compare that region of the frame based on image, geometric, and movement data to the new image frames being sent from the seeker, similar to pattern recognition algorithms. At the end of each frame the reference is updated. The tracker is able to keep track of the target even though the seekerʼs point of view can change radically in the course of flight. To guide the missile, the tracker locates the target in the current frame and compares this position with the aim point. If this position is off center, the tracker computes a correction and passes it to the guidance system, which makes the appropriate adjustments to the four movable tail fins, as well as six fixed wings at mid-body. This is an autopilot. To guide the missile, the system has sensors that check that the fins are positioned as requested. If not, the deviation is sent back to the controller for further adjustment. This is a closed-loop controller. There are three stages in the flight managed by the tracker: 1) an initial phase just after launch; 2) a mid-flight phase that lasts for most of the flight; and 3) a terminal phase Command Launch Unit. in which the tracker selects the sweet spot for the point of impact. With guidance algorithms, the autopilot uses data from the seeker and tracker to determine when to transition the missile from one phase of flight to another. Depending on whether the missile is in top attack or direct attack mode, the profile of the flight can change significantly. The top attack mode requires the missile to climb sharply after launch and cruise at high altitude then dive on the top of the target (curveball). In direct attack mode (fastball), the missile cruises at a lower altitude directly at target. The exact flight path which takes into account the range to the target is calculated by the guidance unit. Launch Tube Assembly Both men carry a disposable tube called the Launch Tube Assembly which houses the missile and protects the missile from harsh environments. The tube also has built in electronics and a locking hinge system that makes attachment and detachment of the missile to and from the Command Launch Unit a very quick and simple process.

CLU after action.

Command Launch Unit

are no longer required to stay in constant contact with armored personnel carriers and tanks with thermal sights. This makes infantry personnel more flexible and able to perceive threats they would not otherwise be able to detect. In 2006, a contract was awarded to Toyon Research Corporation to begin development of an upgrade to the CLU enabling the transmission of target image and GPS location data to other units.* [15]

The gunner carries a reusable Command Launch Unit (in addition to the Launch Tube Assembly) more commonly referred to as a CLU (pronounced “clue”). The CLU is the targeting component of the two part system. The CLU has three views which are used to find, target, and fire the missile. The CLU may also be used separately from the missile as a portable thermal sight. Infantry

Day Field of View The first view is a 4× magnification day view. It is mainly used to scan areas for light during night operation, because light is not visible in the thermal views. It is also used to scan following sunrise and sunset, when the thermal image is hard to focus due to the natural rapid heating and/or cooling of the Earth.

1.4. FGM-148 JAVELIN WFOV (Wide Field of View) The second view is the 4x magnification night view, and shows the gunner a thermal representation of the area viewed. This is also the primary view used due to its ability to detect infrared radiation and find both troops and vehicles otherwise too well hidden to detect. The screen shows a “green scale”view which can be adjusted in both contrast and brightness. The inside of the CLU is cooled by a small refrigeration unit attached to the sight. This greatly increases the sensitivity of the thermal imaging capability since the temperature inside the sight is much lower than that of the objects it detects. Due to the sensitivity this causes, the gunner is able to“focus”the CLU to show a very detailed image of the area being viewed by showing temperature differences of only a few degrees. The gunner operates this view with the use of two hand stations similar to the control stick found in modern cockpits. It is from this view that the gunner focuses the image and determines the area that gives the best heat signature on which to lock the missile. NFOV (Narrow Field of View) The third field of view is a 12x thermal sight used to better identify the target vehicle. Once the CLU has been focused in WFOV, the gunner may switch to NFOV for target recognition before activating Seeker FOV.

219 modernized electronics.* [13]

1.4.4 Training A great familiarity of each control and swift operation needs to be achieved before the unit can be deployed efficiently. American troops are trained on the system at the Infantry School in Fort Benning, Georgia, for two weeks. The soldiers are taught basic care and maintenance, operation and abilities, assembly and disassembly, and the positions it can be fired from. Soldiers are also taught to distinguish between a variety of vehicle types even when only a rough outline is visible. The soldiers must accomplish several timed drills with set standards before being qualified to operate the system in both training and wartime situations. There are also smaller training programs set up on most Army bases that instruct soldiers on the proper use of the system. At these courses, the training program might be changed in small ways. This is most commonly only minor requirements left out due to budget, the amount of soldiers vs. simulation equipment, and available time and resources. Both types of training courses have required proficiency levels that must be met before the soldier can operate the system in training exercises or wartime missions.

1.4.5 Advantages and disadvantages

Seeker Field of View Once the best target area is chosen, the gunner presses one of the two triggers and is au- Advantages tomatically switched to the fourth view; the Seeker FOV, which is a 9x magnification thermal view. This process is similar to the automatic zoom feature on most modern cameras. This view is also available along with the previously mentioned views, all of which may be accessed with press of a button. However, it is not as popular as a high magnification view takes longer to scan a wide area. This view allows the gunner to further aim the missile and set the guidance system housed inside the actual missile. It is when in this view that information is passed from the CLU, through the connection electronics of the Launch Tube Assembly, and into the missile's guidance system. If the gunner feels uncomfortable with firing the missile, he can still cycle back to the other views without having to fire the missile. When the gunner is comfortable with the target picture, he pulls the second trigger and establishes a “lock”. The missile launches after a short delay.

Javelin's backblast

Lightweight CLU The U.S. Army is developing a new CLU as an improvement over the Block I version. The new CLU is 70 percent smaller, 40 percent lighter, and has a 50 percent battery life increase. Features of the lightweight CLU are: a long-wave IR sensor; a highdefinition display with improved resolution; integrated handgrips; a five megapixel color camera; a laser point that can be seen visibly or through IR; a far target locator using GPS, a laser rangefinder, and a heading sensor; and

The portable system is easy to separate into main components and easy to set up when needed. Compared to more cumbersome anti-tank weapon systems, the difference is noticeable. For example, a TOW requires a heavy tripod stand, a bulky protective case for the thermal sight, a larger, longer launch tube, and requires much more time to assemble and prepare. The Javelin (although still very heavy) is lighter than the other missiles and their necessary parts.

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Although the CLU's thermal imaging may hinder aiming, its thermal targeting allows the Javelin to be a fire-andforget system. This gives the firer an opportunity to be out of sight and possibly moving to a new angle of fire, or out of the area, by the time the enemy realizes they are under attack. This is much safer than using a wire-guided system where the firer must stay stationary to guide the missile into the target.

1.4.6 Combat history

Another advantage is the Javelin's power at impact. The missile's tandem shaped charge warhead is made to penetrate reactive armor. With the top attack mode, it has an even greater ability to destroy the tank because it can attack where most tanks are weakest.* [7]

During the War in Afghanistan, the Javelin was used effectively in counter-insurgency (COIN) operations. Initially, soldiers perceived the weapon as unsuited for COIN operations due to its destructive power, but trained gunners were able to make precision shots against enemy positions with little collateral damage. The Javelin filled a niche in U.S. weapons systems against DShK heavy machine guns and B-10 recoilless rifles; weapons like the AT4 and M203 had good effects but insufficient range, medium and heavy machine guns and grenade launchers had greater range but insufficient effects, and heavy mortars had good range and effects but poor precision. The Javelin, as well as the TOW, had enough range, power, and accuracy to counter standoff engagement tactics employed by enemy weapons. With good locks, the missile is most effective against vehicles, caves, fortified positions, and individual personnel; if enemies were inside a cave, a Javelin fired into the mouth of the cave would destroy it from the inside, which was not possible from the outside using heavy mortars. The psychological effect of the sound of a Javelin firing sometimes caused insurgents to disengage and flee their position. Even when not firing, the Javelin's CLU was commonly used as a man-portable surveillance system.* [19]

The soft launch capability of the Javelin allows it to have only a minimal backblast area. In addition to reducing the visible launch signature from the enemy, this enables the Javelin to be fired from inside structures with minimal preparation, which gives the Javelin advantages in urban fighting over the widely used AT4 (which has a very large backblast area, although this is lessened in the AT4 CS). A large backblast area would seriously injure personnel if fired from inside an unprepared structure, and may betray the location of the launch to enemy observers. The missile also has a greater range than the US ATGM it replaces, the M47 Dragon.* [7]

Disadvantages

The Javelin was used by US Army and Marine Corps and Australian Special Forces in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq* [7] on Iraqi Type 69 and Lion of Babylon tanks. In one short engagement, a platoon of U.S. special forces soldiers equipped with Javelins destroyed two T-55 tanks, eight armored personnel carriers, and four troop trucks.* [18]

The main drawback of the complete system (missile, tube, and CLU) is its 49.2 lb (22.3 kg) total weight. The 1.4.7 Users system is designed to be portable by infantry on foot • Australia: 92 launchers.* [20] and weighs more than that originally specified by the US Army requirement.* [16] • Bahrain: 13 launchers.* [21] Another drawback of the system is the reliance on a thermal view to acquire targets. The thermal views are • Czech Republic: Purchased 3 launchers and not able to operate until the refrigeration component has 12 missiles for its special forces (intended for use cooled the system. The manufacturer estimates 30 secin Afghanistan).* [22] onds until this is complete, but depending on the ambient temperature, this process may take much longer. • Estonia: 120 launchers and 350 missiles will be taken into service by 2016. Also, Javelin launchers and missiles are rather expensive. In 2002 a single Javelin command launch unit cost $126,000, and each missile cost around $78,000.* [17]

•

The operator of the complex has no opportunity to correct the flight of the rocket after launch (when the target heat contrasts poorly with the terrain, the missile can miss). Javelin, with an effective range of 2,500 m is not able to exceed the range of its international predecessors and competitors; MILAN 3,000 m, Swingfire 4,000 m, TOW 4,200 m and Kornet-EM 8,000 m. This is due to the IIR CLU having difficulties acquiring targets at extended ranges̶the missile is capable of reaching 4,750 m.

