Manuale di psicologia [PDF]

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MANUALE DI

Psicologia

Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica La personalità: modelli, approcci, teorie Lo sviluppo e l’età evolutiva Il linguaggio: teorie, modelli, ricerche Individuo e società Elementi di psicopatologia

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Parte I Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica 

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Capitolo 1 Profilo storico delle scienze psicologiche Sommario 1. Genesi e concetto. - 2. Le svolte del Novecento. - 3. I processi dinamici. 4. L’ipotesi psicogenetica. - 5. Il modello contestualista. - 6. Cognitivismo e neuroscienze.

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16

Parte I: Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica

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Capitolo 1: Profilo storico delle scienze psicologiche

17

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18

Parte I: Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica

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Capitolo 2 Metodi e tecniche di analisi Sommario 1. Metodi empirici. - 2. Metodi psicometrici. - 3. Tecniche di neuroimaging.

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20

Parte I: Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica

/HVLWXD]LRQLVSHULPHQWDOLSUHGLVSRVWHRSUHVFHOWH GDOULFHUFDWRUHVLSRVVRQR LQROWUHULFRQGXUUHDGXHWLSLIRQGDPHQWDOLVLWXD]LRQLGL©ODERUDWRULRªHVLWXD ]LRQLGL©FDPSRª/HSULPHSUHYHGRQRLQJHQHUHLOVXSSRUWRGLXQDVWUXPHQ WD]LRQHDYDULOLYHOOL ³ SHUODVRPPLQLVWUD]LRQHGHJOLVWLPROLFKHFRVWLWXLVFRQROD©YDULDELOHLQ GLSHQGHQWHª ³ SHUODJUDGXD]LRQHGHOODORURLQWHQVLWj ³ SHUODUHJLVWUD]LRQHLOSLSRVVLELOHIHGHOHHGLPPHGLDWDGHLGDWLGLULVSRVWD /H VHFRQGH SUHYHGRQR O·LQWHUYHQWR GHO ULFHUFDWRUH H OD VRPPLQLVWUD]LRQH GHJOL VWLPROL LQ XQ DPELHQWH ÀVLFRFXOWXUDOH SUHHVLVWHQWH DOOD GHFLVLRQH GL HVHJXLUHODVSHULPHQWD]LRQH7DOHDPELHQWHSUHVHQWDFDUDWWHULVWLFKHJOREDOLWDOL GDQRQHVVHUHPRGLÀFDWHGHÀQLWLYDPHQWHGDOODVSHULPHQWD]LRQH Un esempio di metodo sperimentale L’esperimento che riportiamo può essere considerato come il modello della sperimentazione in generale. Il problema trattato è quello dell’inibizione mnestica retroattiva: l’apprendimento di nuovo materiale cancella o riduce il materiale appreso in precedenza? Tenendo conto che il termine apprendimento viene assunto qui in senso generale (apprendimento di una lezione, di un nome, di una strada, della guida di un’automobile ecc.), l’ipotesi iniziale è che tale cancellazione o riduzione avviene. Nell’attuazione dell’esperimento per dimostrare tali ipotesi, un soggetto (o, meglio, un gruppo di soggetti) deve apprendere, per esempio, una lista di aggettivi: la ritenzione di questa lista rappresenta la variabile dipendente. In una seconda fase dell’esperimento, il soggetto affronta un compito diverso da quello precedente: per esempio apprendere una lista di numeri. Questo nuovo materiale, che si ritiene possa modificare la ritenzione del primo, rappresenta la variabile indipendente (in quanto potrebbe anche non essere presente). In una terza fase, infine, si misura quanto il soggetto ricorda della lista di aggettivi appresa all’inizio. Quando la situazione è allestita in modo che sia costante qualsiasi altro elemento che potrebbe modificare la variabile dipendente, l’esito dell’esperimento viene a definire una relazione fra l’andamento di questa e la variabile indipendente (la cui presenza o assenza, o il cui grado d’intensità, è regolabile dallo sperimentatore) e il comportamento del fenomeno oggetto dello studio, cioè la variabile dipendente. Dunque, l’esperimento si compone di tre fasi: ³ apprendimento di una lista di aggettivi: variabile dipendente; ³ apprendimento di una lista di numeri: variabile indipendente. L’esperimento vuole, pertanto, verificare gli effetti della seconda variabile sulla prima. È evidente che lo sperimentatore manipola, ossia fa variare a suo piacimento la variabile indipendente, detta anche sperimentale, in quanto rappresenta l’oggetto di studio. Ad esempio: può comporre la lista con 10 o 20 numeri e stabilire che la sua lunghezza produce effetti diversi; ³ la verifica dell’ipotesi (nel senso scientifico del termine): si passa a stabilire se la variabile indipendente (l’apprendimento della lista di numeri) ha modificato la variabile dipendente (il ricordo della lista di aggettivi appresi in precedenza). Infine, è necessario che nessun altro elemento intervenga a modificare la variabile dipendente, altrimenti non si può ritenere corretto l’esperimento e dunque il suo risultato.

