133 94 4MB
English, Dutch Pages 352 [356] Year 2011
Fragile Identities Towards a Theology of Interreligious Hospitality
CURRENTS OF ENCOUNTER STUDIES ON THE CONTACT BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIGIONS, BELIEFS, AND CULTURES VOL. 39
GENERAL EDITORS Hans De Wit Jerald D. Gort Henry Jansen Lourens Minnema W.L. Van Der Merwe Hendrik M. Vroom Anton Wessels ADVISORY BOARD Leonard Fernando (Delhi) James Haire (Canberra) James W. Heisig (Nagoya) Mechteld M. Jansen (Amsterdam) Kang Phee Seng (Hong Kong) Oddbjørn Leirvik (Oslo) Francis Anekwe Oborji (Rome) Jayakiran Sebastian (Philadelphia, PA) Nelly Van Doorn-Harder (Valparaiso) Ulrich Winkler (Salzburg)
Fragile Identities Towards a Theology of Interreligious Hospitality
Marianne Moyaert
Amsterdam - New York, NY 2011
A different version of chapter six (201-19) originally appeared in Horizons: The Journal of the College Theology Society 36 (2009): 215-34, and a shorter version of chapter six (219-32) in Exchange: Journal of Missiological and Ecumenical Research 37 (2008): 337-64. I wish to thank the editors for permission to use these articles here. Translated by Henry Jansen Cover illustration: Icon of the Trinity, by Andrei Rublev (14th-15th century) Cover design: Pier Post The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO 9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents - Requirements for permanence”. ISBN: 978-90-420-3279-8 E-Book ISBN: 978-90-420-3280-4 ©Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2011 Printed in the Netherlands
Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 The Theology of Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religious Plurality: A New Theological Challenge? . . . . . . . . . The Theology of Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exclusivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inclusivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pluralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 11 13 15 22 34 44
2 The Theology of Religions and the Tension between Openness and Closedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interreligious Dialogue in the Exclusivist Model . . . . . . . . . . . . Inclusivism and Interreligious Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interreligious Dialogue and Pluralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47 49 57 67 81
3 A Critique of the Pluralist Model of Interreligious Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 The Virtue of Openness: Pluralism as Confessional Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Pluralism and the Inability to do Justice to Difference . . . . . . . 92 Pluralism and “Faith Commitment”: The Difference between Expression and Impression . . . . . 103 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4 The Cultural‐Linguistic Theory, Postliberalism, and Religious Incommensurability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biographical Reflections and Theological Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Cultural‐Linguistic Theory of Religion and Ecumenism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Postliberalism and the Cultural Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Postliberalism, The Theology of Religions, and Interreligious Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121 122 127 135 142 159
5 The End of Dialogue? A Theological Critique of Postliberalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The “Reception History” of the Cultural‐Linguistic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intermezzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intratextual Hermeneutics and the End of Dialogue . . . . . . . . A Theological Critique of Postliberalism: Dichotomy or Dialogue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concluding Reflections on Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Hermeneutical Openness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Interreligious Dialogue and Hermeneutical Openness . . . . . . . . . The Analogy between Language and Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Theological Hermeneutics of the Story of Babel . . . . . . . . . . Linguistic Hospitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hermeneutical Openness as Linguistic Hospitality . . . . . . . . . Narrative Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion: A Theology of Interreligious Hospitality . . . . . . . 7 Testimony and Openness: A Theological Perspective . . . . . . . . . . Fragility and Human Restlessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Balm for the Soul: The Generosity of the Feast . . . . . . . . . . . . .
161 162 167 172 175 190 197 198 201 219 232 247 261 277 280 298
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Index of Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Index of Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Introduction The central theme of this book is interreligious dialogue, and the key issue is the dialogical tension between openness and identity. What precisely this tension is can be explained by a quotation from an article by Hans Küng, “Dialogability and Steadfastness: On Two Complementary Virtues”: Does not such a faith conviction render a dialogue with other persuasions of faith impossible a priori? Does not such steadfastness in faith block serious dialogue between religions? More concretely put: If one believes in Christ as the way, the truth and the life, can one also accept that there are other ways, other truths, another life that emerge out of transcendence? Can one combine openness and truth, plurality and identity, dia‐ logability and steadfastness in the interreligious dialogue? The main issue in any interreligious undertaking is precisely this: Is there a theologically justified way that allows Christians to ac‐ cept the truth of other religions without relinquishing the truth of their own religion and their own identity? (Küng 1991: 242)
With his question “Can one combine openness and truth, plurality and identity, dialogability and steadfastness in the interreligious dialogue?” Küng correctly points to one of the central questions within reflection on interreligious dialogue. One often encounters the claim that dialogue partners have to unite the attitude of faith commitment on the one hand and openness on the other. The attitude that makes dialogue possible consists precisely in balancing the tension between openness for the other and steadfastness. Participants in interreligious dialogue are expected to open themselves for the religious other without thereby losing their identity. The dialogue partners should preserve who and what they are without closing them‐ selves off from those of other faiths. It is up to the dialogue partners to find the correct mixture of openness and identity: neither too open nor too closed. But it is unclear “whether [and how] we can reconcile total engagement or the authentic faith of each religious tradition with the notion of openness to the truth of the other religions” (Geffré 1991: 250‐51). That the dialogical attitude consists in “enduring” the tension between 1
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openness and commitment seems to have found general accep‐ tance in the literature on interreligious dialogue. How this must occur precisely has remained unclear until now and thus forms an important question for research. The lack of clarity on the way in which the dialogue partners can acquire this dialogical attitude has to do with the fact that it often remains unclear as to what the terms commitment, iden‐ tity, steadfastness, and openness actually mean in this context. Although these terms are used often, their precise meaning is seldom explicitly discussed in the literature on interreligious dialogue. What is meant by “openness” for the religious other? And conversely, what exactly is an attitude of “closedness”? Must we be open for the religious other? If so, why? What is the extent of the openness? Are there limits to openness? If so, who or what determines those limits? How is the dialogical call to openness related to the commitment of one’s religious identity? What is the nature of that commitment? How is that commit‐ ment related to the awareness of plurality, otherness, and con‐ tingency? Is there an exclusive relationship: either openness or identity? Or is it a matter of a fruitful tensive relationship, and is it precisely in the openness for the other that one acquires oneʹs own identity? Is the religious other a threat or an en‐ richment? And, if the latter, what does that enrichment then mean? Is identity something one possesses—and thus needs to cling to it in order not to lose it? Is identity that which remains the same with respect to a person or a community? Or is identity more a matter of becoming and growing—and thus of change and transformation? If the latter obtains, how can such a transforma‐ tion be conceived? How is change related to identity? How can the self become different without losing itself? What is identity, sameness, and what is otherness? These are only a few questions that are connected with the theme of the dialogical tensive relationship between the faith commitment of religious identity and openness for the religious other. They prompt a thorough investigation of the presup‐ positions and meanings that cohere with these concepts and the way in which these concepts function in theological literature. Only if there is more clarity on the presuppositions and dynam‐ ics that play a central role in reflection on interreligious dia‐ logue between identity and openness will it be possible to
INTRODUCTION
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throw light on the tensive relationship between openness and identity and on the question of what exactly can be expected from the dialogue partners in the context of interreligious dia‐ logue. Let us return to the quotation by Küng. There is yet a second reason why it merits our attention. The passage cited is inter‐ esting not only because it evokes the question of the relation‐ ship between openness and identity but also because Küng takes a position regarding the perspective from which this pro‐ blem should be treated. It is theology that, according to Küng, must formulate an answer to the problem of the tensive re‐ lationship. For Küng, the most important question for all inter‐ religious dialogue is as follows: Is there a theology that allows Christians to accept the truth of other religions without relin‐ quishing the truth of their own religion and their own identity? It is up to theological reflection to clarify why Christians must or, conversely, should not be open to those of other religions. It is theology that sets out how far that openness extends and if there should be limits to the openness for the religious other. If Christians may open themselves up, why this openness is appropriate (or not) and how this openness for the faith of an‐ other is related to oneʹs own faith commitment are questions that are answered, one by one, through theological reflection on and interpretation of religious diversity. In this book we will, on the one hand, explicitly take up Küng’s challenge to reflect from a theological perspective on the relationship between openness and faith commitment. What does theology teach us about the dialogical tensive rela‐ tionship? What different theological positions are taken with re‐ spect to this relationship? What (explicit and implicit) content is given to the concepts of openness and identity in the theo‐ logical discourse on religious plurality and interreligious dia‐ logue? In this way we hope to be able to provide a meaningful contribution from the perspective of theology to a topic that is also prominently present in the public debate. We are, after all, convinced that it is not only in sociology, philosophy, psycho‐ logy, anthropology, pedagogics, and communication studies that interesting perspectives can be developed on the contemp‐ orary context of religious (and cultural) plurality. Theology can
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also help the current public debate on the encounter between the religions take a cautious step forward. On the other hand, this book is also a meta‐reflection on the way in which current theology reflects on interreligious dia‐ logue and the tensive relationship between identity and other‐ ness. We will develop a critical analysis of the structure of pre‐ judices of theology of interreligious dialogue. To what extent is the way in which theology usually reflects on interreligious dia‐ logue a help or hindrance for dialogue with the religious other? What perspectives remain underexposed in contemporary theo‐ logical reflection on interreligious dialogue? What are the blind spots in the current theological discourse on interreligious dialogue? This book therefore does more than join in the con‐ temporary theological debate on interreligious dialogue: it is not only a kind of reflection on dialogue but also a meta‐re‐ flection on the theology of interreligious dialogue. Approach We will begin at the heart of contemporary theological discus‐ sion on this topic. The theological discipline that preferably deals with the questions connected with the context of religious plurality is the theology of religions. The idea is that it is not possible “from a Christian perspective, seriously to engage in interreligious dialogue without a sound theology of religions” (Mortensen 2003: xiv). The underlying thought is that inter‐ religious dialogue should be based on a correct theological eval‐ uation of religious traditions. And that is the starting point for reflection on the nature, premises, and range of interreligious dialogue in the usual theological reflection on religious plural‐ ity (Bernhardt 2003: 3‐9). There is a clear “coherence” between the theological interpretation of religious diversity on the one hand and the way in which interreligious dialogue and the ten‐ sion between openness and commitment is conceived on the other (Schmitt‐Leukel 2000: 265). It is important here to note that the most important question for the Christian theology of religions is the question of salvation (Race 1983). Is it possible for non‐Christians to be saved? And if so, how? The three clas‐ sical answers are: (1) exclusivism, (2) inclusivism, and (3) plur‐ alism. To a great extent Christian soteriology determines the
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Christian theological interpretation and appreciation of the reli‐ gious other and interreligious dialogue.1 Methodologically, we thus start with the discussion on inter‐ religious dialogue as it has been conducted up to the present in the theological literature. It should be noted that the appropri‐ ateness of our methodological approach is disputed by a num‐ ber of theologians.2 Some question if it is meaningful to discuss the question of the tension between identity and openness from the perspective of theology of religions. Various theologians wonder if it is indeed so obvious that reflection on interreligious dialogue should start within theology of religions. Does this methodology not already exclude a number of possibilities beforehand? Could it not even be that the connection between theology of religions and interreligious dialogue narrows the discussion a priori, as a result of which a number of crucial questions are not discussed? We will deal with these objections in this book. From a methodological perspective we do note the following. The fact that those who advocate another approach to interreligious dialogue feel compelled to mark their approach off explicitly from theology of religions confirms the legitimacy of discussing the question of interreligious dialogue from this theological perspective. Whatever the attitude towards theo‐ logy of religions may be, it is not possible to reflect on interre‐ ligious dialogue today without first reflecting thoroughly on the connection between theology of religions and interreligious dialogue.
1
Non‐Christian religions also pose the question of the “meaning” of religious plurality and the relationship betwen identity and otherness. See, e.g,. Coward 1987 and Griffiths 1990. The theme issue of Theological Studies 64 (2003) is also devoted to the way in which other religions— Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism—interpret religious plurality. First, it is apparent from this literature that other religions also wrestle with the question of how oneʹs own religion is related to religious plur‐ ality. Second, the study of this literature quickly makes clear that there is often no simple answer to this question. Plurality thus also appears to be present in the various traditions, both diachronically and synchron‐ ically. 2
See. e.g., Barnes 2000, Clooney 1993, Fredericks 1999, Haers 2001, Lindbeck 1997, Muck 2002.
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Up until the present the proponents of the three soteriolo‐ gical models continue to dispute one another’s views in publi‐ cations and at conferences. There are three comments to make about this in the light of the theme of interreligious dialogue. First, both inclusivists and pluralists are more or less agreed that exclusivism is problematic with respect to interreligious dialogue, despite the fact that various exclusivist theologians at‐ tempt to demonstrate that exclusivism and dialogue can be combined. Second, a sometimes quite sharp discussion has aris‐ en primarily between inclusivists and pluralists that concerns the heart of our research.3 Thus, one of the discussion points is the question of which of the two models—inclusivism or plural‐ ism—succeeds best in finding the correct relationship between identity and openness. The pluralists “accuse” the inclusivists of closedness, because the latter consider their own Christian perspective to be normative for judging other religions. In turn, inclusivists claim that pluralism leads to selling out Christian identity. Nevertheless, pluralism has characterized itself the most as the model for interreligious dialogue to the detriment of the other two. This immediately explains the order in which we discuss the models: we start with the “least” open, the exclu‐ sivist model, then discuss the “half‐open” inclusivist model, and finally look at the model that claims to live up to the dia‐ logical virtue of openness, i.e. pluralism. This classification is not self‐evident, however. A deeper an‐ alysis of the pluralist content of interreligious dialogue shows that there are serious problems with this model, primarily con‐ cerning the way in which the faith commitment is approached. In this connection we hold that it is primarily the theory of religion behind pluralism that is problematic. The pluralist un‐ derstanding of religions makes the differences between the reli‐ gions subordinate to their commonalities and thus pays insuf‐ ficient attention to the religious importance of concrete religious symbols, rituals, practices, and doctrines in the formation of religious identity. In searching for an approach to religion that succeeds better in fathoming the specificity of faith commitments, we turn to the postliberal theologian George Lindbeck, whose theory of religion is strongly focused on the irreducible particularity of 3
See, e.g., the publications Hick and Knitter 1987 and DʹCosta 1990.
INTRODUCTION
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religions (Lindbeck 1984). Lindbeck calls his position the cul‐ tural‐linguistic model. According to Lindbeck, belonging to a religion is similar to speaking a language and acquiring cultural skills. Just as people never speak “language” in general but do speak Dutch, German, or French, for example, neither is there something like “faith” in general. Believing is particular: Chris‐ tian, Jew, Hindu, Buddhist, etc. The world in which a believer lives varies considerably, depending on the religious language one speaks. If they do not speak a specific religious language they do not gain any access to the world that is expressed in this language. To include Lindbeck in a book on interreligious dialogue is, methodologically speaking, not a choice that speaks for itself because the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion leaves particu‐ larly little room for interreligious dialogue. According to post‐ liberalism the differences between the religions are so great that the very possibility of a meaningful interreligious dialogue be‐ comes questionable. There are four reasons why we neverthe‐ less choose to include Lindbeck here. The first reason we have already elucidated. Lindbeck formulates a strong alternative to pluralism. Second, we think that a book that researches the dialogical tension between identity and openness in the context of interreligious dialogue should also dare to engage in dis‐ cussion an author who has serious objections to this whole enterprise—an author who wonders if this dialogue will not lead to the relativization and undermining of Christian identity. In this respect we will investigate, among other things, Lind‐ beck’s claim that religions are untranslatable as a serious obsta‐ cle to dialogue between the religions. A third reason for our in‐ terest in Lindbeck is his criticism of the connection between theology of religions and interreligious dialogue. Lindbeck’s critique concerns not only pluralism but is much more funda‐ mental. He points out that there is something wrong with the priority of soteriology in the theology of interreligious dialogue. Lindbeck forces us to ask if Küngʹs question of a theologically justified interpretation of the dialogical tension between stead‐ fastness and openness is not filled in too quickly by soterio‐ logical issues. If Lindbeck is right, and soteriology is not the most suitable approach for viewing the dialogical tension be‐ tween identity and openness, what contribution can theology
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make? The final reason why Lindbeck’s thought has an im‐ portant place in our book is that the cultural‐linguistic model is an important source of inspiration for a relatively new current within the theological approach to interreligious dialogue—a current we call particularism (Moyaert 2005: 36‐51). We have already stated it: one of the consequences of Lindbeck’s focus on the linguistic particularity of the religions is that it leaves little room for interreligious dialogue. The par‐ ticularity of the faith commitment is an obstacle for dialogue. One could respond as follows: So what? Maybe interreligious dialogue is not possible. Maybe Lindbeck’s suspicion of argu‐ ments for dialogical openness is justified. Maybe interreligious dialogue does lead to the undermining of identity. Maybe the focus should indeed be on testimony and the reinforcement of the Christian identity instead of on the dialogue between the religions. From a theological perspective, however, we have serious questions regarding the plausibility of postliberalism and its negative interpretation of interreligious dialogue. There are various theological arguments that place dialogue precisely at the heart of the Christian tradition. To demonstrate this, we first analyze critically the theological foundations of Lindbeck’s theory of religion. Next, we will investigate if it is not possible to view the cultural‐linguistic analogy between language and religion, which correctly focuses attention on the particularity of religions, in a different way. To that end we turn to the philo‐ sopher Paul Ricœur (1913‐2005), who helps us expound our theological insights on the priority of dialogue and the tensive relationship between identity and openness in a more systemat‐ ic way. In this context Ricœur’s hermeneutics forms an impor‐ tant aid for formulating a number of difficulties in current theo‐ logical reflection on interreligious dialogue more sharply and to give them a new turn. There are various arguments for justifying the choice for Ri‐ cœur. For us, in light of our topic, four reasons have been de‐ cisive. First, one of Ricœur’s final publications deals with pre‐ cisely the question of the (un)translatability of languages, reli‐ gions, and cultures (Ricœur 2006). The second reason concerns the fact that, like no other, Ricœur has discussed the question of the relationship between identity and otherness. Third—and this is perhaps the most important for us—there is the argu‐
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ment that Ricœur’s anthropology and his thinking on the self and the other shows many affinities with biblical anthropology. His anthropology sketches an image of a willing and wrestling human being (Hettema 2005). Ricœur helps us to formulate a number of biblical/Christian intuitions more sharply. We think that the dialectic between our theological argument for dia‐ logue and Ricœur’s philosophical and hermeneutical insights can give an important and constructive stimulus and a new turn to the discussion of the criteria, possibilities, and limits of interreligious dialogue and the tension between identity and openness.
CHAPTER 1
The Theology of Religions In this chapter we will look at the theology of religions and the three classical approaches to it: exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism. Our interest in the theology of religions has to do primarily with the question of how these three approaches relate to the dialogue between religions and the tension be‐ tween identity and openness. This question, however, will be the theme of the second chapter. Nevertheless, the order in which the three models of exclusivism, inclusivism, and plural‐ ism appear in this chapter already points to the question of which of the three options is most suitable for interreligious dialogue. The order in which we discuss the three models is im‐ portant for rhetorical reasons especially, i.e. first exclusivism, then inclusivism, and finally pluralism. This order reflects a gradual buildup from “less” to “more” openness for the reli‐ gious other (McCarthy 1998: 73‐117). We will thus, step by step, arrive at the pluralist claim that their model is the one that suc‐ ceeds best in finding the right balance between identity and openness. The question if this pluralistic claim is correct will be discussed in the third chapter. In what follows we will first briefly sketch the context within which the theology of religions has emerged. We will then refine the question of the theology of religions, explaining what precisely the theological challenge of religious plurality consists in. These introductory reflections will be followed by an analysis of the different models of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism. Religious Plurality: A New Theological Challenge? Theological reflection is guided by the context in which theo‐ logy is done.1 We should not, therefore, be surprised that one of 1
The plurality of religions is not new. Christianity was never the only religion and the church has always known that other religions existed. Since the birth of Christianity Christians have always posed the 11
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the most important challenges for contemporary theology has to do with religious plurality and the way in which Christianity responds to this given. Processes of globalization brought not only an increased knowledge of other religious traditions but also real contact with those who belong to other religions. The religious other is no longer an abstract figure but is shown in all her concreteness as neighbor, colleague, friend, spouse, etc. The result is that more and more Christians, along with peoples of other faiths and ideologies, are experiencing religious pluralism in a new way—that is they are feeling not only the reality of so many other religious paths, but also their vitality, their in‐ fluence in our modern world, their depths, beauty and at‐ tractiveness. (Knitter 1987: vii)
Theological literature has an eye for both the positive and neg‐ ative sides of pluralization. On the one hand, the emphasis is laid on the experience of religious vitality as a (possible) source of spirituality and morality for other religions. Religious plural‐ ity is said to be potentially enriching. From this perspective, in‐ terreligious dialogue appears as an ideal context in which to learn from other believers. On the other hand, the literature also points to the connec‐ tion between religious plurality and the possibility of interreli‐ gious conflicts and violence. Clashes between religious truth claims especially could even promote violent conflicts. From this perspective as well, reference is made to the importance of interreligious dialogue. One should think in this context of the adage that the Swiss theologian Hans Küng formulated, i.e that “there will be no peace among the nations without peace among the religions; there will be no peace among the religions without a dialogue among the religions” (Küng 1990: 171). question of the relationship between faith in Christ as the saviour of all humanity and other religions. If Christ is the saviour of all people, why did he wait so long to come? What will happen to all those generations who died before his advent? What will happen to all those who reject the Gospel after he came? Throughout history the church has formulated different theological answers to these questions. F.A. Sullivan shows the impact of historical events on the theological attitude of the church towards non‐Christians. See Sullivan 1992.
