History of The English Language PDF [PDF]

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PREFACE History of the English Language is one of the fundamental courses forming the linguistic background of specialists in philology and it is a compulsory course to be taken by all students majoring in English Philology. According to the Curriculum this course is developed in order to get students acquainted with the historical development of the English language, its structure and peculiarities of different periods in its history. It is a diachronic view of the language which is aimed at understanding the very essence of the language that is unique in many ways and is approaching the status of a global one nowadays. By the end of the course students should know the fundamentals of historical phonology, historical morphology and syntax, the main terms and notions. They should be able to conduct the analysis of authentic texts of the appropriate historical period from the point of view of its phonologic, grammar and etymological features. The course of the History of the English Language presupposes a great amount of students’ independent analysis of language facts and self-evaluation. Historical development of the sound and spelling system is covered in Module 1, whereas historical development of morphology, syntax and vocabulary of English is explored in Module 2. The clear and welldefined structure of the material presentation and analysis in the booklet allows students to gradually deepen their knowledge of the subject. Lecture Notes are meant to make the theoretical notions of the language historical development more visual and easy to remember, that is why they provide students with a number of examples and tables. These notes, examples and tables can be used when fulfilling Practical Tasks for the seminars. The seminars correspond to the periods in the history of the English language. During the first three seminars students can supplement and support their theoretical knowledge of the historical development of English sounds and spelling with a system of exercises. Seminars 4 – 6 deepen students’ knowledge of historical development of English grammar and contain a text analysis pattern. The last two seminars cover the historical development of English vocabulary and some peculiarities of regional variations. Practical tasks and activities suggested in the booklet develop students’ receptive, analytical, reproductive and productive skills. The booklet is supplemented with a short Glossary of linguistic terms connected with the History of English.

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

CONTENTS Course outline

6

Lecture Notes Notes

9

Introduction to the History of English

9

History of English Sounds and Spelling

13

Topic 1. Proto-Germanic Period (PG)

14

Topic 2. Old English Sound System and Spelling (OE)

16

Topic 3. Middle English Sound and Spelling Changes (ME)

19

Topic 4. Early New English /Early Modern English Sound and 22 Spelling Changes (ENE / EModE) Historical Development of Grammar and Vocabulary 26 Historical Morphology

26

Topic 1. The Noun

27

Topic 2. The Adjective

29

Topic 3. The Pronoun

31

Topic 4. The Adverb

33

Topic 5. The Article

33

Topic 6. The Numeral

34

Topic 7. The Verb

36

Historical Syntax

42

Topic 1. Old English Syntax

42

Topic 2. Middle English Syntax

47

Topic 3. Early New English Syntax

49

Historical Development of the English Vocabulary

50

4

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Topic 1. The Indo-European and Germanic Heritage

50

Topic 2. Word-formation in the Old English Period. Affixation, 51 Compounding Topic 3. Anglo-Saxon and Foreign Elements in Place-names 53 Topic 4. English Language as a Recipient: Lexical Borrowings

55

Topic 5. English as a Global Language. Varieties of English

56

Practical Tasks

63

Practical Task 1

63

Practical Task 2

67

Practical Task 3

69

Practical Task 4

71

Practical Task 5

78

Practical Task 6

82

Practical Task 7

87

Practical Task 8

91

Recommended Recommended Reading

94

Examination Questions

96

Topics for SelfSelf-Study and Reports

97

Glossary of Linguistic Terms

99

Phonetic Symbols and Terms

113

Supplement 1

115

Supplement 2

117

Supplement 3

120

Supplement 4

126 5

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are fixed, but the manner in which the principles of generation are used is free and infinitely varied. Even the interpretation and use of words involves a process of free creation. Noam Chomsky Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone. Ralph Waldo Emerson Language is an anonymous, collective and unconscious art; the result of the creativity of thousands of generations. Edward Sapir Perhaps of all the creations of man language is the most astonishing. Giles Lytton Strachey Language is the armory of the human mind, and at once contains the trophies of its past and the weapons of its future conquests. Samuel Taylor Coleridge Language is the amber in which a thousand precious and subtle thoughts have been safely embedded and preserved. It has arrested ten thousand lightning flashes of genius, which, unless thus fixed and arrested, might have been as bright, but would have also been as quickly passing and perishing, as the lightning. Richard Chevenix Trench Viewed freely, the English language is the accretion and growth of every dialect, race, and range of time, and is both the free and compacted composition of all. Walt Whitman

COURSE OUTLINE Introduction to the History History of English 1. Subject and aims of the course. 2. Sources of the language history. 3. Method of Comparative Linguistics. 4. The Indo-European group of languages. Germanic branch. 5. Difference between Proto-Germanic and Indo-European languages. 6. Classifications of the main periods in the history of English.

History of English Sounds and Spelling Topic 1. ProtoProto-Germanic Period (PG) 1.1. Germanic vowel system. Germanic modification of vowels. 1.2. Germanic consonant system. 6

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

1.2.1. Grimm’s Law (Consonant Shift). 1.2.2. Verner’s Law. 1.3.

Sound peculiarities of West-Germanic languages.

1.3.1. Doubling of consonants (Gemination). 1.3.2. Rhotacism. 1.4. Anglo-Saxon dialects and their sound peculiarities. 1.4.1. Development of vowel [a]. 1.4.2. Loss of nasal consonants.

Topic 2. 2. Old English Sound System and Spelling (OE) 2.1. Vowel changes. 2.1.1. Front (palatal) mutation. 2.1.2. Changes of PG diphthongs. 2.2.

Consonant changes.

2.2.1. Palatalization of velar consonants. 2.2.2. Voicing of fricatives. 2.3. OE system of sounds and letters.

Topic 3. Middle English Sound and Spelling Changes (ME) 3.1. ME spelling changes. 3.2. ME vowel changes. 3.2.1. Development of unstressed vowels. Levelling of unstressed endings. 3.2.2. Development of stressed vowels. A. Development of monophthongs: Quantitative and Qualitative changes. Quantitative changes: 3.2.2.1. Lengthening of short vowels before consonant clusters ld, mb, nd. nd 3.2.2.2. Shortening of long vowels. 3.2.2.3. Lengthening of [a, a, o, e] e in open stressed syllables of disyllabic words. Qualitative changes:: 3.2.2.4. Development of monophthongs [a, æ, ǣ, y, ȳ, å]. B. Development of diphthongs in ME. 3.2.2.5. Development of OE diphthongs. 7

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

3.2.2.6. Development of new ME diphthongs [ei, ai, aυ, əυ, eυ]. Diphthong [li]. 3.3.

Consonant changes.

3.3.1. Simplification of some consonant groups (hr, hr, hl, hn). hn 3.3.2. Development of sound [γ]. 3.3.3. Vocalization of [j] and [w] after vowels.

Topic 4: Early New English / Early Modern English Sound and Spelling Changes (ENE/ (ENE/ EModE) EModE) 4.1. ENE / EModE spelling changes. 4.2. ENE / EModE vowel changes. 4.2.1. Changes in long vowels: the Great Vowel Shift. 4.2.2. Changes in short vowels. 4.2.3. Development of diphthongs. 4.2.4. Combinative changes of vowels. 4.2.4.1. Influence of [r]. 4.2.4.2. Influence of [l]. 4.2.4.3. Influence of voiceless fricatives and some consonant clusters. 4.3.

ENE / EModE consonant changes.

4.3.1. Development of ME sound [χ] denoted by gh in the ENE / EModE period. 4.3.2. Voicing of fricatives. 4.3.3. Simplification of some consonant groups (kn, kn, wr, ng, wh, gn). gn 4.3.4. Development of new sibilants and affricates [t∫], [dʒ], [∫], [ʒ].

Historical Development of Grammar and Vocabulary Historical Morphology Topic 1. The Noun. Topic 2. The Adjective. Topic 3. The Pronoun. Topic 4. The Adverb. Topic 5. The Article. Topic 6. The Numeral. 8

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Topic 7. The Verb.

Historical Syntax Topic 1. Old English Syntax. Topic 2. Middle English Syntax. Topic 3. Early New English / Early Modern English Syntax.

Historical Development of the English Vocabulary Topic 1. The Indo-European and Germanic Vocabulary Heritage. Topic 2. Word-formation in the Old English Period. Affixation, Compounding. Topic 3. Anglo-Saxon and Foreign Elements in Place-names. Topic 4. English Language as a Recipient: Lexical Borrowings. Topic 5. English as a Global Language. Varieties of English.

LECTURE NOTES Introduction to the History of English You might be interested in the fact that …
Germanic invaders brought to Britain a rough method of writing magical formulae and epigraphs called runes. This runic writing consisted at first of some 24 symbols to be scratched upon or coloured into stone or hard wood or metal-signs which generally by means of straight lines could very roughly represent common sounds. These runes, at first the secret of a priestly class (the OE word rūn means ‘secret’), were employed in England to some extent after the conversion to Christianity for religious inscriptions such as that on the Ruthwell Cross, and also at times more widely; but they were unsuitable for any sort of continuous writing and remained only as tokens of antiquarian interest in the late OE period. Runes could be inscribed and read either from left to write, or from write to left.
Henwest and Horsa are the names of two brothers who are said to have led the settlement of England by the Anglo-Saxons. The name Henwest means ‘stallion’ and the name Horsa means ‘horse’.
During the earliest period of recorded English language usage, the Old English period from about the seventh to the twelfth centuries, English vowels and consonants were pronounced in just about the same way as those of other European languages.
The most important dialect of OE was West Saxon (W-S), the form of the language spoken and written in the southwestern part of the country. This 9

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

was the dialect of King Alfred (d. 899), of the seat of government of the Anglo-Saxon people that emerged in the late ninth and early tenth century, located in Winchester, and of the church. Most manuscripts of OE literature are in the W-S dialect, either because they were commissioned and read by individuals in this area, or because they took earlier documents from other dialects and, in effect, translated them into the W-S dialect. For all intents and purposes, when we read “Old English” in modern editions, we are reading texts in the W-S dialect. Table 1.1

Difference between IE and PG languages INDO-EUROPEAN (IE)

PROTO-GERMANIC (PG)

Accentuation A free stress A strong fixed stress accent based on loudness Morphology More complex verbal system: three Somewhat simplified verbal system: tense forms existed (Present, Past / two tense forms existed (Present, Past / Preterite, Future) Preterite) The verbs conjugated as one group and The verbs conjugated according to two formed their Past / Preterite and Past different patterns: to form their Past Participle with the help of the vowel and Past Participle some of them used gradation (the change of the root vowel gradation pattern (strong verbs), vowel) other verbs added a dental suffix to their stems (weak verbs) Adjectives declined the same, as one Adjectives declined in two different group ways, thus forming two different groups: weak (definite) and strong (indefinite) adjectives Vocabulary  Indo-European Vocabulary PG vocabulary was represented by  IE layer;  PG words (newly-formed or borrowed)

TIMELINE 4th – 3rd millennium BC – An agricultural people originating in southeastern Europe is believed to have spoken a language which scholars consider the original Indo-European. 1st millennium BC – The Germanic-speaking peoples separate out of the IndoEuropean group. 10

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

c449 (5th – 7th centuries AD) – The groups, or tribes, known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes make incursions and ultimately settlements into the British Isles. 7th century – Introduction of Christianity in Britain. Foundation of monasteries in Northumbria, in northern England. Period of Northumbrian religious and cultural efflorescence. Age of Cædmon and Bede. c700 – First surviving written evidence of Old English. 8th – 9th centuries – Viking raids. Scandinavian invasion. late 9th century – Reign of King Alfred (871-899); establishment of West-Saxon hegemony over Anglo-Saxon England and the foundation of schools and scriptoria for the teaching and writing of Old English; translations of classic Latin texts. 878 – Battle of Edington, in which Alfred triumphs over Vikings and agrees on areas of Scandinavian settlement (later to be known as the ‘Danelaw’). from c890 – Production of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. c1000 – Date of the Beowulf manuscript, text of the earliest major long poem in English. 1066 – Norman Conquest. Invasion of England by Norman French-speaking noblemen and soldiers. 1362 – Parliament is addressed for the first time in English (but records are still kept in French). 1380s – John Wycliffe supervises translation of the Bible into Middle English. 1475 – Printing of The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye by William Caxton in Bruges—the first book to be printed in English. 1476 – William Caxton sets up his printing press in Westminster and publishes the first printed books in England. c1440s – 1550s – The Great Vowel Shift takes place, changing permanently the pronunciation of long stressed vowels in English, and as a consequence determining the sound of Modern spoken English. 1564 – Birth of Shakespeare. 1616 – Death of Shakespeare. 1623 – Publication of the First Folio edition of Sheakespeare’s plays. Table 1.2 Periods in the History of English Dates (centuries)

Historical Classification

5th – 11th

Old English period (OE)

11th – 15th

Middle English period (ME)

15th – 16th

New English period (NE) / Modern English period (ModE)

17th – nowadays

Early New English period (ENE) / Early Modern English period (EModE) Present Day English period (PDE) 11

Linguistic Classification (suggested by Henry Sweet) period of full inflections period of levelled inflections period of lost inflections

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Test yourself: The following short extracts (1-4) are taken from some texts written in different periods of the English language historical development. Match them with the periods (A-D) they represent and explain your choice:

A

Old English

2

B

3

C

Middle English Early New English / Early Modern English

1

þis kyng lay at Camylot vpon Krystmasse with mony luflych lorde, ledez of þe best, rekenly of þe Rounde Table alle þo rich breþer, with rych reuel oryght and rechles merþes.

On þyssum weare man halwode þet mynster æt Westmynstre on Cyldamæsse dæw 7 se cynw Eadward forðferde on Twelfts mæsse æfen 7 hine mann bebyrwede on Twelftan mæssedæw innan þære niwa halwodre circean on Westmynstre 7 4 Not marble, nor the guilded monument, Of Princes ∫hall out-liue this powrefull rime, But you ∫hall ∫hine more bright in the∫e contents Then vn∫wept ∫tone, be∫meer'd with ∫lutti∫h time. 1

2

D

3

Runic AngloSaxon

4

Just for fun … Some interesting facts from the life of Early Britain and its people:        

The biggest Anglo-Saxon towns, such as Winchester, had fewer than 10,000 people; It took about 18 trees to provide enough wood to build an Anglo-Saxon house; Anglo-Saxon door keys were often made of deer antler; Candles were made of tallow (animal fat) and were smoky and smelly; Bread and cheese was the original Anglo-Saxon ploughman’s lunch; Hot bean stew made a family evening meal in a poor Anglo-Saxon home; Poor people in Early Britain used bottles made of leather, glass was for rich people only; Measuring skeletons shows that many Anglo-Saxon males were tall, about 1.8m / 6 feet or taller;  William, Duke of Normandy, was illegitimate and many nobles in Normandy felt he should not be king, there even were attempts to kill him. 12

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

History of English Sounds and Spelling Starter activity You may know the rhyme given below. Read it aloud, in small groups discuss the possible reasons for the obvious difference in modern English spelling and pronunciation: Of Moths and Mothers, Coughs and Boughs I take it you already know Of tough and bough and cough and dough? Others may stumble, but not you On hiccough, thorough, laugh and through. Well done! And now you wish perhaps To learn of these familiar traps? Beware of heard, a dreadful word, That looks like beard and sounds like bird. And dead: it’s said like bed not bead, For goodness sake, don’t call it deed! Watch out for meat and great and threat, They rhyme with suite and straight and debt. A moth is not a moth in mother, Nor both in bother, broth in brother, And here is not a match for there, Nor dear and fear for bear and pear. And then there’s does and rose and lose – Just look them up: and good and choose, And cork and work and card and ward, And font and front and word and sword. And do and go and thwart and cart – Come, come, I’ve hardly made a start! A dreadful language? Man alive, I’d mastered it when I was five! (Anonymous) Quoted by Vivian Cook and Melvin Bragg 2004, by Richard Krogh, in D. Bolinger & D. A. Sears, Aspects of Language, 1981, and in Spelling Progress Bulletin March 1961, Brush up on your English.


Do you know that the following sentence contains at least eight ways the combination "ough" can be pronounced in English? Can you read the sentence properly? Try to suggest your explanations why this phenomenon has become possible. A rough-coated, dough-faced, thoughtful ploughman strode through the after falling into a slough, streets of Scarborough; he coughed and hiccoughed.

13

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English


According to George Bernard Shaw, English word ‘ghoti’ can be pronounced as [fi∫]. Do you agree with this? (Note: Try ‘gh’ as in English ‘tough’, ‘o’ as in English ‘women’, and ‘ti’ as in English ‘nation’).

Topic 1. ProtoProto-Germanic Period (PG) 1.1. Germanic vowel system. Germanic modification of vowels. IE. ā > PG. ō (Lat. māter – OE. mōdor) IE. o > PG. a (Lat. octō – Goth. ahtau)

1.2. Germanic consonant system. 1.2.1.

IE consonant

PG consonant

[p, t, k]

[f, q, h]

Act III

Act II

Act I

A.

Grimm’s Law (Consonant Shift):

[b, d, Ö]

[p, t, k]

[b, d, Ö]

[b, d, Ö]

Examples Lat. pes (ped), Goth. fotus, OE. fōt (E.

foot) Lat. tres, OE. þrēo (E. three) Lat. cor (cord), OE. heorte (E. heart) Rus. болото, OE. pōl (E. pool) Rus. дерево, OE. trēo (E. tree) Rus. горе, OE. caru (E. care) Sans. bhrata, OE. brōðor (E. brother) Sans. vidhava, OE. widwe (E. widow) IE. lagh, OE. licʒean (E. lie)

B. Exceptions to the 1st Act of Grimm’s Law:
No change after s [s] in consonant combinations [sp, st, sk]: Lat.

stare, R. стоять > OE. standan, E. stand; R. гость, Lat. hostis — гот. gasts, E. guest;
Partial change in consonant combinations [pt, kt]: Lat. octo > OE.

eahta; Sans. nakta – Goth. nahts, Lat. nох (gen. noctis) – OE. neaht.

14

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

1.2.2. Verner’s Law: [t > q > a > d]: Sans. pitár > PG. faðar [Dfaðar] > OE. fæder (E. father). Note: pay attention to the position of stress in IE.

1.3. Sound peculiarities of West-Germanic languages. 1.3.1. Doubling of consonants (or gemination) took place between a short vowel and sound [j] (sometimes [r, l]): Gothic saljan, taljan > OE. sellan, tellan – E. sell, tell. (Compare: Rus. веселье, знанье; Ukr. весілля, знання). But: r was not doubled: Goth. arjan – OE. erian (‘to plough’); Compare: Rus.: перья; Ukr. пір’я. Doubling failed after long vowels: Goth. fōdjan > OE. fēdan > E. feed.

1.3.2. Rhotacism (development of sound [z]): [s] >[z] > [r] OE. wæs – wæron ( [ea]. Goth. hardus [Dhardus]; G. hart [hart] – OE. heard [heard] (E. hard).

The same process took place with [ñ] (æld > eald, æhta > eahta, sæh > seah) and [e] ([e > eo]: herte > heorte, melcan > meolcan, selh > seolh, feh > feoh). 1.4.2. Loss of nasal consonants before fricatives [f, qI=s] qI= : Goth. fimf [fimf], OHG. finf [finf] – OE. fīf [fi:f] (E. five).

15

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Topic 2. 2 Old English Sound System and Spelling Spelling (OE) 2.1. Vowel changes. 2.1.1. Front mutation (= i-umlaut, also known as i-mutation or palatal mutation). [o], [a] > [e] G. Anʒlisc [DanÖli∫]

OE. Enʒlisc [DenÖli∫] > E.

[u] > [y]

English OE. cyninʒ [DkyninÖ] > E. king OE. myse [mys] > E. mouse

OHG. kuninʒ [DkuninÖ] Goth. muzis [Dmuziz]

ea, eo > áe ēa, ēo > īe Traces in modern English: vowel interchange now serves to distinguish
different parts of speech: to fill – full, to feed – food, long – length; to tell – tale, blood – to bleed, Canterbury – Kent;


different forms of a word: mouse – mice, man – men, goose – geese. 2.1.2. Changes of PG diphthongs. PG. [ai] > OE. [a:] PG. stains [stainz] > OE. stān [sta:n] (E. stone); PG. [au] > OE. [e:a] Goth. ausō [Dauzo]> OE. ēare [De:are] (E. ear).

2.2. Consonant changes. 2.2.1. Palatalization of velar consonants (began before the 6th century). [k] > [k’] > [t∫]

OE. cild [t∫ild] > E. child

[Ö] > [Ö’] > [dʒ]

OE. bricʒe [bridʒ] > E. bridge

[sk] > [sk’] > [∫]

OE. scip, fisc [∫ip, fi∫] > E. ship,

Compare: Russian лекарь – лечить

fish 2.2.2. Voicing of fricatives. OE. (n., sing.) wulf [wυlf] – (n., pl.) wulfas [Dwυlvaz] > E. wolf (n., sing.) – wolves (n., pl.); OE. (n., sing.) wīf [wgf] – (n., pl.) wīfes [Dwgves] > E. wife (n., sing.) – wives (n., pl.); OE. (n.) bæþ [bæq q] – (v.) baþian [Dbaðıan] > E. bath (n.) – bathe (v.)