France: 76 launchers and 260 missiles for use in Afghanistan.* [23] Was replacing MILAN antitank missile,* [24] no follow-on order in favor of the missile moyenne portée (MMP).* [25]

•

Georgia* [26]

•

Indonesia* [27]

•

Ireland; Irish Army, replaced MILAN antitank missile.* [28]

1.4. FGM-148 JAVELIN

221 •

United Kingdom: In January 2003, the UK Ministry of Defence announced that it had decided to procure Javelin for the Light Forces Anti-Tank Guided Weapon System (LFATGWS) requirement. It entered UK service in 2005 replacing the MILAN and Swingfire systems.* [7]* [39]* [40]

•

United States: In 2003, the United States General Accounting Office (GAO) reported that the Army could not account for 36 Javelin command launch units totaling approximately $2.8 million.* [41] The New York Times later reported supply chain problems at military armories and warehouses in 2004 and expressed concerns of weapons falling into enemy hands.* [42]

Failed bids •

A Norwegian soldier with the FGM-148 Javelin.

•

Jordan: 30 launchers and 116 missiles were received in 2004, and another 162 JAVELIN Command Launch Units (CLUs), 18 Fly-to-Buy Missiles, 1,808 JAVELIN Anti-Tank Guided Missiles and other support equipment was ordered in 2009. The estimated cost is $388 million.* [29]

•

Lithuania: 40 launchers.* [30]

•

New Zealand: 24 launchers* [31]

• • •

• •

•

Norway: 100 launchers and 526 missiles. Delivered from 2006, in use from 2009.* [32]

India: India had planned to buy some of the systems off-the-shelf and a much larger number was to be indigenously manufactured under licensed production.* [43] But, the plan to go in for the American FGM-148 Javelin ATGMs had “virtually been shelved”because of Washington's reluctance to provide full military knowhow̶licensed “transfer of technology (ToT)"̶to allow India to indigenously manufacture the“tank killers”in large numbers after an initial off-the-shelf purchase.* [44] In September 2013, the U.S. proposed co-development of the next version of the Javelin with India as a way to deepen defense ties between the two countries.* [45] In 2014 the United States offered to transfer fourthgeneration technology for the missile, an improvement over the previous third generation.* [46] However, India chose to buy the Israeli Spike missile in October 2014 instead of the Javelin.* [47] Germany Germany Army

1.4.8 See also

Oman: 30 launchers.* [33] Qatar: In March 2013, Qatar requested the sale of 500 Javelin missiles and 50 command launch units.* [34] The deal was signed in March 2014.* [35] Saudi Arabia Taiwan: In 2002, Taiwan bought 360 Javelin missiles and 40 launcher units for $39 million. The contract also included training devices, logistics support, associated equipment and training.* [36] In 2008, the United States issued a congressional notification for the sale of a further 20 launchers and 182 more missiles.* [37] United Arab Emirates* [38]

• MBT LAW • Spike (missile) • Type 01 LMAT • 9K115-2 Metis-M • Shershen • HJ-12 • Missile Moyenne Portée (MMP) • List of missiles

222

1.4.9

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References

Notes [1] “United States Department Of Defense Fiscal Year 2015 Budget Request Program Acquisition Cost By Weapon System” (PDF). Office Of The Under Secretary Of Defense (Comptroller)/ Chief Financial Officer. March 2014. p. 60. [2] 40,000 Javelin Missiles Delivered and Counting PRNewswire.com, 2 December 2014 [3] [4] “Javelin Portable Anti-Tank Missile - Army Technology” . Retrieved 25 December 2014. [5] Javelin Man-Portable Anti-Tank Missile Demonstrates Extended Range Capability - Deagel.com, February 6, 2013 [6] Javelin Antitank Missile

[21] Bahrain Requests 160 Javelins & 60 CLUs [22] A-report (Czech) (archived from the original on 2009-0227) [23] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 136 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group [24] France replacing Milan – Strategypage.com [25] France Orders Anti-Tank Missile from MBDA - Defensenews.com, 5 December 2013 [26] Georgia to buy weapons from US: Voice of Russia [27] Indonesia & Jordan; Javelin missile order - Dmilt.com, May 26, 2013 [28] Jones, Richard D. Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009/2010. Jane's Information Group; 35 edition (January 27, 2009). ISBN 978-0-7106-2869-5. [29] Jordan to buy Javelin anti-tank missiles from USA of worth $388 million : Defense news

[7] “Javelin Portable Anti-Tank Missile - Army Technology” [30] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 174 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group . army-technology.com. Retrieved 25 December 2014. [8] Javelin Antitank Missile

[31] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 423 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group

[9] Jane's Weapon Systems 1988–1989 page 153 [10] JAVELIN, Redstone Arsenal (archived from http://www. redstone.army.mil/history/systems/JAVELIN.html the original on 2001-02-15) [11] Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS), Redstone Technical Test Center (RTTC) (archived from the original on 2008-01-26) [12] Javelin warhead redesigned for future threats - Theredstonerocket.com, 3 July 2012

[32] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 184 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group [33] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 286 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group [34] Qatar Requests Sales of 500 Javelin Anti-Tank Missile Rounds and 50 Launch Units - Deagel.com, March 28, 2013 [35] $23.9B in Deals Announced on Last Day of DIMDEX Defensenews.com, 27 March 2014

[13] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2013PSAR_13/hicks.pdf [14] 64 × 64 LWIR Focal Plane Assembly (FPA) Highly Linear, Rapid Operation Staring Array, Raytheon. (archived from the original on 2009-02-27) [15] “262 Phase I Selections from the 06.2 Solicitation”. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27.

[36] Lockheed Martin press release (archived from the original on 2007-03-27) [37] “Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States – JAVELIN Guided Missile Systems” (PDF). DSCA. 2008-10-03. Retrieved 2008-10-05.

[16] Raytheon/Lockheed Martin FGM-148 Javelin

[38] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 298 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group

[17] “Javelin Medium Anti-armor Weapon System”. Retrieved 25 December 2014.

[39] MOD press release

[18] THE STRUGGLE FOR IRAQ: COMBAT; How Green Berets Beat the Odds at an Iraq Alamo By THOM SHANKER Published: September 22, 2003, New York Times [19] Javelin in Afghanistan: The Effective Use of an Anti-Tank Weapon for Counter-Insurgency Operations

[40] Javelin Medium Range Anti-tank Guided Weapon [41] Abate, Tom (2003-05-18). “Military waste under fire / trillion missing – Bush plan targets Pentagon accounting” . The San Francisco Chronicle. [42] Schmitt, Eric; Thompson, Ginger (2007-11-11).“Broken Supply Channel Sent Arms for Iraq Astray”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[20] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 418 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group. Australia was one of the [43] Pandit, Rajat (2010-08-17).“India to order large number first countries that the US government gave“unrestricted” of Javelin anti-tank missiles from US”. The Times Of India. permission for the export of the Javelin.

1.5. FORCE MULTIPLICATION

223 • Deception

[44] Pandit, Rajat (2012-11-29). “Israel pips US in anti-tank guided missile supply to India”. The Times Of India.

• Military strategy, such as the Fabian strategy

[45] United States and India could start the co-development of new version of Javelin anti-tank missile - Armyrecognition.com, 22 September 2013 [46] RAGHUVANSHI, VIVEK (16 August 2014). “Too Early To Assess Indo-US Defense Ties”. www. defensenews.com (Gannett). Retrieved 16 August 2014. [47] India will purchase 8,000 Israeli Spike anti-tank guided missiles and 300 units of launchers - Armyrecognition.com, 26 October 2014

• Military tactics, such as force concentration Some factors may influence one another, e.g. enhanced technology improving morale or geographical features allowing deception.

It seems clear that force multiplication existed before anyone had a name for it. While the Mongols used swarming tactics coordinated by non-electronic commuBibliography nications, such simple tactics nevertheless made them notably effective. In the Middle Ages, stakes were often driven into the ground to protect archers from mounted 1.4.10 External links men-at-arms. This is an example of “combined arms” , a doctrinal development and another example of force • Javelin, Lockheed Martin (archived from the origi- multiplication. nal on 2008-01-20) When World War I aviators first greeted their opponents • Designation Systems with friendly waves, no one realized the multiplicative effect of tactical air reconnaissance. However, after the • FAS article on Javelin command on both sides became aware of how powerful it could be, aviators started shooting at each other. At first • Javelin tank killer they did so with rifles and then with purpose-built aircraft • AAWS-M: from the DRAGON to today's guns. JAVELIN Story • Javelin Lockheed Martin Anti-tank infrared guided 1.5.1 missile on armyrecognition.com

1.5 Force multiplication Force multiplication, in military usage, refers to an attribute or a combination of attributes which make a given force more effective than that same force would be without it. The expected size increase required to have the same effectiveness without that advantage is the multiplication factor. For example, if a certain technology like GPS enables a force to accomplish the same results of a force five times as large but without GPS, then the multiplier is five. Such estimates are used to justify an investment cost for force multipliers. A force multiplier refers to a factor that dramatically increases (hence“multiplies” ) the effectiveness of an item or group. Some common force multipliers are: • Morale • Technology • Geographical features • Weather • Recruitment through diplomacy • Training and experience • Fearsome reputation

Doctrinal changes

In the First World War, the Germans experimented with what were called “storm tactics”, where a small group of highly trained soldiers (stormtroopers) would open a salient through which much larger forces could penetrate. This met with only limited success, breaking trough the first lines of defence but lacking the staying power to break the opposing forces entirly while the 1939 Blitzkrieg, which broke through with coordinated mechanized ground forces with aircraft in close support, was vastly more effective. Towards the end of World War II, the German army introduced kampfgruppe combat formations that were composed of whatever units happened to be available. Though poor quality ones generally constituted the major part of them, they often performed successfully because of their high degree of flexibility and adaptability. Mission-type tactics, as opposed to extremely specific directives that give no discretion to the junior commander, are widely used by modern militaries now due to their force multiplication. Originating from German concepts of Auftragstaktik, these tactics may be developing even more rapidly in the concept of network-centric warfare, where subordinate commanders receive information not only from their own commanders, but from adjacent units. A different paradigm was one of the results of the theories of John Boyd, the “high-low mix”in which a large

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number of less expensive aircraft, coupled with a small number of extremely capable“silver bullet”aircraft, had the effect of a much larger force. Boyd's concept of quick action is based on the repeated application of the Boyd loop, consisting of the steps • Observe: make use of the best sensors and other intelligence available • Orient: put the new observations into a context with the old • Decide: select the next action based on the combined observation and local knowledge • Act: carry out the selected action, ideally while the opponent is still observing your last action. Boyd's concept is also known as the OODA Loop, and is a description of the decision-making process that Boyd contended applies to business, sports, law enforcement and military operations. Boyd's doctrine is widely taught in the American military, and one of the aims of network centric warfare is to get inside his OODA loop̶that is, to go from observation to action before the enemy can get past orientation, preventing him from ever being able to make an effective decision or put it into action. Small unit leadership is critical to this, and NCW's ability to disseminate information to small unit leaders enables such tactics.

heading, location of friendlies, enemy defensive fire, best egress heading if hit by enemy fire, and other pertinent data. Usually the fighters would set up a circle, called a wheel or wagon wheel, over the FAC, and wait for him to mark the target. Once the target was marked, the flight leader would attack first.