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
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The Theology of Religions The contemporary experience of religious diversity challenges theology to develop an open and constructive theology of inter‐ religious dialogue. That is why theological interpretations of re‐ ligious plurality are also judged on the basis of their capacity to promote friendly interreligious relationships. The question of how the Christian tradition relates to this context of religious plurality is thematized within the theology of religions, a theological discipline that originated in the peri‐ od around the Second Vatican Council (1962‐1965). It is not sur‐ prising that the genesis of this discipline must be situated in this period of aggiornamento. The Second Vatican Council was dominated by an atmosphere of trust, renewal, and openness. Theologically, it was a time of listening to the “seeds of the Word” (Ad Gentes §11; Nostra Aetate §2) in the world, a time of dialogue with the world. The theology of religions starts with a specifically Christian question: How are other religious traditions related to the Christian mystery of salvation? The question of salvation and “its mediation to those outside the Christian dispensation” (Mer‐ rigan 1999: 339) is central. Actually, the question of salvation splits into two: the question of the possibility of salvation for non‐Christians and the question of the concrete means of sal‐ vation. It should be noted that in the current debate it is primarily the question of the means of salvation and, more specifically, the question of the significance and role of the religions in God’s plan of salvation that is in the foreground. Searching for a connection with the experience of religious diversity as a source of spirituality and morality, the focus has shifted re‐ cently from the religious other as a problem to the question of what the significance of these religions can be from the per‐ spective of Godʹs salvific intentions for the world. This shift has two sides. First, there is a shift in accent from the religious other as an individual to the collective level of reli‐ gions. The question is no longer if it is possible for individual non‐Christians to be saved despite their religion but rather how adherents of different religions can be saved in and through practising their faith.
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Second, and connected with the above, the actual (de facto) plurality of religions is increasingly recognized as a principial (de jure) given. That is why the question of the (continuing) the‐ ological significance of the religions in God’s plan of salvation is posed.2 The question of salvation arises from two traditional Chris‐ tian axioms: (1) God’s will for universal salvation and (2) the no‐ tion that salvation comes through Christ. These two axioms symbolize the tension between universality and particular‐ ity—a tension that is implied in the Christian doctrine of the in‐ carnation. Different answers are formulated to the question of salvation, and these answers are usually classified in the now widespread typology of exclusivism, inclusivism, and plural‐ ism.3 What unites all three approaches is the recognition that God wills the salvation of all humanity (1 Tim 2:4) and in conse‐ quence has acted to effect salvation in history. What disting‐ uishes them, however, is their determination to approach the history of salvation from different perspectives. (Merri‐ gan 1999: 341) 2 The fact that this shift in accent from the factual to the principial recognition of religious plurality has occurred does not mean that all par‐ ticipants in this theological discussion agree with this shift. Exclusivistic theologians reject plurality de jure. Various inclusivistic theologians do move in the direction of the principial recognition of religious plurality. See Dupuis 1997; Geffré 2000; D’Costa 2000. Nevertheless, plurality is not generally accepted de jure within inclusivistic theology. The official po‐ sition of the Roman Catholic Church rejects de jure plurality. Important in this perspective is the declaration by the Congregation for the Doc‐ trine of the Faith, Dominus Jesus: On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church. §4 especially is clear on this point: “The Church’s constant missionary proclamation is endangered today by rela‐ tivistic theories which seek to justify religious pluralism, not only de facto but also de iure (or in principle).” 3
This typology was introduced in theology in the 1980s by Alan Race (Race 1983). Shortly thereafter (1986), Gavin D’Costa published Theology and Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other Religions, following the same threefold schema. Since then, in general, studies on religious plurality and its theological implications have employed this typology. For that matter, D’Costa now criticizes this typology as untenable. Cf. D’Costa 1996: 223, 232 and 2000: 19‐52.
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
15
According to exclusivism, only those who explicitly confess Christ as Savior can be saved. The inclusivist model holds that a personal confession regarding Christ is not necessary for one to be saved. But at the same time it affirms that Christ is already involved in the process of salvation. Pluralism separates the possibility for salvation from mediation through Christ and holds that the religions form different and equal ways of sal‐ vation. Exclusivism Exclusivist theology does not play a pioneering role within the theology of religions nor within the practice of interreligious dialogue. Both inclusivists and pluralists view exclusivism as unacceptable and untenable, given the contemporary experi‐ ence of religious plurality. Nevertheless, the importance of ex‐ clusivism regarding salvation primarily within Evangelical Pro‐ testantism should not be underestimated. That is why, after an‐ alyzing the premises of exclusivism, we will illustrate the con‐ tinuing relevance of this model. To do so, we will turn to the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, an Evangelical organization that holds to exclusivism regarding salvation and is still active at present in the proclamation of the Gospel. No Salvation Apart From Faith in Christ Just like inclusivists and pluralists, exclusivists start with the notion that God wills that all be saved (1 Timothy 2:4), but this does not entail, in their view, that all people will be saved ultimately. According to exclusivism, salvation is possible only for Christians, and those outside of Christianity are excluded from salvation.4 The rejection of universal salvation is the most 4
It is customary to distinguish between Christocentric exclusivism (the Protestant form) and ecclesiocentric exclusivism (the Roman Ca‐ tholic form). The latter form still exists in fundamentalist‐traditionalist circles such as the Society of St. Pius X (see Lefebvre1992). The followers of Leonard Feeney, a Jesuit who placed himself outside of the Catholic Church by claiming that there was no salvation outside the church, also subscribe to exclusivism (the inscription on Feeneyʹs grave reads: extra ecclesiam nulla salus). According to some writers, the church returned to exclusivism with the declaration Dominus Jesus issued by the Congrega‐ tion for the Doctrine of the Faith. Cf. Haas 2004, May 2001. Although the document Dominus Jesus is not conducive to interreligious dialogue, it is,
16
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
central view of exclusivism. But it is also one of the most discussed [views of this mod‐ el], for the universality of salvation seems to have become a kind of dogma, whether openly or unobtrusively, in a great number of milieus: salvation comes through pure grace and Jesus Christ has died for all people, so all are saved. (Lau‐ sanne Committee for World Evangelization 2004b)
Exlusivists reject the “dogma of universal salvation” primarily because, in their view, it has no biblical basis. In contrast, the exclusivism regarding salvation is confirmed by certain pas‐ sages from the Bible, such as the gospel of John where Jesus says that he is “the way and the truth and the life” and that “no one comes to the Father except through [him]” (John 14:6). Another text that appears to confirm exclusivism is Acts 4:12 where it is said that “Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved.” “If the [exclusivists] cannot support optimism re‐ garding salvation, this is simply because of the weight of the biblical texts that confirm the effective possibility of eternal dam‐ nation” (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization 2004b). Defenses of exclusivism are usually found in the Protestant tradition, which, unlike the Roman Catholic tradition, empha‐ sizes the necessity of a personal relationship with Christ if one is to be saved. Christ is thus the unique mediator of salvation appointed by God. Exclusivism, however, is not the position of mainstream Protestantism: it is primarily within Evangelical Protestantism that support for exclusivism is found. The Evangelical movement is far from uniform;5 still we theologically speaking, not an exclusivist document but repeats the inclusivist position of the Second Vatican Council. 5
The Evangelical movement consists of different groups. Paul Knit‐ ter distinguishes between (1) Fundamentalists, (2) Evangelicals, (3) new Evangelicals and (4) Pentecostals or Charismatics. (1) The first base them‐ selves on the publication of the so‐called Fundamentals, twelve books that were published between 1910 and 1915. These books critique the liberal tendencies of modernism and affirm the fundamental truths of Chris‐ tianity. (2) The Lausanne movement is part of the group of conservative Evangelicals, which affirms the theological premises of fundamentalism to a large extent but condemns its anti‐intellectualism and polemic atti‐
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
17
can point to a number of family resemblances among the differ‐ ent Evangelical groups. Viewed historically, Evangelicalism arose in the eighteenth century as a response to the liberal ten‐ dencies of modernism. Up until the present, it is a movement that has a pessimistic view of contemporary culture, which is said to be marked by moral decline, relativism, and false reli‐ gion. This situation has to be changed; it is time for a reversal. Evangelical Christians belong to the Protestant wing of the church, which entails in the first place that they subscribe to the theological mottoes of the Reformation: sola fide, sola gratia and sola scriptura. In addition, Evangelicals emphasize the impor‐ tance of orthodoxy, i.e. “right belief.” “Consensus on the pri‐ mary doctrinal and ethical issues is important, and this consen‐ sus often determines the boundaries of the group and the dis‐ tinction between insiders and outsiders” (Droogers 1997: 62). In this regard the Bible is the most important source for ortho‐ doxy. It is “the rock‐bottom guide to all that a follower of Jesus does and claims” (Knitter 2002: 22). For Evangelicals, faithful‐ ness to the Bible means a very literal interpretation of the Bible: it says what it says. Also characteristic of these Christians is their deep piety, which goes with the conviction that only an in‐ dividual decision and a personal confession of faith will suffice to be saved. Here the experience of “being born again” comes up: the decision to turn to God in Christ is described as a defin‐ itive conversion, which gives a whole new perspective to life. It is not unusual for Evangelicals to be able to indicate the precise moment and place of their conversion. The experience of being tude. (3) The ecumenically inclined Evangelicals are open to working with other Christian denominations and participate in the World Council of Churches. (4) Lastly, the Charismatics and Pentecostals emphasize pri‐ marily the work of the Holy Spirit. With respect to this they speak of a “second blessing,” i.e. the experience of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit after conversion. It should be remarked that, under the influence of the Pentecostals and the Charismatics and their emphasis on the role of the Holy Spirit, the prevailing exclusivist theology of the religions is prod‐ ded in the direction of inclusivism. This theological discussion on the fate of non‐Christians is being taken up, however, by only a small number of theologians, including C. Pinnock and A. Yong. These discussions are hardly conducted on the level of laypeople and the local church, and a more “open” attitude toward other religions is often not even conceiv‐ able. See Pinnock 1996, 2001; Yong 2001, 2003.
18
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
born again “is an experience that gives them a sense of personal and intimate communion with Jesus and often shapes their lives and conversations in noticeably pious ways” (Marty 1991: 3). Their conviction that people are lost without Christ explains their commitment to the proclamation of the Gospel. This is, after all, the only path to redemption. The Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization One of the most important Evangelical organizations is the Lau‐ sanne Committee for World Evangelization. This organization mobilizes churches, mission organizations, groups, and individ‐ uals to rally around the project of world evangelization. The rallying cry of the Lausanne Committee for World Evangeliza‐ tion reads: “The Whole Church taking the Whole Gospel to the Whole World.” This international mission organization takes its name from a large conference that was convened in Lausanne in 1974 by Billy Graham. The purpose of this international conference was to bring together the leaders of the Evangelical Protestant Christians to reflect on mission strategy, to gain inspiration, and to strengthen the bonds between the Evangelical churches. Moreover, it was a response to the ecumenical World Council of Churches and, in particular, against “a dominant trend toward syncretism, universalism, and a de‐emphasis of evangelism” (Quebedeaux 1978: 59). Time magazine described this confer‐ ence as “possibly the widest ranging meeting of Christians ever held” (Time [5 August 1974]). In his opening address, “Why Lausanne?” Graham called the renewed emphasis of the essential Evangelical premises one of the most important objectives of the conference: a) commitment to the authority of Scripture, b) the lostness of human beings apart from Christ, c) salvation in Jesus Christ alone, d) Christian witness “by both word and deed” (neither denying Christian social responsibility, nor making it “our all‐consuming mission”), and e) the necessity of evan‐ gelism for the salvation of souls. (Stott 1994a: xiv)
The Lausanne Conference of 1974 resulted in a document called the Lausanne Covenant.6 “In the history of evangelical Protes 6
Cf. Stott 1994b: 5: “The word ‘covenant’ is not used in its technical,
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
19
tantism, issues and opportunities have called forth declarations on various topics. The Lausanne Covenant (1974) is the most famous and influential” (Neff 1999: 49). It was signed by 2300 people from 150 countries and 135 different Protestant de‐ nominations. Although this document is already three decades old, it is still relevant within the Evangelical movement. The Lausanne Covenant “proved to be an immediate catalyst for evangelism throughout the world” (Graham 1994: vi). Evan‐ gelicals of a wide variety of persuasions and practices “have used it as a touchstone, and dozens of subsequent statements have attempted to build on it.”7 The representativeness of this document also appears from the fact that critics also refer to it to explain (e.g., Netland 1991: 34; Scott 1981: 58‐74, 58; Kärk‐ kaïnen 2003: 144‐49) and critique (e.g., Knitter 1999a: 7) exclu‐ sivism. In 1989 the Lausanne Committee organized a second inter‐ national conference in Manila, which resulted in the Manila Manifesto. This document is a further working out of the Lau‐ sanne Covenant, and therefore the Lausanne Committee de‐ cided that both documents should be published together. Nev‐ ertheless, it should be noted that the Manila Manifesto is much more comprehensive and much more explicit on a number of relevant themes than the Lausanne Covenant is.8 Both docu‐ ments argue for the necessity of spreading the Gospel for salva‐ tion on the basis of the two theological cornerstones of exclusiv‐ ism: (1) a negative anthropology and (2) a high Christology. This double theological foundation leads to the rejection of the biblical sense, but in the ordinary sense of a binding contract.… The reason the expression ‘Lausanne Covenant’ was chosen in preference to ‘Lausanne Declaration’ was that we wanted to do more than find an agreed formula of words. We were determined not just to declare something, but to do something, namely to commit ourselves to the task of world evangelisation.” 7
“Editorial: Doers of the Words,” in Christianity Today 44 (2000): 30.
8 In addition to these primary documents, the Theology Working Group (TWG) regularly publishes a Lausanne Occasional Paper (LOP). Relevant for our analysis of exclusivism are, among others, Jewish Evangelism: A Call to the Church (2004a); Unique Christ pour tous: Les religions et le salut en Jésus‐Christ (2004b); The Uniqueness of Christ and the Challenge of World Religions (2004c).
20
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
significance of other religions for salvation. At the basis of Evangelical theology lies, first, a pessimistic anthropology that emphasizes the sinfulness and lostness of human beings (Scott 1981: 64‐65). Although human beings were created in the image of God and thus have innate value, human nature has been perverted by sin: Human beings have become self‐centered, self‐serving rebels, who do not love God or their neighbour as they should. In consequence they are alienated both from their creator and from the rest of creation. (Manila Manifesto §1)
Evangelical theology positions itself over against so‐called lib‐ eral theology, which, in line with modern optimism, shows im‐ mense confidence in human ability. Although Evangelicals do not deny general revelation, they do reject the idea that people can achieve their own salvation through that. Thus, we read in the Lausanne Covenant: “We recognise that everyone has some knowledge of God through his general revelation in nature. But we deny that this can save, for people suppress the truth by their unrighteousness” (Lausanne Covenant §3). The Evangel‐ ical theologian W. Scott explains the above passage as follows: Evangelicals are aware that God is constantly active in the Christian and the non‐Christian world alike. He has not left himself without witness .… He reveals himself in nature and his light, which “is plain” and can be “clearly per‐ ceived” ([Romans] 1:19‐20), may very well be reflected, in greater or lesser degree, in the religions of humanity. Yet people reject the awareness they have. They do not ac‐ knowledge God in truth. This is patently true of the Chris‐ tian religion in its cultural expressions (for at best Chris‐ tianity is a flawed human response to the revealed gospel of Jesus Christ) as it is of non‐Christian religions. (Scott 1981: 66)
The theological‐anthropological focus on the sinfulness of hu‐ man beings is matched by a high Christology that emphasizes the divinity of Christ. Because people cannot liberate them‐ selves from their tragic situation, Jesus Christ, the only begotten son of God, took the lot of sinful humanity upon himself in or‐ der to reconcile humankind with God. Salvation thus means the needed restoration of the relationship between human beings
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
21
and God. “Jesus Christ, being himself the only God‐man, who gave himself as the only ransom for sinners, is the only medi‐ ator between God and people. There is no other name by which we must be saved” (Lausanne Covenant §3). Christ achieves salvation, and the divine incarnation in Christ is ontologically constitutive for salvation. But not all are redeemed: only those who confess Jesus Christ as their personal Savior sent by God can be redeemed. This is the epistemological requirement of re‐ demption. Here as well Evangelical theology takes an explicit stance over against the more liberal theologians, according to whom Christ represents God’s will for the salvation of all.9 Evangelicals reject the idea that Christ is merely a (historically and culturally determined) expression of the salvation that God wills for all people. Their concern is “to proclaim the universal and definitive consequences of the concrete once‐for‐all event that occurred at the cross” (Braaten 1992: 60). Exclusivism looks at religious plurality from the perspec‐ tive of human sinfulness. Religions are understood as the ex‐ pression of human attempts to achieve salvation on their own power. Nevertheless, it is incorrect to state that exclusivism de‐ nies other religions all value. Thus the Manila Manifesto states in §3: “Because men and women are made in God’s image and see in the creation traces of its Creator, the religions which have arisen do sometimes contain elements of truth and beauty.” But the other religions “are not alternative gospels. Because human beings are sinful, and because ‘the whole world is under control of the evil one’, even religious people are in need of Christ’s redemption.” This view also applies, for that matter, to the Jews.10 The thesis that the Jews already have a covenant with God that would make Christ superfluous for their salvation is rejected. The good news must also be proclaimed to them: It is sometimes held that in virtue of Godʹs covenant with Abraham, Jewish people do not need to acknowledge Jesus as their Messiah. We affirm that they need him as much as anyone else, that it would be a form of anti‐Semitism, as 9
For the distinction between representative and constitutive Chris‐ tology see Pollefeyt 1997: 10‐37. 10
See Jewish Evangelism: A Call to the Church (Lausanne Occasional Paper 60), Pattaya, 29 September ‐ 5 October 2004.