16

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

2.3. OE system of sounds and letters. • monophthongs (7 long, 7 short): a, ā, æ (‘ash’), ǣ, e, ē, i, ī, o, ō, u, ū, y, ȳ (+ [å]); • diphthongs (4 long, 4 short): ea, ēa, eo, ēo, (ie, īe, io, īo); • consonants: b, c [k, t∫], d, f [f, v], ʒ (‘yogh’) [Ö, j, γ], h [h, x, χ], l, m, n, p, r, s [s, z], t, ð (‘eth’) / þ (‘thorn’) [q, ð], ƿ(‘wynn’) [w]; sometimes found x [ks / cs / hs]. NB: NB There are no ‘silent’ letters in Old English: all vowels and consonants are pronounced. f, s and þ are pronounced voiced ([v, z, ð]) between vowels. Elsewhere they are voiceless. Doubled consonants are distinct from single ones; thus the dd in biddan (‘ask for’) is pronounced like –d d– in the phrase bad debt. Bear in mind that the combination cw was pronounced j [dz=Eas in ‘judge’); the combination sc was pronounced sh [p] (as in ‘ship’). OE w was usually pronounced as g [Ö] in ‘girl’, however, before e and i, and at the end of a word, it could be pronounced like the y [à] in ‘yet’. OE c was usually pronounced k [â] as in ‘king’. However, before e and i, and at the end of a word, it could be pronounced ch [`] as in ‘chill’. Task 1 There are many Old English words that quickly become recognizable, especially once you take into consideration the changes in spelling and pronunciation explained above. See how many words you recognize. Remember, that verbs end in –an: People (cynn): bearn, brōþor, brȳde, cild, dohtor, fæder, frēond, mōdor, sunu, sweoster, widiwe, wīf, wīfmann; Professions (cræft): scēap-hierde, fiscere, bæcere, cōc, smiþ, wold-smiþ, þēof, wrītere; Animals and birds (dēor and fuwol): fisc, wōs, hors, mūs, oxa, scēap, wulf, wyrm; 17

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Food and drink (mete and drinc): bēor, ealu, etan, hlāf, hunwriw, huniw, medu, þurst, wæter; Religion (ǣ -fæst-nes): abbod, æl-mihtiw, ærce-biscop, āþ, cirice, dēofol, enwel, hālwa, wod, hǣþen, heofon, munuc, mynster, prēost, sāwol, scrīn; War (beadu, wūþ or hild): helm, sceaft, scyld, spere, swurd, wǣpen; Time (tīma): ǣfen-tīd, æfter, dæw, wēar, hwīl, mōnaþ, morwen, niht, nū, winter; Numbers (wetæl): ān, twā, þrēo, fēower, fīf, siex, seofon, eahta, niwon, tīen, endleofan, twelf, twentiw, þrītiw, fēowertiw, hund, þūsend; To move (āstyrian): ārisan, cuman, feallan, flēowan,wanwan, hlēapan, rīdan, swimman; To say and to write (secwan and āwritan): andswarian, āscian, bōc, spell, word;

Test yourself: 1. How many vowel monophthongs were there in OE? 2. What happened to IE vowels o and ā in Germanic languages? 3. What kind of linguistic phenomenon is front mutation? 4. Why did each of the fricative consonants f, s, þ denote two sounds in OE? 5. What kind of phenomenon is rhotacism? 6. Which acts did the Grimm’s Law consist of? 7. Which sounds caused the doubling of consonants in Anglo-Saxon dialects? 8. What did K. Verner pay attention to when he explained some exceptions to the Consonant Shift? 9. How did sibilants and affricates develop in the OE period? 10. What happened to nasal consonants before fricatives in Anglo-Saxon dialects? 11. What kind of phenomenon is breaking? 12. How did unstressed vowels change in OE?

18

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Topic 3. Middle English Sound and Spelling Changes (ME) 3.1. Middle English spelling changes. 3.1.1. The following OE letters went out of use: æ, ʒ, þ, ð, ƿ; 3.1.2. Some letters were borrowed from French: g, j, k, q, v, z; 3.1.3. New digraphs were introduced for consonant sounds: ch [t∫], sh [∫], th

[q / azz, gh [χ], ph [f], ck [k], dg [d], qu [kw]; 3.1.4. New digraphs were introduced to denote long vowel sounds: oo [i iI=çW]; I=çW

ee, ie, ei [e:, c:]; ou, ow [u:]; More Influence of French: 3.1.5. c [s] before e, i, y; c [k] before a, o, u (according to the French norm); c > k: OE. cēpan [Dke:pan] > ME. keepen [Dke:pən] 3.1.6. In words with many vertical strokes letter u was substituted by letter o: OE. cuman > ME. comen [Dkυmən] (E. come [k^ãzFK NB: spelling of the word changed, pronunciation of the stressed vowel remained the same! Compare: son, some. Task: Compare the spelling and pronunciation of the words from the grid below in Old English and Middle English. Can you see any differences in spelling of ME words? Is pronunciation of ME words the same as in the OE period? What can you tell about the Modern English spelling and pronunciation of the words? OE niht ME night ModE night 3.2.

cwēn queen queen

ʒōd good good

cēpan tōþ keepen tooth keep tooth

þēf thief thief

Middle English vowel changes.

3.2.1. Development of unstressed vowels. Levelling of endings. OE. standan > ME. standen [Dstandən] (E. stand); OE. sunu > ME. sone [Dssnə] (E. son). 19

hūs hū house how house how

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

3.2.2. Development of stressed vowels. A. Development of monophthongs : Quantitative and Qualitative changes. Quantitative changes:

3.2.2.1. Lengthening of short vowels before homorganic clusters mb, ld, nd (started in the 9th century). OE. cild [t∫ıld] > ME. child [t∫i:ld] (E. child). But:

Homorganic

lengthening failed before three-consonant clusters, thus in OE noun (plural)

cildru [D t∫ıldru] (E. children) – stressed [i] was not lengthened; 3.2.2.2. Shortening of long vowels (11th century). OE. dūst [du:st], wīsdom [Dwi:zdom] > ME. dust [dυst], wisdom [Dwızdəm];

3.2.2.3. Lengthening of [a, o, e] in open stressed syllables of disyllabic words (13th century). OE. Dtalu > ME. tale [Dta:lə] (E. tale); OE. Detan > ME. etan [Dc c:tən] (E. eat). Qualitative changes:

3.2.2.4. Development of monophthongs ā, æ, ǣ, å, y, ȳ. • [æ] > [^] OE. cæt > ME cat [k^t / kat]; • [æ:] > [c:] OE. sæ> ME. se [sc:]; • [a:] > [i] OE. bāt > ME. boot [bl:t] > ENE. boat [bl:t] (E. boat [bèst]); [a:] > [o:] OE. stān > ME. stone [DstoWnə] (E. stone [stèsåzF; • [å] > [o] only in West Midland: OE. land, man > lond, mon; [å] > [a] in all other dialects: OE. land, man > land, man; • [y] > [ı] in the North-Eastern dialects: ME. hill [hil] (E. hill); [y] > [υ] in the Western dialects: ME. hull [hυl]; [y] > [e] in the Southern dialects: ME. hell [hel]; • [ȳ] > [i:] in the North-Eastern dialects: ME. fir [fi:r] (E. fire); [ȳ] > [υi] in the Western dialects: ME. fuir; [ȳ] > [c:] in the Southern dialects: ME. fer; 20

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

B. Development of diphthongs in ME. 3.2.2.5. Development of OE diphthongs: OE. [ēa] > ME. [c:] OE. [ea] > ME. [a] OE. [ēo] > ME. [e:] OE. [eo] > ME. [e] OE. [ıə] > ME. [ı], [e]

OE. ēare > ME. ere (E. ear) OE. earm > ME. arm OE. dēop > ME. deep OE. steorfan > ME. sterven (E. starve) OE. nieht, hierde > ME. niht, herde (E. night,

shepherd) 3.2.2.6. Development of new ME diphthongs: [e + i] > [ei] [a + i] > [ai] [a + u] > [aυ] [o + u] > [əυ] [e + u] > [eυ]

OE. weʒ > ME. wey (ʒ [j] > [i] y) OE. dæʒ > ME. day (ʒ [j] > [i] y) OE. saʒu > ME. saw(e) (ʒ [γ] > [w] w > [υ] w) OE. boʒa > ME. bowe (ʒ [γ] > [w] w > [υ] w) OE. deaw > ME. dew (w [w] > [υ] w)

3.3. ME consonant changes. 3.3.1. Simplification of some consonant groups (hr, hn, hl): hr, hn, hl [hr, hn, hl] > r, l, n [r, n, l] : OE. hrinʒ, hlāford, hnutu > ME. ring, loverd, nute > E. ring, lord, nut. 3.3.2 Development of sound [γ] denoted by ʒ after vowels: ʒ [γ] > [w] w: OE. boʒa, morʒen > ME. bowe, morwen (E. bow, morrow). Compare Russian: его ([г > в]). Note: later this [w] denoted by w vocalized after vowels.

3.3.3. Vocalization of [j] and [w] after vowels: [j] > [i]; [w] > [s]: OE. snāw [sna:w] > snow [snow] > ME. snow [snəυ].

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Test yourself: 1. Which OE letters went out of use in the ME period? 2. Which consonant was lost at the beginning of words? 3. Which phenomenon brought about the appearance of new ME diphthongs? 4. What happened to most unstressed vowels in the ME period? 5. What kind of changes are qualitative changes of vowels? 6. How did short vowels in open stressed syllables of disyllabic words change? 7. What happened to short vowels before homorganic consonants? 8. What was done to make reading of words with many vertical strokes less difficult? 9. How did OE diphthongs change in the ME period? 10.Which vowels developed differently in various dialects? 11.How did fricative consonant sound [γ] develop in ME? 12.Which consonants are called homorganic?

Topic 4. Early New English Sound and Spelling Changes 4.1. Early New English (ENE) spelling changes: Group I. Changes connected with the loss of endings: OE. hnutu > ME. nute [Dnsíə] > ENE. nut [n^t] OE. tacan > ME. taken ['tokən] > ENE. take [tÉfk] Group II. Changes connected with doubling of consonants: ME. dogge, lette, stoppe, sunne ME. kisse, locke, pulle, stuffe ME. glas, sik, smal, staf ME. super, sumer, felow, bery

ENE. dog, let, stop, sun ENE. kiss, lock, pull, stuff ENE. glass, sick, small, staff ENE. supper, summer, fellow, berry

Group III. III Changes connected with the Latin origin of some words: ME. dette, doute (from Latin debitum, dubitare) > ENE. debt, doubt ME. scool (from Latin scholar) > ENE. school

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Group IV. Changes connected with introduction of digraphs ea and oa (to distinguish between [c:] / [É:] and [i] / [o:], respectively: ME. [c:] se(e),

ENE. sea, deal [sc:,

E. sea, deal [sg, dgl]

deel ME. [i] rood, boot

dc:l] ENE. road, boat [rid, bit]

E. road, boat [rəυd,

bəυt]

4.2. ENE vowel changes. 4.2.1. Changes in long vowels. The Great Vowel Shift: [a: – eı] mate [Dma:tə – meıt] [o: – ez boot [bo:t – bet] [c: – g] beat [bc:t – bgt] [g – aı] bite [Dbgtə – baıt] 4.2.2. Changes in short vowels.

[e– aυ] [i– əυ] [e: – g]

out [et – aυt] boat [bit – bəυt] beet [be:t – bi:t]

4.2.2.1. Development of vowel [a]: ME. [a] > [æ] map, cat; after [w]: [wa] > [wl] want, was, quantity.

But: wag [wæÖ], wax [wæks]. 4.2.2.2. Delabialization: [u] > [o] > [^]: ME. some [Dsυmə] – ENE. some [s^ãz; ME. son [sυn] – ENE. son [s^åz; Also: [u:] (< [i] > [l] before [d, t, k]) > [^]: blood, flood. 4.2.3. Development of ME diphthongs in ENE: ME. [ai, ei] day, wey, seil > ENE. [ei] ME. [aυ] > ENE. [i] ME. [eυ] > ([iυ]) > ENE. [àe] ME. [li, əυ] remained unchanged

day, way, sail paw, law, cause, pause new, dew, view point, boy, snow, flow

4.2.4. Combinative changes of vowels. 4.2.4.1. Influence of [r]. 23

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

a) [êê] > [ə] after vowels in medial and final positions; b) Development of –er in the middle of words: –er [er] > –ar [ar] (ME. derk, ferm, sterre > ENE. dark, farm, star). But compare: clerk [klok], sergeant [′sod(è)nt]. c) Short vowels + [r]: [ar] > ([aə]) > [a:] park, dark, part, heart port, form [lr] > ([lə]) > [i] [er, ir, υr] > [cə, iə, υə] > [b:] term, person, girl, bird, fur, burden d) Long vowels + [r]: [e:r] > [iə] beer, here bear, wear; [c:r] > [cə] beard, dear [c:r] > [iə] poor, moor [er] > [υə] [ir] > [lə] > [i] board, oar 4.2.4.2. Influence of [l].

[a:r] > [cə] [i:r] > [aıə]

hare, dare fire, hire

[u:r] > [aυə]

hour, our, flower

[a + l] > [aυ] + [l] > [aυl] > [il] all, tall; [l] is not pronounced before [k, m, f]: talk, walk; calm, half, palm; 4.2.4.3. Influence of voiceless fricatives and some consonant clusters. [a > (æ > æ:) > a:] after, craft, draft, pass, grass, bath;chance, dance, answer; cast, last, fast; ask, mask, task; clasp, gasp, grasp. 4.3. ENE consonant changes. 4.3.1. Development of sound [χ] denoted by gh. At the end of words gh [χ] > [f] gh: ME. laugh [laυχ] > laugh [laυf] > ENE. laugh

[la:f]; Medially gh [χ] before t was lost in pronunciation: ME. daughter [Ddaυχtər], eight [eiχt] > ENE. daughter [Dditə], eight [eit]; Lengthening: [i > i:] ME. night [niχt] > [ni:t] > ENE. night [nait].

4.3.2.

Voicing of fricatives in weakly-stressed syllables and words:

ME. [f] > ENE. [v] of, active (< ME. actif) 24

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

ME. [s] > ENE. [z] is, his, comes, possess ME. [q q] > ENE. [ð] with, the, they ME. [ks] > ENE. [Ö Öz] eDxamine, eDxhibit ME. [t∫] > ENE. [dʒ] knowledge (< ME. knowleche), but: Greenwich [DÖrinidʒ].

4.3.3.

Simplification of some consonant groups:

wr [r]

kn [n]

gn [n]

mb [m]

wrong know gnat climb 4.3.4. Development of new sibilants and affricates:

ng [k] sing

[t + j] > [t∫] Dculture, Dcentury, but: Dtune, Dstudent [s + j] > [∫] DRussian, DAsia, Dnation, but: Dsuit, aDssume; [z + j] > [ʒ] deDcision, Dusual, Dmeasure, but: reDsume; [d + j] > [dʒ] Dsoldier, but: Dduty, inDduce. Test yourself: 1. Which new digraphs for vowels were introduced? 2. Why did the Great Vowel Shift make English spelling and pronunciation still further apart? 3. Which consonant groups were simplified? 4. How did new sibilants and affricates develop? 5. What changes are called combinative? 6. What happened to ME diphthong [aυ] in ENE? 7. How did vowel [a] develop before voiceless fricatives? 8. Which Middle English vowels were delabialized? 9. What happened to endings after the syllables with short vowels? 10.How did the liquid [r] change in ENE? 11.Which ME diphthongs remained unchanged in ENE? 12.In what position were fricatives voiced in ENE?

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Historical Development of Grammar and Vocabulary Historical Morphology English grammar is so complex and confusing for the one very simple reason that its rules and terminology are based on Latin, a language with which it has precious little in common. Bill Bryson Starter activity You may know the rhyme given below. In small groups, discuss the possible reasons for obvious difference in modern English grammar: The Funniest Language? We'll begin with a box and the plural is boxes. But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes. The one fowl is a goose but two are called geese, Yet the plural of moose should never be meese. You may found a lone mouse or a whole set of mice, Yet the plural of house is houses not hice. If the plural of man is always called men, Why shouldn't the plural of pan be called pen? If I speak of a foot and you show me your feet, And I give you a boot, would a pair be called beet? If one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth, Why should not the plural of booth be called beeth? Then one may be that and three would be those, Yet hat in the plural wouldn't be hose. And the plural of cat is cats and not cose. We speak of a brother and also of brethren, But though we say Mother, we never say Methren, Then the masculine pronouns are he, his and him, But imagine the feminine she, shis and shim, So English, I fancy you will all agree, Is the funniest language you ever did see. (Anonymous) You might find it interesting to know that…
The most significant change between Old and Modern English is the shift from many to few endings and the introduction of grammatical words such as prepositions (Elly van Gelderen).

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Topic 1. The Noun The structure of a PG noun was root / stem-building siffix / ending: Goth. sunus = sun / u / s. The paradigm of the noun depended on its stem-building suffix. In OE the stem-building suffixes often fused with the endings. The OE noun distinguished three genders, four cases, two numbers. Each noun traditionally belonged to one of the declensions (strong, weak, minor). Vowel (Strong) Declensions: Table 1.1 a – stem declension (M, N) Plural

Singular Case

Masculine

Neuter

Masculine

Neuter

Nominative Genitive

fisc fisces

scip scipes

scipu scipa

Dative Accusative

fisce fisc

scipe scip

fiscas fisca / fiscana fiscum fiscas

Table 1.2 ō – stem declension (F) Plural

Singular Case Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative

Feminine

caru, talu care, tale care, tale care, tale

cara, tala cara, tala carum, talum cara, tala

Table 1.3 u – stem declension (M, F) Plural

Singular Case Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative

scipum scipu

Masculine

Feminine

Masculine

Feminine

maʒu maʒa maʒa maʒu

duru dura dura duru

maʒa maʒa maʒum maʒa

dura dura durum dura

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Table 1.4 i – stem declension (M, F, N) Feminine Neuter

Masculine Singular

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative

Plural

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative

hȳd hyde hyde hyd hyde, hyda hyde hydum hyde, hyda

siʒe siʒes siʒe siʒe siʒeas siʒa siʒum siʒeas

sife sifes sife sife sifu sifa sifum sifu

Consonant (Weak) Declension Table 1.5 n – stem declension (M, F, N) Feminine Neuter

Plural

Singular

Masculine Nominative nama, ʒuma Genitive naman, ʒuman

tunwe tunwan tunwan tunwan tunwan tunwena tunwum tunwan

Dative

naman,ʒuman Accusative naman, ʒuman Nominative naman, ʒuman Genitive namena, ʒumena Dative namum, ʒumum Accusative naman, ʒuman

eaʒe eaʒan eaʒan eaʒe eaʒan eaʒena eaʒum eaʒan

Consonant (Minor) Declensions: Table 1.6 r – stem declension (M, F) Singular Case Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative

Plural

Masculine

Feminine

Masculine

Feminine

fæder fæder(es) fæder fæder

mōdor mōdor mēder mōdor

fæderas fædera fæderum fæderas

mōdru(-a) mōdra mōdrum mōdru(-a)

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Singular Case

Masculine

Nominative man, tōþ

Table 1.7 root – stem declension (M, F) Plural Feminine

mūs, bōc

Masculine

men, tēþ

Feminine

mȳ ȳs, bēc

Genitive

mannes, tōþes mūse, bōce manna, tōþa

mūsa, bōca

Dative

man, tēþ

mys, bēc

mannum, tōþa

mūsum, bōcum

Accusative

man, tōþ

mūs, bōc

men, tēþ

mȳs, bēc

Table 1.8 (e)s – stem declension (N) Plural

Singular Case Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative

Neuter

lamb, cealf, cild lambres, cealfes, cildes lambe, cealfe, cilde lamb, cealf, cild

lambru, cealfru, cild / cildru lambra, cealfra, childa /cildra lambrum, cealfum, cildum lambru, cealfru, cild / cildru

Topic 2. The Adjective In OE the Adjective distinguished three genders, two numbers, five cases (in masculine and neuter genders). The adjectives could decline according to either weak or strong declension, thus showing the definite or indefinite meaning. In addition to that the adjective had three degrees of comparison (positive, comparative and superlative). Adjectives are gathered into one of two groups or ‘declensions’ depending on whether or not they are preceded by a determiner. The pattern of inflexions for adjectives preceded by a determiner is known as the ‘weak’ declension. The pattern of inflexions for adjectives which are not preceded by a determiner is known as the ‘strong’ declension. That means that if there was a demonstrative or possessive pronoun before the noun which was modified by the adjective, the meaning of this adjective was definite, and it declined according to the weak declension, otherwise the adjective declined strong. There were some adjectives that always declined strong (eal, maniʒ, oþer), while several others were always weak (adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees, the adjective ilca ‘same’). 29

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Table 2.1 Adjective Declensions Weak declension

Strong declension Feminine

Singular Neuter Masculine

Feminine Neuter

Nom ʒōd Gen ʒōdes

ʒōd ʒōdre

ʒōd ʒōdes

ʒōde ʒōdan

Dat

ʒōdum Acc ʒōdne Instr ʒōde

ʒōdre ʒōde –

Nom ʒōde Gen ʒōdra

ʒōda ʒōdra ʒōdum ʒōd

ʒōdum ʒōdan ʒōdan ʒōda ʒōd ʒōdan ʒōdan ʒōde – – – ʒōde Plural ʒōd ʒōdan ʒōdra ʒōdena / ʒōdra ʒōdum ʒōdum ʒōd ʒōdan

Masculine

Dat Acc

ʒōdum ʒōde

ʒōda ʒōdan

ʒōde ʒōdan

To form degrees of comparison –ra and –ost are added to the stem (lēof ‘dear’ – lēofra – lēofost). In OE the –ra and –ost forms (comparative and superlative) do decline. Comparatives always decline in the weak paradigm whether or not preceded by a determiner; superlatives decline according to weak or strong paradigm, the selection being determined according to the same criteria as for the same adjective. Table 2.2 Comparison of Adjectives in Old English Positive Comparative Degree Superlative Degree Degree –ra (M), –re (F, N) –ost / –est

Means of formbuilding Suffixation heard ‘brave’

Suffixation + vowel interchange Suppletion

heardra, headre soft softra, softre wēriʒ ’weary’ wēriʒra, wēriʒre lonʒ lenʒra, lenʒre eald ieldra, ieldre stranʒ strenʒra, strenʒre bet(t)ra ʒōd yvel ‘wicked’ wysra micel, mycel māra ‘large’ 30

heardost softest wēriʒost lenʒest ieldest strenʒest bet(e)st wyrrest, wyrst mǣst

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Test yourself: Noun and Adjective 1. What category of the OE noun has proved to be the most stable? 2. What were the main structural parts of an OE word? 3. Which OE noun declension was the most important and why? 4. In which period of the English language history did the analytical form of degrees of comparison develop? 5. Which OE noun declensions were strong? 6. When was the weak declension of OE adjectives used? 7. How can you characterize the category of gender of the OE noun? 8. Which category of the OE adjective has proved to be the most stable? 9. Which OE nouns belonged to (e)s– and r– stem declensions? 10.What were the markers for the degrees of comparison of OE adjectives? 11.What was the paradigm of an OE noun determined by? 12.How did the category of case of the noun rearrange in the ME period?