Capitolo 2: Metodi e tecniche di analisi

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Per esempio, se nel laboratorio c’è un sottofondo musicale, questo costituisce una variabile di disturbo (tali variabili sono dette intervenienti), che può agire sulla variabile dipendente e dunque essere la vera causa della modificazione di quest’ultima. Ecco perché è indispensabile mantenere costante qualsiasi altro elemento. Nell’ipotetico esperimento sull’inibizione mnestica retroattiva, una prima indagine, detta qualitativa, può dimostrare una diminuzione della ritenzione nel primo compito (la lista di aggettivi), superiore a quella prevedibile per il semplice intervallo di tempo che intercorre tra la prova di apprendimento e quella di richiamo. Se desideriamo, tuttavia, approfondire e quantificare tale risultato, dobbiamo appunto eseguire una ricerca quantitativa. Vari sono i fattori che possiamo prendere in considerazione (per esempio, la lunghezza della lista di aggettivi, la bontà dell’apprendimento). Si può ragionevolmente prevedere che quanto più la lista è lunga (a parità di grado di apprendimento), tanto peggio sarà ricordata nella fase finale e che, a parità di lunghezza, quanto meglio sarà appresa, tanto meglio sarà ricordata alla fine della prova. Viene introdotta qui una distinzione tra indagine qualitativa e quantitativa. L’indagine qualitativa rappresenta sempre la prima tappa di una ricerca sperimentale; essa ci dice che c’è una variazione, ma non permette di stabilire da quale quantità della variabile sperimentale dipende questa modificazione. Occorre allora passare ad un’indagine quantitativa, ossia ad un’indagine in cui, da una parte si fa variare l’intensità della variabile indipendente, per stabilire gli effetti prodotti da queste diverse quantità e dall’altra si valuta anche il livello della stessa variabile dipendente (una lista composta da 10 aggettivi è diversa da una composta di 20). È qui che possiamo parlare di misurazione vera e propria. Quando si entra in questa dimensione, occorre prendere in considerazione molte cose e non solo riguardanti la variabile sperimentale. Sintetizzando dunque, il fondamentale principio del metodo sperimentale può essere così formulato: variare la (le) variabile (-i) indipendente (-i) per osservare e valutare le modificazioni della (-e) variabile (-i) dipendente (-i). Per rendere questo possibile, occorre tuttavia poter isolare la variabile indipendente, mantenendo costanti tutte le altre variabili che possono entrare in gioco nella situazione sperimentale; si tratta di una condizione necessaria per essere certi che le modificazioni della variabile dipendente siano dovute alle manipolazioni della variabile indipendente (detta anche «variabile sperimentale»). L’ultimo punto consiste nello stabilire il modo per mantenere costanti le altre variabili. Esistono a tal proposito due principali tecniche: ³ la neutralizzazione: si riferisce alla possibilità di tenere sotto controllo gli effetti delle variabili intervenienti o addirittura di eliminarli; ³ la costruzione dei piani sperimentali: allude al fatto che invece di eliminare le variabili intervenienti, le si fanno entrare nell’esperimento per studiare il loro peso. Per esempio, in una prima fase, si studia l’effetto congiunto del sottofondo musicale e della lista di numeri sulla ritenzione della lista di aggettivi. In questo caso si prendono in considerazione gli effetti prodotti da un’interazione tra variabili indipendenti. In una seconda fase si esaminano gli effetti delle singole variabili, per stabilire il peso di ciascuna. Per esempio, ci si accorge che il sottofondo musicale di per sé determina la dimenticanza di 6 aggettivi, mentre la lista di numeri da sola ne produce la dimenticanza di 10. Si può concludere che la lista di numeri ha comunque un peso maggiore nella dimenticanza degli aggettivi e, dunque, l’ipotesi iniziale è confermata. Le fonti delle variazioni, dalle quali occorre isolare la variabile indipendente, possono essere sia nella situazione sia nel soggetto. Per situazione si intende l’ambiente fisico