22
FRAGILE IDENTITIES well as being disloyal to Christ, to depart from the New Testament pattern of taking the gospel to “the Jew first....” We therefore reject the thesis that Jews have their own covenant which renders faith in Jesus unnecessary. (Manila Manifesto §3)
Toward an Inclusivistic Interpretation of Religions Exclusivism is under attack within the theology of religions. The idea that only Christians can be saved is difficult to recon‐ cile with God’s will for universal salvation and love for human‐ kind. It is, moreover, difficult to harmonize exclusivism’s pes‐ simistic analysis of culture and its pessimistic anthropology with the contemporary belief in human capability on the one hand and the concrete experience of religious diversity on the other. Adherents of other religions do not appear to be lost or cut off from God. To the contrary, the spiritual and moral wealth of their traditions is striking. Inclusivism attempts to come to grips with precisely these considerations. In the first place, it gives more weight to God’s will for universal salvation. Second, it attempts to take seriously the contemporary experi‐ ence of religious vitality. Inclusivism Inclusivism starts precisely with the experience of the spiritual and moral value of other religions. There is no one‐sided rejection of religious plurality here but a nuanced position that can be summarized as both acceptance and rejection. The cur‐ rent and original position of the Roman Catholic theologian Jacques Dupuis as expressed in his study Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (1997) shows that inclusivism is a position in motion, attempting to take the experience of religious diversity as an enrichment seriously. The Acceptance and Rejection of Other Religions Whereas exclusivism denies a priori the salvific value of non‐ Christian religions, inclusivism tries to formulate a more mod‐ erate answer to the question of the relation between Chris‐ tianity and other religions. It is more moderate in the sense that inclusivists both accept and reject other religions. Fully aware of the fact that only a minority of the population is Christian, inclusivists propose that “an all‐loving God could not have con‐
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
23
signed the majority of humankind to perdition” (D’Costa 1986: 83). According to inclusivism, salvation is possible outside Christianity but only because of what God has done in Christ. Unlike exclusivists, inclusivists do not emphasize the necessity of a personal confession in Christ as Saviour but rather “the way in which Christ’s saving power is made available to people in particular times and places” (Merrigan 1999: 341). The focus shifts from a personal relationship with the unique mediator of God’s will for universal salvation to the mediation of that will. For the inclusivist, salvation is still christological, but in an ontological, rather than epistemological, sense. For the ex‐ clusivist, we recall, one must not only receive grace from God made available through Christ but know of and ex‐ plicitly acknowledge that grace. For the inclusivist, the epis‐ temological affirmation is not necessary; one can be saved without ever knowing of the work of Christ at all. (McCar‐ thy 1998: 85)
But the belief in God’s will for universal salvation and the con‐ viction flowing from that belief, i.e. that non‐Christians can also be saved, does not entail that inclusivists hold that all religions are of equal value. Soteriologically, there is an asymmetry be‐ tween Christianity and the other religions. Inclusivism clings to the definitive reality of salvation in the divine incarnation. The idea that the other religions are independent paths to salvation cannot be reconciled with God’s act of salvation in Jesus Christ. Since the Second Vatican Council inclusivism has been as‐ sociated primarily with the Roman Catholic perspective. It is sometimes even called the Catholic model. With respect to the attitude of the church towards other religions, the Council’s in‐ tention was primarily to promote new relationships of mutual understanding and respect as well as dialogue and collabora‐ tion (Dupuis 2001: 59). The declaration Nostra Aetate is of primary importance here: The Catholic Church rejects nothing that is true and holy in these religions. She regards with sincere reverence those ways of conduct and of life, those precepts and teachings which, though differing in many aspects from the ones she holds and sets forth, nonetheless often reflect a ray of that Truth which enlightens all men. Indeed, she proclaims, and
24
FRAGILE IDENTITIES ever must proclaim Christ “the way, the truth, and the life” (John 14:6), in whom men may find the fullness of religious life, in whom God has reconciled all things to Himself. (Nos‐ tra Aetate §2)
Vatican II signified an important change in the attitude of the Roman Catholic Church toward other religions. Although the Church before the Council already recognized that individual non‐Christians could be saved, it was only in the documents of the Council that the Church expressed a positive attitude to‐ ward the religions (Dupuis 1993: 124). The pastoral idea behind this was that an open attitude toward other religions is possible only on the basis of a positive theological valuation of the reli‐ gions. After the Second Vatican Council various theologians took up the further theological development and refinement of inclu‐ sivism especially with regard to two questions that the Council left open: the question of a more comprehensive understanding of the history of revelation and the question of the meaning and role of other religions in God’s plan of salvation (Slacka 2001: 49). One of the leading authors here is Jacques Dupuis who, pri‐ marily through his comprehensive study Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism, produced a major contribution to feeling out the possibilities and limits of inclusivism. Following the Second Vatican Councilʹs optimism concerning salvation, he attempted to formulate a Christian theology of religions in which the “spiritual and moral truth” of other religions was truly valued. Jacques Dupuis and Trinitarian Christology There are different reasons for discussing Dupuis’ position here. First, Dupuis’ study Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism forces Catholics (and others) to continue wrestling, af‐ ter the Second Vatican Council, with the theological meaning of religious diversity. That Dupuis has been more successful in this than anyone else is apparent from the great number of re‐ views, articles, and publications that appeared in response to his study.11 “[Dupuis] has triggered, or at least put into focus, a worldwide debate which involves not only experts but also 11
D’Costa 1998: 910‐14; Merrigan 1998: 338‐59; Scheuer 1999: 204‐07; Hall 2002: 37‐50; Kendall and O’Collins 2003.
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
25
many vitally interested persons” (Kendall and O’Collins 2003: xii). A second reason why Dupuis merits our interest is that in the aforementioned study he takes both the tradition and the experience of religious diversity as enrichment seriously. The way in which Dupuis works with the tension between tradition and context leads him to “stretch” the limits of inclusivism from inside out to what he calls inclusive pluralism. Finally—and this will perhaps come across as paradoxical in the light of the reprimand issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith to Dupuis—Dupuis’ position is thoroughly Catholic.12 We can think here of Dupuis’ emphasis on the universality of salvation, constitutive Christology, optimistic anthropology, the role of the church, but also especially of his attention for the “concrete historical and social mediation of salvation” (Plata 2006: 52‐78). That is why he is also a suitable discussion partner for illustrating inclusivism, which is usually associated with Catholicism. a) Some Methodological Considerations Dupuis’ theology is one of correlation and moves between two foci: the tradition that witnesses to Christian experience and the contemporary context and experience of religious plurality (Du‐ puis 1997: 15). He wants to do justice both to the Christian tra‐ dition and to the uniqueness and value of other religious tradi‐ 12
On the controversy on Dupuis see O’Collins 2003: 18‐29. In response to Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism the Congre‐ gation for the Doctrine of the Faith published a Notification that stated that “the members of the congregation recognized the author’s attempt to remain within the limits of orthodoxy in his study of questions hith‐ erto largely unexplored. At the same time, while noting the author’s willingness to provide the necessary clarifications, as evident in his Re‐ sponses, as well as his desire to remain faithful to the doctrine of the Church and the teachings of the Magisterium, they found that this book contained notable ambiguities and difficulties on important doctrinal points, which could lead to erroneous and harmful opinions. These points concerned the interpretation of the sole and universal salvific me‐ diation of Christ, the unicity and completeness of Christ’s revelation, the universal salvific action of the Holy Spirit, the orientation of all people to the Church, and the value and significance of the salvific function of other religions” (Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Notification on the Book Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism [24.01. 2001]; www.vatican.va).
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FRAGILE IDENTITIES
tions.13 For that reason the theology of religions must find a connection with the contemporary experience of religious plur‐ ality as enrichment. According to Dupuis, theological interpre‐ tations of adherents of other religions rest all too often on de‐ duction. On the basis of general principles, derived from bib‐ lical fragments, doctrines, or a combination of both, theology formulates an answer to concrete current questions. The deduc‐ tive method is abstract in the bad sense of the word: detached from reality. An open and constructive theology must go be‐ yond generalizations, archetypes, and abstractions, and “keep in touch with particular situations which form part of the global reality.” That is why Dupuis will “frequently appeal to concrete elements of particular religious traditions with a view to verify and substantiate the theological views proposed” (Dupuis 1997: 20). His theology looks to not only the Christian sources but also to “the concrete religious experiences of others” (Dupuis 1997: 18). Experience is acknowledged as a locus theologicus. Clearly, Dupuis does not share the cultural pessimism of exclusivist theology. To the contrary: he takes a positive and optimistic attitude toward the plurality of religions. His theo‐ logy does not just assume the actual (de facto) plurality but also presupposes the principial (de jure) affirmation of religious di‐ versity. The non‐Christian religions have a positive salvific sig‐ nificance for their adherents, in correspondence with God’s plan of salvation. Dupuis’ interpretation of the religious diversi‐ ty as enrichment reorients the research question of the theology of religions. The question no longer simply consists of asking what role Christianity can assign to the other historical religious tradi‐ tions but in searching for the root‐cause of pluralism itself, for its significance in God’s own plan for humankind, for the possibility of a mutual convergence of the various tradi‐ tions in full respect of their differences, and for their mutual enrichment and cross‐fertilization. (Dupuis 1997: 11)
Dupuis is thus not only concerned with the question of salvation but also with that of the principal and continuing 13
In Dupuis’ theology of religions the contemporary experience of religious diversity plays an important role, especially his own work in India (1948‐1984). See Dupuis 2003: 168‐71, esp. 169.
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
27
significance of the religions in God’s salvific intentions regard‐ ing humankind. The acknowledgement of religious plurality de jure is central to his open theology, which acknowledges com‐ plementarity and convergence between the religions and the di‐ vine revelation in Christ. Nevertheless, he holds to the centrality and uniqueness of the Christ event in God’s economy of salvation. Dupuis de‐ scribes his theology of religions as “inclusivistic pluralism” or “pluralistic inclusivism.” These terms confirm the universal and constitutive significance of salvation of the Christ event on the one hand and the continuing salvific value of the different reli‐ gious traditions as being part of God’s single plan of salvation for humanity on the other (Dupuis 2000: 97). The inclusivistic pluralist model means that while keeping to the inclusivist position by holding fast to Jesus Christ as universal Savior, one may affirm at the same time a plur‐ ality of religious paths having some salvific value for their adherents; not however without being essentially and or‐ ganically related to the Christ in accordance to the one di‐ vine plan of salvation for humankind. (Dupuis 1999: 226)
According to Dupuis, the Trinity is the hermeneutical key (Du‐ puis 1997: 256‐66) for keeping the tension between identity and openness, between individuality and difference, between unity and diversity, and between particularity and universality in balance, for a [Trinitarian] perspective makes it possible to affirm a mul‐ tiplicity of “ways” and “routes” toward human liberation/ salvation, in keeping with God’s plan for humankind in Je‐ sus Christ; it likewise opens the way for recognizing other “saving figures” in human history. (Dupuis 1997: 164)
b) The Theological Foundation Dupuis’ theology rests on the idea that God’s plan of salvation for human beings is both one and multifaceted: It is one and universal, in view of God’s will to commun‐ icate with the entire human race, irrespective of historical situations and circumstances in which men and women find themselves; and it is manifold and variegated in the con‐
28
FRAGILE IDENTITIES crete forms which the divine unitary design takes on in his‐ torical unfolding. (Dupuis 1997: 211)
All people are created in God’s image and all are called to share in the divine life. This model does not emphasize the broken‐ ness through human sinfulness but the fact that all people are connected through creation and their ultimate destiny. That connectedness is expressed in the fact that the divine offer of salvation includes all people. From the universality of this concrete human condition it follows that there is a single unique history of salvation, of revelation and of the offer of faith that coexists with the world history. (Dupuis 2001: 100)
Because of the historical, cultural, and religious diversity of hu‐ manity, however, God’s offer of salvation assumes a variety of forms: God seeks the hearts of people along very divergent paths. Building on this, Dupuis warns against too rigid an inter‐ pretation of the distinction between natural and special revela‐ tion. It is not obvious that the special offer of salvation and re‐ velation is limited to the Jewish and Christian traditions. Other religions too can be part of the special salvation history (Dupuis 1997: 219). Dupuis distinguishes between three phases—which are not to be understood chronologically—in God’s unremitting dia‐ logue of salvation with people. In the first stage, God grants to the hearts of the seers the hearing of a secret word, of which the sacred scriptures of the religious traditions of the world contain, at least, traces. In the second stage, God speaks officially to Israel by the mouth of its prophets, and the entire Old Testament is the record of this word and of human responses to it.… At the third stage, God utters his decisive word in him who is the “Word”, and it is to this word that the whole New Tes‐ tament bears official witness. (Dupuis 1997: 250)
The scriptures of the religious traditions contain traces of God’s Word. Given that these scriptures play an important role in the religious practices of the traditions, they bring people closer to God in their own way. Dupuis concludes from this that the reli‐ gions are willed by God insofar as they give concrete shape to
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
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God’s offer of universal salvation. God’s salvific offer is medi‐ ated via the social reality of the many religions. The Catholic anthropology that sees the human being as a social being can be detected in Dupuis’ focus on God’s media‐ tion of salvation. In the light of this concept of humanity, it seems unthinkable that God’s approach to people would not occur through the social structures in which people live. The different religions and their practices form one of the most im‐ portant social structures of human life. We see here the shift in theological interest from the individual non‐Christian to the collective level of the other religions and their significance and role in God’s plan of salvation. From this perspective Dupuis ascribes a great deal of importance to §28 of the encyclical Re‐ demptoris Missio (7 December 1990) of John Paul II: The Spirit manifests himself in a special way in the Church and her members. Nevertheless, his presence and activity are universal, limited neither by space nor time.… The Spir‐ it … is at the very source of the human person’s existential and religious questioning which is occasioned not only by contingent situations but by the very structure of its being. The Spirit’s presence and activity affect not only individuals but also society and history, peoples, cultures and religions. (Redemptoris Missio §28, cited in Dupuis 2001: 76)
This text emphasizes that the universal activity of the Spirit is not limited to individual persons but includes the religious tra‐ ditions themselves. Thus, people are saved not in spite of but rather because of or in and via their religious practices. This also means, according to Dupuis, that the religions occupy a contin‐ uing place in Godʹs plan of salvation. Dupuis sees an analogy between the continuing role of the religions in Godʹs economy of salvation and the covenant with Israel. In the biblical tradition a covenant implies a free initiative by God to enter into a relationship with people. According to Dupuis, the differ‐ ent religions constitute various covenant relationships with hu‐ manity into which God entered at different times in history. These covenants were never revoked (Dupuis 1997: 233). Du‐ puis’ thesis that the religions are partners in God’s plan of sal‐ vation and paths to salvation must be understood from that perspective.
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FRAGILE IDENTITIES The various religious traditions of the world are the many ways in which God has, in anticipation of the coming of his Son, disclosed the divine self to the nations and in which he continues to do so. They all form part of the history of salva‐ tion which is one and manifold. They all contain elements of divine revelation and moments of divine grace, even though these remain incomplete and open to a fuller self‐ gift and disclosure of the part of God. The gracious moment enshrined in the religious traditions of humankind opens their followers to God’s grace and salvation. (Dupuis 1997: 316)
The acknowledgement of the continuing role of the religions in God’s single plan of salvation for humanity does not, according to Dupuis, take anything away from the centrality of the Christ event in revelation and salvation. The foundation for the uni‐ versality and uniqueness of Christ is the divine incarnation. Du‐ puis speaks about Christ, the Son of God, as the “culmination,” the “climax,” the “meaning,” and the “purpose” of God’s plan of salvation. The revelation in Christ is “definitive” and “qualita‐ tively unsurpassable.” The other religions do contain traces of God’s word, but the revelation of God’s mystery of salvation is made completely explicit only in Christ. The uniqueness of Christ is theologically founded in Christ’s ontological status as the only begotten Son of God. Because of the ontological iden‐ tity between Jesus and the Word of God, the whole Christ event is constitutive for the salvation of all people (Dupuis 1997: 279‐ 83, 304‐05, 350, 387). The Christ event forms both the climax and the universal sacrament of Godʹs economy of salvation. It is “the pivot upon which the entire history of the dialogue between God and hu‐ manity turns” (Dupuis 1997: 221). Although Christ is “the chan‐ nel,” “the effective sign,” or “sacrament” of God’s salvific will, God and Christ should not be equated. Not Christ, but God is the ultimate source of revelation and salvation. God’s mystery is always greater than Jesus Christ. If this is true, it will also be seen that, while the Christ‐event is the universal sacrament of God’s will to save humankind, it need not therefore be the only possible expression of that will. God’s saving power is not exclusively bound by the
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
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universal sign God has designed for his saving action. (Dupuis 1997: 298)
The particularity of the Christ event on the one hand and the universality of God’s salvific activity on the other offer new perspectives for a positive valuation of the role of the religions in God’s plan of salvation. After all, Dupuis does not view the constitutive character of Christ as exclusive but as relational. That means that there are other possible ways leading to salva‐ tion, but they cannot be considered as independent of Christ. [The term] relational is intended to insert the universal sig‐ nificance of the Christ‐event into the overall plan of God for humankind and the manner it unfolds in salvation history. In particular the term is designed to assert the reciprocal re‐ lationship that exists between the path that is in Jesus and the various paths of salvation proposed by the religious tra‐ ditions and their members. (Dupuis 1997: 305)
God’s salvific activity can never be conceived of apart from the Christ event, but that does not mean that God’s salvific activity is limited to the divine incarnation: “The mediation of God’s saving grace to humanity takes on different dimensions which need to be combined and integrated” (Dupuis 1997: 316). Du‐ puis points to three dimensions of God’s salvific activity. First, he directs our attention to the inclusive presence of the salvific mystery of Christ in history. Dupuis states clearly that God’s offer of salvation has been revealed definitively in Christ, but this mystery is also accessible to people outside the church and who are thus not explicitly Christians. According to Dupuis, the different religions express the salvific mystery of Christ. In the church, the eschatological community, [the mystery of Christ] is present overtly and explicitly, in the full visi‐ bility of its complete mediation. In other religious traditions, it is present in an implicit, concealed manner, in virtue of an incomplete mode of mediation constituted by these tradi‐ tions. (Dupuis 1997: 319)
The second dimension of God’s salvific activity in human his‐ tory concerns the universal power of the Logos. The incarnation of the Word of God is the climax of God’s universal plan of sal‐
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vation for humankind, but the Christ event does not exhaust the power of the Word. The transcendent, illuminating power of the divine Logos, operative throughout human history, accounts for the salva‐ tion of human beings even before the manifestation of the Logos in flesh.… The divine Logos continues, even today, to sow his seeds among peoples and their traditions. Revealed truth and saving grace are present in them through the agency of the Logos. (Dupuis 1997: 320)
The distinction between the Logos ensarkos (the Incarnate Word) and the Logos asarkos (the Eternal Word ) is central. The econo‐ my of salvation of the Logos asarkos, about which the prologue to the gospel of John says, “The true light that gives light to every man was coming into the world” (John 1:9), also con‐ tinues after the incarnation (Logos ensarkos). Third, Dupuis points to the unlimited activity of the Spirit who works not only in individuals but also in religions. “[E]le‐ ments of truth and grace are thus present in the human cultures and religions, due to the combined action of God’s Word and his Spirit” (Dupuis 1997: 321). It is clear from the above that the Trinity continues to work in each religious experience to which the traditions bear wit‐ ness. The religious traditions are the visible historical and social expression of the different modalities along which God’s self‐ revelation occurs. From the acknowledgement that not only Christians but also those of other faiths share in the divine mys‐ tery of salvation follows, for Dupuis, the notion of the univer‐ sality of the Kingdom of God. Those of other faiths respond to God’s word via their religious practices and traditions and thus actively contribute to the Kingdom of God on earth. “Through sharing in the mystery of salvation, the followers of other reli‐ gious traditions are thus members of the Kingdom of God al‐ ready present as a historic reality” (Dupuis 1997: 201). With this positive affirmation of other religions and their role in God’s plan of salvation, Dupuis breaks through the incorrect equaliza‐ tion of the Church with the Kingdom of God and recognizes adherents of other religions and their religions as partners on the way to Godʹs Kingdom. According to Dupuis, it is possible for adherents of other faiths to share in the fullness of the King‐ dom of God without ever—not even in the final eschatological
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phase—being associated with the church. In this way Dupuis attempts to avoid too narrow an ecclesiocentric view that does not take the religious identity of adherents of those religions seriously. Because of their contribution to the Kingdom of God, Dupuis ascribes to the religions a continuing role and signifi‐ cance in Godʹs plan of salvation. Toward a Pluralistic Interpretation of Religious Plurality Dupuis is struck by the way in which God seeks people in and through the religious traditions of others. Nevertheless, he holds to (1) the divine incarnation in Christ—this is the per‐ sonal identity of God and Jesus Christ, (2) the idea that Christ is constitutive for salvation, (3) the idea that the Trinity is the ultimate transcendent reality. These theological positions lead to the conclusion that the Christ event is the climax of God’s salvific will for humanity (Heller 2001: 442‐46). We thus see how inclusivism reaches its limit precisely in the tension between the universality of Godʹs salvific will on the one hand and the particularity of the divine incarnation on the other. According to pluralism, the inclusivist model is problem‐ atic for two reasons. First, it assumes a confessional perspective: other religions are judged on the basis of criteria belonging to the Christian tradition. In the pluralist view, such is an ex‐ pression of parochialism. Moreover, inclusivism cannot do suf‐ ficient justice to the value that belongs to each religion. In light of the contemporary experience of the spiritual and moral vi‐ tality of religious diversity, it is best to search for non‐confes‐ sional criteria that allow the religions to be judged equally. A second point of critique is that inclusivism presupposes an asymmetry between religions. Inclusivism does establish the possibility that other religions are paths along which God in‐ vites people to be saved, but this does not entail soteriological parity. The other religions cannot be placed on a par with Christ: there is no symmetrical relationship between them. The various religions—including Christianity—are different, incom‐ plete answers to the mystery of the ultimate reality that can be experienced in different ways. These different answers must be completed by the human face of God (Dupuis 1997: 279). For pluralists, inclusivism is a kind of unstable and unten‐ able middle position (Hick 1988: vii). It could be viewed as wil‐ ling but in the end unable. It is half‐open and thus also half‐closed.