Topic 3. The Pronoun Old English Personal Pronouns: OE pronouns, like nouns, have number and case, and, in the third person, gender. Like nouns, they decline. The dual pronouns are comparatively rare in OE, and died out entirely early in the ME period. An indefinite pronoun man (‘one’) is often used, often where a passive construction would be used in PDE: Man Horsan ofslow (‘Horsa was slain, lit’. ‘One slew Horsa’). The OE personal pronouns possessed three persons and four cases. Personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person had three numbers: singular, dual, and plural, while the 3rd person pronouns distinguished three genders in singular.

st

1 person Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

Singular (I)

ic mec, mē mīn mē

Table 3.1a Old English Personal Pronouns Dual Plural (we two) (we)

wit unc, uncit uncer unc 31

wē ūsic, ūs ūser, ūre ūs

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

2nd person Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

you (you two) ʒit inc, incit uncer inc

(you) ðū ðec, ðē ðīn ðē

(you) ʒē ēowic, ēow ēower ēow Table 3.1b

rd

3 person

he

it

Singular Masculine Neuter Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

hē hine his him

hit hit his him

she

they

Feminine

Plural All genders

hēo, hīe hēo, hīe hire hire

hēo, hīe hēo, hīe hira, heora him, heom

Old English Demonstrative Pronouns: OE demonstrative pronouns declined like adjectives according to a five-case system. They were frequently used as noun determiners and through agreement with the noun, indicated its number, gender and case. These pronouns contrast in the deictic features of “distance” and “proximity”. The OE demonstrative sē, which functioned both as a demonstrative with the meaning ‘that’ and as the equivalent to present-day English ‘the’, played a crucial role. Case Masculine Nom Gen

sē

þæt þǣs þæm

Dat Acc Instr

þone

sēo þǣre þære

þæt

þā

þȳ, þon

Case Masculine Nom

Table 3.2 Demonstrative Pronoun 'that' ('those') Singular Plural Neuter Feminine

þes

þā þāra þǣm þā þȳ

Table 3.3 Demonstrative Pronoun 'this' ('these') Singular Plural Neuter Feminine

þis 32

þēos

þās

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Gen Dat Acc Instr

þisses þissum þisne

þisse þise þās

þis

þissa þissum þās

þȳs Topic 4. The Adverb

OE adverbs were either primary (original) or derived from adjectives. Among the primary / original / simple adverbs were the following: adverbs of place – hwǣr ‘where’,

aǣr ‘there’, hwonan ‘from where’, aanon ‘from there, thence’; adverbs of time – hwanne, hwan, hwon ‘when’, aanne, aonne, aeonne ‘then’, aā ‘then’; adverbs of manner – hwæare ‘though, however’, hwōn ‘a little’, aǣr-bi ‘thereby, by that means’, aǣr-æfter ‘thereafter, from time to time’. In general, OE adverbs end in –e or –lice, and are indeclinable. For comparative and superlative forms, –or and –ost are added to the stem or –lic–. Table 4.1 Comparison of Adverbs in Old English Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree –or –ost / –est

Means of formbuilding Suffixation wīde ‘widely’

Suffixation + vowel interchange Suppletion

hearde ‘hard’ lēofllīce ‘lovingly’ ēaðe ‘easily’ feorr ‘far’ sōfte ‘softly’ nēah ‘near’ wel ‘well’ yfle ‘badly’

wīdor heardor lēofllīcor

wīdrost heardost lēofllīcost

īeð fierr sēft nīer bet, sēl wiers(e)

ēaðost fierrest sōftest nīehst, nēxt betst, sēlest wierrest, wierst

Topic 5. The Article Strictly speaking, OE has no indefinite article as such; sum (=a certain) and an (=one) fulfill some of the functions of the PDE indefinite article. The demonstrative determiner equivalent to PDE that also functions as the definite 33

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

article with the meaning the. This determiner agrees with the noun which it modifies in gender, number and case. Table 5.1

Indefinite article

ān (OE. cardinal numeral ) > an > a / an

Definite article

sē (OE. demonstrative pronoun, masculine singular) > þē > ME. the [qə] > NE. the [ðə]

Topic 6. The Numeral Cardinal numerals: Table 6.1 Old English Cardinal Numerals 1 – 12

ān twēʒen(M), twā / tū (N), twā (F) þrīe, þrēo, þrīo, þrī

fēower fīf

seofon, siofon eahta

siex, six

niʒon

tīen, tyn, tēn endleofan, endlefan twelf

Cardinal numerals from fēower are generally undeclined, and cause the noun they modify to appear in the genitive case (hund wera, twentiw=scipa). Ān ‘one’ is declined like the adjectives, both strong and weak (weak forms

‘two’

are usually used in the sense ‘alone’). Table 6.2 Declension of OE cardinal numerals ‘two’ and ‘three’ Case Masculine Neuter Feminine Nominative twā, tū twā twēʒen Accusative Genitive twēʒa, twēʒra

‘three’

Dative Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

twǣm, twām þrīe þrēora þrim

34

þrēo

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

• 13 – 19: are formed from their corresponding simple numerals by the addition of –tīene (–tēne) / –tyne (þrīotīene / þrīotyne, fēowertīene, fīftīene); • 20 – 60: simple cardinal numeral + –tiʒ (twēntiʒ, þrītiʒ, fēowertiʒ); • 70 – 90: prefixal hund + simple cardinal numeral + –tiʒ (hundseofontiʒ, hundeahtatiʒ, hundniʒontiʒ; • 100 – hund, hundred, hundtēntiʒ, hundtēontiʒ; • 120 – hundtwelftiʒ • 1000 – ðūsend; • 22nd – twā and twentiʒoða Ordinal Numerals: 13th – 19th are formed with suffixal –teoþa. The ordinals 20th – 120th are doubly suffixed by –tiʒoþa. Table 6.3 Old English Ordinal Numerals 1st – 12th

forma, firmest, fyresta ōðer, æfter

fēorða fīfta

eahtoða

endlefta

þridda, airda

sīexta, sixta, syxta

niʒoða

twelfta

seofoða, siofoða

tēoða

Ordinal numerals agree with the adjectives they modify and are always declined in accordance with the weak adjective paradigm, except for ōþer, which is always declined strong.

Test yourself: Pronoun, Adverb, Article, Numeral You are going to read the beginning of the statements (1–12). Finish the statements giving short answers (not more than six words) in the column “Answer” of the grade. There is an example (0) at the beginning.

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Beginning of the statement

Answer

0

The most productive suffix of the OE adverb was …

suffix –e

1

The main classes of numerals in the OE period were … The paradigm of the OE personal pronouns was characterized by … The definite article developed from …

2 3

7

The distinctive feature of the category of number in the OE personal pronouns was … Adverbs in the OE were originally of the following types … The following pronouns were borrowed from Scandinavian … The indefinite article developed from…

8

The OE adverb possessed the following categories …

9

The OE numeral preserved the system of declension for … A new part of speech developed in the ME. period – … The markers for comparative and superlative degrees of the adverbs in the OE period were … The suffixes for the OE numerals 13 – 19 were …

4 5 6

10 11 12

Topic 7. The Verb All OE verb paradigms take account of person, number, tense and mood. Both strong and weak verbs follow regular patterns or paradigms. These paradigms are called conjugations. Thus, the OE system of finite verb-forms included the following grammatical categories: tense (Present and Preterite / Past), number (singular, plural), mood, person (only in the singular Present Indicative Mood and in the singular Imperative Mood). In addition to that, OE verbs belonged to a strong or a weak conjugation, each of which was further subdivided into several classes.

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Finite Forms of the Verb in OE Table 7.1 Root Vowels

Class I

Strong Verbs in OE Infinitive Past singular

rīdan ‘to ride’ ēo – ēa – u cēosan ‘to choose’ –o i – a – u – u bindan ‘to bind’ e – æ – ǣ – stelan ‘to steal’ o ī–ā–ī–ī

II III IV V

e – æ – ǣ – cweþan ‘to say’ e VI a – ō – ō – a faran ‘to go’ hātan ‘to VII different root vowels call, to order’ –ē–ē–ā slǣpan cnāwan

Past plural

Participle II

rād

rīdon

riden

cēas

curon

coren

band

bundon

bunden

stæl

stǣlon

stolen

cwæð

cwǣdon

cweden

fōr

fōron

faren

hēt

hēton

hāten

slēpon,slēpton

slǣpen cnāwen

slēp,slēpte

cnēown

cnēow

Table 7.2 Class 1 2 3

Infinitive

Weak Verbs in OE Past

dēman baþian secʒan

Participle II

dēmde baþode sæʒde

dēmed baþod sæʒd Table 7.3

Person 1 2 3

Conjugation of Strong Verbs in OE Singular Indicative Present Subjunctive Indicative Present Present

Plural Subjunctive Present

drīf-e drīf-st (-est) drīf-ð(-eð)

drīf-e drīf-e drīf-e

drīf-að drīf-að drīf-að

Indicative Past

Subjunctive Past Indicative Past 37

drīf-en drīf-en drīf-en Subjunctive Past

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

1 2 3

drāf drif-e drāf

drīf-e drīf-e drīf-e

drif-on drif-on drif-on

drīf-en drīf-en drīf-en Table 7.4

Person 1 2 3

1 2 3

Conjugation of Weak Verbs in OE Singular Indicative Present Subjunctive Indicative Present Present

Plural Subjunctive Present

dēm-e dēm-(e)st dēm-(e)ð

dēm-e dēm-e dēm-e

dēm-að

Indicative Past

Subjunctive Past Indicative Past

Subjunctive Past

dēm-de dēm-des(t) dēm-de

dēm-de dēm-de dēm-de

dēm-den

dēm-don

dēm-en

Table 7.5 Stems and endings of old English verbs in the Indicative Mood

Person 1 (ic, we) 2 (þu, ʒe)

Present Past (Preterite) Singular Plural Singular Plural -e -aþ / að Past stem singular -on -est -aþ / að Past stem singular -on

3 (he, heо,hie) -(e)þ / (e)ð

-aþ / að

+ –e Past stem singular

-on

PreteritePreterite-Present (Mixed) Verbs in OE Preterite-present verbs were often used as modals; they were combined with other verbs (usually those other verbs are in the infinitive form) to produce constructions like "remember to go" or "dare to fight". In OE there were the following mixed verbs: āwan (‘to possess, own, have power over’), cunnan (‘can, to know how to’), duwan (‘to achieve, to avail, be of use, be good’), durran (‘to dare’), mawan (‘to be able to’), mōtan (‘may, to be allowed to’), munan (‘to remember’), nuwan (‘to suffice’), sculan (‘must, to be obligated’), unnan = (‘to grant’), þurfan (‘to need’), witan (‘to know’).

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Table 7.6 Conjugation of some Preterite-Present Verbs in OE Infinitive

cunnan

āwan

sculan

mōtan

Present 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1

Singular cann canst cann āh āhst āh sceal scealt sceal mōt

2 3

mōst mōt

Past Plural cunnon

āwon

sculon

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1

Singular cūþe cūþest cūþe āhte āhtest āhte

cūþon

āhton

sceolde

sceoldon

mōton

mōston

2 3

mōton

Plural

The Substantive Substantive Verb There are two parallel Indicative paradigms in Present, both remained in existence until at least towards the end of the 12th century. They represented different meanings: eom paradigm was used to express a present state; bēo paradigm was used to express futurity or a timeless (generic) state. Later the first paradigm ousted the second, except in the infinitive, where beon is the only infinitive form (E. to be). The Past Indicative forms are very similar to the present-day English and the verb takes its forms from the alternative infinitive wæsan. Table 7.7 Indicative Singular

The Substantive verb to be, to exist (es–, be–, wes–) Present

Indicative Plural Subjunctive Singular Subjunctive Plural Participle I

Past

1 2

eom eart

beo bist

3

is sind, sindon

biþ beoþ

wǣron

sie

beo

wǣre

sien

beon

wǣren wesende

bēonde 39

wæs wǣre wæs

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Irregular Verbs: Verbs: ʒān ‘to go’, dōn ‘to do’, willan ‘will’. Table 7.8 Conjugation of the verb ʒān ‘to go’ Indicative Present Indicative Past / Preterite st st 1 person singilar 1 person singilar ēode wā nd nd 2 person singular 2 person singular ēodest rd

3 person singular Plural

wǣst wǣð wāð

3rd person singular Plural

ēode ēodon

Present Participle –wāåÇÉ Past Participle – (wÉFwān Table 7.9 Conjugation of the verb dōn ‘to do’ Indicative Present Indicative Past / Preterite st st 1 person singilar 1 person singilar dō dyde nd nd 2 person singular 2 person singular dēst dydes, dydest rd rd 3 person singular 3 person singular dēþ dyde Plural Plural dōþ dydon Present Participle – dōnde Past Participle – wÉdōn Table 7.10 Conjugation of the verb willan ‘will’ Indicative Present Indicative Past / Preterite st st 1 person singilar 1 person singilar wille wolde nd nd 2 person singular 2 person singular woldes,woldest wilt rd 3 person singular 3rd person singular wille, wile wolde Plural Plural willaþ woldon Present Participle – willende Past Participle – wÉwillen The most important complex verb phrase constructions in OE were: 1. wæsan + Present Participle; 2. habban / wæsan / weorþan + Past Participle; 3. willan / sculan + Infinitive. By these means, OE could express further verbal categories beyond Simple Present and Preterite: aspect, voice and future time / volition / obligation. 40

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Non-Finite Forms of the Verb in OE Table 7.11 The Infinitive Non- Inflected form

Dative / Inflected form

bindan dēman

tō bindanne tō dēmanne

Infinitive

Table 7.12 Participles I and II Participle I

Participle II

M, N F dēmendu dēmende writende writendu (ʒe–) + stem + –(e)n: ʒewrīton / wrīten ʒesewan / ʒeseʒen

Development of the Verb in the Middle English Period New analytical forms of the verb developed: 1. Passive: bēon ‘to be’/ weorþan ‘to get, to become’ + Participle II of transitive verbs; 2. Perfect: habban ‘to have’ + Participle II of transitive verbs / bēon ‘to be’ + Participle II of intransitive verbs; 3. Analytical form to denote Future Tense came into use: sculan ‘shall’ / willan ‘will’ + Infinitive. Development of the Verb in the Early New English Period:
A new analytical form of the verb developed – Continuous: bēon ‘to be’+ Participle I.
A new Non-Finite form of the verb appeared – the Gerund.
The Infinitive, Gerund and Participle have developed analytical Perfect and Passive forms. The Infinitive has also developed Continuous forms.

Test yourself: 1. Which tense forms were there in the OE period? 2. How did the strong verbs form their Past and Past Participle in the OE period? 3. How and when did the opposition “Passive – non-Passive” appear? 41

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

4. What was so special about the mixed verbs in the OE period? 5. As a result of which process and when did the opposition “Perfect – non-Perfect” develop? 6. How many basic forms did the weak verbs possess in OE? 7. Which non-finite form of the verb developed in the ENE period? 8. What was the difference between OE Participle I and Participle II? 9. How many classes of weak verbs were there in OE? 10.How many basic forms did the strong verbs possess in the OE period? 11.How was the Infinitive formed in the OE period? 12.What was a distinctive feature of irregular (anomalous) verbs?

Historical Syntax Topic 1. Old English Syntax In grammar, the major change between Old and Present-Day English is the shift from synthesis to analysis in expressing grammatical relations. Whereas the relationships within and between phrases in Present-Day English are largely expressed by word-order, in Old English these relationships are expressed to a much greater extent by special endings attached to words. These endings are called inflexions. The OE inflectional system means that OE word-order can be much more flexible than that of its descendant.

1. The most frequently used patterns of word order were:
Subject – Verb (the predicate immediately follows the subject): 1.1. Ōhthēre sǣde his hlāforde…. 1.2. wod bletsode ðā Noe and his suna … (‘God then blessed Noah and his sons …’). 1.3. Hē wræc þone aldor mon Cumbran (‘He avenged the ealdorman Cumbra’). 1.4. Se wer lufode þone wōdan enwel (‘The man loved the good angel’).
Verb – Subject (the subject follows the predicate). This word-order is common in independent clauses introduced by the adverbs þā 'then', þonne 'then', þǣr 'there', þanon 'thence', þider 'thither', the negative 42

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

adverb ne, and the conjunctions and/ond and ac 'but'. Since Old English narrative often advances in a series of þā-clauses, this Verb-Subject word-order is quite frequent in narrative: 1.5. ‘Fela spela him sǣdon þā Beormas’ (‘The Permians told him many stories’). 1.6. ‘þā ʒeascode hē þone cyninʒ’ (‘Then he discovered the king’). 1.7. þā cwæð wod tō Caine: "Hwǣr is Abel ðīn brōðor?" The Verb-Subject word-order is also characteristic of questions, whether or not introduced by an interrogative word: 1.8. Him cwæð Nicodemus tō: "Hū mæʒ se ealda mann eft bēon

ācenned?” (‘Nicodemus said to him, "How can the old man be born again?’)
Framing: Subject … … … … Verb (other elements of the clause come between subject and predicate). The ‘S . . . V’ word-order is commonly found in subordinate clauses and clauses introduced by and/ond or ac 'but', though it does sometimes occur in independent clauses. The subject comes at the beginning of the clause and the finite verb is delayed until the end (though it may be followed by an adverbial element such as a prepositional phrase). 1.9. …þæt hē ealra Norþmonna norþmest būde’ (‘… that he had lived

father north than all northmen’); 1.10. For þæm þe se wer þone Ælmihtiwan lufode, hē fērde to þǣm

dūnum (‘Because the man loved the almighty, he travelled to the hills’). 1.11. ʒode ofðūhte ðā ðæt hē mann ʒeworhte ofer eorða (‘Then it was a matter of regret to God that he had made man upon the earth’).

Some other possible (rather common) patterns of word order: Object – Subject – Verb

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

1.12. … hiene þa Cynewulf on Andred adræfde (‘Cynewulf then drove him into [the forest] Andred’).

Verb – Object – Subject 1.13. ða on morʒenne ʒehierdun þæt þæs cyninʒes þeʒnas (‘Then in the morning the king’s thegns heard that’). Simply put, the rule is this: when two clauses are correlated, the subordinate clause will have the subject before the verb, while the independent clause will have the verb before the subject: 1.14. ðonne sēo sunne ūp ārīst, þonne wyrċð hēo dæʒ (‘When the sun rises, then it brings about day’).

2. Prepositions and modifiers often followed their nouns instead of preceeding them, sometimes at a considerable distance: 2.1. Him māra faltum tō com (‘More help came to him’). 2.2. ʒod cwæð him þus to (‘God said thus to him’). 2.3. þæs cyninʒes þeʒnas þe him beæftan wærun (‘The king's thegns who were behind him’).

3. The order V–S–O is normal in questions: 3.1. Hwȳ didest þū þæt? (‘Why did you that?’=‘Why did you do that?’); 3.2. Hæfst þū

ǣniʒne ʒefēran? (‘Have you any companion?’ = Do you have

any companion?’).

4. Neither in questions nor in negative sentences does Old English make use of auxiliary do: 4.1. Hwȳ ʒāþ ʒē? (‘Why do you go?’); 4.2. ic ne ʒā (‘I do not go’).

5. The negative is often formed by putting ne before (rather than after) the verb it modifies: 44

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

5.1. ‘ic ne dyde’ (‘I did not [do it]’); 5.2. Fram ic ne wille (‘Away I do not wish [to go]’). If the ne was the first word in the sentence, the word-order V–S–O was likely: 5.3. Ne mihte hē ʒehealdan heardne mēce (‘He could not hold the hard sword’). There is another word, nā, which can be translated as ‘not’. Both ne and nā can be used in the same sentence to stress the negative meaning: 5.4. Ne ielde wrendel nā lanwe (‘Grendel did not delay long’). The grammatical rule that forbids present-day speakers and writer of standard English from using double negatives (as in ‘I can’t get no satisfaction’ or ‘We don’t need no education’) was popularized by eighteenth-century grammarians who were more concerned with mathematical logic than with how people actually used the language. Double – and even triple – negatives were common, entirely acceptable and frequent in speech and writing in earlier English, as they still are in other modern languages today: 5.5. Hit nā ne feoll (‘It did not fall’). Such repetitions, in fact, made the negation more emphatic: 5.6. Nānne ne sparedon (literally ‘They did not spare no one’, i.e. ‘They did not spare anyone’). 5.7. ‘hē ne mihte nān þinʒ ʒesēon’ (‘He could see nothing’). 5.8. ‘hie ne cuþon nan-þing yfeles, naþer ne on spræce ne on weorce’ (‘They didn’t know anything bad either in words or in work’). Some common verbs combine with ne to form a single negative word: nis (ne + is ‘isn’t’), nylle (ne + wille ‘don’t wish’), nyste (ne + wiste ‘don’t know’) and nolde (ne + wolde ‘did not want’). This kind of combination also occurs with the pronoun nān (ne + ān ‘none’): 5.9. Hīe nyston þæt nan sweord ne mihte þone fēond wrētan (‘They did not know that no sword could harm the enemy’).