1.5.2 Psychology Napoleon is well known for his comment“The moral is to the physical as three to one.”* [3] Former United States Secretary of State and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell has said: “Perpetual optimism is a force multiplier.”* [4] Morale, training, and ethos have long been known to result in disproportionate effects on the battlefield. Psychological warfare can target the morale, politics, and values of enemy soldiers and their supporters to effectively neutralize them in a conflict.

1.5.3 Technology In the First World War, there were two abortive experiments where, had the high commands had the imagination to realize the potential use of new weapons, there could have been a massive breaking of the stalemate of trench warfare. The first was the large-scale German use of chemical weapons at the Second Battle of Ypres, and the second was the large-scale British use of tanks at the Battle of Cambrai in 1917. Either of these new attack methods could have opened an enormous breach in the enemy lines, but failed, as did the Battle of the Crater in the American Civil War.

Network-centric warfare can provide additional information and can help prevent friendly fire, but also allows swarm tactics* [1] and the seizing of opportunities by subordinate forces. These are a realization of Boyd's theories. (Rand-Edwards-2000 pg. 2) defines " “a swarming case is any historical example in which the scheme of maneuver involves the convergent attack of five (or more) semiautonomous (or autonomous) units on a tar- Bombers geted force in some particular place. “Convergent”implies an attack from most of the points on the compass.” At one extreme, a stealth aircraft like the Northrop GrumAnother version of “swarming”is evident in air-to- man B-2 Spirit strategic bomber can attack a target withground attack formations in which the attack aircraft do out needing the large numbers of escort fighter aircraft, not approach from one direction, at one time, or at the electronic-warfare aircraft, Suppression of Enemy Air same altitude, but schedule the attacks so each one re- Defenses, and other supporting aircraft that would be quires a Boyd-style OODA iteration to deal with a new needed were conventional bombers used against the same threat.* [2] Replacement training units (RTU) were“fin- target. ishing schools”for pilots that needed to know not just the school solution, but the actual tactics being used in Vietnam. Referring to close air support, “In the RTU, new pilots learned the rules of the road for working with a Forward air controller (FAC). The hardest part was finding the small aircraft as it circled over the target area. The fast-moving fighters used directional finding/steering equipment to get close enough to the slow, low FAC until someone in the flight could get an eyeball on him̶a tally-ho. Once the FAC was in sight, he would give the fighters a target briefing̶type of target, elevation, attack

Whether or not the aircraft have low observability, precision-guided munitions (PGM) give an immense multiplication. The Thanh Hoa Bridge in North Vietnam had been only mildly damaged by approximately 800 sorties by aircraft armed with conventional Unguided bombs, but had one of its spans destroyed by a 12plane mission, of which 8 carried laser-guided bombs. Two small subsequent missions, again with laser-guided bombs, completed the destruction of this target. Precision guided munitions are one example of what has been called the Revolution in Military Affairs. In World War

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II, British night bombers could hit, at best, an area of a be photographed, fictitious radio traffic generated by a city. small number of specialists, and the Double Cross Sys* Modern PGMs commonly put a bomb within 3–10 me- tem. [7] Double Cross referred to turning all surviving ters of its target (see Circular error probable), and German spies in the UK into double agents, who sent back most carry an explosive charge significant enough that convincing reports that were consistent with the decepthis uncertainty is effectively voided. See the use of tion programs being conducted by the London Controlheavy bombers in direct support of friendly troops in ling Section. Afghanistan, using the technique of Ground-Aided Precision Strike. Fighter combat

1.5.6 See also • Network-centric warfare

• Asymmetric warfare Fighter aircraft coordinated by an AWACS control aircraft, so that they can approach targets without being re• C4ISTAR vealed by their own radar, and who are assigned to take specific targets so that duplication is avoided, are far more effective than an equivalent number of fighters dependent 1.5.7 References on their own resources for target acquisition. In exercises between the Indian and US air forces, the Indian pilots had an opportunity to operate with AWACS control, and found it extremely effective.* [5] India has ordered AWACS aircraft, using Israeli Phalcon electronics on a Russian airframe, and this exercise is part of their preparation. Officer and pilot comments included “definitely was a force multiplier. Giving you an eye deep beyond you”... “We could pick up incoming targets whether aircraft or missiles almost 400 kilometers away. It gives a grand battle coordination in the air”.

1.5.4

Creating local forces

The use of small numbers of specialists to create larger effective forces is another form of multiplication. The basic A Team of US Army Special Forces is a 12-man unit that can train and lead a company-sized unit (100200 men) of local guerrillas. While it is not clear when the term “force multiplier”first appeared in the military literature, the use of small teams to raise much larger guerrilla units was among the first uses of the term.

1.5.5

Deception

Deception can produce the potential effect of a much larger force. The fictitious First United States Army Group (FUSAG) was portrayed to the World War II Germans as the main force for the invasion of Europe. Operation Bodyguard* [6] successfully gave the impression that FUSAG was to land at the Pas de Calais, convincing the Germans that the real attack at Normandy was a feint. As a result of the successful deception, the Normandy force penetrated deeply, in part, because the Germans held back strategic reserves that they thought would be needed at the Pas de Calais, against what was a nonexistent force. FUSAG's existence was suggested by the use of decoy vehicles that the Allies allowed to

[1] Sean J. A. Edwards (2000). Swarming on the Battlefield: Past, Present, and Future. Rand monograph MR-1100. Rand-Edwards-2000. [2] Anderegg, CG (2001). “Sierra Hotel: Flying Air Force Fighters in the Decade after Vietnam” (PDF). US Air Force History and Museums Program. Anderegg-2001. Retrieved 2007-11-24. [3] “Maxims of Napoleon”. [4] “The Candidate of Dreams”. Time magazine. 1995-0313. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [5] “On AWACS, IAF pilots match US counterparts”. 200511-17. AWACS-IAF-2005. [6] Brown, Anthony Cave (1975). Bodyguard of Lies: The Extraordinary True Story Behind D-Day. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-010551-8. [7] Masterman, J. C. The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939–1945. Ballantine, 1982. ISBN 0-345-29743-1.

1.6 Grenadier For other uses, see Grenadier (disambiguation). A grenadier (from French, derived from the word grenade* [1]) was originally a specialized soldier, first established as a distinct role in the mid-to-late 17th century, for the throwing of grenades and sometimes assault operations. At that time grenadiers were chosen from the strongest and largest soldiers. By the 18th century, the throwing of grenades was no longer relevant, but grenadiers were still chosen for being the most physically powerful soldiers and would lead assaults in the field of battle. Grenadiers would also often lead the storming of fortification breaches in siege warfare, although this role was more usually fulfilled by all-arm units of volunteers called forlorn hopes, and might also be fulfilled by sappers or pioneers.

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Attack of Prussian grenadiers 1745

Chartrand, Lt. Col. Jean Martinet introduced the idea of having men detailed to throw grenades in the Régiment du Roi in 1667. In May 1677 the English Army ordered that two soldiers of every Guards Regiment were to be trained as grenadiers; in April 1678 it was ordered that a company of grenadiers be added to the senior eight regiments of foot of the army.* [3] On 29 June of that year the diarist John Evelyn saw them at a war games encampment at Hounslow, near London: Now were brought into service a new sort of soldier called Grenadiers, who were dexterous in flinging hand grenadoes, every one having a pouch full ; they had furred caps with coped crowns like Janizaries, which made them look very fierce, and some had long hoods hanging down behind, as we picture fools. Their clothing being likewise piebald, yellow and red.* [4]

1.6.2 Grenades Grenadier of the Old Guard c1812 by Édouard Detaille

Certain countries such as France (Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Impériale) and Argentina (Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers) established units of Horse Grenadiers and for a time the British Army had Horse Grenadier Guards. Like their infantry grenadier counterparts, these horse-mounted soldiers were chosen for their size and strength (heavy cavalry).

1.6.1

Origins

The concept of throwing grenades may go back to the Ming Dynasty, when Chinese soldiers on the Great Wall were reported to be using this weapon. The earliest references to these grenade-throwing soldiers in Western armies come from Austria and Spain. References also appear in England during the English Civil War. However, it was King Louis XIV of France who made the grenadier an official type of soldier and company during his army reforms late in the 17th century.* [2] According to René

The first grenades were small iron spheres filled with gunpowder fused with a length of slow-match, roughly the size of a cricket ball or a baseball. The grenadiers had to be tall and strong enough to hurl these heavy objects far enough so as not to harm themselves or their comrades, and disciplined enough to stand at the forefront of the fight, light the fuse and throw at the appropriate moment to minimize the ability of an enemy to throw the grenade back. Understandably, such requirements led to grenadiers being regarded as an elite fighting force.

1.6.3 Early distinctions of dress and equipment The wide hats with broad brims characteristic of infantry during the late 17th century were discarded and replaced with caps. This was originally to allow the grenadier to sling his musket over his back with greater ease while throwing grenades (initially, only these troops were provided with slings). Additionally, a brimless hat permitted the grenadier greater ease in throwing the grenade overhand. By 1700, grenadiers in the English and other

1.6. GRENADIER

227 was, however, to draw on steady veterans for appointment to individual vacancies in a grenadier company (one of the eight companies comprising each regiment). The traditional criterion of size was only resorted to when newly raised regiments required a quick sorting of a mass of new recruits.* [5] Transferral to a grenadier company generally meant both enhanced status and an increase in subsistence pay.* [6]

French mounted grenadiers of Louis XV

armies had adopted a cap in the shape of a bishop's mitre, usually decorated with the regimental insignia in embroidered cloth. In addition to grenades, they were equipped with contemporary longarms. The uniform included a belt tube that held the match for lighting the fuse, a feature that was retained in later grenadier uniforms.