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Pluralism If Dupuis sought, on the one hand, a way to hold on to consti‐ tutive Christology and, on the other, to acknowledge the con‐ tinuing value of the religions, pluralists go further. Pluralism takes the contemporary experience of plurality as its starting point, as the touchstone and norm for its reflection, and this brings this theological position to a far‐reaching reinterpreta‐ tion of the Christian tradition (and other religions). Toward a Parity of the Religions Concerning Salvation Pluralism covers a variety of approaches that are grouped to‐ gether under the same umbrella because of their agreement with respect to the following theses. (1) Pluralists presuppose a positive valuation of the religious diversity and reject all at‐ tempts to reduce the religious field to unity under one absolute and universally valid norm. (2) Pluralism affirms “the indepen‐ dent validity of other ways” (Knitter 1987: viii). (3) It empha‐ sizes that no one religion can be in complete possession of the truth. From this perspective, the theme of the “deabsolutization of the truth” constantly arises. (4) Finally, pluralists uncouple unicity and the finality of salvation. A religion can be unique without claiming to have the last word about salvation. Pluralism is often described as the crossing of a theological Rubicon.14 This expression refers to making a decision that, on the one hand, makes turning back impossible and, on the other, opens up a whole series of new possibilities. The way that is de‐ finitely closed by pluralism is that of the superiority of one religion over another. According to Leonard Swidler, Beyond the absolute way of understanding the world and its meaning for us, beyond the absolute way of thinking, we have begun to find a much richer, ‘truer’ way of understanding the world—the dialogical way of thinking. (Swidler 1990: xi)
14 The Rubicon is a river in northern Italy and previously marked the border between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy. It is here that Julius Caesar is said to have uttered his famous words “the die is cast” when he en‐ tered Italy with his troops against the orders of the Roman Senate. “Crossing the Rubicon” is now a popular idiom meaning to go past a point of no return.
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Pluralism presents itself as the only intellectually and morally acceptable choice in light of the history of interreligious con‐ flicts and the experience of religious diversity. The position of the philosopher of religion and theologian John Hick is generally recognized as the most important contri‐ bution to the development of the pluralistic paradigm.15 He will thus be our guide in discovering the most important principles of pluralism. The Position of John Hick: An Illustration John Hick is one of the major philosophers of religion of this and the previous century. His thinking ranges across very dif‐ ferent subjects, including the epistemology of religion, theodicy, the incarnation, and religious diversity. Hick is a dynamic thinker whose reflections over the years have undergone vari‐ ous changes. He began his philosophical search as a “strongly evangelical and indeed fundamentalist Christian” (Hick 1980a: 2). Over time this Evangelical student changed into “the contro‐ versial pluralist guru” (Cheetham 2003: 2). Hick’s pluralistic hy‐ pothesis is still echoed in interreligious milieus.16 15
Although Hick systematized the position of pluralism, Wilfred Cantwell Smith is often said to be the father of pluralism. It is primarily Smith’s analysis of the distinction between faith and belief and his view of religions as cumulative traditions that have had an important impact on the development of pluralism. “Faith is that propensity of man that across the centuries and across the world has given rise to and has been nurtured by a prodigious variety of religious forms, and yet has re‐ mained elusive, personal, prior to and beyond the forms” (Smith 1979: 30). “Faith is nourished and patterned by the tradition, is formed and in some sense sustained by it—yet faith precedes and transcends the tradi‐ tions, and in turn sustains it” (Smith 1979: 5). Smith’s most important works are the following: The Meaning and End of Religion (1963), Be‐ lieving—An Historical Perspective (1977), Faith and Belief: The Difference Be‐ tween Them (1979), Towards a World Theology: Faith and the Comparative History of Religion (1981). For a critical reflection on Smithʹs work and specifically on the notion of faith see Won‐Bae 2003. 16 This does not detract from the fact that Hick has also been the subject of much criticism—criticism that has sometimes taken polemical form. Hick’s The Myth of God Incarnate (1976), a collection of essays by various British theologians who argue that the doctrine of the incarnation should not be understood literally, especially caused quite a stir. The theological debate that followed the publication of The Myth of God Incar‐
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In what follows we will explain the most important aspects of Hick’s pluralist hypothesis. Attention will be given first to the epistemological foundation of pluralism and to pluralist trust in the cognitive capacity of the experience. We will then explain the distinction between the unknowable, mysterious, ultimate Real and the religions understood as historical and cul‐ tural interpretations of religious experience. Finally, we will in‐ vestigate the ways in which the pluralist model deals with the problem of conflictual truth claims. a) Experience as a Central Category in Hick’s Thought John Hick’s thinking is characterized by great intellectual open‐ ness, judging by “his desire to take seriously contemporary de‐ velopments in the fields of theology, science, sociology and later the study of the different world religions” (D’Costa 1986: 6). This openness can be seen both in his philosophical reflec‐ tions and in his theological work, and is translated methodo‐ logically into an inductive approach that starts from the world of actual experience. Even more strongly, contemporary reli‐ gious experience functions as the touchstone for religious knowledge (Merrigan 1997b: 693). Experiences give access to the world that surrounds us by making the world comprehensi‐ ble and revealing its meaning. However, the meaning of reality can be illuminated only through interpretation. Each experience is accompanied by in‐ terpretation and all experiencing, including everyday experi‐ ence, is experiencing as.17 The way in which we experience reality and in which its meaning becomes clear is determined by an in‐ terpretive filter. To recognize the meaning of something implies experiencing it in terms of concepts (Hick 1989: 133). Only nate resulted in the publications of various articles and books by sup‐ porters and opponents. Cf. Green 1977 and Goulder 1979. In Prolegomena to Religious Pluralism: Reference and Realism in Religion Peter Byrne pro‐ poses that the often sneering reactions to Hick’s position are perhaps due partly to the connections between Hick’s reflections in philosophy of reli‐ gion on the one hand and his theological arguments on the other (Byrne 1995: viii). Hick is both a philosopher and a theologian and has a theo‐ logical as well as a philosophical message. According to some, he does not respect the division of labour between philosophy and theology and thus betrays the Christian tradition with his pluralist hypothesis 17
Hick is inspired by Wittgenstein’s notion of “seeing as.”
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when the meaning of something is illuminated do people know how to behave appropriately (Hick 1989: 131). According to Hick, the structure of experience is the same with respect to the natural world and the ethical and the re‐ ligious spheres: it is always a matter of experiencing as. Never‐ theless, there is an important gradual difference in the inter‐ pretive freedom that we enjoy in these different domains. The most cognitive freedom exists within the religious domain. Re‐ ality, after all, is not endowed with a previously built‐in struc‐ ture that makes only one religious interpretation possible. This cognitive freedom of the religious domain appears from the hu‐ man capacity to ban the religious dimension entirely from per‐ sonal life and to experience reality exclusively through a natur‐ alistic interpretive filter. Here Hick speaks of the religious am‐ biguity of reality (Hick 1993: 30). For there is a sense in which the religious man and the athe‐ ist both live in the same world and another sense in which they live consciously in different worlds. They inhabit the same physical environment and are confronted by the same changes occurring within it. But in its actual concrete char‐ acter … it has for each a different nature and quality, a dif‐ ferent meaning and significance; for one does and the other does not experience life as a continual interaction with the transcendent God. (Hick 1990: 94)
Following Hick’s empirically based epistemology, faith does not mean assent to propositions but the human interpretive re‐ sponse to the divine, which can be either negating or affirming. In religious faith people recognize the presence of the Ultimate in reality. Religious knowledge arises through an experientially grounded relationship with the divine. Hick expresses this rela‐ tionship as follows: “Religious experience in all its forms is a mode of consciousness that occurs when someone is freely open and responsive to the universal presence of the transcendent reality” (Hick 1993: 28). Hick argues for an inductive approach to religious reality and this leads him to emphasize the necessity of a global philo‐ sophy of religion that takes the situation of religious plurality seriously. A philosopher of religion today can no longer limit himself to a reflection on the thought and experience of his or her own tradition and must take the religious experience and
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ideas of all of humanity into account. Developing interpreta‐ tions of the religious dimension that are limited to one specific religious tradition is, in our pluralistic age, anachronistic. The “subject matter [of the philosophy of religion] is properly reli‐ gion in all its variety of forms around the world and through‐ out history” (Hick 1995a: 43). The inductive approach obtains not only for Hick’s philo‐ sophy of religion but also for his theology. Also as a theologian, Hick argues for breaking through closedness and the necessity of an open attitude with respect to the world outside. He thus sees himself more as a “problematic” theologian than as a “dog‐ matic” one: Problematic theology … takes place at the interfaces be‐ tween the tradition and the world—both the secular and the wider religious world—and is concerned to create new theo‐ logy in the light of new situations.… Problematic theology sees its conclusions as hypotheses, open to revision and al‐ ways seeking greater adequacy, being comparable in this re‐ spect with the hypotheses of the sciences. (Hick 1980a: 13)
b) The Pluralist Hypothesis Hick’s philosophical and theological reflections on religious plurality are connected with the epistemological importance he attaches to experience, a fact that is well illustrated by his life story. It is not so much new ideas as new experiences that in‐ volve him as a philosopher in the question of religious plural‐ ism and as a Christian in interreligious dialogue (Hick 1993: 139‐45). Initially an Evangelical, Hick became convinced of the pluralist option through his pastoral work in multicultural and multireligious Birmingham. As part of his work he regularly visited synagogues, mosques, and Buddhist temples. At a cer‐ tain moment, because of these concrete experiences and en‐ counters, Hick arrived at the insight that, phenomenologically speaking, the same thing occurred in the different places of worship. He writes: In these places of worship I soon realised something that is obvious enough once noticed, yet monumentous in its im‐ plications. This is that although the language and liturgical actions and the cultural ethos differ greatly in each case, yet from a religious point of view basically the same thing is go‐
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ing on. Human beings coming together within the frame‐ work of a tradition to open their hearts and minds to God, whom they believe, who makes a total claim on their lives and demands them to do justice. (Hick 1995b: 37)
Hick was struck more and more by the moral and spiritual fruits of the different religious traditions. He holds that adher‐ ents of other religions are not, on the average, better or worse than Christians (Hick 1995a: 13). On the basis of these experi‐ ences Hick places the classical Christian claim to superiority in question and formulates his pluralist hypothesis. The core of this hypothesis is the idea that the different religious traditions “constitute different ways of experiencing, conceiving and liv‐ ing in relation to an ultimate divine Reality which transcends all our varied visions of it” (Hick 1989: 235‐36). To emphasize the radicality of this reversal, Hick uses an astronomical anal‐ ogy and speaks of a “Copernican revolution” in philosophy of religion and theology (Hick 1973: 120‐32). Christians must abandon the axiom that places Christ at the centre of the reli‐ gious sphere. Not Christ but the Ultimate Divine Reality con‐ stitutes the core and source of all religious experience and knowledge. Hick applies the Kantian distinction between noumena and phenomena to the religious sphere to make the connection be‐ tween the different religions and the ultimate divine reality clearer. “In Kant’s thought the noumenal world exists indepen‐ dently of our perception of it and the phenomenal world is that same world as it appears to our human consciousness” (Hick 1989: 242). In an analogous way, Hick postulates the Ultimate an sich (The Real)18 that lies at the bottom of every religious ex‐ perience. The religious traditions constitute the various historic‐ ally and culturally determined expressions of the Real. In the religious case there are two fundamental circum‐ stances: first the postulated presence of the Real to the hu‐ man life of which it is the ground; and second the cognitive structure of our consciousness with its capacity to respond
18
We find this idea first in An Interpretation of Religion (1989). Prior to that Hick placed God rather than Christ at the centre of his pluralist hypothesis.
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FRAGILE IDENTITIES to the meaning or character of our environment, including its religious meaning or character. (Hick 1989: 244)
Ultimate reality an sich (noumenon) is inexpressible, mysterious and ineffable. Hence, the various religious systems do not “describe the ultimate as it is in itself but as it is conceived in the variety of ways made possible by our varied human men‐ talities and cultures” (Hick 1993: 165). Hick expresses this idea by stating that the Ultimate is transcategorial, which means that no single category is applicable. The various religious traditions “provide the forum within which religious experience becomes possible, and the categories which allow believers both to express that experience and, most importantly, to identify its source” (Merrigan 1997a: 108). The experience of ultimate reality is possible only because of the for‐ mative categories that belong to the different religious tradi‐ tions. They function as the interpretive filters that give concrete form to faith. Given that the different religions form the a priori condition for the possibility of religious experience, their role is unmistak‐ able. Nevertheless, we must keep their limitation in mind: reli‐ gious systems are, after all, merely culturally and historically determined conceptualizations of and answers to the ultimate divine reality. Equating the ultimate mystery with religious concepts is a form of idolatry: “For Christians [for example] to think that Christianity is true, or final, or salvific, is a form of idolatry” (Smith 1987: 56). Hick further divides the various religions into two groups corresponding with the two basic concepts or categories of per‐ sonae en impersonae (Hick 1989: 245). On the one hand, there are the theistic religions that understand ultimate reality, the source of all religious experiences, as personal. On the other hand, there is also a large group of religions that have conceptualized their religious experience of the ultimate over the course of time in terms of an impersonal divine reality. These are the non‐ theistic religions. And thus Hick formulates his pluralist hypothesis suggest‐ ing that the same divine reality has always been self‐revealingly ac‐ tive towards mankind, and that the differences of human responses are related to different human circumstances. The
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
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circumstances—ethnic‐geographical, climatic, economic, sociological, historical—have produced the existing differ‐ entiations of human culture, and within each main cultural region the response to the divine has taken its own charac‐ teristic form. (Hick 1973: 138)
Despite their historical and culturally different interpretations of ultimate reality, religions participate in a similar salvific pro‐ cess that Hick describes as the liberating transformation from egoism to being centred on ultimate reality. In that respect, all religions are contexts of liberation and salvation. c) Conflicting Truth Claims and Ethical Pragmatism All religions make truth claims by which they regularly contra‐ dict one another. The fact of these conflicting truth claims is problematic for the pluralist hypothesis. Religions that make conflicting absolute truth claims stand in the way of the ac‐ knowledgement of their perspectival, and thus limited, charac‐ ter. To analyze this problem Hick distinguishes between three types of conflicting faith convictions: First, there are disagreements about what are in principle straightforward matters of historical fact. Second, there are different stories or pictures professing to answer the ulti‐ mate questions about the nature of the Real and about the source and destiny of humanity and of the universe of which we are a part. Third, there are disagreements about issues of what might be called transhistorical fact—such as whether or not human beings are involved in a process of continual reincarnation. (Hick 1989: 363)
The first category concerns convictions on the level of historical and observable facts. This category has to do with truth claims that can be checked by observation. Hick points out that true conflicts concerning such historical truth claims seldom occur. Amongst the few examples of an historical belief held within one tradition that is explicitly denied within another, are the Christian belief that Jesus died on the cross, which is opposed by the Qur’anic teaching that “they did not slay him, nor crucified him, only a likeness of that was shown to them” (4,156); and by the Ahmadiyya belief that Jesus, hav‐ ing survived the crucifixion, subsequently died and is bur‐
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FRAGILE IDENTITIES ied in Kashmir; and again the Torah’s statement that Abra‐ ham nearly sacrificed his son Isaac at Mount Moriah ([Gen‐ esis] 22) versus the Qur’anic version (Sura 37,99‐111) that it was his other son Ishmael. (Hick 1989: 364)
These claims are, according to Hick, in principle open to histor‐ ical research. The situation is de facto much more complicated. Even more, it seems to be illusory to think that the truth content of these claims can be ascertained by scientific argumentation. Secularized scholars of history do not generally take the exist‐ ence of miracles seriously, whereas some religious historians do not, by definition, exclude the possibility of divine intervention. The perspective from which reality is approached is continually determinative for the interpretation of the facts. Nevertheless, Hick states, the historically conflicting truth claims do not ne‐ cessarily entail an insurmountable problem. At this point much depends upon the status of these disputed historical issues within the belief systems to which they belong. For some adherents of each tradition such claims are fundamental articles of faith, not properly open to investigation and not subject to possible revision in the light of either existing or new evidence. (Hick 1989: 365)
This is the attitude that, according to Hick, is characteristic of more conservative believers. For them the pluralist hypothesis is not an acceptable option at this time. But Hick points out that some, and in the modern world a growing number, no longer regard such questions as being of the essence of their faith and accept, further, that we lack sufficient historical evidence defin‐ itively to settle them (Hick 1989: 363). The correct pluralist at‐ titude with respect to these claims is one of relativization and detachment. The second type of conflicting truth claims concerns the two formative basic concepts by which the Ultimate is experi‐ enced and that determine the theistic and non‐theistic character of religion. The first emphasizes the personal character of the Ultimate, and the other experiences the Ultimate as the imper‐ sonal source of all life. Given that the Ultimate is transcate‐ gorical and every conceptualization therefore falls short, we cannot, in Hick’s view, speak of a contradiction or conflict here.