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

6. The structure of the noun phrase is quite similar to that of Modern English, the normal pattern being determiner–adjective–noun. Exceptions to this pattern are provided by the forms eall ‘all’, bēʒen ‘both’ and adjectives ending in -weard. These precede the determiner: 6.1. eal þes middanʒeard (‘this entire earth’); 6.2. bēʒen þā ʒebroþru (‘both the brothers’); 6.3. on sūþeweardum þǣm lande (‘in the southern part of the land’). It is however perfectly possible for adjectives to follow the noun, or for one to precede it and another to follow it: 6.4.

denum eallum (‘to all the Danes’);

6.5.

micle meras fersce (‘big fresh-water meres’). It is even possible for a determiner to follow the noun, especially if it is emphatic:

6.6.

Ic eom micle yldra þonne ymbh-wyrft þes (‘I am much older than this world’).

7. Titles of rank usually follow the name they qualify: 7.1.

Ælfred cyninʒ (‘King Alfred’).

8. The Subject of a sentence or clause was frequently unexpressed. In OE there was a range of verbs (so called ‘inpersonal verbs’) which could occur without a subject in the nominative case, though there was often the possibility of these verbs also occur with a ‘normal’ subject: 8.1. Norþan snīwde (‘From the North snowed’).

Thus, it wasn’t obligatory for an OE sentence to have a subject. It should be noted that not only so called ‘weather verbs’ (snow, rain) were used as impersonal verbs. In OE there is a range of verbs which can occur without a subject in nominative case. These verbs tend to share semantic features relating physical or mental experience: 46

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

8.2. him [dat.] ofhrēow þæs mannes [gen.] (‘he experienced pity

because of the man [= to him was pity because of the man]); 8.3. Lonwað hine [acc.] hearde (‘he longs grieviously’).

Topic 2. Middle English Syntax It appeared that interaction with Scandinavian encouraged the loss of inflexions, and the conventions of word-order, whereby subject/object positioning had become stylistically formalized, became more fixed to take over the task originally performed by inflections. The inflectional systems of OE became obscured during the Late OE and ME periods. Nouns, adjectives and determiners are no longer marked for grammatical gender. Verb-endings have been markedly reduced in variety. Case-endings are no longer so distinctive, and are no longer as useful in distinguishing grammatical function. In place of the OE case-system, ME adopts alternative primary strategies to express the relationships between phrases. Optional patterns of OE element-order, which were a matter of stylistic choice in OE, became fixed patterns indicating phrasal relationships, and prepositions, which could often be omitted in OE, are adopted in a more widespread fashion in ME. Agreement, however, remains important in the ME noun phrase, notably with regard to some adjectives and some determiners, although the paradigmatic variation in modifiers is considerably less than in OE. The main syntactic innovation in the verb phrase during the ME period was the rise of two kinds of construction: the impersonal verb, and the phrasal verb. The former, found in OE, became greatly extended in use during the ME period: us thynketh ‘it seems to us’, hem thoughts ‘it seemed to them’. The latter construction, still common in PDE, consists of a verb followed by another element which seems closely tied to it semantically: get up, wake up, look up.

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Typically, phrasal verbs in PDE are rather colloquial in register; typically also, they tend to have formal-register near-synonyms, arise, awake, consult.

1. Subject began to be expressed even in impersonal sentences: 1.1. ‘Me thinketh it’ → ‘It seemed me’ (→ ‘It seemed to me’). 2. Position and order of adjectives in a sentence: 2.1. ‘… a gentyl and noble esquyer’. 2.2. ‘… meny cites and tounes, faire, noble and ryche’. 3. Widespread use of prepositions, some of them still occasionally followed the object: 3.1. ‘… to Caunterbury they wende’(‘They went to Canterbury’). 3.2. ‘… after þe lawes of oure londe … (‘… according to the laws of our land’). 3.3. ‘… he seyd him to…’ (‘ …he said to him…’); 3.4. ‘the place that I of speak’. 4. The verb to be developed as a passive auxiliary; by developed as the agent marker: 4.1. ‘(men) that wol nat be governed by hir wyves’. 5. Though single negative began to be used in the 14th century, multiple negation was still widely spread. In ME negation is often reinforced by a postverbal particle nat, nought, etc; towards the end of the ME period, and thus usually in Chaucerian English, it became common to drop ne and use nat, etc. alone: 5.1. if he wol nat tarie (‘If he does not wish to wait’). As in OE, multiple negation was not stigmatized: 5.2. … he never yet no vileynye ne sayde (‘he never yet spoke any coarse speech’). 5.3. ‘Ne schal non werien no linnene cloth’ (‘No one shall wear any linen clothes’).

6. When the subject-form of the second person singular pronoun is preceded by its verb, it frequently merges with that verb: lyvestow? ‘Do you live?’

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Topic 3. Early New English Syntax 1. Direct word order was finally established by the 17th century: 1.1. ‘I know not how to tell thee who I am:

My name, dear saint, is hateful to myself, Because it is an enemy to thee…’ (Romeo & Juliet). 2. Until about 1700 do had no emphatic function in the context: 2.1. we did approach; seamen doe call; the seas doe mount. 2.2. ‘If they do see thee, they will murder thee’ (Romeo & Juliet).

3. Negatives could be formed either with or without do (an auxiliary verb) 3.1. I doubt it not (Romeo & Juliet); 3.2. I do not doubt you (Henry IV); 3.3. Or if there were, it not belongs to you (Henry IV).

4. Yes – No and Wh – questions could be formed either by Subject – Verb inversion, or by Subject – Aux Verb inversion: 4.1. Came he not home tonight? (Romeo & Juliet); 4.2. Do you not love me? (Much Ado about Nothing); 4.3. What sayde he? (As You Like It); 4.4. What do you see? (A Midsummer Night’s Dream).

5. Structural substitutes developed: 5.1. And there is the most fayr Chirche: and it is that of Seynt Sophie. 5.2. His mother was a witch and one so strong, that could control the moone. 5.3. There’s a man there. 5.4. It is pleasant to dance. 5.5. I find it pleasant to dance. 5.6. The work is a remarkable one. 5.7. They married just as your father did. 49

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

6. Multiple negation in Shakespeare: 6.1. I am not valiant neither (Othello). 6.2.

Is’t not enough, young man, That I did never, no nor never can (A Midsummer Night’s Dream).

7. Predicative constructions developed: 7.1. She had no desire for me to stay. 7.2. I saw her dancing. 7.3. They could not go anywhere without his seeing how all the men

were attracted by her.

Historical Development Development of the English Vocabulary Topic 1. The IndoIndo-European and Germanic Heritage 1.

IE vocabulary. a) kinship terms: father, mother, brother; b) basic verbs: be, lie, eat; c) basic adjectives: long, red; d) terms for natural phenomena: sun, moon; e) parts of the body: foot, head; f) numerals: two, three;

2.

Germanic vocabulary: eorðe (earth), ʒrēn, hors, hand, land, smæl.

3.

Specifically Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words: OE. clipian (E. ‘call’),

OE. brid (E. ‘bird’); wīfman / wimman < wīf + man (E. ‘woman’);

hlāford (E. ‘lord’) < hlāf (E. ‘loaf’) + weard (‘keeper’); hlæfdiʒe (E. ‘lady’) < hlāf (E. ‘loaf’) + diʒe (E.‘knead’). 4.

Semantic shifts from IE to PG: Latin vesper (‘evening’)> PG west.

50

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

5.

Sound Interchange: rīdan (v) – rād (n); sinʒan (v) – sonʒ (n); fōd

(n) – fēdan (v); full (adj) – fyllan (v) [NE. ‘full’ – ‘to fill’]; lonʒ (adj) – lenʒðu (n) [NE. ‘long’ – ‘length’].

Topic 2. WordWord-formation in the Old English Period. Affixation, Compounding. 1. Affixation:


Suffixes to produce Nouns:

• V → N: Suffix –ere (to denote people, trade, profession): bæcere < bacan (to bake); fiscere < fisc (fish); bōcere, wrītere (E. ‘writer’) < wrītan; –estre: bæcestre (woman baker), spinnestre (spinner); • N → N: Suffix –inʒ (to denote people who belong to tribes, clans): king < cyn(n) [‘clan’] + –inʒ (cynninʒ ‘head of clan or tribe’); • N → N: Suffix –dom (quality): wīsdom < wīs; frēodom < frēo; • N → N: Suffix –scipe (derives from the noun scipe [‘form, position, state’]): frēondscipe < frēond (E. friend);

• V → N: Suffix –inʒ / –unʒ (abstract nouns to denote process, action, state, result were built from verbs): leornunʒ (E. learning) < learnian

; warnunʒ (E. warning) < warnian (E. to warn); • Adj → N: Suffix –ness / –nis: deorcnis (< deorc ‘dark’); sēocnis (< sēoc ‘sick’), ʒōd-nis (‘goodness’).
Suffixes to produce Adjectives: • N → Adj: Suffix –iʒ: clūdiʒ < clūd (‘rock, stone’); mihtiʒ (E. mighty) < miht; ʒræd-iʒ (‘greedy’);

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

• N → Adj: Suffix –lic (used to mean ‘body’, but evidently lost all semantic ties with the latter): frēondlic < frēond; nihtlic (E. nightly)

< niht; • V → Adj: Suffixes –full, –leas: ðancfull < ðanc (E. thankful); helpleas < help; • N (collective) → Adj: Suffix –isc (denoted belonging to the tribe or people): Enʒlisc < Enʒle (the Angles).


Prefixes to denote nouns and verbs with negative meaning:

• V → V: Prefix mis–: misdæd (E. misdeed) < dæd; misbēodan (E. to treat badly) < bēodan; • N → N / Adj → Adj: Prefix un–: unfrīð (OE. war) < frīð (OE. peace); unfæʒer (OE. ugly) < fæʒer (OE. beautiful), un-riht

(OE.‘wrong’) < riht (OE. ‘right’). 2. Compounding: • N (in nom. case) + N: folc (E. people) + toʒa (‘the one who leads’) > folctoʒa (E. chief, leader); tunʒol (‘star’) + witeʒa (‘scientist’) > tunʒolwiteʒa (‘astrologist’); læce (‘treatment, cure’) + cræft (‘art’) >

læcecræft

(‘medicine’); sciprāp (‘shiprope, cable’), hēafod-mann (‘leader’, ‘headman’); stān-brycʒ (‘stone bridge’); bōc-cræft ‘literature’ (‘book craft’); eorðcræft ‘geography’ (OE. eorðe, NE. earth); mann-cynn (‘mankind’); āc-trēo (‘oak-tree’); cradocild (‘a child in cradle, infant’); brēost-hord ‘treasure of the breast’ > ‘heart’, ‘thought’; bān-cofa ‘chamber for bones’ > ‘body’. • N (in gen. case) + N: wītena (gen. pl. of wita [‘a wise man, the oldest’]) + ʒemōt (‘assembly, council)’ > wītenaʒemōt (‘assembly of Elders’); Mōnandæʒ (E. Monday) < mōnan (gen. of mōna [‘moon’]) + dæʒ; 52

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Enʒlenaland (E. England) < Enʒlena (gen. of Enʒle) + land; dæʒes (gen. of daʒ) + ēaʒe > ‘day’s eye’ (E. daisy); • Adj + N: hāliʒ (‘holy’) + dæʒ > hāliʒdæʒ (‘holiday’); • N + Participle I: sæ (‘sea’) + liðend (‘travelling’) > sæliðend (‘sailor’); • V + N: bæc-hūs (‘bakery’); Complex adjectives:

• N + Adj: īs (‘ice’) + ceald (‘cold’) > īsceald (‘icecold’); • Adj + N: stip (‘strong’) + mōd (‘mood, character’) > stipmōd (‘brave’); • Adj + Adj: fela–mōdiʒ (‘very brave’). Compound adverbs:

• N (nomin.) + N (dative): stycce (‘a piece’) + mælum (dat. pl. of mæl ‘part’) > stycce-mælum (‘here and there’); drop + mælum > dropmælum (‘drop by drop’); • Preposition + N (not in nominative): on (‘in, on’) + weʒ> onweʒ (‘away, away from’); tō + ēacan (dat. sg. of ēaca (‘addition’) > tō-ēacan (‘in addition to…’); More than two-component compounds:

• ryhtnorðanwind (ryht + norðan + wind) > ‘good wind from the north’; • nihtbutorflēoʒe = NE. night butterfly Topic 3. 3 AngloAnglo-Saxon Saxon and Foreign Elements in Placelace-names 1) Anglo-Saxon elements in place-names: –borough (‘fortified place’); –ing,

–stow, –sted, –(h)all, –wic (all these words mean ‘place / village’); –ton (often from OE. tūn ‘enclosure, farmstead’, but also a fairly common 53

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

development of OE. dūn ‘large hill with a level top’); –ham (OE. hām

‘homestead’ and hamm ‘area enclosed (generally) by water, such as a water meadow’); –worth (OE. worþ ‘enclosure’); –ing (OE. –inʒas ‘the people of’); –feld (OE. feld ‘open country’). –ley (OE. lēah ‘glade, clearing, wood) is one of the most common topographical names in Old English. Sometimes these elements occur with the name of a man, such as Beorn in Barnsley, or Becca in Beckley: Buckingham (‘the meadow of

Bucca’s people’), Nottingham (OE.

Snotinʒahām) means ‘the

homestead of Snot’s people’. These are probably the names of the

original holders of the land. Anglo-Saxon elements could also be combined with many other kinds of natural and agricultural elements, such as: trees – āc “oak” (Oakley), æsc “ash” (Ashley), beorc “birch” (Berkeley), þorn “thorn” (Thornley); crops and plants – æte “oats” (Oatley), hiewe “hay” (Hailey), hwæte “wheat” (Wheatley); physical features – brād “broad” (Bradley), efen “even, smooth” (Evenley), lanw= “long” (Langley), mōr “marsh” (Morley), stān “stone” (Stanley). 2) Celtic elements in place names:

• they have been preserved as dwr / dover / dor, meaning ‘water’ (Dover), glen (‘valley’), kil (‘church’), mor / maur (‘great’). Among words of Celtic origin in ModE are Kent, Usk, Devon, Cornwall, Cumberland (means ‘the land of the Cymry, that is, the Welsh)’, London, Winchester, Wye; • Rivers in Great Britain often have Celtic names: Avon and Ouse are Celtic words for ‘water’ or ‘stream’; Derwent, Darent and Dart are all forms of the British name for ‘oak river’; the Thames is the ‘dark river’; the Trent 54

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

has been interpreted as meaning ‘trespasser’, that is, a river with a tendency to flood. 3) Scandinavian elements in place names include –by (‘abode, village’ in Dannish and Norwegian, ‘farm, town’); –toft (‘hoamstead’ in Dannish, ‘hedges place’);

–thorp(e) (‘village’ in Dannish); –thwaite (‘field’ in Norwegian), –beck (‘stream, spring’).

Topic 4. English Language as a Recipient: Lexical Borrowings. Borrowings. A.Celtic words: bannok (‘bit’); bin (‘bin’); brock (‘badger’); luh/loch (‘lake’); cumb (‘deep valley’); dunn (‘hill, dun’); cross; clugge (‘bell, clock’); bratt (‘cloak’); carr (‘rock’); torr (‘rock’). B.Latin borrowings: B1. Before the Anglo-Saxon invasion – wine, pepper, cheese, pear, pea, plant, beet, dish, silk, copper; pound, inch, mile; –caster (–chester, –cester): Lancaster, Manchester, Gloucester; B2. With introduction of Christianity: pope, bishop, clerk, creed (‘belief’), candle, altar, monk, priest, school, master (‘teacher’); B3. In ENE period (words connected to science, culture, medicine, law, literature): sculpture, collect, immortal, history, library, solar, recipe, genius. C.Scandinavian borrowings: law, husband, fellow, window, egg, guest, birth, root, sister, bloom (‘flower’), bread, skirt, sky, smile, tidings; to call, to take, to cast (‘throw’), to lift, to want, to raise; they, them, their; till, fro. D.French borrowings are represented by a number of semantic groups, among them are terms used: 1)

in government – government, royal, state, prince, duke, marshal, warden,

treasure; 2)

in law – judge, jury, estate, verdict, crime;

3)

in learning / education – study, anatomy, geometry, square, medicine;

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

4)

in art and fashion – art, sculpture, music, colour, image, poet, fashion,

dress, veil, garment, couch, chair, cushion; 5)

in religion – temptation, salvation, confess, convert, charity, solemn, divine;

6)

for food – dinner, supper, feast, taste, salmon, beef, veal, mutton, pork,

pastry, lemon, orange, raisin.

Topic 5. English as a Global Language. anguage. Varieties of English. American English is anything but homogeneous – the notion encompasses not only a rich array of regional forms and some social variation but also, and increasingly so, ethnic varieties shaped by effects of language contact and differential degrees of integration of generations of immigrants into the American mainstream culture. On closer investigation American dialects show a great deal of phonetic, lexical, and grammatical variability. Traditionally, American English versus BrE is reported to include the lexical items: gas (vs. petrol), fall (vs. autumn), railroad (vs. railway), etc.; the pronunciation differences /æ/ (vs. /a:/) in dance, grass, or can’t, unrounded /m/ (vs. /l/) in lot or dollar, and postvocalic /ê/ in car, card, and so on; on the grammatical level, use of have (vs. have got) for possession, will (vs. shall) for 1st person future reference, and a more liberal use of the past (for the present perfect) tense; and spellings differences like theater, honor, recognize, and plow (vs. theatre, honour, recognise, plough). For example, consider the following differences in vocabulary: American English (AmE) apartment corn potato chips broiled meat elevator first floor radio line bar vacation

British English (BrE) flat maize crisps grilled meat lift ground floor wireless queue pub holiday 56

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

can faucet subway downtown trash can

tin tap underground, tube uptown rubbish bin

Canadian English is traditionally described as a mix of British and American features, with the balance between the two varying by region, by generation (an ongoing Americanization has been observed among the young), and by language level (while the pronunciation base is strongly American, the British component is more clearly visible in some vocabulary items and some spelling practices). This means that Canadian English has a great deal in common with American English, although it is sometimes similar to British English, especially in spelling. Because many of the English speakers who originally inhabited Canada came from the US, there is little difference in the American and Canadian dialects of English. There are also many words and expressions that are unique to Canadian English. Among them, Mountie (a member of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police), chesterfield (sofa, couch), riding (a political constituency), reeve (mayor), first nations (indigenious peoples), housecoat (‘dressing gown’ in AmE or ‘robe’ in BrE), running shoes / runners (‘sneakers’ in AmE or ‘trainers’ in BrE), shack (hut), loonie (informal, the Canadian one-dollar coin), converter (a TV remote control), pencil crayon (coloured pencil), click (kilometer), beer parlour (pub), Canuck (nickname for a Canadian), Anglophone / Francophone. Spelling is more common to AmE than BrE: Can (=AmE) – tire, radio program vs BrE: tyre, radio programme; Can (=BrE) – centre, colour vs AmE center, color. Canadian influence is stronger, and Canadians employ truck for lorry, fender for mudguard, trunks for boots, locomotive for engine.

Australian and New Zealand English have few differences, except Australia was originally settled as a penal colony and New Zealand was not. NZE and AusE are overwhelmingly similar in most linguistic aspects; they are no more 57

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

different (if not less different) than the Northern and Southern varieties of the United States. The most distinctive difference between NZE and AusE is in the pronunciation of vowels. New Zealanders were more attached to the Received Pronunciation of the upper class in England, so their dialect is considered closer to British English. The Australian tendency to generally modify names and other terms (such as “arvo” for “afternoon”) distinguishes it from other varieties including NZE, and moreover, adds to the characterization of the culture as informal.

Australian English is particularly interesting for its rich store of

highly colloquial words and expressions, which often involve shortening a word. Sometimes the ending –ie, –o, –oh is then added, for example: truckie (truck driver), milko (a person who delivers the milk), journo (journalist), uni (university), bizzo (business), oldies (adults, parents), beaut (short for beautiful, means ‘great’), pressie (present, gift), biggie (‘a big one’), Oz (Australia), Aussie (Australian), Kiwi (New Zealander), G’day (short for ‘Good day’), ambos (paramedics, from ‘ambulance’), arvo / arvie (afternoon). The lexicon is perhaps the system that displays the most difference both from other varieties of English and between NZE and AusE. These differences are largely because of the incorporation of words from indigenous languages in each country. Most of these words are used for indigenous flora or fauna, as well as for place names. NZE tends to follow British stress patterns. NZers say laDboratory rather than Dlaboratory, or aluDminium rather than aDluminium. However, despite this overall trend, there are some words which follow a more American pattern in NZE.DSpectator,Ddictator and Dfrustrate, for instance, may be stressed on the 1st syllable in New Zealand. Most of the vocabulary (95 per cent) used in New Zealand is common to the English speaking world, with only 5 per cent being narrowly restricted to New Zealand, used only by New Zealanders and not by people outside New Zealand. The most obvious examples would be words taken from Maori or words which relate specifically to New Zealand society, events or artifacts. It could also include words like aerial top-dressing, a New Zealand invention from the 1940s which in other places is called crop-dusting. Although 58

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

most of the vocabulary used in New Zealand is also British English, there are some words which New Zealand shares with places other than Britain. Australia is a close neighbour and there is a large shared vocabulary with Australia, most of which began life in Australia and quickly moved across the Tasman. Words like dinkum (meaning ‘genuine, true, first-rate’) or skite (meaning ‘to boast or brag’)

are

heard

in

both

countries

and

have

been

described

as

‘Australasianisms’. There are also words that New Zealand English shares with American English. New Zealand cars have American mufflers rather than British silencers. In New Zealand English today, Maori words are used for many birds: kiwi, tui, weka, takahe, pukeko, the endangered kakapo and the extinct moa. New Zealand trees include rimu, totara, kauri, pohutakawa, nikau, ponga, rata, matai. Words for fish include hapuka, moki, terakihi, and for shellfish pipi, toheroa. Katipo is the name of a poisonous spider and the weta is a large cricketlike insect. In the early period of settlement, it was common to find items of flora and fauna with two names, both Maori and English, but today the English name has become archaic, and the Maori name is most commonly used. Maori has been a prolific source of place names from the most northern point of the country (Cape Reinga) to the most southern (Tiwai Point). Other proper names include the word Maori itself, derived from an adjective meaning ‘ordinary’ or ‘usual’. The name Pakeha, applied to New Zealanders of European descent, has uncertain origins, and provides a useful contrast to Maori. The early Maori loan words in English are commonly used within New Zealand, but they are not known in the wider English-speaking world. Apart from words like kiwi, Maori, and perhaps mana and moa, the use of Maori loan words is restricted to New Zealand English. Australians use some phrases that are combinations of British and American terms, such as ‘rubbish truck’. Rubbish is commonly used in the UK, and truck is commonly used in American English. Some AusE terms come from aboriginal speech (names of fauna, artifacts): boomerang, corroboree, dingo, kangaroo, kookaburra, galah, koala, barramundi, wallaby. Also there are numerous place-names, such as Woolloomooloo, Coonabarabran, Parramatta. 59

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Indian English is characterized by sounding more formal than other varieties of English. It has retained in everyday usage words that are found more in the classics of 19-century literature than in contemporary TV programs. Indian English is characterized by treating mass nouns as count nouns, frequent use of the "isn't it?" tag, use of more compounds, and a different use of prepositions.