Whether for reasons of appearance or reputation, grenadiers tended to be the showpiece troops of their respective armies. In the Spanish Army of the early 19th century, for example, grenadier companies were excused routine duties such as town patrols but were expected to provide guards at the headquarters and residences of senior officers. When a regiment was in line formation the grenadiers were always the company which formed on the right flank. In the British Army, when trooping the colour, the "British Grenadiers March" is played no matter which regiment is on the parade ground, as the colour party stands at the right-hand end of the line, as every regiment formerly had a company of grenadiers at the right of their formation.

1.6.5 Headgear 1.6.4

Elite status in the 18th century

18th century Prussian grenadier caps (Grenadiermütze).

As noted above, grenadiers were distinguished by their head-gear from the ordinary musketeers (or Hatmen) who made up the bulk of each regiment of foot. While there British grenadiers, distinguished by their mitre caps, acting as were some exceptions, the most typical grenadier headassault troops at the Battle of Bunker Hill. However, in 1768 dress was either the mitre cap or the bearskin. Both bethe mitre cap pictured here had in fact been replaced within the gan to appear in various armies during the second half of British Army by a bearskin. the 17th century because grenadiers were impeded by the Grenade usage declined significantly in the early 18th wide brimmed infantry hats of the period when throwing century, a fact that can be attributed to the improved ef- grenades. fectiveness of massive infantry line tactics and flintlock The cloth caps worn by the original grenadiers in Eutechnology. However, the need for elite assault troops re- ropean armies during the 17th century were frequently mained, and the existing grenadier companies were used trimmed with fur.* [7] The practice fell into disuse unfor this purpose. As noted, above average physical size til the second half of the 18th century when grenadiers had been considered important for the original grenadiers in the British, Spanish and French armies began wearing and, in principle, height and strength remained the basis high fur hats with cloth tops and, sometimes, ornamental of selection for these picked companies. In the British front plates. The purpose appears to have been to add to regiments of foot during the 18th century the preference the apparent height and impressive appearance of these

228 troops both on the parade ground and the battlefield.* [8] The mitre cap, whether in stiffened cloth or metal, had become the distinguishing feature of the grenadier in the armies of Britain, Russia, Prussia and most German states during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Spanish, Austrian and French grenadiers favoured high fur hats with long coloured cloth hoods ("bags") to them. The mitre was gradually replaced by bearskin hats in other armies and by 1914 it only survived in three regiments of the Prussian and Russian Imperial Guards. Russian grenadiers had worn their brass fronted mitre hats on active service until 1809 and some of these preserved for parade wear by the Pavlovsky Guards until 1914 still had dents or holes from musket balls. Some have survived for display in modern museums and collections. While Northern-European armies such as Britain, Russia, Sweden and various German states (perhaps most famously Prussia) wore the mitre cap, southern countries such as France, Spain, Austria, Portugal and various Italian states preferred the bearskin. By 1768 Britain had adopted the bearskin.* [9]

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED

1.6.6 Grenadier companies From the 17th Century* [11] to the mid 19th centuries the “Foot”or infantry regiments of the British and several other armies comprised ten companies; eight of them “Battalion”or “Centre”companies, and two “Flank Companies”consisting of one Grenadier and one Light or Light Infantry Company.* [12] In the United States an Act of Congress made on 8 May 1792 directed that for every infantry battalion there should be one company of grenadiers, riflemen, or light infantry.* [13] On occasion the grenadier and light companies could be“brigaded”together into separate grenadier and light infantry battalions for assaults or skirmishing respectively.* [14]

Each of the line infantry regiments of the Austrian Army of this period included a grenadier division of two companies, separate from the fusilier companies which made up the bulk of the unit. The grenadier companies were frequently detached from the parent regiment and grouped into composite grenadier battalions for a particular cam* The shape and appearance of fur hats differed accord- paign or purpose. [15] ing to period and country. While France used smaller The Russian Imperial Army of the 18th century followed bearskins, Spain preferred towering ones with long flow- a different line of development. Prior to 1731 grenadiers ing bags, and while Britain had its tall cloth mitres made up five separate regiments. These were disbanded with lacing and braiding, Russia would sport equally tall prior to the outbreak of war with Turkey and picked inleather helmets with brass front-plates. The first head- fantrymen were transferred to one of two grenadier comdresses were fairly low, and in the case of Spain and panies incorporated in each (two-battalion) line infantry Austria sometimes contained elements from both mitres regiment. In 1756 each of these grenadier companies and bearskins. At the beginning of the 18th century and was brought together in four permanent grenadier regibriefly during the 1770s, French grenadiers wore tricorne ments.* [16] This policy of maintaining a separate corps hats, rather than either the mitre or fur cap. Gradually, of grenadiers continued until the Russian Revolution of both began to increase in size and decoration, now show- 1917. ing devices such as pompoms, cords, badges, front-plates, With the standardisation of training and tactics, the need plumes, braiding and also various national heraldic symfor separate grenadier companies at regimental level had bols. passed by the mid-19th century and the British, French By the advent of the Napoleonic Wars, both mitres and and Austrian armies phased out these sub-units between fur hats had begun to fall out of use in favour of the shako. 1850 and 1862. Two major exceptions were France's Grande Armée (although in 1812, regulations changed grenadier uniforms to those more similar to the ones of fusiliers, except in guard regiments) and the Austrian Army. After the Battle 1.6.7 Grenadier regiments of Friedland in 1807, because of their distinguished performance, Russia's Pavlovsk Regiment were allowed to The term grenadier was retained or adopted by various keep their mitre caps and were admitted to the Imperial elite infantry units, including Potsdam Grenadiers, the Granatieri di Sardegna (Grenadiers of Sardinia) in Italy, Guard. the Foot Grenadiers, Fusilier-Grenadiers, TirailleurDuring the Napoleonic Wars, British grenadiers had norGrenadiers and Horse Grenadiers of the French Impemally worn the bearskin only for full dress when at home, rial Guard, the Imperial Russian Grenadier Leib Guards since the fur was found to deteriorate rapidly on overRegiment, Britain's Grenadier Guards and the 101st seas service.* [10] Following their role in the defeat of the Grenadiers. The latter was part of the British Indian French Old Guard at the Battle of Waterloo, the 1st Foot Army and claimed to be the first and oldest grenadier regGuards was renamed the Grenadier Guards and all comiment (as opposed to grenadier companies) in the British panies of the regiment adopted the bearskin. All British Empire. In 1747 the grenadier companies of a number infantry grenadiers retained the fur headdress for parade of disbanded French infantry regiments were brought todress until shortly before the Crimean War, where it was gether to form a single permanent unit - the Grenadiers only worn by foot guard regiments. de France.

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1.6.8 Modern usage In modern times, regiments using the name grenadiers are effectively indistinguishable from other infantry, especially when hand grenades, RPGs, and other types of explosive arms have become standard-issue weaponry; however, such regiments retain at least the tradition of their elite past. Grenadier can also refer to soldiers utilizing grenade launchers, including those mounted on rifles. During World War I a proposal to designate specialist grenade launching units in the British Army as grenadiers was vetoed by the Grenadier Guards who considered that they now had exclusive rights to the ancient distinction, and the term “bomber”was substituted. During World War I, German troops referred to as pioneers, who were early combat engineers or sappers and stormtroopers began using two types of hand grenades in trench warfare operations against the French to clear opposing trenches of troops. The more effective of the two was the so-called“potato masher”Stielhandgranate, which were stick grenades.* [18] Horse Grenadiers of the French Imperial Guard during the Battle of Eylau by Édouard Detaille.

During the American Revolution of 1775-1783, the Connecticut 1st Company Governor's Foot Guards and the 11th Regiment of Connecticut Militia had grenadier companies. . New York City also had a Grenadier unit , as did South Carolina - the elite 1st South Carolina Regiment, raised and commanded by Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. In Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna created the Grenadier Guards of the Supreme Power on 7 Dec 1841. The formation remained in service until 1847.* [17]

The term Panzergrenadier was adopted in the German Wehrmacht to describe mechanized heavy infantry elements whose greater protection and mobility allowed them to keep pace with (and provide intimate protection to) armoured units and formations. This designation reflects the traditional role of grenadiers as shock troops. The term in today's Bundeswehr refer to mechanized infantry. When parachute units were first created in the United States Army, the Air Corps desired them to be under their control and to be designated “air grenadiers”.* [19] The last known unit to serve as grenadiers, and employing grenades as their weapons, was a special “Grenadier brigade”formed by the Red Army within the 4th Army during the Tikhvin defensive operation in October 1941. It was a measure taken because of lack of firearms, and the commander of the brigade was appropriately General Major G.T. Timofeyev who had served in one of the Russian Imperial Army's grenadier regiments during the First World War.* [20]

A Toronto militia unit was renamed the 10th Royal Grenadiers in 1881, then later became the Royal Regiment of Canada. In the Vietnam War US squads usually had at least one In 1914 the Imperial German and Russian Armies in- soldier whose role was that of a grenadier. He was usually cluded a number of grenadier regiments. In the Rus- armed with an M79 grenade launcher, although towards sian Army these comprised the Grenadier Guards Regi- the end of the war it was replaced with an XM148 grenade ment as well as the Grenadier Corps of sixteen regiments. launcher underslinging an M16 rifle in very small numFive regiments of the Prussian Guard were designated bers. In infantry squads the grenadier was dedicated to as Garde-Grenadiers and there were an additional four- his weapon, meaning that he usually carried only the M79 teen regiment of grenadiers amongst the line infantry of and a Colt 1911 side arm. In some cases, grenadiers were the German Empire. In both the Russian and German not even issued this sidearm. The M79 was designed to armies the grenadier regiments were considered a historic bridge the gap between the maximum throwing range of a elite, distinguished by features such as plumed helmets grenade and the minimum distance of mortar fire. It also in full dress, distinctive facings (yellow for all Russian allowed the use of various rounds, notably high explogrenadiers) or special braiding. Their role and training sive, buckshot, flechette, smoke grenades and parachute however no longer differed from that of the rest of the flares. Modern US squads have continued the concept of the grenadier armed with an M203 grenade launcher or infantry.