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Parte I: Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica

e sociale in cui avviene l’esperimento, nonché il compito (materiale e consegne) che il soggetto è invitato a svolgere. Mentre è abbastanza facile tenere costanti l’ambiente fisico e sociale, occorrono particolari accorgimenti per neutralizzare le possibili variazioni nel compito. Le consegne che vengono impartite ai soggetti devono essere uguali per tutti, sia nella loro formulazione esterna, sia nella comprensione. Di solito, si eseguono delle prove preliminari per trovare una formulazione delle consegne che obbedisca a tale criterio dell’uniformità. La consegna è un momento importante, quello in cui il ricercatore comunica al gruppo il compito che deve svolgere. Si capisce allora la necessità di un linguaggio chiaro e identico per tutti i soggetti dell’esperimento (criterio dell’uniformità). Un altro aspetto importante è l’uso, nella maggior parte degli esperimenti, di differenti situazioni (successione di compiti diversi, suddivisi in parti tra loro dissimili ecc.). Il soggetto, dopo aver reagito ad una situazione, non è più lo stesso: la prima reazione può provocare un effetto di facilitazione (per esempio, con l’apprendimento), oppure di inibizione. L’ordine di presentazione delle situazioni ha, quindi, una grande importanza. Nell’esempio della inibizione mnestica, gli aggettivi della lista da imparare costituiscono tante situazioni-stimolo, cui il soggetto deve associare una risposta verbale corrispondente: le eventuali relazioni (semantiche, fonetiche, emotive ecc.) tra i vari aggettivi possono costituire altrettanti fattori di facilitazione o di inibizione dell’apprendimento (un aggettivo che ha un legame con il successivo può facilitarne il ricordo). Lo sperimentatore può, spesso, neutralizzare l’effetto derivante dall’ordine di presentazione delle situazioni (quando, naturalmente, tale ordine non sia una variabile), utilizzando uno dei due metodi seguenti: ³ la rotazione: si fa corrispondere ad un ordine dato l’ordine inverso (per esempio, se si hanno due stimoli S1 e S2 li si può presentare diverse volte di seguito in un ordine alternato S1 S2 e S2 S1... ); ³ la presentazione a caso: l’ordine è variato a caso da una presentazione all’altra (la lista di aggettivi del nostro esempio, presentata più volte per la memorizzazione, sarà ogni volta in un ordine diverso, casuale). Si noti la complessità implicita di ogni esperimento. In effetti, non è indifferente se metto prima un aggettivo o un altro. Allora, per poter essere certo del risultato, devo fare in modo di valutare le diverse possibilità. Solo questo mi permette di considerare valido l’esperimento. Quando però le modificazioni introdotte dalle variazioni nelle situazioni sono troppo importanti e, in certa misura, irreversibili, questi due metodi non sono più sufficienti. L’unica soluzione, in questo caso, è quella di fare appello a due o più gruppi di soggetti. Nell’esempio fatto, l’ipotesi della ricerca era, come si è detto, che l’apprendimento di un nuovo materiale, di qualsiasi natura, tende a cancellare o a diminuire il ricordo di materiale appreso precedentemente: una possibile fonte di variazione può derivare da fattori generali presenti nel periodo di tempo che trascorre tra il primo apprendimento e il momento in cui si fa la valutazione della diminuzione del ricordo, dopo l’apprendimento del secondo materiale. Se si considera la situazione come l’insieme del materiale da apprendere, non si può evidentemente sottoporre uno stesso soggetto a due situazioni diverse: una in cui egli apprende il secondo materiale, l’altra in cui non apprende il secondo materiale e viene ugualmente sottoposto alla valutazione finale dopo un periodo di tempo uguale a quello trascorso nell’apprendimento del secondo materiale. Bisogna sottoporre queste due situazioni a soggetti distinti e, quindi, ricorrere a due gruppi di soggetti equivalenti sotto ogni aspetto, tranne che per le diverse situazioni a cui vengono sottoposti: di solito il primo gruppo viene denominato gruppo sperimentale, mentre il secondo gruppo di controllo.