Scottish English (SE) today can be used as a blanket term to cover both regional and social varieties along a linguistic continuum. Individuals, taking account of external factors such as context of situation, education, social class, etc., can move along the continuum in either direction, but some individuals will inevitably have a stronger attraction to one pole than the other. Both styledrifting and code-switching are common. Scottish Standard English (SSE) is much closer to Standard English. Its characteristic features are limited Scottish grammar, vocabulary and idiom, but still with Scottish accent. It is used by middle-class Scots and by working-class Scots in formal situations. Dense/Broad/Dialect Scots (SC) (e.g. Doric, Glaswegian) uses distinctive local vocabulary, grammar and strong local accent. It is generally used by workingclass Scots. The Scottish pronunciation of consonants is largely the same as for most other accents of English. Perhaps the most obvious distinguishing phonological feature of SE is its rhoticity – i.e., retention of post-vocalic /r/ in words such as car. Although this is a feature which strongly marks Scottish speakers out from the majority of British Standard English speakers (note that Irish English retains its rhoticity and there are one or two exceptions in EnglishEnglish), rhoticity is a feature which is found in some other world Englishes, being shared with many but not all varieties of American English and with most varieties of Canadian English. The Great Vowel Shift did not proceed as far in Scotland as it did in the south, SE does not have phonemic vowel length. As to morphology, in the written and spoken modes, the past tense and past participle (marked by –ed in Standard English) in regular verbs are indicated variously by 60

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

–it, –d, and –t depending on regional and phonological factors. Present participle endings may be –in or –ing. SE has a three-way deictic system in demonstratives (this, that, thon/yon). The diminutive suffix –ie is common and fairly productive, e.g., wifie (‘woman’, derogatory); mannie (NE SC ‘man’). Some irregular plurals survive, for example, een (‘eyes’), shuin (‘shoes’), kye (‘cows’) – although many of these are dying out. In SE, the definite article is used in some contexts where Standard English has no determiner, for example, with illnesses (the cold), with institutions (the school, the hospital), with periods of time (the day – today). Because SE shares much of its linguistic heritage with EnglishEnglish, it is not surprising that these varieties share significant amounts of “common core” vocabulary arising from their shared Old English ancestry, and shared Old Norse and French loanwords. SE also has uniquely Scottish loans from other languages, including a few from Gaelic. Two further characteristic features of Scots lexis must be mentioned; firstly, that Scottish lexis can be heavily regionalized (e.g., ‘the little finger’ is crannie in the NE but pinkie elsewhere in Scotland), and secondly, that SC lacks an agreed spelling system, even though there have been numerous attempts to recommend certain spellings based on criteria such as etymology and phonology. The same word may be spelled in a variety of ways, depending on a range of factors such as the date of the text, its regional origins, or simply the writer’s preference, although there are certain spelling conventions which are quite widely used. In addition to that, one of the biggest problems has been the lack of generation of Scots vocabulary for technical and learned registers.

Modern linguistic studies reflect the global dominance of the American media and music industries, with Hollywood movies being shown and American TV serials being aired (frequently undubbed) on all continents, and it results from the modern facilities for travel and personal contact (tourism, business travel, also student exchange, and, increasingly, the internet).

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Of course, the impact of American English on other world Englishes varies from one region to another and is difficult to generalize, but some broader statements can be made. Words travel easily, so the majority of new Americanisms used elsewhere are from the lexical level. Words which seem to be spreading widely and rapidly include gas, guy(s), Hi, movie, truck, Santa (Claus), and station wagon, and adolescent slang and fashion terms like man as a form of address or cool meaning ‘very good’. To this may be added older words which have been internationalized so strongly that their American origin may no longer be recognized in many communities, like radio (for older British wireless), commute,

fan,

star,

know-how,

break even, or

let’s face it. As to

pronunciation, rhoticity and “jod-deletion” in words like new, tune are widely perceived as “American” and may be adopted for this effect; and for certain words putatively American pronunciations are getting more widespread, e.g., research stressed on the 1st and primarily on the 2nd syllable, schedule with /sk/, lieutenant with /lu:-/, etc. The spelling center is clearly preferred over centre outside specifically British spheres of influence, and program rather than programme is also used widely, not only in computing contexts. On the level of syntax, hopefully used as a sentence adverbial and patterns like do you have seem to be diffusing from the US. American influence can even modify the meaning of words, as in the case of billion, which now means ‘a thousand million’ rather than ‘a million million’ even in Britain.

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PRACTICAL TASKS PRACTICAL TASK 1 PROTOPROTO-GERMANIC AND OLD ENGLISH SOUND SOUND SYSTEM AND SPELLING

Exercise 1. Compare words from Indo European languages. Explain the origin of the underlined consonants in Old English words: 1. Latin decem, Russian десять – Old English tīen (English ten) 2. Sanskrit rudhira – Old English rēad (English red) 3. Sanscrit bhrātár – Old English brōþor (English brother) 4. Sanscrit dantan, Latin dentem – Old English tōþ (English tooth) 5. Latin sedere, Russian сидеть – Old English sittan (English sit) 6. Latin piscis – Old English fisc (English fish) 7. Latin cordis, Greek Kardia – German Hart, Old English heorte (English heart) 8. Sanscrit tanu, Latin tenuis – Old English þynne (English thin) 9. Sanscrit napāt – Old English nefa (English nephew) 10. Latin ego – Old English ic (English I) 11. Latin nox (noctis) – Old English niht (English night) 12. Gothic hausjan – Old English hīeran [hȳran] (English hear) 13. Gothic satjan – Old English settan (English set) 14. Greek poda, Latin pedem – Old English fōt (English foot) 15. Latin centum – Old English hund(red) (English hundred) 16. Sanscrit admi, Latin edō – Old English etan (English eat) 17. Latin genus – Old English cynn (English kin) Exercise 2. Explain the origin of the underlined vowels: 1. Old Greek mānod - Old English mōnaþ (English month) 2. Gothic munþ - Old English mūþ (English mouth) 3. Proto-Germanic haims – Old English hām (English home) 63

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

4. Latin frāter – Old English brōþor (English brother) 5. Gothic wōpjan - Old English wēpan (English weep) 6. Gothic haldan - Old English healdan (English hold) 7. Old German Sanw - Old English sånw (English song) 8. Old Norse draumr - Old English drēam (English dream) 9. Gothic ahtau- Old English eahta (English eight) 10. Latin hortus – Old High German wart (‘yard, garden’) Exercise 3. How can you account for the difference in the roots of the following words (the forms of the verb ‘to lose’): lose – lost – lorn (lorn – poetic, archaic form of Participle II)?

Exercise 4. How can you explain the difference in root vowels of the following Old English words: dōm (‘judgment; law; fame’) – dēman (‘judge, condemn’) / Gothic dōmjan?

Exercise 5. Match the following Old English words (1-15) with the related Modern English ones (A - O). There is an example (0) at the beginning:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Old English sawol heafod sawolhūs sewl seoc halwode wecuron cñppe tiwul plowa ēarhrinw cinn wēriw hwīt cirice bysiw

= A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O 64

Modern English soul body hollowed / blessed sick hood white bysiw chosen church weary head tile sail plow earring chin

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

=

Exercise 6.Give the ModE equivalents of the following OE words: OE word

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

ModE word

OE word

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

ofer mann bedd dæw scip fisc mæwden blyscan hlāf ēawÉ hrōf swēte

ModE word

cynn miht þē þynn(e) ascian þorn æsc hyll ecw mōdor sūþ hlūd

Exercise 7. How do you think the following words would look in Old English? Mine, wine, why, good, foot, out, town, rope, teeth ________________________________________________________ Exercise 8. Using the Grimm’s Law, fill in the blanks with the necessary letters: 1.

Lat. trans (через) – E. … rough;

2.

Lat. … luvia (дощ) – E. flow;

3.

Lat. … ucere (вести) – E. tag;

4.

Latin … rānum (seed, grain, kernel) – E. corn;

5.

Rus. …о (preposition) – E. to;

6.

Greek stembein (тупотіти) – E. stam …;

7.

Sanscr. pattra (пір’я) – E. … ea … er;

8.

Greek eikanos (півень) – E. … en; 65

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

9.

Greek graphein (писати) – E. … arve;

10. Sanscr. dhavati (текти) – E. … ew; 11. Lat. … icere (називати) – E. teach; 12. Russian вы … ра – E. otter; 13. Greek keuthein (to conceal) – E. … ide; 14. Latin geledus – E. … old Exercise 9. Many Anglo-Saxon names are compounds. Using meaningful elements of Old English given names identify at least five male and five female names in the table below. Many people with these names were very famous in the British history. First element

Second element

ælf ‘supernatural, war ‘spear’ elf’ heah ‘high’ æþel ‘noble’ ræd ‘advice’ ead ‘blessed’ ric ‘powerful’, ‘power, rule’ eald ‘old’ siwe ‘victory’ wod ‘god’ stān ‘stone’ wyn ‘joy’ weard ‘guardian’ wine ‘friend’ flæd ‘beauty’ (used only in

Either first or second element

beorht ‘bright’ os ‘god’ wiw ‘battle’ wulf ‘wolf’

names) þryþ ‘power’ wyð ‘battle’ mund ‘security, protection’

Male names:______________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Female names:____________________________________________ _______________________________________________________

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

PRACTICAL TASK 2 MIDDLE ENGLISH SOUND AND SPELLING CHANGES

Exercise 1. Show the possible changes in spelling and pronunciation of the following Old English words in Middle English. Use Supplement 2 (p. 117).

Example: OE. hrōf [hrl:f] > ME. roof [rl:f] ō > oo – spelling changes; hr > r – simplification of hr, hl, hn. 1. OE æt_________________________________________________ 2. OE dæw________________________________________________ 3. OE sunu_______________________________________________ 4. OE niht________________________________________________ 5. OE þāncian_____________________________________________ 6. OE tæcan______________________________________________ 7. OE lufian______________________________________________ 8. OE blōd_______________________________________________ 9. OE sum________________________________________________ 10. OE wrindan____________________________________________ 11. OE healf______________________________________________ 12. OE nēodian____________________________________________ Exercise 2. Pronounce the following words the way they were pronounced in Middle English: Example: ME. laugh [lasx] a) dew

[

]

d) gnaw

[

]

b) brought

[

]

e) deed

[

]

c) snow

[

]

f) cow

[

]

Exercise 3. Find the length of the stressed vowels in the following words in the Middle English period: 67

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1) OE. findan

ME. finden

NE. find

2) OE. fēdde

ME. fedde

NE. fed

3) OE. talu

ME. tale

NE. tale

4) OE. climban

ME. climben

NE. climb

5) OE. nosu

ME. nose

NE. nose

Exercise 4. Explain the development of the following (a – j) words in Middle English: a) OE. eall >ME. all (NE. all)_________________________________ _______________________________________________________ b) OE. þrīe(masc.), þrēo, þrīo(fem.) > ME. three (NE. three)_______ ________________________________________________________ c) OE. strēam >ME. streem (NE. stream)________________________ ________________________________________________________ d) OE. beofor, befor >ME. bever (NE. beaver)_____________________ ________________________________________________________ e) OE. nacod >ME. naked (NE. naked)__________________________ ________________________________________________________ f) OE. cradol > ME. cradle (NE. cradle)_________________________ ________________________________________________________ g) OE. ēare >ME. ere (NE. ear)_______________________________ ________________________________________________________ h) OE. mōna > ME. moone (NE. moon)_________________________ ________________________________________________________ i) OE. prician >ME. priken (NE. prick)__________________________ ________________________________________________________ j) OE. styrian >ME. stiren (NE. stir)____________________________ 68

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

PRACTICAL TASK 3 EARLY NEW ENGLISH SOUND AND SPELLING CHANGES

Exercise 1. Why do we read digraph ‘oa’ as a)[əυ] in boat, coat, road;

b)[l l:] in oar, board, hoarse?

Exercise 2. Why is ‘ou’ pronounced a) [aυ] in house, mouse;

b) [^] in enough;

c)[u:] in soup, group? Exercise 3. Why is ‘ow’ read as a)[aυ] in brown, town, now;

b)[əυ] in blow, show, snow?

Exercise 4. Why is the letter ‘a’ pronounced a)[æ] in back, cat;

b) [ei] in name, make;

c) [a:] in farm, cast, half;

d) [εə] in mare, care?

Exercise 5. Name and explain the changes in spelling and pronunciation. Use Supplement 2 (p. 117). 1)

OE. fȳr > ME. fir (fer, fuir) > E. fire_______________________

________________________________________________________ 2)

OE. wræs > ME. gras > E. grass__________________________

________________________________________________________ 3)

OE. sēcan > ME. seken > E. seek_________________________

________________________________________________________ 4)

OE. hearm > ME. harm > E. harm________________________

________________________________________________________ 5)

OE. cnēo > ME. knee > E. knee__________________________

________________________________________________________ 6)

OE. hlūd > ME. loud > E. loud___________________________

________________________________________________________ 69

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7)

OE. lufu > ME. love > E. love___________________________

________________________________________________________ 8)

OE. macian > ME. maken > E. make______________________

________________________________________________________ 9)

OE. cniht > ME. knight > E. knight_______________________

________________________________________________________ 10) OE. ūre > ME. oure > E. our_____________________________ ________________________________________________________ 11) OE. pund > ME. pound > E. pound________________________ ________________________________________________________ 12) OE. sceal > ME. shal > E. shall___________________________ ________________________________________________________ 13) OE. tōþ > ME. tooth > E. tooth___________________________ ________________________________________________________ 14) OE. tūn > ME. town > E. town___________________________ ________________________________________________________ 15) OE. wew > ME. wei, wey > E. way_______________________ ________________________________________________________ Exercise 6. Explain the difference in spelling and pronunciation of the following words which had the same root in OE: 1) English good from OE. wōd >________________________________ English gospel from OE.wōdspele >____________________________ 2) English dear from OE. dēor >________________________________ English darling from OE. dēorlinw >___________________________ ________________________________________________________

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PRACTICAL PRACTICAL TASK 4 OLD ENGLISH VOCABULARY AND TEXT

You might find it interesting to know that…
Old English is the name given to the Germanic language spoken in the southern part of the island of Britain before the Norman Conquest in 1066 c.e. (and for about 100 years after the Conquest). This language is the ancestor of the Modern English spoken today, although it is quite different in appearance and sound at first glance. Most of our records of the Old English language date from the period between about 875 c.e. and about 1100 c.e., and there is very little evidence indeed of the precise state of the language before the Christian missionary efforts at the end of the 6th century c.e., or about the stages by which Old English had become Middle English by about 1250 c.e.
Most Anglo-Saxon manuscripts were written on vellum (Old English fell) made of calf skin. This was stretched, scraped smooth, whitened with chalk, cut into sheets, ruled with a stylus, and folded into quires of eight leaves (four sheets), or sixteen pages. After the scribes had done their work, the quires were sewn together and bound.
While fewer than 5,000 Old English words exist unchanged and in common use, these constitute the basic building blocks of the language. Starter Activity: Task 1. Sometimes the meaning of a word has changed over the centuries. Can you figure out the present-day meaning of the following Old English words? The first one is done for you. Old English form Present-day English form

Old English meaning

wīf

woman

married woman

ǣrænde

any kind of message

cræftiw

skilful

dōm

judgement

wāst

spirit

cwēn

woman

sōna

immediately

winter

year

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Task 2. Can you work out what the following Old English compounds mean? dōm-dæw, medu-benc, niht-weorc, sǣ-man, sǣ-rinc. Task 3. It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text to see the differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English. Work in small groups and state which differences you can find in the versions of the Lord’s Prayer:

Old English (c. 1000) sample Fæder ūre þu þe eart on heofonum, si þin nama wehalwod. to becume þin rice, wewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. ūrne wedæwhwamlican hlāf syle ūs todæw, and forwyf ūs ūre wyltas, swā swā wē forwyfað ūrum wyltendum. and ne welæd þu ūs on costnunwe, ac alys ūs of yfele. soþlice.

Middle English (Wyclif, 1384) Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be thi name; þi reume or kyngdom come to be. Be þi wille don in herthe as it is doun in heuene. Geue to us today oure eche days bred. And forgeue to us oure dettis that is oure synnys as we forgeuen to oure dettouris that is to men that han synned in us. And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl.

Early Modern English (King James Version, 1611) Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heauen. Giue us this day our daily bread. And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters. And lead us not into temptation, but deliuer us from euill. Amen. Task 4. Compare the OE text with its translation. Pay attention to those letters of the alphabet which are not used in ModE. Look at the vocabulary of the original version of the text, and try to identify OE words that are still part of present-day English, though considerably changed in their spelling. OE text

ModE text

Ōhthēre wæs swȳðe spediʒ man Ohthere was a very rich man in such goods as are valuable in on þǣm ǣhtum þe heora spēda those countries (namely, in wild 72

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

on bēoð, þæt is on wildrum. Hē hæfde þā ʒȳt, ðā hē þone cyninge sōhte, tamra dēora unbebohtra syx hund. þā dēor hī

deer), and (he) had, at the time he came to the king, six hundred tame deer, none of which he had purchased; besides this, he had six hātað hrānas; þāra wǣron syx; ðā decoy reindeer, which are very bēoð swȳðe dȳre mid Finnum, valuable amongst the Finns, for-ðǣm hȳ fōð þā wildan hrānas because they catch the wild ones mid. with them. He was one of the most considerable men in those parts and yet he had not more than twenty horned cattle, twenty sheep, and twenty swine, and what little he ploughed was with horses. Notes: næfde = ne hæfde – negative of the verb habban.

Hē wæs mid þǣm fyrstum mannum on þæm lande. Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twentiʒ hrȳðera and twentiʒ scēapa and twentiʒ swȳna; and þæt lȳtle þæt hē erede, hē erede mid horsan.

Exercise 1. Study the words below and translate the given text in Old English into Modern English: 1. ac – E. ‘but’.

2. aþer… oððe… – E. ‘either… or…’. 3. be – E. ‘by’. 4. byne, bynum – adj. E. ‘cultivated’. 5. brad, bradre, bradost – adj. from “brad” (E. ‘broad, wide’). 6. būde – v., from ‘būan’, anomal. (E. ‘to live’). 7. cyninʒe – n., m., a – stem ‘cyninʒ’. 8. clūdiʒ – adj. rocky, hilly (from ‘clūd’, E. ‘rock, hill’). 9. cwæð – v. from ‘cweðan’, strong (E. ‘to say’). 10.

ealra – from ‘eal’.

11.

eardiað – v., from ‘eardian’ (E. ‘dwell, inhibit’).

12.

emnlanʒe = efenlanʒe – prep. ‘along’. 73

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13.

erian – E. ‘to plough’.

14.

ettan – E. ‘to graze’.

15.

fiscaþe – v. from ‘fiscian’.

16. for – v., preterite sing. from ‘faran’(E. set for, travel, go). 17.

hlāforde – n., m., a – stem ‘hlāford’ (E. ‘lord, master’).

18.

huntoðe – v. from “huntian”.

19.

hwene –adv ‘somewhat, a little’ (instr. of ‘hwon’).

20.

lið, licʒað – from ‘licʒean’ (E. ‘to lie, to rest’).

21.

middeweard – from ‘midd’ (E. ‘middle, placed between’).

22.

mīla – n. from ‘mīl’.

23.

mōras, mōre – n. from ‘mōr’ (E. ‘moor, waste land’).

24.

norþweardum – adj. n. of ‘norþward’ (E. ‘northern’).

25.

oððe – conj., E. ‘or’.

26.

oferferan – E. ‘to pass, cross, go over; go through; come across’.

27.

sǣ – n., fem., i – stem.

28.

sǣde – v., from ‘secʒan’ [Dsedan].

29.

sīe – Pres. Subj. of ‘bēon’.

30.

symle = simbles – E. ‘ever, always’.

31.

syþþan – E. ‘afterwards, since, after’.

32.

smæl, smælre, smalost – adj. (E. ‘small, little, not great; narrow, not broad’).

33.

stycce-mǣlum [Dsty`è] – E. ‘here and there’.

34.

stōwum – from ‘stōw’ fem. (-e/-a) (E. ‘a place, spot, locality, site’).