230 M320 attached to an M16 or M4. Argentina The Argentine Army still maintains a prestigious unit known as the Horse Grenadiers Regiment (Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo)--actually a squadron-strength formation̶which serves as the Presidential ceremonial escort and guard unit. The regiment was founded in 1903 as a recreation of a unit which existed from 1813 to 1826 under the leadership of national hero General José de San Martín.

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED The 10th Royal Grenadiers later became the Royal Regiment of Canada with tradition surviving in a grenadier company. Chile

The same case of the Mounted Grenadier Regiment in Argentina also applies to its western neighbor Chile. The 1st Armored Cavalry Regiment “Grenadiers” (Regimiento de Caballeria Blindada n.1 “Granaderos” ) of the Chilean Army is active since 1827, has fought in every major battle of the Chilean Army in the 19th cenUnlike most other units which carried the title of tury and since 1840 and 1907 has served as the Escort “grenadiers”, the Argentine Grenadiers are a cavalry unit, Regiment to the President of Chile in every important and continue to mount horses for ceremonial purposes, as national occasion. This regiment is named after General Manuel Bulnes Prieto, the founder of the regiment, who well as carrying lances and cavalry sabers. led the Chilean Army to victory in the War of the PeruBolivia Confederation in the crucial Battle of Yungay in Belgium 1839, which signaled the confederation's demise. The Chilean Grenadiers' uniforms are similar to the full Feldgrau uniforms of the Chilean Army, but adapted for the cavalry, and like their Argentine counterparts, carry lances but not cavalry sabers, which are reserved for officers and the mounted colors guard escort. Ecuador The“Tarqui Grenadiers”serve as the Presidential Escort Squadron for the President of Ecuador. The unit stands guard at Quito's Carondelet Palace and retains the uniform worn during the Battle of Tarqui of 1829. France Grenadiers, Belgium

See: Regiment Carabiniers Prins Boudewijn – Grenadiers The Belgian Army retains two regiments of grenadiers based in Brussels. First raised in 1837 from companies drawn from the line infantry of the newly independent kingdom, these troops served with distinction in both World Wars. In peacetime they had a ceremonial role which corresponded to that of royal guards in other armies. In 1960 the historic blue and red full dress worn prior to World War I was reintroduced for limited wear, although the tall bearskin headdress is now made of synthetic material.

While the French army has not included any grenadiers since 1870, the grenade badge is still a distinctive mark of the Foreign Legion, the National Gendarmerie and the French Customs which was a military unit until 1940. Germany Grenadier is the lowest rank (OR-1) in the Heeresanteil (en: army part) of the Wachbataillon der Bundeswehr (Bundeswehr guard battalion). Furthermore, in the German Bundeswehr Panzergrenadier (armoured grenadier) is the lowest rank (OR-1) in the Panzergrenadieretruppe (en: mechanized infantry). India

Canada The Canadian Grenadier Guards is one of the longest serving units in the Canadian reserve, it still continues today, both in its reserve role and as a ceremonial guard at Rideau Hall among other places of symbolic importance.

The Grenadiers is a regiment of the Indian Army, formerly known as the 4th Bombay Grenadiers when part of the British Indian Army. It is the oldest active and continuing Grenadier regiment in the Commonwealth of Nations.

1.6. GRENADIER Italy

231 The modern Dutch Army maintains a regiment of Guard Grenadiers who retain the bearskin headdress of the early 19th century. This regiment has been amalgamated with the Jager Guards to form the "Garderegiment Grenadiers en Jagers" Two of its companies are Jagers (riflemen), the other two are grenadiers; it wears the maroon beret and is an air assault and para trained unit.

Norway In the Norwegian Army, grenadier (Norwegian: grenader) is used as a rank, the lowest enlisted below sergeant, to distinguish professional soldiers from conscripts. The grenadiers are employed for positions requiring more experience and/or professional presence. Fully professionalised units, such as the Telemark Battalion, serve in international operations.

Sweden

The 1st Grenadiers of Sardinia regiment

The 1st Grenadiers of Sardinia regiment (Reggimento Granatieri di Sardegna) is currently part of the mechanized infantry brigade with the same name in the Italian Army. This unit traces its history back to a guards regiment raised in 1659 and is made up predominantly of one year volunteers. Historically, as the senior regiment in the Piedmontese and Italian armies the Grenadiers of Sardinia took the tallest recruits* [21] of each intake. On ceremonial occasions the Italian Grenadiers parade in their 19th century blue uniforms and fur headdresses. The 1st Grenadiers of Sardinia regiment is currently (2010) the only infantry regiment of the Italian Army with two battalions (1st “Assietta”and 2nd “Cengio”Grenadiers battalions), and it is likely that in the near future its 2nd battalion will be detached to re-activate the 2nd Sardinia Grenadiers Regiment.

The Grenadier Company is the honor guard of the Swedish Army Life Guards for state ceremonies. Their uniform includes bearskin hats, and white baldrics (cross belts) that originally carried the fuses used to light grenades. The grenadiers bear The King's own Life Company banner which was presented to the unit in 1868 by Karl XV's consort, Queen Louise.* [22]

Switzerland Main article: Swiss Grenadiers In the Swiss Army, the Grenadiers form well trained mechanised infantry units. They are used for especially challenging operations and are initially trained in Isone, a secluded, mountainous region in the South of Switzerland. The Swiss Grenadiers specialize in urban warfare, guerrilla warfare, anti-terrorist operations, commando tactics, sniper missions, hand to hand combat, and other special operations.

United Kingdom Mexico

The Grenadier Guards are one of the five prestigious regIn Mexico, Grenadiers (Granaderos) are armored special- iments of foot guards, all of which retain the bearskin ist police units used for anti-riot duties and other security headdress originally associated with grenadiers. roles. The Grenadier Guards are officially recognized as the most senior regiment of foot guards, although this is not recognized by the Coldstream Guards, who are an older Netherlands regiment founded six years earlier. The older age of the Coldstream Guards is not recognized as seniority because Main article: Grenadiers' and Rifles Guard Regiment they were originally serving parliament, so the Grenadier Guards have a longer service to the crown.* [23]

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[6] Stuart Reid, page 18 “British Redcoat 1740-93”, ISBN 1-85532-554-3 [7] W.Y. Carman, page 35,“British Military Uniforms from Contemporary Pictures”, Hamlyn Publishing 1968 [8] Military Uniforms of the World: Preben Kannil SBN 71370482 9 [9] Liliane and Fred Funcken, page 83 “L'Uniforme et les Armes des Soldats de la Guerre en Dentelle”, ISBN 2203-14315-0

A British grenadier in traditional dress

United States

[10] W.Y. Carman, page 112“British Military Uniforms from Contemporary Pictures”, Hamlyn Publishing Group 1968 [11] p.4 Fraser, David The Grenadier Guards Osprey Publishing, 01/07/1989 [12] p.39 Logusz, Michael O. With Musket and Tomahawk: The Saratoga Campaign and the Wilderness War of 1777 Casemate Publishers, 19/05/2010 [13] p.xxxv Miller, A.E. printer The Militia System of SouthCarolina: ..., 1835 [14] p.143 Kirke, Charles Red Coat, Green Machine: Continuity in Change in the British Army 1700 to 2000 Continuum International Publishing Group, 28/12/2009 [15] Philip Haythornthwaite, page 5 “Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (1): Infantry”, ISBN 0-85045-689-4 [16] Angus Konstan, pages 16-17“Russian Army of the Seven Years War (1)", ISBN 1 85532 585 3

Marine grenadier

[17] p.42 Chartrand, Rene Santa Anna's Mexican Army 182148 Osprey Publishing, 25/03/2004

A typical United States Army fireteam consists of four soldiers, with the designated grenadier being equipped [18] p.36, Gudmundsson, Hyland with an M4/M16 with the M203 grenade launcher (or newer M320 grenade launcher) slung under the barrel and [19] p.5 Rottman, Gordon US Army Airborne 1940-90 Osprey Publishing, 18/09/2012 providing limited high-angle fire over 'dead space'.* [24] The United States Marine Corps fireteams include a team leader who also works as the M203 grenadier

1.6.9

See also

• The British Grenadiers

1.6.10

References

[1] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/grenadier [2] René Chartrand, page 18 Louis XIV's Army, ISBN 0850458501 [3] p.34 Tincey, John The British Army 1660-1704 Osprey Publishing, 31/03/1994 [4] Evelyn. The Diary of John Evelyn From 1641 to 1705/6 [5] Stuart Reid, page 16 “British Redcoat 1740-93”, ISBN 1-85532-554-3

[20] Alexei Valeriyevich Isayev, Cauldrons of 41': History of the Great Patriotic War which we didn't know, Yauza, Moscow, 2005 (Russian) [21] David Nicolle, page 21“The Italian Army of World War I, ISBN 1-84176-398-5 [22] http://www.kungahuset.se: The Wedding - The Guards Battalion [23] Major R.M. Barnes, page 26“A History of the Regiments & Uniforms of the British Army”, First Sphere Books 1971, [24] US Army Field Manual 3-21.8 (Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad, formerly FM 7-8)]

1.6.11 Sources • Gudmundsson, Bruce I., Hyland, William, Stormtroop Tactics: Innovation in the German Army, 1914-1918, Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated, 1995

1.7. INFANTRY

1.6.12

233

External links

• The Grenadiers • French Grenadiers, Chasseurs and Fusiliers of the Napoleonic Wars

1.7 Infantry “Foot soldier”redirects here. For other uses of “foot soldier”, see Foot soldier (disambiguation). For the computer game, see Infantry (computer game). Infantry is the branch of a military force that fights on foot. As the troops who are intended to engage, fight, and defeat the enemy in face-to-face combat, they bear the brunt of warfare and typically suffer the greatest number of casualties. Historically, as the oldest branch of the combat arms, the infantry are the tip of the spear of a modern army, and continually undergo training that is more physically stressful and psychologically demanding than that of any other branch of the combat arms.