Capitolo 2: Metodi e tecniche di analisi

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Parte I: Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica

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38

Parte I: Temi e sviluppi della psicologia scientifica

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Capitolo 4 Percezione, attenzione, coscienza Sommario 1. La percezione: definizione e teorie. - 2. Percezione e sensazione. 3. Natura e condizioni del processo percettivo. - 4. L’attenzione. - 5. La coscienza.

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Parte IV: Il linguaggio: teorie, modelli, ricerche

zati, entrambi i tipi di trascrizione di solito fanno uso dei simboli dell’Alfabeto Fonetico Internazionale. Un efficiente sistema di trascrizione dei suoni linguistici, infatti, dovrebbe basarsi su una corrispondenza biunivoca tra suono e simbolo. Tale caratteristica però manca nei sistemi ortografici delle lingue naturali (si pensi, ad esempio, alla differente pronuncia della stessa lettera F nella parola «cucire», per non parlare dell’inglese che presenta delle anomalie ancora maggiori dell’italiano); i linguisti quindi hanno messo a punto degli alfabeti fonetici, che associano ogni suono ad un simbolo diverso o ad una diversa combinazioni di simboli. L’Alfabeto Fonetico Internazionale (noto come IPA = International Phonetic Alphabet) è quello più usato.

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Capitolo 4: I fondamenti biololgici del linguaggio e le patologie

251

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Parte IV: Il linguaggio: teorie, modelli, ricerche

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Capitolo 4: I fondamenti biololgici del linguaggio e le patologie

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2. L’informazione morfologica 0ROWHGHOOHULFHUFKHFRQGRWWHQHOFDPSRGHOOD3VLFROLQJXLVWLFDVLVRQRULSUR SRVWHGLYHULÀFDUHVHQHOOHVVLFRPHQWDOHHVLVWDXQOLYHOORPRUIRORJLFRGLUDS SUHVHQWD]LRQH FKH YHQJD XVDWR QHOOD FRPSUHQVLRQH GL SDUROHSHUGLYLGHUOHQHLPRUIHPLFRPSRQHQWLHVHODVWUXW L’accesso lessicale WXUDGHOOHVVLFRPHQWDOHVLDEDVDWDVXSDUROHLQWHUHRSSX UHVXXQLWjSLSLFFROHFRPHLPRUIHPL La morfologia La morfologia è quel settore della linguistica che studia la struttura interna delle parole. Per esempio la parola «rossa» è scomponibile in due parti dotate di significato: ross- che indica un oggetto dotato di un certo colore e -a che esprime il significato «femminile singolare». Le diverse parti dotate di significato individuabili all’interno di una parola si chiamano morfemi. In italiano esistono parole monomorfemiche, cioè formate da un unico morfema (come «oggi», «quando», «virtù», «dopo»), parole bimorfemiche («veloce-mente») e polimorfemiche («ri-torn-o»). I morfemi possono essere radici (dette anche morfemi lessicali, come ross-, torn-) o affissi (detti morfemi grammaticali, come desinenze e prefissi). Se costituita da più morfemi, la parola si dice morfologicamente complessa. Questa classe di parole, che è l’oggetto di studio della morfologia, è costituita da due tipi fondamentali di parole: le forme flesse (come ross-o, ross-i, ross-e ecc.), in cui ad uno stesso morfema lessicale si attaccano i morfemi grammaticali che esprimono le categorie flessive (tali categorie in italiano sono: genere, numero, persona, tempo e modo); e le parole derivate o composte, come «barista» (che è derivata da «bar»), «ventoso» (derivata da «vento»), «rifare» (da «fare»), «cassapanca» (che è composta da due diversi morfemi lessicali).