35.

sumera – n., m., u – stem, from ‘sumor’.

36.

swā – adv., rel. pron. ‘so, as, while’; swā … swā… – conj. (E. ‘so… as…’).

37.

swīþe – E. ‘very’. 74

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

38.

sumum – from ‘sum’.

39.

þā – fem., of sē, sēo, þæt.

40.

þēah – E. ‘though’, ‘although’.

41.

þǣre – fem., gen. or dat. sing. of ‘sē, sēo, þæt’.

42.

þonan – E. ‘from there’.

43.

wēste – E. ‘uninhabited.

44.

wīciað – from ‘wīcian’ [Dwī`iaq], verb weak (E. ‘to live’).

45.

wintra – n., m., u – stem, from ‘winter’.

46.

wucum – n. from ‘wucu’ (E. ‘week’). THE VOYAGES VOYAGES OF OHTHERE

1. Ōhthēre sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrēde cyninʒe, þæt hē ealra Norðmanna norþmest būde.

2. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsǣ.

3. Hē sæde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lanʒ norþ þonan; ac hit is eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum stycce-mǣlum wīciað Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra and on sumera on fiscaþe be þǣre sǣ.

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4. þa for hē norþryhte be þæm lande.

5. Hē sæde þæt Norðmanna land wære swīþe lanʒ and swīþe smæl.

6. Eal þæt his man aþer oððe ettan oððe erian mæʒ, þæt lið wið ða sǣ; and þæt is þēah on sumum stōwum swīþe clūdiʒ; and licʒað wilda mōras wið eastan and wið uppon emnlanʒe þǣm bynum lande.

7. On þǣm mōrum eardiað Finnas.

8. And þæt byne land is ēastweard bradost, and symle swā norðor swā smælre.

9. Eastweard hit mæʒ bion syxtiʒ mīla brad, oððe hwene bradre, and middeweard þritiʒ oððe bradre; and norðeweard hē cwæð, þær hit smalost wære, þæt hit mihte beon þreora mīla brad to þǣm more; and se mōr syþþan, on sumum stowum, swā brad swā man mæʒ in twam

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wucum oferferan; and on sumum stowum swā brad swā man mæʒ on syx daʒum oferferan.

Exercise 2. Comment on the sound value of the OE fricatives þ, a, s, f in the initial, medial and final positions. Find examples in the text.

Exercise 3. What is the origin of the vowel [y] in the OE word cyninw= (OHG. kuninw)? Exercise 4. Find all the verbs in the text and comment on their principal forms. Exercise 5. Comment on the morphological structure of the words: hlāford, Norðmanna, norþweardum, Westsǣ, ēastweard, middweard. Exercise 6. Comment on the forms of the adjectives bradra(e), smælre, wildan, tamra, smalost. Define the function of these adjectives in the sentences.

Exercise 7. Analyse all the numerals and nouns that denote animals.What kind of changes have they undergone?

Exercise 8. Which types of word connection are used in the text? How are the relations between the words of the sentence expressed? Comment on word order in the sentences of the text.

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PRACTICAL TASK 5 MIDDLE ENGLISH VOCABULARY AND TEXT

You might find it interesting to know that…
Only 2 per cent of the British population in the Middle English period spoke only one language – French, the rest spoke either English or both languages.

Starter Activity: Listen to the text of Prologue from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer and try to understand the gist of it. In small groups discuss what changes can be expected in the text below knowing that it belongs to the ME period: ME text

Translation

1 Whan that aprill with his shoures soote 2 The droghte of march hath perced to the roote, 3 And bathed every veyne in swich licour 4 Of which vertu engendred is the flour; 5 Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth 6 Inspired hath in every holt and heeth 7 Tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne 8 Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne, 9 And smale foweles maken melodye, 10 That slepen al the nyght with open ye 11 (so priketh hem nature in hir corages); 12 Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, 78

When April with its sweet showers has pierced the drought of March to the root, and bathed every vein in such liquor from whose power the flower is engendered; when Zephyr [the west wind] also, with his sweet breath has blown [into life] in every wood and heath the tender crops, and the young sun has run his half-course in the sign of the Ram [Aries], and small fowls make melody, who sleep all night with open eye (so Nature stimulates them in their hearts) Then people long to go on pilgrimages,

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

13 And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

and palmers [pilgrims carrying palm leaves] to seek strange coastlines, to distant saints [holy places], known in various lands.

14 To ferne halwes, knowthe in sondry londes.

Exercise 1. Read the following ME text from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, think about the way some words were pronounced and try to explain why. Translate the text into ModE:

ME text

Translation

1 A Clerk ther was of Oxenford also, 2 That unto logyk hadde longe ygo. 3 As leene was his hors as is a rake, 4 And he nas nat right fat, I undertake, 5 But looked holwe and therto sobrely. 6 Ful thredbare was his overeste courtepy, 7 For he hadde geten hym yet no benefice, 8 Ne was so worldly for to have office, 9 For hym was levere have at his beddes heed 10 Twenty books, clad in blak or reed, 11 Of Aristotle and his philosophie, 12 Than robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrie. 13 But al be that he was a philosophre, 79

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

14 Yet hadde he but litel gold in cofre; 15 But al that he myghte of his freendes hente, 16 On books and his lernynge he it spente, 17 And bisily gan for the soules preye 18 Of hem that yaf hym wherewith to scoleye. 19 Of studie took he moost cure and moost heede, 20 Noght o word spak he moore than was neede, 21 And that was seyd in forme and reverence, 22 And short and quyk, and ful of hy sentence. 23 Sownynge in moral vertu was his speche, 24 And gladly wolde he lerne, and gladly teche. Notes: al be that – NE ‘albeit’; benefice – ecclesiastic living; clerk – university student, scholar; courtepy – short coat, jacket; gan … preye – ‘prayed’; holwe – emaciated; hym was levere – ‘he would rather’, ‘it was more pleasant for him’; office – secular employment, function; psaltry – a harp-like instrument; quyk – alive, lively, vivid; reverence – dignity, respect; scoleye – study, attend the schools of the university; 80

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

sentence – meaning, saying; decision,command; sobrely – seriously, gravely; undertake – affirm, declare; unto logyk hadde longe ygo – ‘had long since proceeded to the study of logic’; yaf – v. past, ‘gave’.

Exercise 2. Analyze the text. Pay attention to the spelling differences. Exercise 3. Point out instances of the use of the indefinite article in the text. Exercise 4. Explain the use of the word combination “at his beddes heed”. Exercise 5. Give examples of the borrowings from French and Scandinavian. Exercise 6. Find the infinitives and explain their structure and function. Exercise 7. Explain the further development of the following OE words (their ME. spelling is given in the text):

OE. hlēne________________________________________________ OE. lēornian_____________________________________________ OE. lōcian_______________________________________________ OE. raca________________________________________________ OE. riht_________________________________________________

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PRACTICAL TASK 6 NEW ENGLISH VOCABULARY AND TEXT You might find it interesting to know that…
It is often said that only after 1300 does English reemerge as a language used for literature, the court, and the church.

Starter activity: Listen to the recording, look through the text and see whether you can understand the gist of it. W. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar Spoken by Marc Antony, Act 3 Scene 2 Julius Cæsar is usually dated to 1599 by a contemporary reference; it seems to have been one of the first plays to be performed by Shakespeare’s company, the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, at the famous Globe Theatre. The passage given is Mark Antony’s funeral oration over the corpse of the murdered Cæsar. Its rhetorical structure may be compared with an earlier (and much less famous) speech on the same topic by Brutus, which is revealingly given in prose. Those addressed here are the lowly Plebeians; an Elizabethan audience would have appreciated the ironic potential underlying Antony’s use of gentle as his term to describe them. Interpretative notes appear at the end of the passage; the words and phrases they refer to are underlined. Antony. You gentle Romans. All. Peace, hoe, let vs heare him. Antony. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears: I come to bury Cæsar, not to praise him: The euill that men do liues after them,

5

The good is oft interred with their bones, So let it be with Cæsar. The noble Brutus Hath told you Caesar was ambitious: If it were so, it was a greeuous fault, And greeuously hath Cæsar answer’d it. 82

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M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

Heere, vnder leaue of Brutus and the rest (For Brutus is an honourable man So are they all; all honourable men) Come I to speake in Cæsars funerall. He was my friend, faithfull and just to me;

15

But Brutus sayes, he was ambitious: And Brutus is an honourable man. He hath brought many captiues home to Rome, Whose ransomes, did the generall coffers fill: Did this in Cæsar seeme ambitious?

20

When that the poore haue cry’de, Cæsar hath wept: Ambition should be made of sterner stuffe, Yet Brutus sayes, he was ambitious: And Brutus is an honourable man. You all did see, that on the Lupercall;

25

I thrice presented him a kingly crowne, Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? Yet Brutus sayes, he was ambitious: And sure he is an honourable man. I speake not to disprooue what Brutus spoke,

30

But heere I am, to speake what I do know; You all did loue him once, not without cause, What cause with-holds you then, to mourne for him? O Judgment! thou art fled to brutish Beasts, And Men haue lost their reason. Beare with me,

35

My heart is in the coffin there with Cæsar, And I must pawse, till it come backe to me. First Plebeian. Me thinkes there is much reason in his sayings. Second Plebeian. If thou consider rightly of the matter; Cæsar ha’s had great wrong.

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(1)

gentle – ‘noble’;

(2)

peace – as an exclamation means reproach, impatience = ‘be quiet!’; hoe (ho) – natural exclamation, used to call for attention;

(3) lend me your ears – ‘lend an ear / or one’s ears’ = ‘listen sympathetically or attentively’; (6) inter (v.) – ‘place (a corpse) in a grave or tomb’; (10) answer (v.) – ‘suffer the consequences [for], be accountable [for]’; (11) leave (n.) – ‘permission’; (15) just (adj.) – ‘honourable, loyal, faithful’; (19) generall – ‘public’; (29) sure – ‘surely, for certain’; (32) cause – ‘reason’; (38) Me thinkes – ‘it seems to me’; reason – ‘reasonableness, sense’.

NB: ambition for the Elizabethans the word had the special meaning of unscrupulous pursuit of power.

Exercise 1. Examine the spelling of the words in the text and discuss any instances that seem unusual to you.

Exercise 2. List the principal linguistic features of Shakespeare’s English which mark its difference from ModE.

Exercise 3. Pick out all the forms of the verb. Comment on them. Exercise 4. Pay attention to the use of negation and the verb ‘do’. Explain their usage in the text.

Exercise 5. Can you find any words in the text that seem obsolete or oldfashioned?

Exercise 6. Below you can find an extract from W. Shakespeare’s Henry IV. The ENE transcription will help you to understand the way the text sounded at that period. Analyze the differences in ENE and ModE pronunciation.

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ENE text

Transcription

1 Prince: Why, how could’st thou know these men in Kendall Green, 2 when it was so darke, thou could’st not see thy hand? 3 Come, tell vs your reason: 4 what say’st thou to this?

[wəı həs ksdst ðəs ni ðız mεn ın Dkεndəl Örın] [hwεn ıt wəz səs dærk, ðəs ksdst not sı: ðəı hænd] [ksm tεl əs jər rε:zən] [hwæt sεst ðəs tə ðıs]

5 Poins: Come, your reason Jack, your reason. 6 Falstaff: What, vpon compulsion? 7 No, were I at the Strappado*, or all the Racks in the World, 8 I would not tell you on compulsion. 9 Giue you a reason on compulsion? 10 If Reasons were as plenty as Black-berries, 11 I would giue no man a reason vpon compulsion, I.

[ksm, jər 'rε:zən, dæk, jər 'rε:zən] [hwæt, əDpon kəm'pslsjən] [ni wεr əı æt ðə stræDpædo ər il ðə ræks ın ðə wsrld] [əı wsld not tεl ju on kəm'pslsjən] [Öıv ju ə 'rε:zən on kəm'pslsjən] [if 'rε:zənz wεr əz Dplεntı əz Dblækbεrız] [əı wsld Öıv ni mæn ə 'rε:zən əDpon kəm'pslsjən, əı].

*strappado – a type of torturing instrument Notes: The rules of pronunciation in that time were the following: 1)

/r/ was pronounced post-vocalically (car, card)

2)

wh was pronounced [hw] (which, witch)

3)

/s/ was not lowered (but, pull)

4)

/a/ before /f, s, θ/ was still short (staff, pass, bath)

5)

/a/ after /w/ was not retracted (swan, war)

6)

mid-vowels were not diphthongised (play, boat)

7)

diphthongs /ai, au/ still centralised (time [tèɪm], house [hèss])

8)

/c:, e:/ had not yet been raised to /i:/ (eat rhymes with great)

9)

fewer instances of short /u:/ (book, cook, room) 85

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Exercise 7. Listen, read and analyse the sonnet by W. Shakespeare. Can you understand the gist of it?

Sonnet LXVI 1. Tired with all these, for restful death I cry, 2. As, to behold desert a beggar born, 3. And needy nothing trimm'd in jollity, 4. And purest faith unhappily forsworn, 5. And gilded honour shamefully misplaced, 6. And maiden virtue rudely strumpeted, 7. And right perfection wrongfully disgraced, 8. And strength by limping sway disabeled, 9. And art made tongue-tied by authority, 10. And folly doctor-like controlling skill, 11. And simple truth miscall'd simplicity, 12. And captive good attending captain ill: 13. Tired with all these, from these would I be gone, 14. Save that, to die, I leave my love alone.

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PRACTICAL TASK 7 DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY Food for thought and further discussion: Words are the leaves of the tree of language, of which, if some fall away, a new succession takes their place. John French Not only does the English Language borrow words from other languages, it sometimes chases them down dark alleys, hits them over the head, and goes through their pockets. Eddy Peters You might find it interesting to know that…
OE vocabulary (recorded and preserved in written documents) ranges from 30,000 to 50,000 words;
Native words are the most frequent ones, the shorter, more general words;
English language is a partial result of the borrowings and it can be defined as the collection of words that were selected to appear in a dictionary (Elly van Gelderen);
In addition to few Celtic borrowings in ancient times, there are some more recent borrowings that are still in use: clan (1425), plaid (1513), leprechaun (1604), shamrock (1971), whisky (1715);
Out of 10,000 words borrowed from French, about 7,500 are still in use;
English words with initial z and v are loans.

Exercise 1. Explore the origin of the following place names in Britain and work out the derivation of them. Find out the Anglo-Saxon and foreign elements (original OE words) that lie behind them. What do these place names mean? Place names Elements Meaning Applethwaite Althorpe Eastoft Portsmouth Nottingham Buckingham Glenmore Ashwellthorp Lancaster Hamstead Kilmore Chatham Flaxby 87

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Sussex Reading Derby Fishtoft Moorby Honeythwaite Stratford Askrigg

Exercise 2. The following text appears to be nonsense. This is because the underlined words have been used with their original or earlier meaning. Look up the original meanings of the words and rewrite the text into modern English: The girl wore his best frock to the dinner-party. He was a healthy young man with a healthy appetite, and he was in danger of eating so much he would starve. There was plenty of meat to suit his vegetarian tastes. After the meal, his disease was so bad he had to go and lie down. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

Exercise 3. All of the following English words (A–Y) at one time had meanings that are quite different from their current ones. (In case of borrowed words, the semantic change may have occurred before the word came into English). Identify each of these semantic changes as an instance of narrowing, broadening, amelioration, pejoration, weakening, or semantic shift. Word A B C D E F G H

moody uncouth aunt butcher witch sly accident argue

Earlier meaning ‘brave’ ‘unknown’ ‘father’s sister’ ‘one who supplies goats’ ‘male or female sorcerer’ ‘skilful’ ‘an event’ ‘make clear’ 88

Contemporary meaning

Semantic Change

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

I J K L M N O

carry grumble shrewd praise ordeal picture seduce

P

box

Q R S T U V W X Y

baggage virtue myth undertaker hussy astonish write barn silly

‘transport by cart’ ‘murmur, make low sounds’ ‘depraved, wicked’ ‘set a value on’ ‘trial by torture’ ‘a painted likeness’ ‘persuade someone to desert his/her duty’ ‘a small container made of boxwood’ ‘a worthless person’ ‘qualities expected of a man’ ‘story’ ‘one who undertakes a task’ ‘housewife’ ‘strike by thunder’ ‘scratch’ ‘place to store barley’ ‘blessed’

Exercise 4. The words below are fairly well known in most world variaties of English. But in which variety of English did each of the words originate? Where possible, also try to identify which language supplied the word to English. English (International) word

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

apartheid algebra bangle boomerang bungalow caribou cashmere cocoa commando cot guru jungle kayak landscape 89

Country (language) of its origin

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

parka poodle punch (the drink) pyjama safari shampoo veranda yacht zebra zero

Exercise 5. Use etymological dictionary to discover the components involved in the following words that originally, in Old English, were compounds:

1. Lady__________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2. Lord__________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3. Gossip________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 4. Daisy_________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 5. Nostril________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 6. Sheriff_________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 7. Shepherd______________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 8. Goodbye_______________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 9. Garlic_________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 10. Marshal_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

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PRACTICAL TASK 8 ‘WORLD ENGLISHES’ Food for thought and further discussion: A major cause of deterioration in the use of the English language is very simply the enormous increase in the number of people who are using it. Anonymous The English language is at more than one point in its history a language which is being carried from one part of the world to another. Terry Hoad England and America are two countries divided by a common language. George Bernard Shaw You might find it interesting to know that…
What started as a Germanic dialect spoken in a small part of England is now a language spoken by over a billion people in many parts of the world as a first or second language. Exercise 1. Give British English (BrE) and American English (AmE) equivalents of the following Ukrainian words: Ukrainian BrE AmE

1 партер (в театрі) 2 номерний знак автомобіля 3 картопля фрі 4 баклажан 5 антракт (в театрі) 6 вітрове скло автомобіля 7 гайкóвий ключ 8 квиток туди й назад 9 серветка 10 брáти напрокат 11 цукерки, солодощі 12 осінь 13 півень 14 вантажівка 15 вагон Exercise 2. Make changes to the sentences so that they become more typical of Canadian English: 1. Have you ever seen a Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer in the streets of this city? 91

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2. Let’s meet at the Art Center. 3. Most of the residents in this area have French as their first language. 4. You need to have a one-dollar coin to use this vending machine.

Exercise 3. What do you think these examples of Australian colloquialisms mean? They are all formed by abbreviating English words that you know: 1. Her ambition is to become a journo when she leaves uni. 2. Tom was planning to do a bit of farming bizzo while he was in the States. 3. What are your plans for this arvo? 4. As our oldies had gone away for the weekend, we decided to invite our mates and have a barbie party. 5. What places are you going to visit when you are in Oz?

Exercise 4. Match the Indian English word (1-12) with its American English equivalent (A-L). Explain your choice. Indian English undertrials 1 wearunders 2 issueless 3 Eve–teaser 4 the common man 5 ultra 6 miscreant 7 bosom 8 head-bath 9 cow-worship 10 ayah 11 jawan 12 1

2

3

4

5

A B C D E F G H I J K L

6

7

American English hair washing religious practice thief / bandit the general public people awaiting trial chest nurse man who annoys women soldier have no children underwear someone with extreme views 8

9

10

11

12

Exercise 5. The statements below were made by a Scot. Using an English Dictionary, answer the questions about them: 1. Ann had a bonny wee lassie last night. – What happened to Ann yesterday?_____________________________________________ 2. The McKingslys live next to the kirk. – What would be your reference point if you were trying to find their house?_________ 92

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3. “Are you joining us for a glass of wine, Ned? – “Aye.” Does Ned agree or disagree?____________________________ 4. They have a wonderful view of the loch from their window. – What can they see from the window?_____________________ Exercise 6. Which variety of English might each of these statements or questions represent? Explain your choice. 1. Would you like a wee dram? 2. People had to stand in long queues to see this film in the cinema. 3. We got terribly bitten by mozzies at yesterday’s barbie. 4. That’s a nice vintage chesterfield. 5. As a favor to Alice he bought her a one-way ticket and took care of her baggage. 6. The police finally nabbed the miscreant. 7. He wants to major in Chinese at college when he leaves high school. 8. Every farmer in this country owns a ute. Exercise 7. Answer the following questions. Bear in mind the existence of different varieties of English. 1. What would you do in Australia with a didgeridoo? 2. What aren’t you allowed to do in South Africa when the robot is red?

3. You are going to visit fleadh in Ireland. What are you fond of? 4. Which word is used both in Australian and South African varieties of English to denote the natural, uncultivated land away from towns?

5. What is an Irish person referring to when they talk of ‘the craic’? 6. What do you have to do at the shroff in Hong Kong? 7. What do young people do in varsities (sing. varsity) in Malaysia? 8. If Cinderella lived in the Carribean, who would she ask for help to go to the ball? – Her _________ who is a Fairy.

9. How can one cross the street at a pedestrian scramble in Australia?

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RECOMMENDED READING: 1. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка: Учебное пособие. – 2-е изд. – М.: ФИЗМАТЛИТ, 2001. – 272с. 2. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. М. 1973. 3. Бруннер К. История английского языка. Т. 1-2. Перев. с немецкого. – М.: 1955. 4. Верба Л.Г. Історія англійської мови. Посібник для студентів та викладачів вищих навчальних закладів. – Вінниця: НОВА КНИГА, 2006. – 296с. – Англ. мовою. 5. Залесская Л.Д., Матвеева Д.А. Пособие по истории английского языка для заочных отделений факультетов английского языка педагогических институтов. – М.: Высш. шк., 1984. 6. Иванова И.П., Чахоян Л.П., Беляева Т.М.