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The third category of conflicting truth claims occurs on the level of metaphysical truth: The belief systems of the great world faiths consist very largely of assertions regarding matters of trans‐historical fact. The traditional Christian dogmas include: that the uni‐ verse began through an act of divine creation; that the first human beings fell from grace, so that all human beings since have been sinners; that we can be forgiven by God only as a result of his son dying on the cross; that Jesus had a virgin birth and a bodily resurrection and the ascension into the sky; that after death we go either to heaven or to hell; that the Bible is the divinely inspired and therefore au‐ thoritative Word of God to humanity; that there is no other way in which we can be saved except in faith by Christ. (Hick 1993: 108)
For inspiration in his discussion of these metaphysical truth claims Hick looks to the Buddha who assumes a very pragmatic attitude with respect to such questions. According to the Buddha, it is not necessary to know the answers to these ques‐ tions in order to be liberated. The metaphysical differences be‐ tween the religious traditions do not have any impact on the process of liberation. The reality of salvation/liberation is limitlessly more im‐ portant than particular theories about it; and to try to insist that all Christians, or all human beings, must accept the tra‐ ditional Christian theory, or family of theories, would be soteriologically counterproductive. (Hick 1993: 118)
According to Hick, there will even be a time—and for pluralists this time has already dawned—that these metaphysical truth claims will no longer be understood as theories that can be veri‐ fied or falsified and thus be correct or incorrect. Such doctrines should rather be viewed as (historically and culturally deter‐ mined) myths. A myth is a story which is told but which is not literally true or an idea or an image which is applied to something or someone but which does not literally apply, but which in‐ vites a particular attitude in its hearers. (Hick 1973: 166)
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In contrast to theories, myths cannot be verified. But this does not mean that no distinction can be made between truth and untruth on the level of metaphysical truth claims. “The truth of a myth is a kind of practical truth consisting in the appropri‐ ateness of the attitude which it evokes” (Hick 1973: 167). A true myth evokes and spurs one on to the salvific transformation from ego‐centredness to Reality‐centredness. A true myth is a good myth. This “pragmatic” criterion for truth allows the pluralist hy‐ pothesis to conclude the soteriological equality of the religious traditions without falling into relativism. After all, for Hick, it is very clear that not all religious persons, acts, practices, and ritu‐ als are equally salvific and that the salvific transformation does not always occur in the different religions. The signs of ego‐cen‐ tredness in the world are more than clear. The truth of practices has to be judged, and it is thus clear that not all religious persons, practices, and beliefs are of equal value (Hick 1989: 299). Nevertheless, it is the case that people may in general pre‐ suppose that the various religions have given cause equally for truth and untruth. That is why an acceptance of soteriological equality or “rough parity” is fitting. To assert the opposite is a form of parochialism (Hick 1989: 377). Conclusion At the beginning of this chapter we stated that the context of theological interest in the religious other must be understood in the light of the contemporary experience of the vitality of reli‐ gious traditions on the one hand and the long history of interre‐ ligious conflicts on the other. People are struck by the other religions, by the devout practices of their adherents, their pious lifestyle, their strong commitment to the faith, etc. The experi‐ ence of the vitality of religious plurality is one of the most im‐ portant challenges of contemporary theology. This challenge has been discussed in Christian theology primarily in a soteriological way. This concerns the question of the way in which God’s salvific intentions concerning human‐ kind—which for Christians is inseparably connected with the concrete history of Jesus Christ—bear on non‐Christians. Each of the three models that have been analyzed in this chapter wrestles with the challenge of religious plurality in the light of
THE THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS
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the Christian tradition in which Christ is confessed as the Sa‐ viour come from God. It concerns a wrestling that arises between two traditional Christian axioms, in particular God’s will for universal salvation on the one hand and the idea that salvation comes through Christ on the other. Exclusivism affirms God’s will for universal salvation but holds that only those who turn explicitly to Christ in faith can be saved. Non‐ Christians are excluded from salvation. The emphasis lies on Christ as the unique mediator of divine salvation. Inclusivism emphasizes God’s will for universal salvation more strongly than the necessity of explicit faith. Non‐Christians can be saved, but Christ is already involved in this process. Pluralism un‐ couples the possibility of salvation from the mediation through Christ and states that the religions form different and equal ways of salvation. The question that leads to the second chapter concerns the relationship between the theology of religions and interreli‐ gious dialogue. We will investigate what can be said (and not said) on the basis of these three models on the tensive rela‐ tionship between identity and openness. What content is given in these three models to openness on the one hand and identity, perseverance, faith commitment on the other? How are particu‐ larity and universality related within exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism? What does it mean for an exclusivist, inclusivist, or pluralist to be open to the religious other? Which model suc‐ ceeds best in finding the correct relationship between “open‐ ness” and faith commitment?
CHAPTER 2
The Theology of Religions and the Tension between Openness and Closedness Each soteriological model is not simply a theological speech act; it also promotes or hinders a certain relationship to those of other faiths (Bernhardt 1994: 41). The “theory” of the theology of religions has consequences for the “practice” of interreligious dialogue and for the tensive dialogical relationship.1 That is why in this chapter we will explore the connection between the soteriological models and interreligious relational patterns. What content do these models give to the tensive dialogical relationship between openness and identity? What does faith commitment mean in each of these models and how do ex‐ clusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism define “openness”? To structure our analysis we will use a distinction between two forms of openness as a heuristic instrument: hermeneutical openness and openness as appreciation. In the first place, the dialogue between religions presents a hermeneutical challenge. It involves the question of mutual un‐ derstanding or the degree to which individuals belonging to one religion can grasp the meaning of symbols, teachings, and practices of another. The religious other is the strange other, i.e. “the other who does not think like me, who eludes me and whom I do not understand” (Walravens 2006: 131). Interreli‐ gious dialogue rests on the confidence of the dialogue partners
1
This connection between the theology of religions on the one hand and the practice of interreligious dialogue on the other can already be noted at the beginning of this discipline—i.e. around Vatican II. Thus, in this respect the conciliar document, the Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non‐Christian Religions, i.e. Nostra Aetate, set the trend by de‐ veloping some important theological initiatives for promoting the rela‐ tionships between the Church and the other religions. 47
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in the possibility of converting this situation of not understand‐ ing into one of understanding. From this perspective, the first form of openness entails the willingness to understand the other in his or her otherness and to avoid forms of hineininterpretier‐ ung (reading into). The self‐understanding or self‐interpretation of the religious other is the norm. Henceforth we will call this form of openness hermeneutical openness. In connection to the theology of religions, the question is: To what extent do the three soteriological models allow one to understand the other in his or her otherness (Schreiter 2005: 27)? Or: To what extent do these models stand in the way of hermeneutical openness? The second form of openness concerns recognition as ap‐ preciation of other religions. A religious commitment involves an ultimate concern (Tillich 1958). And it is precisely for this commitment that believers also desire recognition as apprecia‐ tion. Expressions of rejection can come across as harsh and of‐ fensive,2 just as expressions of appreciation can sound happy.3 Within the theology of religions the soteriological perspective determines the appreciation of the religious other. The question is: What value is attributed by these models to other religions and what does this mean for the relationship between Chris‐ tianity and the other religions? As in the previous chapter, we will discuss exclusivism, in‐ clusivism, and pluralism with their respective views of interre‐ ligious dialogue and the tension between openness and identity in three successive sections. The order of discussion points to the frequent presumption that these three models can be ar‐ ranged in a sequence from less to more openness, as it were. And thus we will begin our investigation with soteriological ex‐ clusivism, which is the “least” open and the most reserved with respect to interreligious dialogue.
2
One can think in this context of the statements by Pope Benedict XVI on the Prophet Muhammad, Islam, holy war, and violence (cf. Bene‐ dict XVI, “Faith, Reason and the University: Memories and Reflections,” Regensburg, 12 September 2006) and the reactions by Muslims who were offended. 3
In this context we are thinking of the symbolic gesture of the prayer by Pope Benedict XVI in the blue mosque during his visit to Turkey. During this visit the pope spoke primarily through images.
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Interreligious Dialogue in the Exclusivist Model In general, interreligious dialogue is not high on the Evangelical agenda. They do not refer to it often, nor do we find many Evangelicals involved in the practice of interreligious dialogue. The word dialogue has a certain sound that is sufficient to make Evangelicals suspicious and to cause them to frown. Evangelicals take a defensive attitude, perhaps because they associate interreligious dialogue with “watering down the wine” of the Gospel for the sake of peace and unity, with re‐ lativism or even syncretism. (Yürümez‐Kroon 1997: 181)
Much of the Evangelical reluctance with respect to interreli‐ gious dialogue has to do with their view of truth regarding salvation: “Religious plurality is a global manifestation of sinful humanity’s flawed response to general revelation” (Demarest 1992: 206). It offers no reason for joy and is certainly not an ex‐ pression of spiritual enrichment. Nevertheless, this does not mean that exclusivist theo‐ logians reject interreligious dialogue altogether. “Growing numbers of evangelicals seem optimistic about the possibilities of interreligious dialogue. Their writings seem to recognize the need for some kind of language for talking to those with whom [they] disagree on the most important questions of life” (Muck 1993: 517). But they do draw clear lines as to what is and is not allowed with respect to interreligious dialogue (Netland 1991: 294). Exclusivism and Interreligious Dialogue When reflecting on the way exclusivists view interreligious dia‐ logue, we need to distinguish between missionizing exclusivists and fundamentalists (McCarthy 1998: 84). The former show an interest in dialogue whereas the latter dismiss it altogether. Theologically, soteriological exclusivism presupposes a “call to contact with others: the missionary endeavour, directed at con‐ gregational growth, is important” (Droogers 1997: 62). Insepar‐ ably connected with mission, soteriological exclusivism presup‐ poses a turn to the religious other. Still, exclusivism sometimes leads to isolationism and fundamentalism: Although [fundamentalists], like exclusivists, reject the pos‐ sibility of saving truth outside their own tradition, funda‐
50
FRAGILE IDENTITIES mentalist groups are not necessarily motivated by an effort to convert and thereby save those outside their community. Rather, they seek to delineate and defend an absolute truth that provides a sense of identity and must be protected from all compromise. For the fundamentalist, the primary target of proselytism is often not the religious other but the lax member of one’s own religious community. (McCarthy 1998: 84)
Isolationist fundamentalism leaves no room for interreligious dialogue because there is simply no openness for encounter. This form of exclusivism will “spurn interaction with another religious viewpoint altogether: imperialist assertion is the only mode of communication admissible” (Pratt 2003: 407). Exclu‐ sivism is expressed here in a form of retreat, however difficult it may be to maintain that retreat in a pluralist world. From an ec‐ clesiological point of view, one could ask here if Christianity, with its universal calling, is not turning once more into a tribal religion (Sundermeier 1996: 123‐24). Despite their “reluctance” with respect to interreligious dialogue, some exclusivists do participate in interreligious dialogue. This willingness to engage in dialogue manifests itself only among the so‐called missionizing Evangelicals, who em‐ phasize the importance of bringing the Gospel to the whole world (cf. Lausanne committee). Interreligious dialogue pre‐ sents itself as one “way of understanding humankind, and [as] an opportunity to experience and express solidarity with our fellow human beings” (Scott 1981: 66). Some exclusivists acknowledge the value of so‐called prac‐ tical dialogue and have no objection to interreligious collabor‐ ation on ethical projects (Prize 2005: 404‐13). The exclusivist the‐ ology of salvation does not exclude agreement with non‐Chris‐ tians concerning certain ethical standpoints.4 That is why the value of practical dialogue can be acknowledged. For example, Evangelicals sometimes form a united front with Orthodox Jews against abortion or join forces with Muslims for the sake 4
See, for example, the declaration “Evangelicals and Catholics Together: The Christian Mission in the Third Millenium,” First Things: The Journal of Religion, Culture and Public Life 43 (1994): 15‐22, in which Evangelicals and Catholics supported a joint project regarding ethical issues like euthanasia, abortion, etc.
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of traditional family values. Nelson, an Evangelical theologian, argues that it is an opportunity for evangelical Christians to work side by side with other religions. Participants can use interfaith meetings such as the parliament to find out how much they agree at least on social‐action ideas … with people from Isl‐ am or Bahaai or Buddhism or Hinduism. (Nelson, cited in Zipperer 1993: 44)
Nevertheless, exclusivists do raise theological objections to interreligious encounters that focus exclusively on the ethical as‐ pect of religion. That, after all, creates the illusion that good works are sufficient for salvation—a claim that goes completely against the exclusivist position. “All God saves, will be saved through the atoning death of Christ” (Zipperer 1993: 43). An in‐ terreligious encounter that is focused solely on ethical chal‐ lenges “almost flies in the face of biblical Christianity, which is a missionary, evangelistic religion” (Zipperer 1993: 44). The coming of the Kingdom of God will be possible only through spiritual transformation and not through social action (Knitter 1999a: 76). That is why the actual purpose of interreligious dia‐ logue is different. Ultimately, truth is at stake in interreligious encounters. But, according to Evangelicals, truth cannot be discovered in dia‐ logue with adherents of other religions. After all, the truth has already been completely revealed in Christ. Dialogue with oth‐ er religions teaches nothing new about God or Christ—only about people and their attempts to redeem themselves. The truth will also not change in interreligious dialogue. The essential content of the gospel not only cannot be sub‐ ject to radical alteration, but also cannot undergo any alter‐ ation at all. Evangelicals ipso facto must decline any dialogue that claims to change truth. (Muck 1993: 525)
At most, dialogue can clarify a truth that has already been re‐ vealed. The presupposition of enrichment, complementarity, or even convergence between the Christian tradition and other re‐ ligions is an illusion. In connection to this understanding of truth, the ultimate significance of interreligious dialogue is found in the proclam‐ ation of the Gospel: the bringing of the good news so that all
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can convert to Christ. Thus Netland writes: Properly defined, dialogue is not incompatible with a com‐ mitment to evangelism.… Informed dialogue is essential if the proclamation of the good news of salvation in Jesus Christ is to be carried out effectively. (Netland 1991: 301)
Ultimately, we could say, interreligious dialogue is a politically correct method of proclamation—and that applies to Jews, Muslims, and all adherents of other religions, for God wills to unite all with him in Christ. The Tensive Relationship in Dialogue between Identity and Openness The exclusive approach to interreligious dialogue focuses most strongly on the pole of identity. Proceeding on the basis of what faith commitment means, exclusivists arrive at a view of inter‐ religious dialogue that imposes clear limits on the openness for the religious other. a) Identity at the Expense of Openness Exclusivists consider the personal relationship of faith with Christ, the Saviour sent by God, to be determinative for reli‐ gious identity. The Christian faith functions first as a kind of demarcation line between those who believe and those who do not, between those who are already saved and those who will remain separated from God forever. The other is constitutive only for identity formation insofar as the position of the Chris‐ tian is contrasted with that of the other. This contrast deter‐ mines the exclusivist identity: “There is a strongly emphasized line, and it draws a distinction between being saved and being lost, between citizenship in the Kingdom of God and exclusion from it” (Sundermeier 1996: 123). The discontinuity between Christians and non‐Christians is greater than any possible con‐ tinuity based on their being connected through creation and na‐ tural revelation. Second, faith commitment is associated with conviction, certainty, perseverance, trust, and assent (Gay 1993: 209). To put it in Luther’s words, “Faith is a living, daring confidence in God’s grace, so sure and certain that a man would stake his life on it a thousand times” (Luther 1955). Evangelicals may par‐ ticipate in interreligious dialogue on condition that it does not cause them to waver and on condition that they do not begin to
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doubt the truth that has been revealed in a definitive and decisive way by God in Christ. That certainty is expressed in the proclamation of faith. Identity and openness appear to be mutually exclusive. Ex‐ clusivists fear, after all, that behind the argument for dialogical openness lies not so much a concern for what is true and good as a narcissistic interest. One Evangelical theologian expresses his concern strikingly as follows: Faith is not simply a wax nose that can be shaped and reshaped to meet the subjective requirements of personal preference. Along this line, we may need to be reminded that openness, tolerance, and willingness to dialogue may mask a kind of narcissism, not to mention the fact that our real concerns probably lie elsewhere. “Where your treasure is,” Jesus might have said in the contemporary context, “there you will prefer certainty to ambiguity and truth to dialogue.” (Gay 1993: 225)
Exclusivism leaves little if no room for offering a positive an‐ swer to the question of appreciation of other religions. Not only does the exclusivist theology of salvation exclude appreciation for the religions as alternatives ways of salvation, the pessimis‐ tic anthropology and high Christology of the exclusivist theo‐ logy lead to a negative assessment of other religions. Exclu‐ sivists see primarily what the adherents of the other religions lack, i.e. faith in Christ. With respect to hermeneutical openness, the exclusivists’ assessment of interreligious dialogue is ambiguous. On the one hand, we could say that exclusivists take the otherness of the other very seriously, precisely because there is almost no room for continuity between Christians and others. The difference is radical. The other is, in this view, certainly acknowledged as different. But, from another perspective, exclusivists have no eye at all for the otherness of the other and their self‐under‐ standing, given that, for exclusivists, only one difference counts in assessing adherents of other religions, i.e. faith or the lack thereof. The antithetical structure of the exclusivist worldview leaps out: Christians vs. non‐Christians. Theologically, as far as exclusivism is concerned, it is not relevant to introduce other distinctions into the collective group of “non‐Christians.” The designation “non‐Christians” or “unbelievers” is not inappro‐
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priate within the exclusivist model. It is more inappropriate to speak of believers of other faiths, for there is only one faith and that is saving faith in Jesus Christ. The antithetical structure of exclusivist theology stands in the way of taking the self‐understanding of the other religions seriously. In the exclusivist model, the religious other is seen as someone who must still convert rather than as a believing subject who can speak for herself and can make an independent contribution to dialogue. Learning in the proximity of others is hindered by this one‐sided focus on discontinuity. Thus, the an‐ tithetical structure does offer a view of a clearly described iden‐ tity, but it is an identity that cannot stand the test of a more complex and ambiguous reality. b) The Value of Commitment: A Critical Analysis In her article “Reckoning with Religious Difference: Models of Interreligious Moral Dialogue” McCarthy associates each of the three theological models with a certain “value”: exclusivism with commitment, inclusivism with integration, and pluralism with openness and reciprocity (McCarthy 1998: 101). With re‐ spect to the exclusivistic model, McCarthy states that those who enter into dialogue with an absolute commitment and “a strong sense of belonging” are often the most interesting dialogue partners. This association between exclusivism and commit‐ ment is a way of giving exclusivism a positive significance in the context of interreligious dialogue. Nevertheless, this asso‐ ciation is also problematic. The association of commitment with the model of exclusion regarding salvation suggests that the construction of “identity” necessarily implies “exclusion of oth‐ ers who are different” (Baumann 2004: 18; emphasis mine). It is a real danger that exclusivism will claim the discourse on “identity,” as if the certainty of religious commitment is ne‐ cessarily joined with a literal faith affirmation, as if identity has to do only with what remains the same and is thus opposed to otherness, diversity, and change, as if truth and dialogue ex‐ clude each other and identity and openness are opposed to each other. Although it is certainly correct to say that exclusivism goes along with a strong religious commitment, it concerns, in our view, a very one‐sided view of commitment and identity. We should be wary, therefore, of seeing the identification of ex‐ clusivism with the pole of identity as self‐evident.
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In this respect it is illuminating to refer to the work of the anthropologist Gerd Baumann, who did research for several years in the London multicultural district Southall. This re‐ search led Baumann to distinguish different grammars of self‐ ing/othering. These grammars are “a simple shorthand for cer‐ tain simple classificatory structures or classificatory schemata that,” so he argues, “can be recognized in a vast variety of pro‐ cesses concerned with defining identity and alterity” (Baumann and Gingrich 2004: ix). Baumann uses an oblique line to disting‐ uish between the processes of selfing and othering because they are the flipsides of the same process (Baumann 2004b: 19). The way in which people, groups, and traditions speak about other‐ ness reveals something of the way in which people speak about their own identity. And the converse also applies: the way in which identity is conceived determines the relationship to oth‐ erness. The first grammar that Baumann distinguishes is the bi‐ nary type, which is analogous to the antithetical structure of exclusivism. This binary grammar is thus not “unique” to so‐ teriological exclusivism but can, according to Baumann, be un‐ derstood as a kind of primary anthropological reaction to the other: we are good/they are bad; we serve/they are selfish; we know the truth/they live a lie; we know God/they live turned away from God. The list goes on. Humankind is divided into two. “Self” and the “other” are related to each other like a “neg‐ ative mirror image.” The self is the good and constitutes the horizon against which the identity of the other is determined to be a privatio. The other lacks grace, salvation, faith, etc. This binary grammar is directed in the first place toward making the discontinuity between identity and otherness as great as possi‐ ble. Here the attention for what is strange in oneself is averted. One is completely “at home” in one’s own community and one’s own tradition. This binary grammar of self/other is a stra‐ tegy for dealing with fear and uncertainty. Exclusivism prom‐ ises “a short‐cut to certainty and instant identity in the face of the growing complexity of societies and the relativity of reli‐ gions” (May 2000: 12). The above analysis is also confirmed by research in the psychology of religion. Exclusivism forms religious identities that exclude ambiguity. According to the psychologist of reli‐
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gion Dirk Hutsebaut, exclusivists are orthodox believers. They are people who derive the meaning and content of their faith from authority. They want to know it precisely; they assume that the content of the faith has not changed and even that it cannot change. They are inclined to avoid difficult questions, are conservative in a certain sense, and think that everything should remain as it is. Thinking literally also means that they do not admit of any interpretation. Interpretation brings uncer‐ tainty, for different interpretations are always possible (Hutse‐ baut and Duriez 2001: 19‐28). The moral theologian Didier Pollefeyt points to a danger connected with this binary grammar. In such an antithetical scheme an unambiguous and undoubted identity is acquired by characterizing oneself over against an … antagonist, a scapegoat, an enemy who is the mirror image of oneself, bearing all the characteristics that one fears the most in one‐ self and therefore attempts with all violence to suppress, preferably in the other. (Pollefeyt 1999: 112‐13)
The relationship to the religious other is fed by negative feel‐ ings, fear, uncertainty, discomfort, aversion, perhaps even hate. It is not improbable that in the lives of many believers soteri‐ ological exclusivism functions primarily as a policy that streng‐ thens boundaries. Theologically, one could say that soteriological exclusiv‐ ism, with its binary grammar, becomes a self‐fulfilling pro‐ phecy. The theology that emphasizes the brokenness of the hu‐ man being, his sinful nature that makes him turn away from God and his neighbour, ends in there being room only for a re‐ lationship with the neighbour who is known. The reality of the Kingdom of God, for which exclusivist theology strives with such commitment, seems so far away. The prophecy of being lost seems to promote broken and discontinuous relations. Towards an Inclusivist Approach to Interreligious Dialogue Exclusivism offers few prospects for dialogical openness. First, its discontinuity thinking hinders the hermeneutical openness that is necessary to do justice to the otherness of the other. With respect to openness as appreciation, this model offers even less prospects. Theologically, other religions have no positive value.