Ancient Greek infantry: The Græco–Persian wars (449–499 BC) featured the light infantry slinger or peltast, and the heavy infantry hoplites; the shield of the hoplite had an anti-arrow curtain, meant to thwart the archer.

the branch of the combat arms, the term Infantry derives from the French Infanterie, which, in turn, is derived from the Italian Fanteria and ultimately from the Latin Infantera; the individual-soldier term Infantryman (1837) was not coined until the 19th century. Historically, before the invention and the introduction of firearms to warfare, the foot soldiers of previous eras̶ armed with blunt and edged weapons, and a shield̶also are considered and identified as infantrymen. The term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted the first professional standing army seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes (Infantes) to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria.

Early 20th-century infantry: The Royal Irish Rifles at the Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916) during the First World War (1914–18).

Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry support weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. The transport and delivery techniques of modern infantrymen to engage in battle include marching, mechanised transport, airborne (by parachute or by helicopter) and amphibious landing from the sea.

In the Western world, during the Græco–Roman Antiquity (8th–7th centuries BC), and during the Middle Ages (AD 476–1453), infantry soldiers were categorized, characterised, and identified according to the type of weapons and armour with which they were armed, thus heavy infantry (hoplite) and light infantry (Greek peltasts, Roman velites). Since the application of firearms to warfare, the classifications of infantrymen have changed to reflect their formations on the battlefield, such as line infantry, and to reflect the modes of transporting them to the battlefield, and the tactics deployed by specific types of combat units, such as mechanized infantry and airborne infantry.

1.7.2 Combat role 1.7.1

History and etymology

Main article: History of infantry In English, the 16th-century term Infantry (ca. 1570s) describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, and defeat the enemy in direct combat, usually to take and occupy the terrain. As describing

As a branch of the armed forces, the role of the infantry in warfare is to engage, fight, and kill the enemy at close range̶using either a firearm (rifle, pistol, machine gun), an edged-weapon (knife, bayonet), or bare hands (close quarters combat)̶as required by the mission to hand; thus

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1.7.3 Organization

20th-century infantry: Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya, in 1941, during the Second World War (1939–45).

• in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army the role of the infantry is “to seek out and close with the enemy, to kill or capture him, to seize and hold ground, to repel attack, by day or night, regardless of season, weather or terrain”.* [1]

19th-century infantry: Brigadier General Winfield Scott leads American line infantry into the Battle of Chippawa (5 July 1814) in Canada, during the Anglo–American War of 1812(1812–15).

Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have been developed over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment. Until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in closely organized formations up until the actual moment • in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is“to of contact with the enemy. This was necessary to allow * * close with, and destroy the enemy”. [2] [3] commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while maneuvering, as well as allowing officers to retain disci• in the U.S. Army, the “infantry closes with the enpline amongst the ranks. emy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, With the development of machine guns and other weapons with increased firepower, it became necessary close combat, and counterattack”.* [4] to disperse soldiers in infantry units to make them less • in the U.S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is vulnerable to such weapons. From World War I, it was to “locate, close with, and destroy the enemy with recognized that infantry were most successfully employed fire and maneuver, and to repel the enemy assault by when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terrain, and evade detection in ways not possible for other fire and close combat”.* [5] weapons such as vehicles. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th equipment and greater focus on small unit training. century, artillery has become an increasingly dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat air- Among the various subtypes of infantry is “Medium craft and armoured vehicles have also become dominant. infantry.”This refers to infantry which are less heavily However, the most effective method for locating all en- armed and armored than heavy infantry, but more so than emy forces on a battlefield is still the infantry patrol, and it light infantry. In the early modern period, medium inis the presence or absence of infantry that ultimately de- fantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of termines whether a particular piece of ground has been body armour up until the 20th century. In the United captured or held. In 20th and 21st century warfare, in- States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined fantry, since they are “heavier”than light infantry but arms team including artillery, armour, and combat air- “lighter”than mechanized infantry. craft. Studies have shown that of all casualties, 50% or more were caused by artillery; about 10% were caused by machine guns; 2–5% by rifle fire; and 1% or less by hand 1.7.4 Doctrine grenades, bayonets, knives, and unarmed combat combined. Several infantry divisions both Allied and Axis Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry in the European theatre of WWII suffered higher than forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, 100% combat and non combat casualties and some above and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard 200%, meaning that the number of service personnel that and fast rules. became casualties was greater than the sum of the divi- Doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to funcsions' available service positions at full strength.

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235

tion cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks. Doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice. Its objective is to foster initiative and creative thinking in the infantry's tactical combat environment.

Attack operations are the most basic role of the infantry, and along with defense, form the main stances of the infantry on the battlefield. Traditionally, in an open battle, or meeting engagement, two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy Doctrine provides the infantry with an authoritative body force. The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance into an enemy-held objective, most frequently a hill, river of statements on how infantry forces conduct operations and provides a common lexicon for use by infantry plan- crossing, city or other dominant terrain feature, and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the obners and leaders. jective. Until the development of effective artillery doctrines, and more recently precision guided air delivered ordnance, Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them the most recent important role of the infantry has been because of the high number of casualties suffered while as the primary force of inflicting casualties on the enemy advancing to close with and destroy the enemy while unthrough aimed fire. The infantry is also the only combat der enemy fire. In mechanized infantry the armored perarm which can ultimately decide whether any given tacti- sonnel carrier (APC) is considered the assaulting posical position is occupied, and it is the presence of infantry tion. These APCs can deliver infantrymen through the that assures control of terrain. While the tactics of em- front lines to the battle and ̶in the case of infantry ployment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the fighting vehicles̶contribute supporting firepower to engage the enemy. Successful attacks rely on sufficient infantry have not. force, preparative reconnaissance and battlefield prepaRetractions to the Infantry Concept: Although it has ration with bomb assets. Retention of discipline and cobeen argued that infantrymen and infantry tactics are an hesion throughout the attack is paramount to success. A antiquated and careless use of military manpower and re- subcategory of attacks is the ambush, where infantrymen sources, the infantryman has proven quite capable against lie in wait for enemy forces before attacking at a vulnermany units, some much more technological and modern. able moment. This gives the ambushing infantrymen the For instance, light infantry has proven to be extremely combat advantage of surprise, concealment and superior effective against tank units by being able to take advan- firing positions, and causes confusion. The ambushed unit tage of a tank's limited field of fire and sight by swarm- does not know what it is up against, or where they are ating enemy armor units and utilizing anti-armor rockets at tacking from. long range or grenades in close quarters. Furthermore, air bombardment that can flatten entire cities has been Defense operations are the natural counter to attacks, in shown to be completely useless against a dug in infantry which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enforce. (see Battle of Stalingrad 1942–1943) Even an oc- emy forces attempting to dislodge the defender. Defencupying enemy police force has sometimes been shown sive posture offers many advantages to the infantry, into be a poor match against a clandestine infantry that cluding the ability to use terrain and constructed fortifihas secreted itself away in a civilian population. (see cations to advantage; these reduce exposure to enemy fire French Resistance WWII, Iraqi Insurgency in Fallujah, compared with advancing forces. Effective defense relies on minimizing losses to enemy fire, breaking the enemy's American Revolution) cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.

1.7.5

Operations

Canadian army reserve infantrymen train in urban operations.

Patrol is the most common infantry mission. Full-scale attacks and defensive efforts are occasional, but patrols are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to locate the enemy and destroy them when found. Patrols are used not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy infiltration or insurgencies are possible. Pursuit is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of withdrawing enemy forces which are not capable of effectively engaging friendly units, before they can build their strength to the point where they are effective. Infantry traditionally have been the main force to overrun these units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in partic-

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ular), where faster forces, such as armoured vehicles are tion. This is usually the best time for infantry units to inteincapable of going or would be exposed to ambush. grate replacements into units and to maintain equipment. Escort consists of protecting support units from ambush, Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness particularly from hostile infantry forces. Combat support should improve. However, the unit must be ready for deunits (a majority of the military) are not as well armed ployment at any point. or trained as infantry units and have a different mission. Therefore, they need the protection of the infantry, particularly when on the move. This is one of the most important roles for the modern infantry, particularly when operating alongside armored vehicles. In this capacity, infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for attack by the heavier units.

Construction can be undertaken either in reserve or on the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for construction of field positions, roads, bridges, airfields, and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often given this assignment because of the physical quantity of strong men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness and perform other missions. More often, such jobs are given to specialist engineering corps. Base defense – Infantry units are tasked to protect certain areas like command posts or airbases. Units assigned to this job usually have a large number of military police attached to them for control of checkpoints and prisons. Raid/Hostage Rescue – Infantry units are trained to quickly mobilise, infiltrate, enter and neutralise threat forces when appropriate combat intelligence indicates to secure a location, rescue or capture high profile targets.

Canadian soldiers of the Royal 22* e Régiment.

Urban Combat – Urban combat poses unique challenges to the combat forces. It is one of the most complicated type of operations an infantry unit will undertake. With many places for the enemy to hide and ambush from, infantry units must be trained in how to enter a city, and systematically clear the buildings, which most likely will be booby trapped, in order to kill or capture enemy personnel within the city. Care must be taken to differentiate innocent civilians who often hide and support the enemy from the nonuniformed armed enemy forces. Civilian and military casualties both are usually very high.* [6]

Maneuver operations consume much of an infantry unit's time. Infantry, like all combat arms units, are often maneuvered to meet battlefield needs, and often must do so under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally, infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but mechanised or armoured infantry often uses trucks and 1.7.6 armored vehicles for transport. These units can quickly disembark and transition to light infantry, without vehicles, to access terrain which armoured vehicles can't effectively access.

Day to day service

Reconnaissance/intelligence gathering Surveillance operations are often carried out with the employment of small recon units or sniper teams which gather information about the enemy, reporting on characteristics such as size, activity, location, unit and equipment. These infantry units typically are known for their stealth and ability to operate for periods of time within close proximity of the enemy without being detected. They may engage high profile targets, or be employed to hunt down terrorist cells and insurgents within a given area. These units may also entice the enemy to engage a located recon unit, thus disclosing their location to be destroyed by more powerful German Army mechanized infantry (Panzergrenadiers) on an friendly forces. alert post during an exercise in 2006. Reserve assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security op- Because of an infantryman's duties with firearms, exploerations are usually maintained in case of enemy infiltra- sives, physical and emotional stress, physical violence, ca-

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237

sualties and deaths are not uncommon in both war and in peacetime training or operations. It is a highly dangerous and demanding combat service and in World War II military doctors concluded that even physically unwounded soldiers were psychologically worn out after about 200 days of combat.