История английского

языка. Учебник. Изд. 3-е. – СПб., «Авалон», «Азбука-классика», 2006. – 560с. 7. Иванова И.П., Чахоян Л.П., Беляева Т.М. Практикум по истории английского языка: Учебное пособие. Изд. 3-е, перераб. – СПб., «Авалон», «Азбука-классика», 2005. – 192с. 8. Ильиш Б.А. История английского языка. – Л., 1973. 9. Линский С.С. Сборник упражнений по истории английского языка. Л., 1963. 10.Расторгуева Т.А. История английского языка: Учебник / Т.А. Расторгуева. – 2-е изд., стер. – М.: ООО «Издательство Астрель»: ООО «Издательство АСТ», 2002. – 352с. – На англ. яз. 11.Резник Р.В., Сорокина Т.А., Резник И.В. История английского языка / A History of the English Language. – М.: Наука, Флинта. – 2003. – 496с. 12.Смирницкий А.И. Лекции по истории английского языка. – М.: ООО «Добросвет», 2000. – 238с.

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13.Смирницкий А.И. Хрестоматия по истории английского языка (с VII по XVII в.). – М., 1953. 14.Хаймович Б.С. Стислий курс історії англійської мови. – К.: Вища школа, 1975. (A Short Outline of the History of English). – 89с. 15.A History of the English Language. Edited by Richard Hogg & David Denison. Cambridge University Press, 2006. – 511p. 16.A Companion to the History of the English Language. Edited by Huruko Momma & Michael Matto. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2008. – 708p. 17.Barber, Charles; Beal, Joan C.; Shaw, Philip A. The English Language. A Historical Introduction. – 2nd ed. – Cambridge University Press, 2009. – 320p. 18.Baugh, Albert C. & Cable, Thomas. A History of the English Language. Fifth Edition. Routledge, 2002. – 447p. 19.Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition, 1997. – 495p. 20.Culpeper, Jonathan. History of English. Routledge, 2005. – 134p. 21.Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English. A Sociolinguistic Approach. Blackwell Publishers, 2001. – 284p. 22.Gelderen, Elle van. A History of the English Language. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2006. – 334p. 23.Pyles, Thomas; Algeo, John. The Origins and Development of the English Language. – 4th edition. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, 1993. – 381p. 24.Shay, Scott. The History of English. – Wardja Press. – 2008. – 232p. 25.The Oxford History of English. Edited by Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford University Press, 2006. – 498p.

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. Periods in the history of English and their characteristics. 2. The state of endings and its significance for the development of English. 3. The major peculiarities of Proto-Germanic compared with Indo European. 4. Word accentuation in the Proto-Germanic period. 5. Scandinavian invasion and its influence on the history of English. 6. Norman Conquest and its influence on the history of English. 7. The formation of the English national language: reasons and consequences. 8. The comparative-historical method. Indo-European family of languages. 9. Grimm’s Law. Exceptions to the Grimm’s Law. 10.Verner’s Law. Development of Indo-European vowels in Germanic languages. 11. Phonetic peculiarities of West-Germanic languages. 12. Anglo-Saxon dialects and their phonetic peculiarities. 13. Phonetic changes in Old English. 14. The Old English system of sounds and letters. 15. Middle English spelling changes. 16. Middle English consonant changes. 17. Middle English quantitative changes of vowels. 18. Middle English qualitative changes of vowels. 19.

Development of OE diphthongs and new diphthongs in Middle

English period. 20. Early New English spelling changes. 21. Early New English changes of short and long vowels. 22. Early New English combinative changes. 23. Early New English changes of consonants. 24. Development of diphthongs in Early New English. 96

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25. Historical development of the English Noun. 26. The main categories of the Verb in Old English. 27. Verb conjugation in Old English. Irregular verbs in Old English. 28. Mixed (Preterite-Present) verbs in Old English. 29. Development of the Verb in Middle English. 30. Early New English changes in the system of the Verb. 31. The Pronoun and its historical development. 32. The Article and its historical development. 33. Historical development of the English Adjective. 34. Old English Syntax. 35. English Syntax in the Middle and Early New English periods. 36.

Development of the English vocabulary in the Old English period.

37.

Development of the English vocabulary in the Middle English period.

38. Development of the English vocabulary in the Early New English period. TOPICS FOR SELFSELF-STUDY AND REPORTS 1. English runes. Runic inscriptions. 2. Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum. 3. OE period. Heptarchy. OE dialects. OE manuscripts. 4. Cædmon and Cynewulf. 5. Kennings in OE. 6. Beowulf and Poetry in OE. 7. Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. 8. The years of King Alfred and the Danelaw. 9. Early Middle English Dialects. 97

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10. ME written records. Peterborough Chronicle. 11. History of the London dialect. 12. Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales. 13. “Chaucer’s contemporaries”. 14. Early New English. Shakespeare’s language. 15. Language and the Age of Renaissance. 16. Printing and standardization of English. 17. Post-Shakespearian English. 18. The King James Bible. 19. Development of English spelling / orthography. 20. English grammarians. 21. First dictionaries of the English language. 22. Varieties of English in Britain. 23. Geographical expansion of the English language (American, Australian, Canadian, Indian, New Zealand). 24. English as a Global Language. 25. Influence of English on other languages, IE and non-IE.

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GLOSSARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS

Ablaut: Jacob Grimm's term for the way in which OE strong verbs formed their preterites by a vowel change. This is also called gradation. An example would be the principal parts of Old English strong verbs, such as cēosan ‘to choose’ – cēas – curon – coren, and ModE ring, rang, rung.

Agreement: Matching of grammatical forms within a phrase (e.g., this table, these tables) or a sentence (e.g., there is a road, there are roads). Also called concord.

Analytic language: A language in which grammatical relationships among words in a sentence are determined by the order of the words in that sentence. This language tends to use separate words to convey grammatical information: e.g., more beautiful, most beautiful. Modern English is an example.

Anglo-Norman: French spoken by the Normans in England after the Norman Conquest, a geographical variety of Norman French.

Anglophone: English-speaking, usually pertaining to a person or a region in a colonial or post-colonial setting. An Anglophone is an English-speaking person typically in Canada.

Anglo-Saxons: The Germanic peoples who settled the British Isles beginning in the 5th and 6thA.D. and spoke Old English. Conquered by the Normans in 1066, they were gradually absorbed into the Norman French-speaking population.

Article: There are two kinds in English: the definite article the and the indefinite article a(n). The former has derived from OE demonstrative forms like þæm, þa (‘the’), and the latter from the OE numeral ān (‘one’).

Aspect: a special grammatical category to do with such things as whether the action is completed or not. In PDE we distinguish between two kinds of aspect: Progressive / non-progressive; Perfect / non-perfect. A sentence like “they are traveling” (i.e., be + Present Participle) is progressive in aspect, as it expresses an action in progress.

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Assimilation: A general term in phonetics which refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become more alike, or identical.

Back vowel:

A vowel articulated with the highest point of the tongue placed

at the back of the mouth. Back vowels include /u, υ, o, ɔ, a/. Breaking: The term ‘breaking’ describes an early OE sound change, in which front vowels diphthongized before certain back consonants, namely before /r/ or /l/ + following consonant and before the velar fricative /x/ (=).

Borrowing: A term used in comparative and historical linguistics to refer to a linguistic form taken over by one

language or dialect from another; such

borrowings are usually known as ‘loan words’ (e.g. restaurant, chagrin, which have come into English from French), and several types have been recognized.

Case: Refers to inflections, or grammatical forms, of pronouns, nouns, and adjectives to denote their syntactic functions within the clause. OE had at least four cases. Nominative and Accusative were cases for the subject and direct object of a clause, respectively. The Dative case was most typically used for indirect objects, the Genitive was typically a case to denote possession. The 5th case was Instrumental.

Clause: A syntactic unit that contains at least a subject and a verb: e.g., She spoke. Cluster (consonant cluster): Two or more consonants occurring together: e.g., ‘cl’ in clever or ‘str’ in street. The term is used to refer to any sequence of adjacent consonants, especially those occurring initially or finally in a syllable, such as the initial ‘br’of bread, or the final ‘st’ of best.

Cognate: Having a common linguistic ancestor. Cognate languages have derived from a shared parent language: e.g., English and German from ProtoGermanic. Cognate words derive from an earlier single word or word element: e.g., the English eight and the Latin octo from IE oktō(u).

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Comparative method: The method used in comparative philology. The technique involves comparing cognate forms from genetically related languages (such as those of the Indo-European family) with a view to reconstructing the proto-language from which all others can be taken to have derived. Such a method must take regular sound changes and later analogy into account. This allows one to link up forms which are superficially different but which can be traced back to a single form, itself usually non-attested. For instance English heart, German Herz, Latin cordia, Greek kardios can be shown to derive regularly from an Indo-European root *kerd.

Compound: A word consisting of two or more independently existing words: e.g., tablecloth, gentleman. In English, compounding has been a productive method of word formation.

Conjugation: The inflection of verbs. In ModE finite verb is conjugated or inflected in correspondence with the subject of the clause: e.g., he likes to draw/we like to draw. Of the non-finite forms, the infinitive may occur after auxiliary verbs (e.g., they will come) or verbs like want, like (I like to paint); the present participle has the –ing ending and may occur in the progressive construction (e.g., they are jogging); the past participle may have an ending like –ed, –en and occur in the passive or perfect construction (e.g., books were chosen; we have decided).

Declension: In grammar, a traditional term for a class of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns in an inflecting language, which occur with the same range of forms.

Definite ~ indefinite: Old English adjectives had two declensions; where the adjective was preceded by a demonstrative or possessive it followed the definite declension, and elsewhere it followed the indefinite declension.

Delabialization: A linguistic process as a result of which labial sounds become non-labial.

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Demonstrative:

A pronoun that ‘points to’ another word or indicates

relationships of proximity is a demonstrative. “This,” “that,” “these,” and “those” are demonstratives.

Determiner: A word that occurs with a noun to restrict its meaning: e.g., the, this, that.

Diachronic: Pertaining to historical dimensions of language: e.g., linguistic change over the course of time. Cf. synchronic.

Dialect, historical: Old English dialects include Anglian (which consists of Northumbrian and Mercian), Kentish, and West Saxon. From the late tenth century onwards, late West Saxon was widely used as a written standard. Middle English dialects are conventionally identified by the regions like Northern, Midlands, and Southern, although they comprised a continuum with many more varieties. The dialect of London, which evolved in stages during the late Middle English period, became a privilege dialect on which the standard form for ModE was based.

Digraph: The combination of two letters to represent a single sound, to signify one phoneme, as in the ‘th’ of this.

Diphthongs: Vowel sounds that are made up of two distinct sounds joined together, produced by having one sound gliding into another, as the sound [~s] in the modern English word house).

Disyllabic: Consisting of two syllables: e.g., e-cho and be-lieve are disyllabic words. A word is monosyllabic when having only one syllable (e.g., bid, stretch) or trisyllabic when having three syllables (e.g., un-der-stand, com-pa-ny).

Early New English (ENE): The language that emerged as English national language at the beginning of the Great Vowel shift, roughly in the middle of the 15th century and was spoken during the time necessary for the completion of the Great Vowel Shift (15th – 16th centuries).

Ending:

Also called grammatical suffixes, endings or inflections are groups

of letters attached to the ends of words to indicate the grammatical relationships. 102

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Family: A term used in historical linguistic studies to characterize a genetic model of the relationships between languages. A ‘family’ of languages is the set of languages deriving from a common ancestor, or ‘parent’, e.g. the IndoEuropean (IE) family consists of the ‘daughter’ languages Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc., which all developed out of Indo-European (IE). Groupings within a family may be referred to as sub-families (e.g. the Romance sub-family within the Italic family). The family tree is a representation of these relationships devised by comparative philologists in the nineteenth century.

Family tree: A model of language development common in the last century (the term derives from August Schleicher) which sees languages as splitting further in a manner reminiscent of genetic relationships.

Finite: A term to describe a verb which is marked for tense and number. Francophone: French-speaking, having French as a first or main language, usually pertaining to a person or a region in a colonial or post-colonial setting. A Francophone is a French-speaking person typically in Canada.

Fricative: A consonant having audible friction produced by forcing air through a constricted part in the mouth: e.g., /f, v, s, z, θ, ð/.

Front mutation (i-mutation): an Old English sound change (VI-VIIth centuries) that resulted in the fronting and / or raising of vowels occurring near the sound [i] or [j]. It is a right-to-left (regressive) assimilation: back vowels, both long and short, became front, and low front vowels were raised, when an inflexional or derivational suffix beginning with [i, j] was added to the root. As the result of it, in ModE we have full – to fill; man – men; foot – feet, etc.

Front vowel: A vowel articulated with the highest point of the tongue placed at the front of the mouth. Front vowels include /i, e, ε, æ/.

Geminate: A term in phonology to describe either a sequence of two segments (in OE. – consonants).

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Gender: Syntactically and morphologically relevant classification of nouns, present in Old English (as in modern German and French) but lost in modern English. The gender to which an animate noun belongs may be determined by sex, but for most nouns in Old English gender (namely, masculine, feminine, or neuter) was grammatical, not directly related to natural genders.

Germanic: A branch of the Indo-European family to which English belongs. English is a member of the West Germanic division, together with German, Dutch, etc. The other two divisions are North Germanic (e.g., Danish, Norwegian) and East Germanic (e.g., Gothic).

Glide: A vocalic sound which occurs as the result of transition between one articulation and another, as for example the /s/ after /~/ before /ä/ in ENE.

Great Vowel Shift: The systematic shift in the pronunciation of stressed, long vowels in English, which occurred from the middle of the fifteenth century to the middle of the sixteenth century in England and which permanently changed the pronunciation of the English language. It effectively marks the shift from Middle English to Modern English.

Grimm’s Law: A sound law first worked out in 1822 by Jakob Grimm (1785– 1863) which shows the regular way in which the Germanic sound system diverged from that of Indo-European. Nine sets of correspondences were shown, which fell into a clear phonetic pattern. Voiceless stops in Indo-European became voiceless fricatives in Germanic; voiced stops became voiceless stops; and voiced aspirated stops became voiced stops. These relationships explain, for example, why words which begin with /p/ in Latin, Greek or Sanskrit generally have /f/ in English (e.g. pater – father).

Homorganic

consonants: (from homo- "same" and organ "(speech)

organ") a phonetics term for consonant sounds to describe adjacent phonological segments which have the same place of articulation in the mouth, such as [m], [p], [b] (pronounced with both lips), or [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l] (pronounced by 104

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

touching the tip of the tongue to the upper gums). The opposite term is heterorganic, as in OE. cniht.

Indo-European: The term used to describe the related languages of Europe, India, and Iran, which are believed to have descended from a common tongue spoken roughly in the third millennium B.C. by an agricultural peoples originating in Southeastern Europe. English is a member of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.

Inflection: A change in the form of a word to provide grammatical information: e.g., –s as in texts for plural; –ed as in worked for past tense. Applies to both conjugation and declension.

Kenning: A type of a condensed metaphor frequent in Old English poetry, e.g. ‘the whale’s road’ to refer to the sea.

Kinship terms: The system of lexical items used in a language to express personal relationships within the family, in both narrow and extended senses.

Lengthening: Sound change usually involving the turning of a short vowel into a long vowel: e.g., a set of quantitative changes in ME. Sound change from long to short vowels is called shortening.

Leveling: In historical linguistics, the gradual loss of a linguistic distinction, so that forms which were originally contrastive become identical. For example, Old English nouns generally distinguished nominative and accusative cases, but in Modern English these have been levelled to a single form.

Linguistic / language change: change within a language over a period of time.

Liquid: Also called a “semi-vowel”, a liquid falls between a vowel and a consonant: the air flow from the lungs and through the mouth or nose is only partially obstructed, unlike a consonant, in which the stream is obstructed, or a

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vowel, in which it is not obstructed. Liquids in Modern English and Old English include “r,” “l” and “w”.

Loan word: A word borrowed from another language: e.g., castle (French), inflammation (Latin), koala (Australian aboriginal). In English, borrowing was a particularly productive method of word formation in the early modern period.

Macron:

A horizontal bar over the top of a vowel to indicate a long vowel

(ā, ē, ī, ō, ū) is called a macron. Macrons to indicate vowel length are not found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts.

Marker: Any unit that indicates a specific feature: e.g., –ed as a tense marker for preterite; –’s as a case marker for the possessive.

Metathesis: The reversal of the linear sequence of sounds in a word. A common form of metathesis is the reversal of /r/ and a short vowel in the histories of both English and German, e.g. three ~ third; bird < ME brid(d). Metathesis is most frequent with vowels but is also found with consonants, e.g. aks, waps for ask, wasp respectively, both historically and regionally in English.

Middle English: The language, in its various dialects, spoken by the inhabitants of England from roughly the period following the Norman Conquest (the late 11th century) until roughly the period of completion of the Great Vowel Shift (late 15th – early 16th century).

Minor declension noun: Nouns that do not fall into the major declensions (strong and weak) are considered “minor” declension nouns.

Modern English: The language, in its various dialects, that emerged after the end of the Great Vowel Shift, roughly in the middle of the 16th century.

Monophthongs: Vowel sounds that are made up of only one continuously, without any noticeable change in its quality, produced sound: e.g., /i/ in bid, /^/ in bug, /g/ feet.

Mood : a category to do with different degrees of possibility with regard to the action referred to by the verb, including the speaker’s attitude to the factuality or 106

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otherwise of that action. Three moods are traditionally distinguished: indicative, subjunctive and imperative.

Multiple negation: Use of two or more negative elements in one sentence to denote negation: e.g., I cannot go no further (Shakespere). It came to be considered non-standard in the prescriptive grammar of the eighteenth century.

Number:

Grammatical category for counting, associated especially with

nouns. In English, ‘plural’ and ‘singular’ numbers are distinguished inflectionally (e.g. ‘dogs’ versus ‘dog’). In Old English there was also a dual category, occasionally used with pronouns and adjectives.

Old

English: The language, or group of related dialects, spoken by the

Anglo-Saxon people in England from 449 until roughly the end of the 11th century.

Palatalization: Sound change involving consonants adjacent to [i / j] or a front vowel: e.g., OE [g’] became [d]; ModE [z] has become [w] in occasion.

Paradigm: The set of forms associated with a noun or an adjective in forming a declensional class, or with a verb in a conjugational class.

Periodization: The history of English is conventionally divided into three periods. Old English (OE) started in 449 and lasted through the Norman Conquest and the few subsequent decades. The term Anglo-Saxon may be used for Old English to underline its connection with the Germanic languages of the Continent. The second period is Middle English (ME), which ends in the late fifteenth century. The third period is New English (NE) that lasts until nowadays. A subperiod of the New English period that corresponds roughly with the Renaissance period and covers the time necessary for the completion of the Great Vowel Shift (15th – 16th centuries) is often referred to as Early New English period (ENE). Contemporary English may be called Present-Day English (PDE) or Modern English (ModE), although there is no consensus as to when it begins. 107

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Person: Grammatical category associated especially with pronouns, identifying individuals in relation to the speaker and hearer. English distinguishes ‘first person’, referring to the speaker(s) – I, we, ‘second person’, referring to the addressee(s) – you, and ‘third person’, referring to one or more individuals who are neither the speaker(s) nor the addressee(s) – he, she, it, they.

Personal pronoun: A word that stands in for a noun and can be used to designate the first, second or third person is a personal pronoun (contrasted with a demonstrative pronoun, which points out something).

Phonology: The study of the sound systems of languages. Pidgin: A language which results from the mixture of two or more distinct languages as the result of attempts to communicate between two separate speech-communities. The pidgin language has a much reduced linguistic structure and is not the mother-tongue of any speaker. Contrast Creole.

Possessive: A grammatical form for indicating possession: –’s is a possessive ending for nouns (e.g., dog’s tail); possessive adjectives include my, their, etc. and possessive pronouns include mine, theirs, etc.

Preterite: A term used especially in traditional grammar to refer to a form of the verb expressing past time without any aspectual consideration; also called a ‘simple past tense’.

Preterite-presents: A class of verbs in which the original preterite comes to acquire present tense meanings and where subsequently a new preterite is formed.

Protolanguage: An unrecorded or unattested language from which a group of historically attested languages have presumably derived. Hence all IndoEuropean languages are supposed to share (Proto-) Indo-European as parent language. Likewise, Proto-Germanic is the presumed ancestor of all Germanic languages.

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Rhotacism: A common kind of phonetic change whereby a voiced sibilant [z] develops further into [r]. This is found, for instance, in German, compare English lose and German verlieren, and in Latin, compare flos (‘flower' – nom.) – floris (‘flower' – gen.). As can be seen in English was – were, rhotacism was an important feature of Germanic verbal morphology because in some points in verbal paradigms an [s] was voiced (due to Verner’s Law) and this [z] developed further to [r].

Runic alphabet: Germanic and early OE writing; consisted at first of some 24 symbols to be scratched upon or coloured into stone or hard wood or metal, signs which generally by means of straight (vertical, horizontal and diagonal) lines could very roughly represent common OE sounds. These runes, at first the secret of a priestly class (the OE word rūn means ‘secret’), were employed in England to some extent after the conversion to Christianity for religious inscriptions such as that on the Ruthwell Cross, and also at times more widely; but they were unsuitable for any sort of continuous writing and remained only as tokens of antiquarian interest in the late OE period.

Root: A single morpheme which carries the meaning of a word, often used in historical linguistics to denote the original morpheme from which a word is etymologically derived. 1) In grammar the unalterable core of a word to which all suffixes are added, e.g. friend in un-friend-li-ness. 2) In etymology, the earliest form of a word. 3) In phonetics, the part of the tongue which lies furthest back in the mouth.

Schwa / shwa

[∫wa:]: The usual name for the neutral vowel [ə], heard in

English at the beginning of such words as ago, amaze, or in the middle of afterwards; sometimes called the indefinite vowel. It is a particularly frequent vowel in English.

Second person singular and plural (you, thou, etc.): In Old and Early Middle English, second person singular and plural were morphologically distinguished (e.g., þu and we). In the 13th century, English adopted the French 109

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custom of using the plural form for the singular to register respect or politeness. This dual usage of thou/ye for second-person singular lasted until early Modern English when the plural form (you) became the norm for the singular.