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Finally, the fact that conversion is seen as the most important purpose of interreligious dialogue makes the combination be‐ tween exclusivism and dialogue with other religions very diffi‐ cult, if not impossible. The merging of dialogue and proclama‐ tion is seen as a sign of “closedness” to religious plurality. Inso‐ far as there is willingness to listen to the other, that willingness is only a step to a better proclamation of the Gospel. Inclusivism and Interreligious Dialogue Dupuis wants to move beyond an abstract, deductive theology of religions towards interreligious theology. To avoid generaliz‐ ations, theological reflection should be tested via the concrete elements of the particular traditions (Dupuis 1997: 18). In this regard, he emphasizes the fruitfulness of the correlative meth‐ od: listening to tradition and context. Christian identity, so he ar‐ gues, is revitalized and reconnected with its sources best in an open dialogue with the religious other. The Theological Foundation for Interreligious Dialogue Dupuis states that interreligious dialogue rests on four theo‐ logical foundations that emphasize primarily the connectedness and unity of all people and display an optimistic anthropology and theology. First, dialogue is based in the belief that all people share a common origin: “All stem from the one stock which God cre‐ ated to people the entire earth” (Dupuis 2001: 222). As such, all of humankind constitutes one family, and we are all brothers and sisters. Second, not only do we share a common origin, but the goal of the history of humankind is the same, i.e. the triune God. The same divine plan of salvation involves all people. Third, there is the idea that the one divine mystery of salvation is mediated in different ways and made accessible to adherents of other faiths. Dupuis sees a very important and continuing role here for the religious traditions. They are the different paths to salvation along which the Trinitarian God seeks con‐ tact with all people through his Word and Spirit. The univer‐ sally present and shared Reign of God constitutes the fourth element of the theological foundation of interreligious dialogue. All have access to the Reign of God in history through obedience to the God of the Reign in faith and conver‐
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FRAGILE IDENTITIES sion.… By responding in the sincere practise of their reli‐ gious tradition to God’s call addressed to them, believers of other religious faiths truly become active members of the Reign. Through participation in the mystery of salvation, they are members of the Reign of God already present in history, and their religious traditions themselves contribute in a mysterious manner to the construction of the Reign of God in the world. (Dupuis 2001: 224)
Thus, interreligious dialogue occurs between people who are partners in bringing about the Reign of God on earth. Believers in the different traditions already belong to one community around the mystery of salvation. Theologically speaking, the view of the relationship be‐ tween God and human beings and among human beings pres‐ ent here is completely different from that found in exclusivist theology. It is not the story of the Fall and thus of the broken‐ ness and the rupture that are central, but the idea of connected‐ ness. This connectedness forms the basis of interreligious dia‐ logue and the turn to the religious other. The other is not a threat but, as a child of God, a partner on the way to the coming Reign of God (Dupuis 1997: 346). Nevertheless, the acknowledgement of the continuing sig‐ nificance of the religious traditions within God’s plan of salva‐ tion does not mean the end of the Christian commission of pro‐ clamation. Dialogue and proclamation are two separate but connected aspects of the broad evangelizing mission of the church. Each has a different purpose. Their precise relationship within inclusivist theology is complex, ambiguous, and tense. Dupuis puts this down to the theological tension between the “already” and the “not yet” of the Kingdom of God. The tension between the “already” and the “not yet” is re‐ flected in the Church’s evangelizing mission and, markedly so, in the relationship within it between interreligious dia‐ logue and proclamation: Insofar as the Church remains on her pilgrimage, together with the “others” towards the full‐ ness of the Kingdom, she engages with them in dialogue; insofar as she is the sacrament of the reality of the Kingdom already present and operative in history, she proclaims to them Jesus Christ in whom the Kingdom of God has been established by God. (Dupuis 1997: 371)
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In interreligious dialogue Christians testify to their faith, but, other than in the exclusivist dialogue, here their witness is not geared to proclamation. The adherents of other religions also testify to their faith. For them as well faith commitments are non‐negotiable. It is a sign of openness to allow the other to bear witness to her faith. In addition to dialogue, there is still room for proclamation in which those of other faiths are invited to convert and become followers of Christ. However, this takes place outside interreligious dialogue. Whereas proclamation is aimed at inviting adherents of other faiths to become followers of Jesus within the fellowship of the church, interreligious dia‐ logue derives its ultimate purpose from the shared conversion to the one God through the stimulus of the Spirit (Dupuis 1997: 383). The Challenges of Interreligious Dialogue According to Dupuis, the tension between identity and open‐ ness is a major challenge for interreligious dialogue. Commit‐ ment and openness are, however, not considered opposites within interreligious theology. Rather, they imply each other: The affirmation of the Christian identity need not be made in isolation from other religious traditions; much less in an opposition to them based on exclusivist statements by which any positive significance in God’s eternal design for humankind, assigned to other religious traditions by God himself, is a priori denied. (Dupuis 2004: 131)
a) Inclusivism Between Openness and Identity Dupuis takes faith commitments very seriously: To be a Christian is not only to find in Jesus Christ values to be promoted or even a meaning for one’s life, it is to be to‐ tally committed and dedicated to his person, to find in him one’s way to God. (Dupuis 2001: 231)
The demand for dialogical openness cannot, therefore, mean that people put their own faith in brackets or suspend it (Dia‐ logue and Proclamation §48). This obtains not only for Christians but for those of other faiths as well. The ideal of honest and sin‐ cere dialogue between equals can be realized only if all dia‐ logue partners are committed on the basis of their faith convic‐ tions:
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FRAGILE IDENTITIES After all, at the basis of an authentic religious life is a faith that endows that life with its specific character and proper identity. This religious faith is no more negotiable in the in‐ terreligious dialogue than it is in one’s personal life. It is not a commodity to be parcelled out or exchanged; it is a gift received from God, of which one may not dispose lightly. (Dupuis 2001: 228)
For Christians, this means that they may not relativize the con‐ stitutive salvific character of the Christ event. But at the same time Dupuis holds that “constitutive” does not mean the same as “exclusive.” Here Dupuis gives the example of the Christian belief that the divine revelation has reached its fullness in Christ. This belief has to do with the intensity of the relation‐ ship between God and Christ and does not in any way mean that the incarnation exhausts the divine mystery of salvation. God’s mystery is greater than Christ: Christian identity, as it has been understood through the centuries, is linked to faith in the “constitutive“ mediation and in the “fullness“ of divine revelation in Jesus Christ, but they must be understood without either reductionism or ex‐ clusive absolutism. (Dupuis 2001: 230)
God also reveals himself in and through other religions. It is up to Christians to verify where God reveals himself. Dupuis contends, moreover, that openness to other reli‐ gions belongs to Christian identity. Interreligious dialogue is the place par excellence to substantiate that openness. (Dupuis 2001: 230). This implies, in the first place, hermeneutical open‐ ness: dialogue partners attempt to enter, as it were, into one an‐ other’s religious experiences and experiential worlds. Dupuis refers in this respect to the technique of passing over or crossing over (Dunne 1973). To know the religion of another is more than being cognisant of the facts of the other’s religious tradition. It in‐ volves getting inside the skin of the other, it involves walking in the other’s shoes, it involves seeing the world in some sense as the other sees it, it involves asking the other’s questions, it involves getting inside the other’s sense of being a Hindu, Muslim, Jew, Buddhist or whatever. (Du‐ puis 2004: 132)
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In this process people must be freed from all “attachments and accretions” so that the other can recognize herself in the image that is formed of her. It is necessary to strive for a certain “detachment” in this process with respect to one’s own identity. Dupuis sees interreligious dialogue as a process of give‐ and‐take in which an experience of mutual enrichment for the dialogue partners is made possible. The fact that God has fully revealed himself in Christ does not detract from the fact that Christians can learn via interreligious dialogue. In this respect, it is important to refer to the document Dialogue and Proclama‐ tion by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, which is the most important official document for Catholic theology on interreligious dialogue.5 Moreover, the fullness of truth received in Jesus Christ does not give individual Christians the guarantee that they have grasped that truth fully. In the last analysis truth is not a thing we possess, but a person by whom we must allow ourselves to be possessed. This is an unending process. (Dialogue and Proclamation §49)
That is why Christians must be willing to learn and to receive from other religions and their adherents. Christians can enjoy the fruits of interreligious dialogue in a twofold way. Through the experience and testimony of the other, they will be able to discover at greater depth certain aspects, cer‐ tain dimensions, of the Divine Mystery that they had per‐ ceived less clearly and that have been communicated less clearly by Christian tradition. (Dupuis, 2001: 230)
At the same time interreligious dialogue leads to a purification of faith. “The shock of the encounter will often raise questions, force Christians to revise gratuitous assumptions, and destroy deep‐rooted prejudices or overthrow certain overly narrow con‐ ceptions or outlooks” (Dupuis 2004: 137). Dupuis’ faith in the power of interreligious dialogue to re‐ vitalize Christian identity is theologically based. Trinitarian Christology recognizes the religions as paths of salvation and 5
As the advisor of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dia‐ logue, Dupuis was himself one of the most important authors of this doc‐ ument. Cf. O’Collins 2003.
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sees a relationship of complementarity and convergence be‐ tween the religions and the Christian tradition. What would be presupposed for a mutual complementarity is that, differences notwithstanding, both the traditions in‐ volved would be considered as embodying some divine self‐manifestation to people in words and deeds, and, to that extent, would both be approached, on either side, with the respect due to God’s word and his saving deeds in his‐ tory. (Dupuis, 2004: 138)
The notion of complementarity rests on Dupuis’ theological position that the Holy Spirit is the most important agent within the dialogue process. The Spirit is at work in both traditions involved in the dialogue, the Christian and the other; thus the dialogue cannot be a monologue, i.e, a unilateral process. It is also the same God who performs saving works in human history and who speaks to human beings in the depths of their hearts. (Dupuis 2004: 137)
Dupuis acknowledges other religions to be alternative paths of salvation and he speaks of their continuing role in God’s plan of salvation. But, in line with the inclusivist tenor of his theology, he confirms the asymmetrical character of the mutuality between Christianity and the other religions.6 While then it may be true that between Christianity and the other religions there exists a mutual complementarity, it cannot be said that this mutual complementarity is a sym‐ metrical one, identical in both directions. Whereas Chris‐ tianity can truly be enriched through the process of dia‐ logue with other divine self‐manifestations in history, it ne‐ vertheless represents God’s decisive engagement with hu‐ mankind and in that sense the “fullness” of divine revela‐ tion and salvation. (Dupuis 2004: 139)
The problem is that Dupuis, through his specific word choice and language use—religions as paths to salvation, alternative 6
Dupuis emphasizes the asymmetry of interreligious reciprocity more strongly in the publications after Toward a Christian Theology of Reli‐ gious Pluralism (1997).
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salvific figures, the notion of interreligious complementarity and convergence, truth as pilgrimage—gives the impression of being able to go further in his appreciative openness for the reli‐ gious other than his inclusivist position actually allows. In this respect we endorse the objection raised by Merrigan to Dupuis’ view of interreligious dialogue. Merrigan points to this am‐ biguity in Dupuis’ language in his discussion of Toward a Chris‐ tian Theology of Religious Pluralism: Indeed, it is clear that Dupuis does not think that there are other religious truths which, as it were, “rival” the truth of Christian revelation. Nor does he seem to hold that Chris‐ tian truth is supplemented in any significant fashion by “the truths” of other religions. One must bear this in mind when one encounters the claim that “more divine truth and grace are found operative in the entire history of God’s dealings with humankind than are available simply in the Christian tradition” (388) or that “dialogue … implies learning a truth.” (Merrigan 1998: 358)
Dupuis’ belief in the constitutive character of the Christ event (Dupuis 2001: 227) and his conviction that God’s revelation reached its apex in Christ impose clear limits on interreligious dialogue. b) The Value of Integration: A Critical Analysis If the emphasis in the model of soteriological exclusivism lies on exclusivity, discontinuity, and distinction, and often at the expense of relation, in inclusivism the emphasis lies precisely on the search for points of contact and overlappings (D’Costa 2000: 23). This model offers more prospects for strengthening the ties with adherents of other faiths than exclusivism does. It is more harmonizing (Grünschloss 1999: 272). McCarthy asso‐ ciates the inclusivist model with the value of integration. The great strength of inclusivist thinking for interfaith coop‐ eration is its vision of the religious universe as a coherent whole. To the inclusivist … various human descriptions of the cosmos are integrated into a single system. (McCarthy 1998: 101)
Because of this the religious other and his or her tradition seem less strange than first thought.
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But the power of “integration”—correlation, connected‐ ness, and universality—is also this model’s weakness. The dan‐ ger exists that the inclusivist focus on the continuity continues one‐sidedly with respect to hermeneutics, whereby the other appears not so much in his or her otherness as in the degree to which he or she connects with the Christian tradition: what is strange is “swallowed up” in what is known and familiar. This danger is made clear in an eminent way if we turn once again to Bauman’s grammars of selfing/othering. Just like exclusivism, with its binary grammatical structure, inclusivism shows analogies with already existing models for understanding and expressing the relation between the known and the other. Baumann speaks of the “grammar of encompass‐ ment.” “Encompassment means an act of selfing by appropriat‐ ing, perhaps one could say adopting or co‐opting, selected kinds of otherness” (Baumann 2004: 25). In the strategy of “en‐ compassing” only two levels are relevant: The lower level of cognition recognizes difference, the high‐ er level subsumes that which is different under that which is universal. To put it somewhat polemically: “you may think that you differ from me in your sense of values or identity, but deep down, or rather, higher up, you are but a part of me.” (Baumann 2004: 25)
Inclusivism too is essentially hierarchical. The “truth” of the other religious tradition is true only insofar as it agrees with or confirms one’s own truth. The tension between oneself and the strange is shown here as a tension between the universal (all‐ encompassing) and the particular. The balance in this model swings from “encompassment/integration” to the disadvantage of the specific, the different, and the particular.7 That is also the most important criticism of the inclusive integration model: this 7
Baumann gives an example that occurred in the context of the London riots in 1996 between Hindu immigrants and Sikhs. These riots were a reflection of the very violent riots between Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab: “Yet amidst all this strife and transnational reverberations, most Southall’s Hindus insisted that the violence was about nothing: ‘Sikhs are Hindus’, so I [Baumann] was told time and again, ‘and the only trouble is: “they do not know it”.’ ‘Christians too were Hindus’, so I was told on several occasions, for Christ was but a reincarnation, after all, of Brahma, the Creator of All” (Baumann 1996: 116‐22).
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model “reminds one of the traveller who understands every‐ thing he encounters ‘abroad’ as something familiar to him from his home country” (Bernhardt 1994: 157). The grammar of encompassment is a direct consequence of the continuity thinking found in the inclusivist theology of reli‐ gions. God speaks through the religions and all roads lead to the Kingdom of God. Inclusivism includes the other but robs him or her of his or her strangeness and thus of his or her sin‐ gularity. It could be objected here that Dupuis nevertheless clearly states that the differences between Christians and others also need to be taken into consideration. Interreligious dialogue is the context par excellence for learning in the proximity of the reli‐ gious other and to allow oneself to be touched by the otherness of the other. That is indeed the case, but we should note the fol‐ lowing. The differences that inclusivism primarily takes into consideration are the oppositions between the Christian truth of salvation on the one hand and the other religions on the other. In other words, the inclusivist attention for interreligious differ‐ ences occurs from the perspective of Christian soteriology. The soteriological interpretative schema determines to a large de‐ gree how the other appears and is understood. But the soteri‐ ological question is a Christian one. It is not a question that oc‐ cupies the Buddhist, the Jew, the Hindu, etc. in his self‐under‐ standing. That is to say, an inadequate distinction is made between soteriological inclusivism as the theological interpreta‐ tion of religious diversity on the one hand and hermeneutical openness for the other in his or her otherness on the other. Du‐ puis seems to be insufficiently aware of the fact that his in‐ clusivist theology is determinative for the way in which the other appears and is understood. To be “open” soteriologically cannot be equated with hermeneutical openness.8 Towards a Pluralistic Interreligious Dialogue: A Pluralist Critique of Exclusivism and Inclusivism According to the pluralists, both exclusivism and inclusivism testify to closedness; the exclusivist “interreligious dialogue” is, so the pluralists claim, a perversion. True dialogue is simply not
8
We will return to this below.
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possible for exclusivists (Von Brück 1994: 225). The pluralist Knitter formulates this idea as follows: While exclusivists may advocate a dialogue with persons of other ways, this dialogue is understood as an often neces‐ sary instrument in working for the conversion of these peoples. God’s intent therefore is to gather and transform the profuse religious diversity in our world into a unity grounded and made possible by the God‐man Jesus Christ. (Knitter 1995: 27)
The inclusivist model is viewed more positively because it al‐ lows for the possibility of salvation outside the church. But al‐ though “inclusivists meet those of other faiths with sincere respect and serious attempts to learn from them, they are none‐ theless convinced that they have the last word because of the historicity of Jesus” (Knitter 1997: 232). There can be nothing here of the ideal of equality that openness, according to the pluralists, demands: Inclusivism still rests upon the claim to Christianity’s u‐ nique finality as the locus of the only divine revelation, and the only adequate saving event. Non‐Christians can be saved, because unknown to them, Christ is secretly in a way united to them. (Hick 1993: 84)
Despite God’s will for universal salvation and the claim that non‐Christians can also be saved, faith in the truth of Christ is normative. The pluralist writer Knitter expressed in very strong terms why such claims to normativity do not square with inter‐ religious dialogue: No matter how much I acclaim your merits and my desire to learn from them, if I am pre‐convinced that your truth is meritorious only insofar as it is included and fulfilled by mine, then such a dialogue … is bound to end up as a dialogue between the cat and the mouse (Marier 1976, 69‐ 70). No matter how finely and pleasantly I dress it up, my “final word” either negates or subordinates your word. The mouse ends up “fulfilled” when “included” in the cat! Ab‐ solute revelations and final norms, therefore, seem to be an impediment to the moral imperative of dialogue. (Knitter 1996: 33)
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The question now, of course, is: In what respect do the plur‐ alists do a better job? Does pluralist theology succeed in keep‐ ing the balance between identity and openness? And what does openness mean for the other and religious identity in the pluralist view? Interreligious Dialogue and Pluralism Pluralism is often introduced as the dream partner of interreli‐ gious dialogue (Feldtkeller 2000: 273‐85), a view that is not un‐ founded. In this section we will clarify what is distinctive about “pluralist” interreligious dialogue. We will first investigate the pillars of pluralist interreligious dialogue and explore how pluralists deal with the dialogical tension between openness and identity. Second, we will illustrate the uniqueness of the pluralist interreligious dialogue via the profound work of Jean‐ Claude Basset. The Pillars of Pluralist Interreligious Dialogue The pluralist interpretation of interreligious dialogue rests on four pillars: (1) a phenomenology of commonality, (2) the de‐ absolutization of truth, and (3) a symmetrical reciprocity be‐ tween the dialogue partners. This leads to (4) a dynamic rela‐ tional understanding of religious identity that makes openness for the religious other possible. It is not surprising that this model is often associated with the virtue of openness. Unique to pluralism is first of all the presupposition of a common ground underlying the various religious traditions. Despite their obvious differences, the religions are interconnec‐ ted. Pluralism presupposes “unity in diversity.” This common ground plays an important hermeneutical function. Because the different religions are related in similar ways to the Real, it is possible to understand the other. The other is not the totaliter aliter. Second, the hypothesis of a common ground, which is inef‐ fable and mysterious, leads to a de‐absolutization of truth. No religion can claim to possess the truth. The mystery of the truth is always greater than can be grasped in symbols and doctrines of religious traditions. A prerequisite for interreligious dialogue is the readiness to accept the contingency and thus relativity of one’s own perspective. In our previous chapter we pointed out
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that the turn to the religious other cannot be ascribed only to the contemporary experience of religious plurality but must also be situated against the background of the often violent character of interreligious conflicts in the past and present. As one cause of religious conflicts, pluralists refer to the dominant Western concept of truth, which defines truth as static, abso‐ lute, and exclusive. If claim X is true, then this obtains for ev‐ eryone, everywhere, and always. What is problematic here is primarily “the material identification of a particular religion (or form of that religion) with the essence and substance of true universal religion as such” (Pratt 2003 405). According to the pluralists, this view of the truth cannot form an adequate framework for interreligious dialogue; it paves the way for apologetic discourse: “Pluralists insist that responsible religious statements will not claim the falsely universal status that histor‐ ically wrought so much misunderstanding and oppression” (McCarthy 1998: 130). The ethical dimension of the pluralist at‐ tempt at de‐absolutizing is clear. Over against this classical view, pluralists argue for dynamic and relational thinking that they describe in short as the dialogical view of truth. This view rests on the insight into the historically and culturally deter‐ mined—and thus limited—character of all truth claims. Third, the perspective of the adherent of another faith can constitute a supplementation of one’s own faith tradition. If one wants to transcend one’s own perspective and get a better view of ultimate reality, then people should listen and learn from the truth of others. The hypothesis may thus provide a framework for inter‐ faith dialogue, and an explicit basis for the hope that each tradition may learn from and be changed by its encounter with the others. For if each represents a different human perspective on the Real, each may be able to enlarge its own vision by trying to look through the lenses that others have developed. (Hick 1993: 178)
In this regard pluralism entails not only a harmonization but also a “democratization“ of the religious landscape, which is grounded in its claim to soteriological parity. The religious tra‐ ditions are like paths leading to the same mountain top, rivers flowing into the sea, different colours of the rainbow (Hick 1982). Here the ideal of reciprocity really comes into its own.