1.7.7 Equipment and training

The physical, mental and environmental operating demands of the infantryman are high. All of the combat necessities such as ammunition, weapon systems, food, water, clothing and shelter are carried on the backs of the infantrymen, at least in light role as opposed to mounted/mechanised. Combat loads of over 36 kg (80 lbs) are standard, and greater loads in excess of 45 kg (100 lbs) are very common. , These heavy loads, combined with long foot patrols of over 40 km (25 mi) a day, in any climate from 43 to −29 °C (109 to −20 °F) in temperature, require the infantryman to be in good physical and mental shape. Infantrymen live, fight and die outdoors in all types of brutal climates, often with no physical shelter. Poor climate conditions adds misery to this already demanding existence. Disease epidemics, frostbite, heat stroke, trench foot, insect and wild animal bites are common along with stress disorders and these have on multiple occsions caused more casualties than enemy action.* [7]

The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with the development of military technology and tactics in general, but certain constants remain regarding the design and selection of this equipment. Primary types of equipment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and special, mission specific equipment. Infantry tactics have become much more involved, and yet must be learned and rehearsed until they become second nature when the infantry soldier is stumbling with fatigue and in the middle of the "fog of war.”Spreading out, making use of cover and concealment, monitoring team-mates and leaders, and watching for the enemy must all become instinctive and simultaneous.

In the past infantrymen were just a mass of hastily trained conscripts hastily armed with whatever could be quickly provided. In modern times, the infantryman can be a highly trained and equipped specialist in his own right.

Despite the hardships, infantrymen are expected to continue with their combat missions despite death and injury of friends, fear, despair, fatigue and bodily injury.

U.S. Army Rangers, Vietnam, 1969.

Some infantry units are considered Special Forces. The earliest Special Forces commando units were more highly trained infantrymen, with special weapons, equipment and missions. Special Forces units recruit heavily from regular infantry units to fill their ranks. Foreign and domestic militaries typically have a slang term for their infantrymen. In the U.S. military, the slang term among both Marine and Army infantrymen for themselves is “grunt.”In the British Army, they are the“squaddies.”The infantry is a small close-knit community, and the slang names are terms of endearment that convey mutual respect and shared experiences.

A French infantryman wearing a FÉLIN suit electronically linked to a modified FAMAS

Infantry weapons have included all types of personal weapons, i.e., anything that can be handled by individual soldiers, as well as some light crew-served weapons that can be carried. During operations, especially in modern

238 times, the infantry often scavenge and employ whatever weapons and equipment they can acquire from both friend and foe, in addition to those issued to them by their available supply chain. Infantry of ancient times through the Renaissance wielded a wide array of non-gunpowder weaponry. Infantry formations used all sorts of melee weapons, such as various types of swords, axes, and maces; shock weapons, such as spears and pikes; and ranged weapons such as javelins, bows, and slings. Their crew-served weapons were the ballista and the battering ram. Infantry of these premodern periods also wore a variety of personal body armour, including chain mail and cuirasses. Many of the premodern infantry weapons evolved over time to counter these advances in body armor, such as the falchion and crossbow, which were designed to pierce chain mail armor and wound the underlying body. Modern infantrymen may be trained to use equipment in addition to their personal rifles, such as hand guns or pistols, shotguns, machine guns, anti-tank missiles, antipersonnel mines, other incendiary and explosive devices, bayonets, GPS, map and compass, encrypted communications equipment, booby traps, surveillance equipment, night vision equipment, sensitive intelligence documents, classified weapon systems and other sensitive equipment. Protective equipment and survival gear

CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED as the impracticality of armouring large numbers of men who were not expected to fight in close quarters where it would be most useful. As firearms became more powerful and armour became less useful against gunfire, the ratio of gunners to pikemen increased, until the advent of the bayonet rendered the latter entirely obsolete. While it became clear to most military leaders that the pikeman was now outdated, some armies stubbornly clung to the pike, though pikemen, too, would abandon their armour, until only specialized and prestigious cavalry units retained any significant armour coverage; the infantryman from this point went entirely unarmoured. The return to the use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend against high explosive fragmentation and concussion, and further developments in materials led to effective bulletdefeating body armour such as Kevlar, within the weight acceptable for infantry use. Beginning in the Vietnam War, the use of personal body armour has again become widespread among infantry units. Infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas masks, counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these protective measures add to the weight an infantryman must carry, and may decrease combat efficiency. Modern militaries are struggling to balance the value of personal body protection versus the weight burden and ability to move under such weight.

Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers require for day-to-day survival in the combat environment. These include basic environmental protections, medical supplies, food, and sundries. As the amount of equipment a soldier can carry is very limited, efforts have been made to make equipment light and compact. Equipment is carried in tactical gear (such as ALICE), which should be comfortable to wear for extended periods of time, hamper movement as little as possible and be compatible with other things a soldier can be expected to carry, such as field radios and spare ammunition. Infantry have suffered high casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation ̶often in excess of the casualties suffered from enemy attacks. Better equipment of troops to protect against these environmental factors greatly reduces these rates Japan Ground Self-Defense Force infantry wearing helmets and of loss. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the camouflage, 2006. entrenching tool̶basically a folding spade̶which can be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also Infantry protective gear includes all equipment designed in a variety of other daily tasks and even as a weapon. to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protective gear comprises personal armor of some type. An- Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which cient and medieval infantry used shields and wore leather may or may not be carried, depending on the mission and and metal alloys for armour, as defense against both mis- the level of equipment of an army. Communications gear sile and hand-to-hand weapons. With the advent of effec- has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of tive firearms such as the arquebus, large numbers of men infantry units over greater distances, and communication could be quickly trained into effective fighting forces, and with artillery and other support units. In some units, indisuch armour became thicker while providing less over- vidual communications are being used to allow the greatall coverage to meet the threat of early firearms, which est level of flexibility. Engineering equipment, including could only pierce this armour at close range. Gener- explosives, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carally, only pikemen were armoured in this fashion; gun- ried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of ners went largely unarmoured, due to the expense as well other gear, often relating to a specific mission, or to the

1.7. INFANTRY particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be carried by infantry units.

1.7.8

Other infantry

Infantry in air forces, such as the Royal Air Force Regiment and the Royal Australian Air Force Airfield Defence Guards, are used primarily for ground-based defence of air bases and other, air force facilities. They also have a number of other, specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and training other, air force personnel in basic ground defence tactics. Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a category of infantry that form part of a stateʼ s naval forces and perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from naval operations.

1.7.9

Descriptions of infantry

239 •“Let us be clear about three facts: First, all battles and all wars are won, in the end, by the infantryman. Secondly, the infantryman always bears the brunt; his casualties are heavier, he suffers greater extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other [combat] arms. Thirdly, the art of the infantryman is less stereotyped, and far harder to acquire in modern war, than that of any other arm.”̶Field Marshal Earl Wavell* [9] •“I love the infantry, because they are the underdogs. They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They have no comforts, and they even learn to live without the necessities; and, in the end, they are the guys that wars can't be won without.”̶Ernie Pyle* [10] •“Iʼm convinced that the infantry is the group in the army which gives more, and gets less, than anybody else.”̶Up Front (1945), by Bill Mauldin* [11] •“Never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how justified, is not a crime. Ask the infantry, and ask the dead.”̶Ernest Hemingway* [12] •“The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm [of the army] where the weapon is the man, himself.”̶C.T. Shortis* [13] •“The army's infantry is its most essential component. Even today, no army can take and hold any ground without the use of infantry.”̶George Nafziger* [14] •“Aerial bombardment can obliterate, but only infantry can occupy.” ̶a Finnish Army officer, Operation Allied Force (1999), Kosovo.

U.S. Army infantrymen in a firefight with Taliban guerrillas, Kunar Province, Afghanistan (31 March 2011).

•“There is no beating these [British and Spanish] troops, in spite of their generals. I always thought they were bad soldiers, now I am sure of it. I had turned their right, pierced their centre, and, everywhere, victory was mine ̶but they did not know how to run!" ̶Field Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult, Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811), the Peninsular War (1808–14). •“Americans in 1950 rediscovered something that since Hiroshima they had forgotten: you may fly over a land forever; you may bomb it, atomize it, pulverize it and wipe it clean of life – but if you desire to defend it, protect it, and keep it for civilization, you must do this on the ground, the way the Roman legions did, by putting your young men into the mud.”̶Military historian T.R. Fehrenbach

Canadian Army infantrymen from 3PPCLI search for al-Qaeda and Taliban guerrillas north of Qualat, Afghanistan.

•“Ah, yes, mere infantry ̶poor beggars. ...” ̶ Plautus* [8]

1.7.10 See also • Airborne infantry • Light infantry

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• Line Infantry • Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol • Mounted infantry • School of Infantry • Naval Infantry • Air force infantry and special forces units

1.7.11

Citations and notes

[1] Royal Australian Corps of Infantry at www.army.gov.au [2] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-392-001/FP-001 The Infantry Battalion in Battle, Volume 1 [3] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-301-002/FP-001 The battle Group in Operations, Change 2, 1992-02-03. [4] FM7-8, Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad [5] MOS 0311 [6] The United States Army's Preparedness to Conduct Urban Combat: A Strategic Priority, pp. 2–3 [7] http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/other_pub/ LoadCarriagePDF.pdf [8] p. 156, Heinl [9] In Praise of Infantry, by Field Marshal Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, The Times, Thursday, 19 April 1945 [10] p. 257, Tobin [11] p. 5, Mauldin & Ambrose [12] p. 262, Trogdon

• The New York Times, Maj Gen C T Shortis, British Director of Infantry, 4 February 1985 • Heinl, Robert Debs, Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations, Plautus in The Braggart Captain (3rd century CE), Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1978 • Nafziger, George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, Presidio Press, 1998 • McManus, John C. Grunts: inside the American infantry combat experience, World War II through Iraq New York, NY: NAL Caliber. 2010 ISBN 978-0451-22790-4 plus Webcast Author Lecture at the Pritzker Military Library on September 29, 2010

1.7.13 External links • Historic films and photos showing Infantries in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu • In Praise of Infantry, by Field-Marshal Earl Wavell; First published in“The Times,”Thursday, 19 April 1945. • Photographic history of the U.S. Army's 1st Air Cavalry Division LRRP / Rangers in Vietnam 1968. • The Lagunari “Serenissima”Regiment KFOR: KFOR Chronicle. • “Twenty-second and Last Patrol: A Struggle against Bad Luck"---a U.S. Army LRRP / Ranger team's experience during the Vietnam War. • Web Version of U.S. Army Field Manual 3-21.8 – The Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad.