Semantic change: The change in the meaning of a word over time. Semantic field: A collective term for sets of meanings which are taken to belong together, e.g. colour, furniture, food, clothes. Most of the vocabulary of any language is organised into such fields, i.e. there are few if any words which are semantically isolated.

Stem: The stem of a word includes only those elements of the word that are unchanged regardless of the word's grammatical function. It is the part of the word onto which endings are attached. The stem may coincide with the “root” of the word if it contains no lexical suffixes.

Stop: Refers to consonants such as /p, t, k, b, d, g/, produced by blocking the flow of air before articulating. Also called plosive.

Strong adjective: An Old English adjective that is not preceded by a demonstrative is called a strong adjective.

Strong verb: In the Germanic languages, a verb that signals change in tense through a meaningful change in the root vowel. For example, “Today I run, yesterday I ran”. In Old English and other, older forms of the Germanic languages, strong verbs were classified into groups according to the specific sets of vowel changes in their principle parts.

Suppletion: Phenomenon whereby one lexeme is represented by two or more different roots, depending on the context; for example, the verb ‘go’ is represented by ‘went’ in the past tense and ‘go’ elsewhere; the verb ‘be’ is represented by ‘am’, ‘is’, ‘are’ in the present.

Syllable: Consists of a vowel and its immediately preceding and following consonants. Synchronic: Pertaining to language at a specific historical point (and at least within a generation): e.g., analysis of syntax, phonology, etc. in PDE. Cf. diachronic. 110

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Synthetic language: A language in which grammatical relationships among words in a sentence are determined by the inflections (for example, case endings) added to the words. OE was more synthetic than ModE.

Tense: A grammatical category for the indication of time through the forms of verbs. Historically, (Proto-) Indo-European had three (according to some scholars, from five to six) formal tenses, but the number was reduced to two in Germanic languages. Hence OE had two formal tenses: Present (e.g., he writes) and Past or Preterit(e) (e.g., she wrote).

Third person present singular: The OE and ME form for this verb conjugation was –(e)þ/–(e)th: e.g., hē drincþ wīn (‘he drinks wine’). This historical form was gradually replaced by the dialectal variant –(e)s until the latter became the norm by 1600.

Transitive: verbs and verb phrases capable of governing (‘taking’) a direct object (e.g. love, hate), e.g. he has a bike. Intransitive verbs and verb phrases are verbs not capable of governing (‘taking’) a direct object (e.g. have, be): she drives to school. Some verbs may be used either as transitive or intransitive.

Umlaut: A historical process by which back vowels were fronted and front vowels raised; the change is most easily observed in nouns such as foot ~ feet.

Verner’s law:

A sound change, first worked out by the Danish linguist Karl

Verner (1846–96), which explained a class of apparent exceptions to Grimm’s law. He found that Grimm’s law worked well whenever the stress fell on the root syllable of the Sanskrit word; but when it fell on another syllable, the consonants behaved differently. Voiceless stops then did not stay as voiceless fricatives, but became voiced stops.

Voice: a category which indicates whether the subject governing the form of the verb is the agent or the target of the action, active or passive voice respectively.

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Word class: A category referring to a group of words that share syntactic and morphological characteristics. Also called part of speech. Word classes in traditional English grammar include noun (e.g., flower, persuasion), adjective (e.g., thick, irresponsible), adverb (quickly, there, also), verb (to speak, to pronounce), pronoun (we, everybody, much), preposition (to, under), conjunction (but, as though, while).

Word-formation: The process of creating new words by means of either affixation or compounding.

Weak adjective:

In Old English adjectives that are supported by a

demonstrative (rather than standing on their own, as does a strong adjective) are considered weak adjectives.

Weak verb: In the Germanic languages, a verb that signals the past tense by adding a suffix. In Modern English, these suffixes have become –ed or –d. All new verbs that enter the English language (either by coinages or loans) enter as weak verbs.

Word order: Sequence in which words occur; of particular interest in Old English is the position of the verb.

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PHONETIC SYMBOLS AND TERMS Description Symbol a open back unrounded vowel ā long open back unrounded vowel æ open-mid to open front unrounded vowel long open-mid to open front unrounded ǣ vowel open-mid back unrounded vowel ʌ b voiced bilabial stop / plosive χ voiceless palatal spirant / fricative d voiced dental / alveolar stop d voiced postalveolar affricate ð voiced dental spirant / fricative e close-mid front unrounded vowel ē long close-mid front unrounded vowel ə mid central unrounded vowel c open-mid front unrounded vowel f voiceless labiodental spirant / fricative Ö voiced velar stop / plosive γ voiced velar spirant / fricative h voiceless glottal spirant / fricative i close front unrounded vowel ī long close front unrounded vowel j k l m n ŋ o ō p

voiced palatal approximant voiceless velar stop / plosive alveolar lateral approximant bilabial nasal dental / alveolar nasal velar nasal close-mid back rounded vowel long close-mid back rounded vowel voiceless bilabial stop / plosive 113

Example mann 'man' ān 'one' bæc 'back' rǣdan 'read' Mod E but bōc 'book' niht 'night' dēofol 'devil' enwel 'angel' feðer 'wing' etan 'eat' hēr 'here' ModE China ModE set feorr 'far' wōd 'good' āwan 'own' hand 'hand' sittan 'sit' bītan 'bite' wē 'you' camb 'comb' lamb 'lamb' mann 'man' nū 'now' sinwan 'sing' open 'open' ōr 'origin' prēost 'priest'

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

r

alveolar liquid

s p t ` θ

voiceless alveolar sibilant voiceless postalveolar sibilant voiceless dental / alveolar stop voiceless postalveolar affricate voiceless dental spirant / fricative

u

close back rounded vowel

ū s v w x y ȳ z

long close back rounded vowel close to close-mid back rounded vowel voiced labiodental spirant / fricative voiced labio-velar approximant voiceless velar spirant / fricative close front rounded vowel long close front rounded vowel voiced alveolar spirant / fricative

114

rǣdan 'read' sittan 'sit' scip 'ship' twēwen 'two' cild 'child' þēaw 'custom' burw 'stronghold' būwan 'bow' ModE put heofon 'heaven' weall 'wall' beorht 'bright' yfel 'evil' brȳd 'bride' rīsan 'rise'

M. Babenko. Lecture Notes and Practical Tasks in the History of English

SUPPLEMENT 1 1. Explain the following historical sound and spelling changes: OE. āʒen > ME.(awen, oʒen) owen > E. own OE. blæst > ME. blast > E. blast OE. brūn > ME. broun, brown > E. brown OE. būton (būtan) > ME. buten > E. but OE. cēpan > ME. keepen > E. keep OE. clāð > ME. clooth > E. cloth [kloq], clothes [kləυðz] OE. cnāwan > ME. knowen > E. know OE. draʒan > ME. drawen > E. draw OE. earnian > ME. earnen > E. earn OE. fuʒol > ME. fowel, fowl > E. fowl OE. ʒēar > ME. yeer > E. year OE. hāliʒ > ME. holy > E. holy OE. healfe > ME. halfe > E. half OE. heofon > ME. heven > E. heaven OE. hlūd > ME. loud > E. loud OE. hūs > ME. hous, hows > E. house OE. leornian > ME. lernen > E. learn OE. lōcian > ME. loken > E. look OE. mūð > ME. mouth > E. mouth OE. nȳd > ME. nede, need > E. need OE. nū > ME. nou, now > E. now OE. scamu > ME. shame > E. shame OE. scēap > ME. sheep > E. sheep OE. sceort > ME. short > E. short OE. scūr > ME. shour > E. shower OE. sum > ME. som > E. some OE. þū > ME. thow > E. thou [ðaυ] 115

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OE. ūre > ME. oure > E. our OE. wæter > ME. weter, water > E. water OE. yfel > ME. evel > E. evil

2. Show and explain the possible development of the following OE words: OE. āð OE. bān OE. brād OE. deorc OE. eal OE. earm OE. ʒōs OE. ʒrētan OE. hrinʒ OE. hrōf OE. losian OE. mētan OE. peru OE. raca OE. rād OE. riht OE. snāw OE. tīma OE. ūt OE. weorc

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SUPPLEMENT 2 How to Explain Historical Sound and Spelling Changes and Possible Development of Some Old English Words 1) OE. draʒan > ME. drawen > E. draw [Ddraγan] > [Ddrawèn], [Ddraυèn] > [dr=iz a) In OE word draʒan letter ʒ denoted sound [γ]. In ME letter ʒ went out of use, the sound it denoted ([γ]) remained, turned into [w] (ʒ [γ] > [w] w) and then vocalized after vowels: [w] > [s]. Together with the previous vowel this [s] formed a diphthong: [a + s] > [aυ]. So, in ME the word was first pronounced as [Ddrawèn], then [Ddraυèn]. b) In ENE diphthong [aυ] turned to [i], the unstressed ending levelled and was finally lost. 2) OE. cēpan > ME. keepen > E. keep [Dke:pan] > [Dke:pèn] > [kgp] a) In OE letter ‘c’ denoted sound [k]. In ME, following the Norman-French norms, to preserve the pronunciation of the first root letter, it was substituted by a newly borrowed from French letter ‘k’ (spelling changes). In ME long vowel sound [e:] began to be denoted with the help of a newly introduced digraph ‘ee’. The unstressed ending ‘an’ leveled to ‘en’ [-èn]. b) In ENE, long vowel [e:] turned into long vowel [g] (the Great Vowel Shift), the unstressed ending levelled and was finally lost.

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3) OE. hlūd > ME. loud > E. loud [hled] > [led] > [l~sd] a) In ME long sound [e] began to be denoted with the help of a new digraph ‘ou’ introduced under Norman French influence (spelling changes). Initial ‘h’ was lost before [r, l, n] both in spelling and pronunciation (simplification of some consonant groups in ME). b) In ENE long vowel [e] turned into diphthong [~sz= (the Great Vowel Shift). 4) OE. cniht > ME. knight > E. knight [kniχt] > [kniχt], [kngt] > [n~ft] a) In OE letter ‘c’ denoted sound [k]. In ME, following the Norman-French norms, to preserve the pronunciation of the first root letter, it was substituted by a newly borrowed from French letter ‘k’ (spelling changes). Sound [χ] in spelling began to be denoted by a newly introduced digraph ‘gh’ (spelling changes). Later consonant sound [χ] denoted by ‘gh’ in the middle of words was lost in pronunciation before ‘t’ (development of sound [χ] denoted by ‘gh’), the preceding vowel [f] was lengthened and turned into [g]K b) In the ENE period, long vowel [g] turned into a diphthong [~f] (the Great Vowel Shift). Consonant combination / cluster ‘kn’ simplified in pronunciation: kn [kn] > kn [n] (simplification of some consonant groups in ENE).

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5) OE. cild > ME. child > E. child [`áäÇ]I=[`gäÇ] > [`gäÇ] > [`~fäÇ] a) In OE letter ‘c’ denoted sound [k], which palatalized to [kD] and turned into [`] (palatalization of velar consonants). ‘ld’ is a homorganic consonant cluster, so vowel sound [á] lengthened in pronunciation before it (quantitative changes of vowels in the ME period): [á] > [g]. b) In ENE the long vowel [g] turned into a diphthong [~f] (the Great Vowel Shift). 6) OE. rād > ME. rood > E. road [rod] > [rid] > [rèsd] a) OE long vowel [o] turned to [i] (qualitative changes of vowels in the ME). This long open vowel sound was first denoted by digraph ‘oo’, later, it began to be denoted with the help of a newly introduced digraph ‘oa’ (spelling changes in ENE). b) According to the Great Vowel Shift, long open vowel [i] turned into diphthong [èszK

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SUPPLEMENT 3 Jeoffrey Chaucer (1340 – 1400), The Canterbury Tales Tale THE PROLOGUE When in April the sweet showers fall And pierce the drought of March to the root, and all The veins are bathed in liquor of such power As brings about the engendering of the flower, When also Zephyrus with his sweet breath Exhales as air in every grove and heath Upon the tender shoots, and the young sun His half-course in the sign of the Ram has run, And the small fowl are making melody That sleep away the night with open eye (So nature pricks them and their heart engages) Then people long to go on pilgrimages And palmers long to seek the stranger strands Of far-off saints, hollowed in sundry lands… ***** An Oxford Cleric, still a student though, One who had taken logic long ago, Was there; his horse was thinner than a rake, And he was not too fat, I undertake, But had a hollow look, a sober stare; The thread upon his overcoat was bare. He had found no preferment in the church And he was woo unworldly to make search For secular employment. By his bed He preferred having twenty books in red And black, of Aristotle’s philosophy, Than costly clothes, fiddle or psaltery. Though a philosopher, as I have told, He had not found the stone for making gold. Whatever money from his friends he took He spent on learning or another book And prayed for them most earnestly, returning Thanks to them thus for paying for his learning. His only care was study, and indeed He never spoke a word more than was need, Formal at that, respectful in the extreme, Short, to the point, and lofty in his theme. A tone of moral virtue filled his speech And gladly would he learn, and gladly teach. 120

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A clerk from Oxford was with us also, Who'd turned to getting knowledge, long ago. As meagre was his horse as is a rake, Nor he himself too fat, I'll undertake, But he looked hollow and went soberly. Right threadbare was his overcoat; for he Had got him yet no churchly benefice, Nor was so worldly as to gain office. For he would rather have at his bed's head Some twenty books, all bound in black and red, Of Aristotle and his philosophy Than rich robes, fiddle, or gay psaltery. Yet, and for all he was philosopher, He had but little gold within his coffer; But all that he might borrow from a friend On books and learning he would swiftly spend, And then he'd pray right busily for the souls Of those who gave him wherewithal for schools. Of study took he utmost care and heed. Not one word spoke he more than was his need; And that was said in fullest reverence And short and quick and full of high good sense. Pregnant of moral virtue was his speech; And gladly would he learn and gladly teach. (Translated into Modern English by Nevill Coghill) Джефрі Чосер, Чосер, “Кентерберійські Кентерберійські розповіді” розповіді” ПРОЛОГ Когда Апрель обильными дождями Разрыхлил землю, взрытую ростками, И, мартовскую жажду утоля, От корня до зеленого стебля Набухли жилки той весенней силой, Что в каждой роще почки распустила, А солнце юное в своем пути Весь Овна знак успело обойти, И, ни на миг в ночи не засыпая, Без умолку звенели птичьи стаи, Так сердце им встревожил зов весны, – Тогда со всех концов родной страны Паломников бессчетных вереницы Мощам заморским снова поклониться Стремились истово… ***** Прервав над логикой усердный труд, 121

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Студент оксфордский с нами рядом плелся. Едва ль беднее нищий бы нашелся: Не конь под ним, а щипаная галка, И самого студента было жалко – Такой он был обтрепанный, убогий, Худой, измученный плохой дорогой. Он ни прихода не сумел добыть, Ни службы канцелярской. Выносить Нужду и голод приучился стойко. Полено клал он в изголовье койки. Ему милее двадцать книг иметь, Чем платье дорогое, лютню, снедь. Он негу презирал сокровищ тленных, Но Аристотель – кладезь мыслей ценных – Не мог прибавить денег ни гроша, И клерк их клянчил, грешная душа, У всех друзей и тратил на ученье, И ревностно молился о спасеньи Тех, щедрости которых был обязан. К науке был он горячо привязан, Но философия не помогала И золота ни унца не давала. Он слова лишнего не говорил И слог высокий мудрости любил – Короткий, быстрый, искренний правдивый; Он сыт был жатвой с этой тучной нивы. И, бедняком предпочитая жить, Хотел учиться и других учить. (Переклад російською Івана Кашкіна) ***** Ось бідний клерк – один з мандрівників, Давно над логікою в Оксфорді він скнів, Був кінь його худіший за граблі, Тай клерк від вітру ледь тримавсь землі. Він вигляд мав спокійний та ясний, В лахміттях в спеку і у буревій. Клерк працював за мізер тут і там, Та де ж без слави взятися грошам? Книжок із двадцять замість подушок Під голову він клав, як спати йшов. І Арістотель – то найбільший скарб, Не спокушає розкіш, звуки арф. І хай наш клерк філософ хоч куди, Але у скрині тільки пил і дим. Він все, що мав, у друзів позичав 122

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І знову на навчання витрачав. За це молився клерк за душі їх, Інакше-бо віддячити не міг. Знання – оце була його мета, І зайве слово з вуст не виліта. Але в його словах – і форма й сенс, І кожне речення мораль в собі несе. Коли й надалі буде клерк таким, То буде вчитися і вчити залюбки. (Переклад Юлії Максимейко, ф-т іноземної філології ХНПУ імені Г.С. Сковороди) William Shakespeare (baptized baptized 26 April 1564 – died 23 April 1616) 1616 JULIUS CAESAR Антоний: Внемлите, Друзья, собратья, римляне! Не славить Пришел я Цезаря, а хоронить. Людей переживают их грехи; Заслуги часто мы хороним с ними. Пусть будет так и с Цезарем. Представил Вам властолюбцем честный Брут его; А если так, то это тяжкий грех, И тяжко за него наказан Цезарь. Я, с разрешенья Брута и других, – Ведь Брут – достопочтенный человек, И все они, о, все достопочтенны, – Надгробным словом Цезаря почту. Он был мне другом верным, справедливым, Но Брут его считает властолюбцем, А Брут – достопочтенный человек. С собой привел немало пленных Цезарь, Их выкупом обогатил казну, – Не в этом ли сказался властолюбец? Когда бедняк стонал, то Цезарь плакал, – Столь мягким не бывает властолюбье. Но Брут его считает властолюбцем, А Брут – достопочтенный человек. Все видели, как в праздник Луперкалий Я трижды подносил ему венец; Он трижды отвергал – из властолюбья? Но властолюбцем Брут его считает, А Брут, нет слов, почтенный человек. Я говорю, не чтобы спорить с Брутом; Я только то, что знаю, говорю. Вам всем он дорог был не без причины: Так где ж причина, чтоб о нем не плакать? 123

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О разум! Видно, ты к зверям бежал, А люди обезумели. – Простите. Душа моя – у Цезаря в гробу; Я помолчу, чтобы прийти в себя. (Переклад російською І.Б. Мандельштама) ***** SONNET LXVI Измучась всем, я умереть хочу. Тоска смотреть, как мается бедняк, И как шутя живется богачу, И доверять, и попадать впросак, И наблюдать, как наглость лезет в свет, И честь девичья катится ко дну, И знать, что ходу совершенствам нет, И видеть мощь у немощи в плену, И вспоминать, что мысли заткнут рот, И разум сносит глупости хулу, И прямодушье простотой слывет, И доброта прислуживает злу. Измучась всем, не стал бы жить и дня, Да другу трудно будет без меня. (Переклад російською Бориса Пастернака) ***** Зову я смерть. Мне видеть невтерпеж Достоинство, что просит подаянья, Над простотой глумящуюся ложь, Ничтожество в роскошном одеяньи, И совершенству ложный приговор, И девственность, поруганную грубо, И неуместной почести позор, И мощь в плену у немощи беззубой, И прямоту, что глупостью слывет, И глупость в маске мудреца, пророка, И вдохновения зажатый рот, И праведность на службе у порока. Все мерзостно, что вижу я вокруг... Но как тебя покинуть, милый друг! (Переклад російською С. Я. Маршака) ***** Стомившися, вже смерті я благаю, Бо скрізь нікчемність в розкоші сама, І в злиднях честь доходить до одчаю, І чистій вірності шляхів нема, І силу неміч забива в кайдани, І честь дівоча втоптана у бруд, 124

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І почесті не тим, хто гідний шани, І досконалості — ганебний суд, І злу — добро поставлене в служниці, І владою уярмлені митці, І істину вважають за дурниці, І гине хист в недоума в руці. Стомившись тим, спокою прагну я, Та вмерти не дає любов твоя. (Переклад українською Дмитра Паламарчука) ***** Я кличу смерть - дивитися набридло На жебри і приниження чеснот, На безтурботне і вельможне бидло, На правоту, що їй затисли рот, На честь фальшиву, на дівочу вроду Поганьблену, на зраду в пишноті, На правду, що підлоті навдогоду В бруд обертає почуття святі, І на мистецтво під п'ятою влади, І на талант під наглядом шпика, І на порядність, що безбожно краде, І на добро, що в зла за служника! Я від всього цього помер би нині, Та як тебе лишити в самотині? (Переклад українською Дмитра Павличка)

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SUPPLEMENT 4

EuroEnglish The European Commission have just announced an agreement whereby English will be the official language of the EU, rather than German, which was the other possibility. As part of the negotiations, Her Majesty's government conceded that English spelling had some room for improvement and has accepted a five year phase in plan that would be known as "EuroEnglish". In the first year, "s" will replace the soft"c". Sertainly, this will make the sivil servants jump for joy. The hard "c" will be dropped in favour of the "k". This should klear up konfusion and keyboards kan have 1 less letter. There will be growing publik enthusiasm in the sekond year, when the troublesome "ph" will be replaced with the "f". This will make words like "fotograf" 20% shorter. In the third year, publik akseptanse of the new spelling kan be expekted to reach the stage where more komplikated changes are possible. Governments will enkorage the removal of double letters, which have always ben a deterent to akurate speling. Also, al wil agre that the horible mes of the silent "e"s in the languag is disgraseful, and they should go away. By the 4th year, peopl wil be reseptiv to steps such as replasing "th" with "z" and "w" with "v". During ze fifz year, ze unesesary "o" kan be dropd from vords kontaining "ou" and similar changes vud of kors be aplid to ozer kombinations of leters. After zis fifz year, ve vil hav a realy sensiblriten styl. Zer vil be no mor trubls or difikultis and evrivun vil find it ezi to understand each ozer. ZE DREAM VIL FINALI KUM TRU!

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