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Over against absolute religious truth claims that force believers belonging to different religions into exclusivist opposition to‐ wards one another, pluralism states that these conflicting truth claims are actually mutually complementary perspectives on the Ultimate. This means that “every discovery, every insight, must be balanced by its opposite.… [E]very belief, every doc‐ trinal claim must be balanced, clarified and corrected by beliefs that at first sight, claim the opposite” (Knitter 1999a: 221). Plur‐ alists thus rise above “the perceived arrogance of exclusivist models and the subtle religious imperialism of inclusivism” (McCarthy 1998: 103). Fourth, this dialogical concept of truth changes, finally, the way the tensive relationship between openness and identity in dialogue is perceived. Pluralists affirm that religious identity is, just like tradition, not static but dynamic. Identity is a matter of growth, enrichment, and becoming. Although pluralist theo‐ logy recognizes the impact of context, culture, and history on one’s own religious identity—hence the emphasis on the par‐ tial, perspectival, and thus relative character of one’s own reli‐ gious position—this contextual perspectivism does not limit the subject in a permanent fashion. Pluralism departs from the re‐ cognition of the historical and cultural roots of the subject, but these roots—and this point is very important with respect to interreligious dialogue—do not constitute any limitation of the subject to open himself up to the religious other. One’s own religious tradition is the starting point from which the religious subject begins a project of further identity formation. This means that the original passivity—receiving a religious identity determined by “the fate of birth”—is then transformed into an active responsibility to transcend the limitations by being open to other perspectives. The implication of this essentially teleological vision is that religious knowledge, on the one hand, is always provision‐ al, and on the other hand is only provisionally complete when it represents the shared insights of all those engaged with religion’s object. (Merrigan 1997b: 689)
Characteristic for the pluralist model is a “liberated“ relation‐ ship to dogma, tradition, and authority. There is little reticence within pluralism with respect to rewriting and changing the tradition if experience requires it.
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This dynamic concept of identity also changes one’s rela‐ tionship to the religious other. One’s own religious identity is not threatened by the religious other nor confirmed but edified by the enriching dialogical encounter. The religious other helps one transcend one’s own limited and well‐worn cultural and re‐ ligious patterns, and enables believers to fill in the gaps in “their” truth. She or he “reminds us in his benign otherness that the project of our existence is richer in possibilities than we had hitherto imagined” (Visker 1999: 359). New perspectives open up and until now unknown facets of the (transcendent) reality are revealed: interreligious dialogue unfolds as a place of mean‐ ing. The religious other is as a force liberating one from one’s parochialism and provincialism (Knitter 1995: 456). Jean‐Claude Basset: Interreligious Dialogue as a Pilgrimage to Truth The ideas developed above are illustrated in an exemplary fa‐ shion in the work of Jean‐Claude Basset. Basset9 is a Protestant theologian who has been involved in interreligious dialogue for thirty years, both practically and theoretically. His most im‐ portant publication is Le dialogue interreligieux: Chance ou dé‐ chéance de la foi, which appeared in 1996. The starting point for this study is the observation that dialogue in general and inter‐ religious dialogue in particular underwent tremendous devel‐ opments in the decades before 1990. Dialogue had become the 9
The choice of Basset can come across as a surprising one for two reasons. First, Basset is not as well known as other pluralist thinkers like Hick, to mention only one. We put his being unknown down to the fact that reflection on interreligious dialogue occurred for a long time almost exclusively in the Anglo‐Saxon world. Works in other languages were not often included in this discussion. The second reason why the choice of Basset could possibly be surprising is that he, in the publication on which we will largely depend, i.e. Le dialogue interreligieux: Chance ou déchéance de la foi (1996), develops a phenomomenology of faith. With this choice for phenomenological methodology Basset distinguishes himself from the dominant approach to interreligious dialogue, which is situated within theology of religions. We will show, however, that, in Basset’s phenomenology, the pluralist hypothesis hides quietly behind the prem‐ ises of interreligious dialogue and thus gives pluralism an air of being self‐evident. Precisely thus Basset endorses the frequently heard pre‐ supposition that pluralism is the most appropriate model for interre‐ ligious dialogue.
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new vogue word. In light of this development, Basset states “that in a time when everything is becoming dialogue in the or‐ der of communication, it is necessary more than ever to remind ourselves that not everything is dialogue” (Basset 1996: 410). In Le dialogue interreligieux Basset tries to trace the dynamic of interreligious dialogue from the perspective of phenomen‐ ology. He wants to penetrate to the essence of dialogue. “Es‐ sence does not belong to the world of ideas, as in Plato, but constitutes the proprium of the phenomena themselves, the character without which the thing could not be what it now is” (Basset 1996: 55). Basset is concerned not with the question how interreligious dialogue becomes rooted in a specific tradition— that is, after all, a question for theology—but with the whole unique dynamic of interreligious dialogue. This dynamic, ac‐ cording to Basset, presupposes a pluralist interpretation of reli‐ gions: In the pluralist model the dialogical relation preserves the polarity between two fundamental categories of my think‐ ing, i.e. “oneself and the other.” [Pluralism] refuses to re‐ duce the self to the other or to make the other the opposite of the self. (Basset 1996: 423)
In what follows we will analyze Bassetʹs interpretation of inter‐ religious dialogue and then look successively at (i) the personal dimension of dialogue, (ii) the dialogical tension between iden‐ tity and otherness, and (iii) truth as the issue of dialogue. We will investigate how the pluralist interpretation of religious di‐ versity lies behind Bassetʹs understanding of interreligious dia‐ logue. a) Interreligious Dialogue as a Personal Encounter According to Basset, interreligious dialogue is not about presen‐ ting and comparing systems but is an interaction between be‐ lievers who are committed to living in line with a certain faith tradition. In the strict sense of the term there is no dialogue be‐ tween religions but only dialogue between believers (Basset 1996: 23). Paradoxically enough, Basset remarks, in many inter‐ religious encounters the personal dimension of dialogue is pushed into the background, “although the participants them‐ selves indicate this aspect to be one of the most important aspects of dialogue” (Basset 1996: 284). Basset refers here to the
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pernicious phenomenon of the reduction of religion to a system of propositions about beliefs. Such a one‐sided view of religion, which has no eye for the dimension of personal faith, loses all contact with the dynamic character of religion. Religion is then viewed as a static system with established articles of faith with which one must agree. To clarify the importance of personal involvement, Basset makes a distinction, analogous to that made by the pluralist Wilfred Cantwell Smith,10 a distinction between faith (foi) and religion as a system of truth claims and dogmas (croyance). “Dialogue is directed towards meeting the other on the level of his deepest convictions, on the level of the faith that gives meaning to his life and his view of the world” (foi) (Basset 1996: 426). Just like Smith, Basset refers to the personal dimension of the faith commitment and sees a strong contrast here with the “systematic dimension of religion, the teachings, the doctrines, the symbols, the rituals, etc.” To quote Basset: To be fruitful, interreligious dialogue implies a clear distinc‐ tion between assent, the personal and dynamic commit‐ ment, i.e. faith, on the one hand and on the other the tra‐ dition raised to the level of doctrine, a whole of propositions united in a system and made into an object of faith. (Basset 1996: 425)
Whereas differences occur on the level of belief, faith is a simple phenomenon. According to Basset, this distinction is crucial for the future prospects of interreligious dialogue, especially with respect to the problem of so‐called conflicting truth claims. In his view, orthodoxy adopts an attitude of inflexibility and irre‐ concilability and thus erects walls that make religious identity a closed fortress. Whenever dialogue partners appeal to ortho‐ doxy, they do so often to protect their own identity against dis‐ concerting and alienating questions by the religious other. Out of fear of the confrontation with the other, people hide behind the certainty of doctrine. If this strategy prevails during interre‐ ligious dialogue, there can be no true dialogue. It thus happens that many interreligious encounters are not much more than a succession of monologues (Basset 1996: 10). 10
John Hick also distinguishes between fides and fiducia. See Hick 1970: 140‐55, esp. 143.
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Although the personal faith experience has as yet not been given much opportunity within interreligious dialogue (Basset 1996: 285), Basset hopes that interreligious dialogue can become a place where believers from different traditions do not stand opposite or next to one another but find one another in similar, difficult quests for identity and ascription of meaning. Dialogue intends an encounter on the level of the faith that gives meaning to one’s life and view of the world. Authentic dialogue does not express the opposition between, for example, “Christian” and “non‐Christian,” “Buddhist” and “non‐Buddhist,” but rather refers to a personal spiritual search or quest. If the personal choice, and no longer the authority of the tra‐ dition, lies at the foundation of religious commitment, then it follows from that that the boundary between “inside” and “outside” is inclined to become blurred, in favour of com‐ mon humankind; there are not the elect on the one hand and the massa perditionis of St. Augustine on the other, but [only] one community of individuals who have all made a choice, even if it is not the same choice. (Basset 1996: 247)
That is why interreligious dialogue demands a shift in accent from system to person, from the external manifestations (texts, doctrines, rites) to the internal reality, and from theoretical de‐ finition to direct encounter. True religious dialogue occurs where believers from different religions come together out of commitment to their own faith perspective and go on a shared spiritual quest (Basset 1993: 99). b) The Tensive Relationship between Identity and Difference Two conditions are elementary for interreligious dialogue, Bas‐ set claims: the right to identity and openness for the other (Bas‐ set 1996: 296‐308). Both are connected with the recognition of the otherness of the other. Basset distinguishes different forms of recognition, from less to more openness. In an ascending line he speaks of toler‐ ance, hermeneutical openness, and appreciation. Recognition of the otherness of the religious other means tolerance at least. “Whoever says difference, says tolerance; in fact, intolerance lies at the basis of the refusal of difference. To tolerate is at least to support, permit, even to excuse what people do not approve” (Basset 1996: 300). Tolerance of difference is hindered by a dog‐
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matic attitude and a doctrinaire disposition. “True openness cannot be united with a faith commitment that requires a sim‐ ple assent to a religious system, understood as an unchanging whole with its practices and its doctrine” (Basset 1996: 301). In‐ terreligious dialogue, Basset states, says “no” to such an idola‐ trous attitude by dogmatics—being obsessed by doctrine and faith propositions, as if they possess and exhaust the truth about the absolute. Tolerance does indeed imply involvement but not open‐ ness. Openness for the other means “understanding those whose religious, philosophical, and political views are not shared” (Basset 1996: 300). To attempt to understand the otherness of the other means that people do not reduce religious difference to one’s own religious view. Each must be given the possibility to define oneself and one’s own faith. Labels such as “non‐ Christian,” “anonymous Christians,” “non‐believers,” “pagans,” etc. are unacceptable. Interreligious dialogue is the best place to expose and correct stereotypes and prejudices about the reli‐ gious other (Basset 1993: 103). For Basset, hermeneutical openness is only the first step in interreligious dialogue. Openness implies not only the question of taking the self‐understanding of adherents of other religions seriously. Ultimately, Basset argues, interreligious dialogue de‐ mands that the dialogue partners can show appreciation for each other’s spirituality. Basset claims that truth is not some‐ thing that we possess but something towards which believers of different religious traditions are headed together. Viewed that way, the other is not a threat to one’s own identity but a fellow pilgrim on a journey towards the truth. Together on the way, the different dialogue partners are invited to open themselves up to the other. For, it is in openness for the otherness of the other, in the willingness to be challenged by the otherness, in the courage to run the risk of losing oneself, and in the strength to convert to the truth that people become themselves. Clearly, religious identity is thought of as a dynamic event. Religious faith becomes whatever you want it to be, rather than something given to you as a deposit to be further transmitted.… Clearly in this context the confession of faith takes on a fundamentally new meaning. It becomes the ex‐ pression of one option among others which could be
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equally reasonable or productive. The proof of its validity is solely in the meaningfulness it has for the individual who has chosen it. (Basset 1987: 32‐33)
But whatever way is chosen, it must be kept in mind that each human answer to the Ultimate is inadequate and that it is not the form (belief) but faith, i.e. openness for the Transcendent, that is essential. This view of interreligious dialogue presupposes a para‐ digm shift in the way in which believers relate to the tradition, the Ultimate, and the religious other. According to Basset, the paradigm that can deal best with this tension between same‐ ness and difference, between conviction and openness, between perseverance and relativism is pluralism: There is ultimately [the] position that rests on a fundamen‐ tal distinction between the Ultimate Reality on the one hand, from which religious life derives its essence and to‐ wards which it reaches, and the expression of this truth in the human answer. The former is by definition beyond ev‐ ery possible formulation, whereas the second can only be imperfect, given that it is human and limited, rooted in a given culture. (Basset 1996: 268)
Basset appreciates the pluralist argument for a Copernican re‐ volution because it manages to find a middle way between re‐ lativism and absolutism. “Unabridged absolutism makes all dialogue impossible by equating ultimate truth with its ex‐ pressions. Pure relativism, by deleting the question of truth, takes away the existential stake of dialogue” (Basset 1996: 269). The pluralist model unites three fundamental conditions for interreligious dia‐ logue, i.e. equality and reciprocity, absent in the universalist mode, alterity, denied by the syncretist model and the chal‐ lenge of the encounter, unknown to the isolationist mod‐ el.… Only a pluralist model gives dialogue its full meaning and turns it into a end in itself. (Basset 1996: 43)
c) The Common Ground of a Dialogue in Search of Truth Interreligious dialogue relies on the trust that it must be pos‐ sible to understand those of other faiths. But the condition for this is the establishment of a common basis: no dialogue with‐
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out common ground that connects the different dialogue part‐ ners despite their differences (Basset 1996: 290). According to Basset, the ultimate common ground is the ultimate divine real‐ ity that lies at the bottom of all religions and connects them be‐ yond their historical and cultural differences (Basset 1996: 268). Because of this common ground that the various religions express differently, interreligious dialogue is the place par excel‐ lence where the truth is at stake. Adherents of the different reli‐ gions join together in search of the truth of the ultimate that engages all of them. This view of truth rests on a fundamental de‐absolutization of truth claims. This de‐absolutization should, according to Basset, occur primarily in the minds of the be‐ lievers and demands a break with the Western view of truth. According to Basset, the Western concept of truth defines truth as static, absolute, and exclusive. If statement X is true, then it is true for everyone, everywhere and always. A proposi‐ tion can be assessed in only two ways: true or false. Reality is white or black; God is personal or impersonal. The truth of a re‐ ligion can then be narrowed down to the affirmation of dog‐ mas. “Dialogue degenerates into a sparring match whereby each participant can do nothing else than contradict the other and his convictions on pain of excluding each other” (Basset 1996: 310). Here no evidence is given of the relativity of these propositions in their relation to ultimate Reality. Basset proposes that we take the Eastern view of reality as an example. This approach thinks in terms of complementarity and thus argues for inclusion instead of exclusion: The Taoist logic of yin and yang holds that entities that ex‐ clude one another on a certain level or from a certain per‐ spective can accord very well, such as, for example, day and night, man and woman. (Basset 1993: 99)
Only on the basis of the fundamental orientation to ultimate truth and the understanding that one’s own view is limited can one open oneself up for the truth of the other. The believer is convinced of the truth that he himself attempts to follow in his own life and also hopes to acquire new insights through dia‐ logue with adherents of other faiths. Witnessing, persuading, and converting are not absent from dialogue but are given a dif‐ ferent content. Conversion does not entail proselytism but a new, broadened view of the ultimate truth of a life of faith, in
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particular, God or Ultimate Reality. True commitment to dialogue arises when the participants genuinely believe in the truth of their own religion and are searching longingly for what they can still learn from those of other faiths. It is the truth that engages them and the desire for deeper insight into Ultimate Reality that drives them in openness to one another. Together with those of other faiths the partici‐ pants go in search of the truth about complex and mysterious reality, Ultimate Reality. In this context Basset quotes Yves Ran‐ guin: To have true dialogue, we must be confronted with the con‐ victions of others on a deeper level than that of words, a le‐ vel beyond every form of expression. Ultimately, dialogue is a communication, an exchange, an understanding beyond words. (Raguin 1977: 74; quoted in Basset 1996: 348)
Here interreligious dialogue reaches its true and ultimate de‐ stiny. The dialogue partners are no longer on this or that side of a religious tradition but find one another in a common and joint inner search for truth: The inner search transcends confessional boundaries; the words and symbols are equally concealed signs that point to the absolute without containing it, and dialogue itself is a religious experience that reaches its limit when it passes be‐ yond words to become meditation, contemplation, and communion. (Basset 1996: 348)
d) Assessing the Proprium of Interreligious Dialogue Basset points out that interreligious dialogue seldom meets these criteria. True interreligious dialogue is an exception at best. Interreligious dialogue today is still at the stammering and stuttering stage, at the point where it is much more appro‐ priate to speak of the preparation for dialogue rather than dialogue itself. (Basset 1996: 408)
With this statement he presents the following prospect for growth, which is inseparably connected with the above prem‐ ises.