[13] The New York Times, Shortis [14] p. 13, Nafziger

1.8 M14 rifle

M14 rifle, officially the United States Rifle, 7.62 mm, M14,* [5] is an American selective fire automatic rifle that fires 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) ammunition. • English, John A., Gudmundsson, Bruce I., On In- It gradually replaced the M1 Garand in U.S. Army serfantry, (Revised edition), The Military Profession vice by 1961 and in U.S. Marine Corps service by 1965. series, Praeger Publishers, London, 1994 ISBN 0- It was the standard issue infantry rifle for U.S. military 275-94972-9 personnel in the contiguous United States, Europe, and • The Times, Earl Wavell, Thursday, 19 April 1945 In South Korea*from 1959 until it was replaced by the M16 rifle in 1970. [6] The M14 was used for U.S. Army, Navy Praise of Infantry and Marine Corps basic and advanced individual training • Tobin, James, Ernie Pyle's War: America's Eyewit- (AIT) from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s. ness to World War II, Free Press, 1997 The M14 was the last American "battle rifle" (weapons

1.7.12

References

that fire full-power rifle ammunition, such as the 7.62×51 mm) issued in quantity to U.S. military personnel. The rifle remains in limited service in all branches of the • Trogdon, Robert W., Ernest Hemingway: A Literary U.S. military as an accurized competition weapon, a Reference, Da Capo Press, 2002 ceremonial weapon by honor guards, color guards, drill • Mauldin, Bill, Ambrose, Stephen E., Up Front, W. W. Norton, 2000

1.8. M14 RIFLE

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teams, and ceremonial guards, and sniper rifle/designated only minimal funds available, the earliest T44 prototypes marksman rifle. The M14 serves as the basis for the M21 simply used T20E2 receivers fitted with magazine filler and M25 sniper rifles. blocks and re-barreled for 7.62 mm NATO, with the long operating rod/piston of the M1 replaced by the T47's gas cut-off system.* [8] Lloyd Corbett, an engineer in Earle 1.8.1 History Harvey's rifle design group, added various refinements to the T44 design, including a straight operating rod and a Early development bolt roller to reduce friction.* [8] The M14 was developed from a long line of experimental weapons based upon the M1 rifle. Although the M1 was among the most advanced infantry rifles of the late 1930s, it was not a perfect weapon. Modifications were already beginning to be made to the basic M1 rifle's design during the last months of World War II. Changes included adding fully automatic firing capability and replacing the 8-round en bloc clips with a detachable box magazine holding 20 rounds. Winchester, Remington, and Springfield Armory's own John Garand offered different conversions. Garand's design, the T20, was the most popular, and T20 prototypes served as the basis for a number of Springfield test rifles from 1945 through the early 1950s.* [7]

T25 prototype

In 1945, Earle Harvey of Springfield Armory designed a completely different rifle, the T25, for the new T65 .30 Light Rifle cartridge [7.62×49mm] at the direction of Col. Rene Studler, then serving in the Pentagon.* [8] The two men were transferred to Springfield Armory in late 1945, where work on the T25 continued.* [8] The T25 was designed to use the T65 service cartridge, a Frankford Arsenal design based upon .30-06 cartridge case used in the M1 service rifle, but shortened to the length of the .300 Savage case.* [8] Although shorter than the .30-06, with less powder capacity, the T65 cartridge retained the ballistics and energy of the .30-06 due to the use of a recently developed ball powder made by Olin Industries.* [8]* [9] After experimenting with several bullet designs, the T65 was finalized for adoption as the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.* [8] Olin Industries later marketed the cartridge on the commercial market as the commercial .308 Winchester round.* [8] After a series of revisions by Earle Harvey and other members of the .30 Light Rifle design group following the 1950 Ft. Benning tests, the T25 was renamed the T47.* [8]

Infantry Board Service Rifle trials

Experimental T47 rifle

The T44 participated in a competitive service rifle competition conducted by the Infantry Board at Ft. Benning, Georgia against the Springfield T47 (a modified T25) and the T48, a variant of Fabrique Nationale's “Fusil Automatique Leger” (French for “Light Automatic Rifle”).* [10] The T47, which did not have a bolt roller and performed worse in dust and cold weather tests than either the T44 or the T48, was dropped from consideration in 1953.* [8] During 1952–53, testing proved the T48 and the T44 roughly comparable in performance, with the T48 holding an advantage in ease of field stripping and dust resistance, as well as a longer product development lead time.* [8]* [10] A Newsweek article in July 1953 hinted that the T48/FAL might be selected over the T44.* [8]* [11] During the winter of 1953–54, both rifles competed in the winter rifle trials at U.S. Army facilities in the Arctic.* [10]* [12] Springfield Armory engineers, anxious to ensure the selection of the T44, had been specially preparing and modifying the test T44 rifles for weeks with the aid of the Armory's Cold Chamber, including redesign of the T44 gas regulator and custom modifications to magazines and other parts to reduce friction and seizing in extreme cold.* [10]* [12] The T48 rifles received no such special preparation, and in the continued cold weather testing began to experience sluggish gas system functioning, aggravated by the T48's close-fitting surfaces between bolt and carrier, and carrier and receiver.* [8]* [10]* [12] FN engineers opened the gas ports in an attempt to improve functioning, but this caused early/violent extraction and broken parts as a result of the increased pressures.* [8]* [10]* [12] As a result, the T44 was ranked superior in cold weather operation to the T48.* [10] The Arctic Test Board report made it clear that the T48 needed improvement and that the U.S. would not adopt the T48 until it had successfully completed another round of Arctic tests the following winter.* [8]* [10]

In contrast, the T44 prototype service rifle was not principally designed by any single engineer at Springfield Armory, but rather was a conventional design developed on a shoestring budget as an alternative to the T47.* [8] With In June 1954, funding was finally made available to manu-

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facture newly fabricated T44 receivers specially designed for the shorter T65 cartridge.* [8] This one change to the T44 design saved a pound in rifle weight over that of the M1 Garand.* [8] Tests at Ft. Benning with the T44 and T48 continued through the summer and fall of 1956.* [8] By this time, the T48/FAL rifles had been so improved that malfunction rates were almost as low as the T44.* [8] In the end, the T44 was selected over the T48/FAL primarily because of weight (T44 was a pound lighter), simplicity with fewer parts, the T44's self-compensating gas system, and the argument that the T44 could be manufactured on existing machinery built for the M1 rifle (this later turned out to be unworkable).* [8]* [10]* [12]* [13] In 1957, the U.S. formally adopted the T44 as the U.S. infantry service rifle, designated M14.* [8] Production contracts Initial production contracts for the M14 were awarded to the Springfield Armory, Winchester, and Harrington & Richardson.* [14] Thompson-Ramo-Wooldridge Inc. (TRW) would later be awarded a production contract for the rifle as well.* [14] 1,376,031 M-14 service rifles were A U.S. soldier with an M14 watches as supplies are dropped in Vietnam during 1967. produced from 1959 to 1964.* [14] National Match M14 Springfield Armory produced 6,641 new M14 NM rifles in 1962 and 1963, while TRW produced 4,874 new M14 NM rifles in 1964.* [14] Springfield Armory later upgraded 2,094 M14 rifles in 1965 and 2,395 M14 rifles in 1966 to National Match specifications, while 2,462 M14 rifles were rebuilt to National Match standards in 1967 at the Rock Island Arsenal.* [14] A total of 11,130 National Match rifles were delivered by Springfield Armory, Rock Island Arsenal, and TRW during 1962–1967.* [14]

– 30 June '65). The Springfield archive also indicates the 1.38 million rifles were acquired for just over $143 million, for a unit cost of about $104.* [1]* [2]

Deployment

The rifle served adequately during its brief tour of duty in Vietnam.* [15] Though it was unwieldy in the thick brush due to its length and weight, the power of the 7.62 mm NATO cartridge allowed it to penetrate cover quite well and reach out to extended range, developing 2,560 ft·lbf (3,463 J) of muzzle energy. However, there were several drawbacks to the M14. The traditional wood stock of the rifle had a tendency to swell and expand in the heavy moisture of the jungle, adversely affecting accuracy. Fiberglass stocks were produced to resolve this problem, but the rifle was discontinued before very many could be distributed for field use. Also, because of the M14's powerful 7.62×51 mm cartridge, the weapon was deemed virtually uncontrollable in fully automatic mode, so most M14s were permanently set to semiautomatic fire only to avoid wasting ammunition in combat.* [16]* [17]* [18]

After the M14's adoption, Springfield Armory began tooling a new production line in 1958, delivering the first service rifles to the U.S. Army in July 1959. However, long production delays resulted in the 101st Airborne Division being the only unit in the Army fully equipped with the M14 by the end of 1961. The Fleet Marine Force finally completed the change from M1 to M14 in late 1962. Springfield Armory records reflect that M14 manufacture ended as TRW, fulfilling its second contract, delivered its final production increment in Fiscal Year 1965 (1 July '64

The M14 was developed as a means of taking the place of four different weapons systems̶the M1 rifle, the M1 Carbine, the M3“Grease Gun”and the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). It was thought that in this manner the M14 could simplify the logistical requirements of the troops by limiting the types of ammunition and parts needed to be supplied. It proved to be an impossible task to replace all four, and the weapon was even deemed “completely inferior”to the World War II M1 in a September 1962 report by the comptroller of the Department of Defense.* [19] The cartridge was too pow-

Production M14 rifles made