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La mente modulare La nozione di mente modulare fa riferimento a un modello dell’architettura della mente proposto dal filosofo e scienziato cognitivo Jerry Fodor e poi ripreso e sviluppato da numerosissimi studi di psicologia e scienza cognitiva. Tale modello, nella versione di Fodor, prevede innanzitutto una distinzione tra sistemi di input, che trattano le informazioni provenienti dall’apparato percettivo e dal linguaggio, e sistemi centrali, che, integrando le conoscenze che giungono dai diversi input, svolgono le funzioni cognitive superiori (come risolvere problemi, prendere una decisione, scegliere a quale credenza prestare fede ecc.). L’originalità della posizione di Fodor sta nell’affermazione che, mentre i sistemi centrali non sono modulari, i sistemi di input sono costituiti da moduli. Un modulo è un meccanismo computazionale deputato a trattare specificamente un unico tipo di informazione (per esempio quella linguistica o, per fare un esempio ancora più specifico, quella sintattica). Fodor suppone che, oltre ad essere specializzati per un unico tipo di informazione (principio della specificitàdi dominio), i moduli abbiano anche le caratteristiche di attivarsi automaticamente, di essere innati, organizzati gerarchicamente, associati a specifiche strutture neurali e autonomi. La questione dell’autonomia è di particolare importanza ed ha dato origine a molte controversie. Per Fodor ogni modulo è «informazionalmente incapsulato», vale a dire che è impermeabile alle informazioni provenienti dagli altri moduli e dal sistema centrale; esso ha unicamente accesso alle informazioni per cui è specializzato e funziona in modo bottom-up (ossia può ricevere le informazioni solo dal basso, dagli analizzatori delle caratteristiche fisiche degli stimoli, e non dalla cognizione centrale) né la cognizione centrale può accedere alle elaborazioni che avvengono all’interno di un modulo (tali processi sono dunque inaccessibili all’introspezione). Il fatto di essere incapsulati informazionalmente e di attivarsi automaticamente permette ai moduli una grande efficienza e velocità di elaborazione. In un senso più ampio la nozione di mente modulare fa riferimento a qualsiasi teoria della mente che suppone che la cognizione sia scomponibile in un certo numero di componenti specifici e indipendenti, detti moduli.

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Le reti neurali Le reti neurali sono un sistema di unità funzionali che comunicano tra loro attraverso una rete di collegamenti e che in ogni istante possiedono un certo grado di attivazione. Nello specifico, le reti neurali sono composte da: ³ unità dette anche neuroni o nodi, ciascuna delle quali è un dispositivo ingresso/ uscita, in grado di attivarsi in funzione dei segnali ricevuti in ingresso; ³ connessionitra le unità, in grado di veicolare segnali di intensità variabile. Ciascuna di queste connessioni è caratterizzata dal valore del peso (o coefficiente di connessione), che modula l’intensità con cui viene trasmesso il segnale, e dalla direzione. Il peso è rappresentato da un numero reale che può essere positivo, nel caso di connessioni eccitatorie, negativo nel caso di connessioni inibitorie, oppure nullo nel caso di assenza di connessioni. Come si può osservare nell’illustrazione, i nodi sono organizzati in tre strati: le unità di input sono connesse alle unità di output attraverso un insieme di unità nascoste. A seconda del valore dei segnali ricevuti, ogni unità può trovarsi nello stato di attività o di non attività. Lo stato di attivazione delle unità di input si propaga, attraverso le connessioni, alle unità nascoste e di qui alle unità di output; la propagazione è modulata dai pesi associati alle connessioni ed il pattern di attivazione delle unità determina il risultato dell’elaborazione. Uno dei motivi di interesse dei modelli connessionisti sta nella possibilità che tali sistemi hanno di essere «addestrati» a fornire la risposta corretta attraverso opportune regole di apprendimento. Normalmente, infatti, nei sistemi connessionisti le regole non sono inserite dall’esterno dal ricercatore, ma si cerca di fare in modo che il sistema stesso apprenda a simulare una certa funzione estraendo le regolarità dall’input. L’apprendimento avviene modificando i valori dei pesi, cercando di rafforzare le connessioni che portano alle risposte desiderate. Nelle reti neurali le informazioni possono essere rappresentate in due modalità fondamentali: la rappresentazione di tipo locale implica che una specifica unità linguistica (una parola, una lettera, un significato ecc.) sia localizzata in una singola unità della rete; nelle rappresentazioni di tipo distribuito, invece, ogni entità linguistica è rappresentata da un pattern di attività distribuito su molte unità della rete, e ogni unità della rete è coinvolta nella rappresentazione di diverse unità linguistiche.

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