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The more the dialogue partners succeed in achieving this pro‐ spect of growth, the more they will penetrate to the proprium of interreligious dialogue. He thus distinguishes five “levels”: in‐ fra‐religious dialogue, inter‐religious dialogue, inter‐commun‐ ity dialogue, inter‐confessional dialogue, and intra‐religious di‐ alogue. These distinctions must be understood in an “as‐ cending” line. True and sincere dialogue is increasingly approx‐ imated until the “genre” encounters its own limits. The first level is that of infra‐religious dialogue. Here the dialogue partners do discuss a certain religious theme, but they do not encounter one another on the personal level. The infra‐ religious dialogue is the dialogue of specialists and takes place in the cognitive domain. “The primary concern is that of in‐ formation and gleaning new knowledge” (Basset 1996: 347). In other words, here it is less a matter of understanding the other’s faith commitment and his relation to the “absolute” than it is of gathering insight into the doctrines, rites, and symbols of a cer‐ tain tradition. Religion is approached primarily as something to be studied objectively and not as a relational event. Basset states that infra‐religious dialogue is not a dialogical event be‐ cause ultimately there is no true reciprocity. This form of dia‐ logue occurs too much in the sphere of a striving for neutrality, objectivity, and comparison. A next step is inter‐religious dialogue where the dialogue partners attempt to understand one another and their tradi‐ tions. The other is encountered as an adherent of another faith whose convictions one attempts to understand. Inter‐religious dialogue is a means of coming to an understanding because it offers the chance for self‐definition and critical reflection and correction. Basset calls this the first stage of dialogue “in the sense that understanding breaks with ignorance and disdain” (Basset 1996: 350). The following level is called inter‐community dialogue. This form of dialogue engages not only the head but the whole person. In addition, [inter‐community dialogue] fixes
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attention not only on the individual but also on the faith community—hence the name ”inter‐community dialogue.” (Basset 1996: 351)
Basset characterizes this dialogue as functional and necessary because the faith communities in question must live together. They have already laid down their weapons, but the borders between the faith communities still exist. It is a dialogue be‐ tween believers who are very conscious of their own identities, which are embedded in faith communities and in tradition. People are open to the adherents of other faiths, but that open‐ ness is formal. They do not go so far as to pose the question of truth or to accept a critical attitude toward their own tradition. A higher step is inter‐confessional dialogue. This dialogue “finds its origin in a confession of faith and ends in a call to faith, understanding that there are as many affirmations of faith as there are traditions” (Basset 1996: 352). An important aspect within this form of dialogue is the dimension of witness. But Basset points out that this form of dialogue is not without risks. The strong commitment that goes with this faith and thus dimension of testimony can—in the case of an exclusivist atti‐ tude—lead to a polarization between the dialogue partners. The dialogue deteriorates into apologetics. Interreligious dialogue in its purest and most perfect form is intra‐religious dialogue. This is the form of dialogue that does not view religion in all its doctrinal, community, or confes‐ sional diversity but as a fundamental human phenomenon (ho‐ mo religiosus). What is important here is not so much crossing boundaries and creating ties between two existing wholes but, rather, deepening one’s understanding and searching for the in‐ ner side (intra) of religious life (Basset 1996: 353). The emphasis does not lie on the external structures that divide the dialogue partners, but they find one another here in a joint inner search for the truth. Intra‐religious dialogue is more than an encounter between persons; it is a religious experience in which one con‐ tinually penetrates further into the divine mystery, which is not understood here as something that people can grasp or possess but as something that appears as the supporting ground for all that exists (Basset 1996: 354). Basset distinguishes yet a final phase, i.e. that of ultra‐com‐ munication. With this inner dimension, interreligious dialogue
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reaches its own limits and the stage of beyond communication, beyond words, is finally attained. This is the stage of ultra‐com‐ munication. Here the boundaries blur and the believers find themselves in one community. The division or, simply, difference, between the participants is destroyed; the other becomes a twin; communication becomes community. The interreligious encounter becomes a joint experience of quiet meditation, infinite contempla‐ tion, intimate agreement, and belonging to the being of things. (Basset 1996: 354)
e) Preliminary Conclusion A “visionary” can be heard in Basset’s phenomenology, one who has great confidence in the ability of (religious) people to “transcend” their particular identity. This transcendence con‐ cerns a movement that is aimed at relating—thus relativizing —the particular to that which is beyond words. That which is relative, related, must not be absolutized. Here transcendence therefore does not mean letting go of one’s religious identity but rather accepting that religious identity does not consist of agreeing with propositions and doctrines. These are, rather, historically and culturally determined—and thus limited— paths along which believers direct themselves to the Ultimate. Not the “external” but the “internal” determines the authentic attitude of faith. A true faith does not have to do so much with true content as with faith. It is wrong to view doctrines as ends in themselves. Doctrine and faith propositions have meaning only in connection with the mystery of the Ultimate. The de‐ tached attitude with respect to doctrines must not be confused with the loss of identity but refers rather to a growth and devel‐ opment of the religious identity. It is, after all, the de‐absolutiz‐ ation of absolute truth claims that can avoid the danger of absolutism and relativism and direct the gaze of the believer to‐ ward the Infinite. Transcendence as de‐absolutization makes growth and enrichment possible. Basset develops a view of in‐ terreligious dialogue as a deeply religious event. Interreligious dialogue is a place of religious experience that creates a new community. Basset associates the “being” (eidos) of interre‐ ligious dialogue with a relational event between pilgrims in search of the truth that is beyond all words.
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Conclusion In this chapter we have investigated what content the soterio‐ logical models of the theology of religions give to interreligious dialogue. Our interest here was primarily in the tensive rela‐ tionship in dialogue between openness and identity. For each of the three models—exclusivism, inclusivism, pluralism—we an‐ alyzed how identity and the openness of the religious other are related. With respect to openness, we worked with the heuristic distinction between two forms of openness: openness for the otherness of the other and openness as appreciation. We can note the following points by way of conclusion. Exclusivism is the model that is the “least open.” The anti‐ thetical worldview, the pessimistic anthropology, and its Chris‐ tocentrism constitute a serious obstacle for exclusivism in re‐ cognizing the religious other in his or her otherness. Exclu‐ sivism is a theology in which the discontinuity between faith in Christ and the practices of other religions is radical. The only relevant distinction is that between those who are saved through faith in Christ and those who live in unbelief. The col‐ lective label “non‐Christians,” which defines the adherents of other religions only from a negative perspective and affirms nothing of their own selfhood or self‐understanding, is current within exclusivism. The appreciation of other religions is, apart from their possible ethical inspiration, negative—adherents of these religions turn away from the only Saviour sent by God. The exclusivist closedness also coheres with the way in which the faith commitment of religious identity is understood. Iden‐ tity is understood as a boundary between Christians and non‐ Christians. Religious identity means certainty, conviction, per‐ severance, trust, and agreement. It excludes ambiguity, other‐ ness, and interpretation. The exclusivist understanding of reli‐ gious identity is determinative for exclusivism’s reserve with respect to interreligious dialogue. Inclusivism is a model that looks much more for a balance between openness on the one hand and the commitment of reli‐ gious identity on the other. For the inclusivist theologian Dupuis, commitment with respect to the Trinitarian God who has fully revealed himself in Christ goes together with open‐ ness for other religions. It is precisely from the theological perspective of the Trinity that Dupuis puts a stronger emphasis
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on the continuity between the religions and God’s intentions for universal salvation. Over against exclusivist theology, which limits appreciation for the religious other, Dupuis emphasizes God’s will for universal salvation. Religious plurality is not a sign of human rebellion against God but should be understood as spiritual and moral enrichment. Whereas the exclusive mod‐ el gives no room for mutual enrichment, Dupuis holds that his Trinitarian Christology offers many possibilities for a sincere dialogue that rests on reciprocity, complementarity, and con‐ vergence. It is precisely the commitment to the Trinitarian re‐ lational God that leads to a positive appreciation of other reli‐ gions as paths to God’s salvation. Identity is understood here not as static and unchanging but in a dynamic way that leaves room for mutual enrichment. Nonetheless, inclusivist theology also imposes limitations on the appreciation of other religions. The belief in the constitutive character of the Christ event and the belief that in Christ God’s revelation reached its apex quali‐ tatively excludes the possibility of equality among the religions. But this is not the only limitation to “inclusive openness.” We have brought this inclusivism into connection with the value of integration. This is positive because the continuity between the Christian faith and other religions is hereby recognized. Radical discontinuity, as is the case with exclusivism, excludes open‐ ness for the other in his or her otherness. In the inclusivist model it is not exclusion that is central but inclusion and con‐ nection. This model clearly offers more perspectives for streng‐ thening the ties with adherents of other religions than exclusiv‐ ism does. The great limitation of the value of integration is that inclusivism runs the risk of remaining blind to that which can‐ not be “integrated.” The balance in this model changes from “encompassment” to the disadvantage of the specific, the dis‐ tinctive, and the particular. Pluralism, finally, presents itself as the model par excellence for interreligious dialogue. Both inclusivism and exclusivism are marked as irreconcilable with interreligious dialogue. The most important reasons pluralists adduce for this is the fact that both exclusivism and inclusivism have a hierarchical interpreta‐ tion of religious plurality. This makes the recognition of soterio‐ logical equality impossible, and a true dialogical openness is
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not possible. The pluralist alternative presupposes the soteriolo‐ gical equality of the religions. The pluralist model presents itself as the way to surmount several nasty problems and yet to allow Christians to remain warmly fer‐ vent as ever in their personal devotion to Christ. It has all the marks of an irresistible proposal; no visible drawbacks. (Heim 1987: 5)
This model positions itself in the discussion of theology of religions as a clear alternative to the two other models: It marks a break with exclusivist and inclusivist outlooks because it does not interpret religious plurality from the perspective of Christian absolutism. It allows for the distinc‐ tiveness of the Christian voice, but it neither elevates Chris‐ tian faith into a position of superiority, finality, unsurpassi‐ bility, or exclusivity, nor renders other faith‐traditions as lesser versions of what has emerged through the greater Christian tradition. (Race 2001: 3)
Here pluralism ascribes a great deal of weight to the contemp‐ orary experience of religious diversity as a source of spiritual and moral value. The consciousness of the history of interreli‐ gious violence that is committed in the name of absolute truth claims marks the moral motive of this model. The crossing of the Rubicon attempts to formulate a clear answer to the real problem of interreligious conflicts by promoting openness for the religious other. The value of openness implies the rejection of confessional interpretations of religious plurality and the re‐ cognition that there are several independent, more or less equal paths to salvation (“rough parity”). Claims to finality and su‐ periority are rejected, given that they cannot be reconciled with the experience of the spiritual and moral fruits of the other reli‐ gions (Knitter 1988: 99). According to McCarthy, the contribu‐ tion of the pluralist model to interreligious dialogue is almost “self‐evident” (McCarthy 1998: 104). The power of this model lies, according to her, in the values of modesty, openness, and willingness to listen. Pluralism wants to offer a strongly rea‐ soned motivation and thus a sturdy foundation for the contin‐ uing significance of interreligious dialogue. The criteria that the pluralists formulate appear to be conducive to interreligious
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dialogue: (1) openness is made possible by the de‐absolutizaton and soteriological equality; (2) identity is understood as relative absoluteness: the tradition is a “pointer” to the Real; (3) interre‐ ligious connectedness is made possible because of their com‐ mon ground and is expressed in a symmetrical reciprocity.
CHAPTER 3
A Critique of the Pluralist Model of Interreligious Dialogue Pluralism claims to be the best model for understanding the plurality of religions. Moreover, pluralistic authors assert that only they do justice to the tensive relationship between identity and openness. In this chapter we will look critically at this claim. To that end we will reflect on the implicit presupposi‐ tions in pluralism and follow the consequences of this model of interreligious dialogue to their logical end. Our analysis of the pluralistic approach to interreligious dialogue is grouped around three themes: (1) the pluralistic claim of a supraconfessional perspective, (2) the hermeneutical openness for the otherness of the religious other, and (3) the nature of faith commitments. Pluralism is said to be a supraconfessional metatheory of religion (Hick 1995a: 42); confessional interpretations of reli‐ gious plurality are associated with parochialism. In the first sec‐ tion below we will argue that pluralists are insufficiently aware of the fact that they too speak and write confessionally. Even more, pluralism proclaims a message of salvation urging people to convert to the pluralist reinterpretation of religious plurality. Only those who convert can and may participate in interreli‐ gious dialogue. We will conclude from this that, from a certain understandable perspective, pluralism can be understood as “ex‐ clusivist.”1 1
In using the term “exclusivism” in this context we are defining it differently from how it is usually defined in the theology of religions, where exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism function as soteriological models. Here exclusivism means that only those who explicitly confess Jesus Christ to be their Saviour and Redeemer wll be saved. Our ar‐ gument in the first section, that pluralism is also “exclusivist,” does not mean that we are looking criticially at the pluralist claim to salvific equality. The term “exclusivism” is applicable to pluralism only insofar as this model first makes clear truth claims at the expense of other non‐ pluralist truth claims and then elevates these claims into conditions for interreligious dialogue. The result is that those who do not meet these 85
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In the second section we will demonstrate that the pluralist hypothesis leads to a certain indifference regarding religious differences. This model tolerates difference only to the extent that it is relative, that it is related to the common ground. From a pluralist perspective, religions are never fundamentally dif‐ ferent: all religions point in the same direction. I will argue that the pluralist hypothesis amounts to a form of hermeneutical closedness. The third section links up with the former criticism that pluralism makes religious differences subordinate to the com‐ mon ground, but it approaches this critique from a different perspective. We will argue that pluralism is so concerned with the value of openness that it overlooks the ways in which reli‐ gious attachments function in the lives of believers. Hence, pluralists lack “one of the defining characteristics of the very re‐ ligion it is trying to explain, namely its concrete engagement or commitment.” We will demonstrate that this shortcoming is tied to the expressivist nature of the pluralist theory of religion. As an alternative to pluralist expressivism, we thus propose a theory of religion that focuses on the embodiment of meaning. The Virtue of Openness: Pluralism as Confessional Discourse The argument for the pluralist approach to interreligious dia‐ logue is strengthened by how pluralism is contrasted with ex‐ clusivism and inclusivism. This contrast is symbolized by the image of the Rubicon that separates the two banks of the river from each other. On the one side are the “closed” exclusivists and inclusivists and on the other are the “open” pluralists. Both exclusivism and inclusivism employ an inappropriate starting point in their interpretation of religious plurality. They judge other religions on the basis of their own confession: the other is either excluded from or absorbed into one’s own confessional perspective. To do justice to the self‐understanding of other religions, at least that is what pluralist would contend, the con‐ fessional perspective must be transcended. That is why plur‐ alism presents itself as a supraconfessional, meta‐interpretation of religions. conditions are excluded from interreligious dialogue: pluralism as exclusivism.
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Although we looked critically in the previous chapter at exclusivism and inclusivism and paid heed to the pluralistic critique, the image of the Rubicon is not unproblematic. First, we want to pose a fundamental question about approaches that assume radical distinctions. There is always the danger that the “vice” in this case, i.e. the “closedness,” is attributed in a one‐ sided way to “the others.” It is not unusual that such rather an‐ tithetical approaches lead to blindness toward one’s own “clo‐ sedness.” As I will show, this is also the case with pluralism. Second, there is a qualitative difference between exclusivism and inclusivism that is not reflected in the image of the Rubicon. Unlike exclusivism, inclusivism does show the willingness to un‐ derstand the other in his or her otherness. In this respect Du‐ puis even speaks of “crossing over” in order to penetrate the re‐ ligious tradition of the other (Dupuis 2004: 132). He states that it is the task of the dialogue partners to immerse themselves in the religion of the other so that they also feel at home in that re‐ ligion.2 This aspect is not found in the exclusivist approach to religions, where interreligious dialogue as such is not high on the theological agenda. The image of the Rubicon ignores the nuances between these views. Third, we are convinced that the distinction between pluralism exclusivism and inclusivism is less radical than the pluralists think. Pluralism argues that the renunciation of confessional claims to normativity and finality with respect to salvation is a prerequisite for doing justice to each soteriological religion individually. It is precisely this claim that we will explore critically. Not only will we show that the pluralistic model cannot maintain its position as a supracon‐ fessional theory, but we will also argue that the pluralistic mod‐ el unfolds as a confessionally normative “pedagogical project” that is intended to train adherents of different religions in the ability to participate in dialogue. Moreover, pluralism also 2
This does not alter the fact that the inclusivism is indeed hermen‐ eutically problematic. We have pointed to the fact that soteriological in‐ clusivism is inclined to emphasize especially the continuity between the Christian faith and the other religions and views religious differences from the perspective of its soteriological scheme. Inclusivism does not pay sufficient attention to how these religions view themselves. Without detracting from these considerations, placing exclusivists and inclusivists on one side of the Rubicon is a distortion of the truth.
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turns out to be a new missionary movement. Although plural‐ ists recognize believers in their specific faith—Buddhism, Hin‐ duism, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam—the latter do need to convert to pluralism if they want to participate in interreligious dialogue. As such, the pluralist model is “exclusivist“ (D’Costa 1996: 223‐323). The model of openness shows signs of being closed. This also means that crossing the Rubicon is less radical than pluralists would have us believe. The Parable of the Elephant and the Blind Men According to Hick, the different religions are historically and culturally determined interpretations of the unknowable Real. The religions do not revolve around the church, nor do they re‐ volve around Christ or God. The centre of the religious universe is the Real—that is the ultimate religious object. In addition, all religions are stamped by the same generic soteriological struc‐ ture: they attempt the transformation from self‐centredness to Reality‐centredness (Hick 1995a: 17). The other religions are not rivals but “fellow travelers to the Ultimate” (Cheetham 2003: 165). There is another image or, better, parable for understand‐ ing the pluralistic position, namely the parable of the elephant and the blind men. According to this tale, the king of Savatthi had all the people who had been born blind in his city brought together in one place on a certain day. Then he had an elephant brought, and each of the blind individuals could touch one part of the elephant’s body, declaring: “This is what an elephant is like.” Some blind people touched the elephant’s head, others an ear, and still others a tusk, the trunk, its body, a leg, its behind, the tail, the hardened end of the tail. Whoever touched the head said that that the elephant was like a large pot. To whoever touched an ear the elephant seemed like a win‐ nowing basket; to those who touched a tusk like a plough‐ share; to whoever touched the body, a granary, and to the ones who touched a leg a pillar. To those who touched the back a mortar, and to whoever touched the tail a club, and to the ones who touched the tip of the tail a broom. Because the blind people could not agree at all on what the elephant looked like they started fighting—to the king’s dismay.
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Hick refers to this parable in his God and the Universe of Faiths (Hick 1988: 140) to explain the pluralism thesis. His reading of the parable focuses on the limitedness of the religions, which he compares to the blind men. The religions are different limited perspectives on the Real. Their limitedness is also their blind‐ ness: they are not aware that they are looking from their own perspective and that is why they fight. But this parable can also be read from another perspective, i.e. that of the king. The king is an additional figure in the par‐ able. He determines that the blind people are mistaken and that the elephant is not a large pot, or ploughshare, not a granary or a mortar, not a pillar or a club or broom. “Without this figure who is able to see we would not be able at all to know that the elephant is not like any of these things” (Neckebrouck 2005: 75). From this perspective, not only does Hick point to the “blind‐ ness” of the religions; he is also putting himself in the position of the only one who is not blind, i.e. the king. The king sees that the blind men are fighting because they absolutize their own relative perspective. Hick, who is in the position of the king who “sees,” attempts to stop the violence with his pluralist metatheory. Hick tries to get the different reli‐ gions to see what he sees and, as such, pluralism becomes a pedagogical project based on “King Hick’s” insights. He shows how the religions relate to the whole: The different forms of religious awareness are not neces‐ sarily competitive, in the sense that the validity of one en‐ tails the spuriousness of the others, but are better under‐ stood as different phenomenal experiences of the one divine Noumenon. (Hick 1980b: 135)
Pluralism thus distinguishes between two perspectives: the perspective of the religious traditions for which the differences are relevant and the perspective of the Real on the basis of which it becomes clear that the differences are merely second‐ ary and relative. Hick seems to be able to move on this higher level—the perspective of the mountain top. Reaching this vantage‐point is thus a “stepping back“ and a move further up, to a place where the air is crisper and from where the view is clearer; from where, in fact, the whole world can be viewed. It is a place from where each religion,
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Because of this bird’s‐eye perspective, Hick has gained insight into what is important soteriologically and what is not, into what is ultimate and what is penultimate, into what is absolute and what is relative. It is now up to the pluralist to convey to believers the insight into the pluralist reinterpretation of the religions and to “convert” them to pluralism. This conversion should be understood correctly. Pluralism does not ask believers to give up their particular religious com‐ mitment. It does ask that they place it within the larger pluralist scheme. Believers who say that it is not the Real but God that is the Ultimate to which they orient their lives do not understand that God is merely one of the personae of the Real. Believers who confess Christ as the Son of God do not understand that the incarnation is a penultimate reality that refers to ultimate real‐ ity. According to the pluralists, [c]learly, the penultimate reality cannot function as a genu‐ ine object of worship or of uncompromising devotion. After all, as Hick points out, only the ultimate is to be wor‐ shipped, and the worship of any lesser reality is idolatry. (Merrigan 2002a: 213)
But why should the believer shift his attention from the Trinitarian God who is incarnate in Jesus to God as a persona of the Real and Christ as the embodiment of God’s love? History witnesses to the explosive character of interreligious conflicts as a result of absolute truth claims. Claims to superiority pave the way to intolerance (Hick 1993: 78). Here questions arise such as: Who is closest to God? Which religion does God favour? Which salvific path leads directly to God? From this perspective, inter‐ religious conflicts are a kind of clash of interests. This tragic his‐ tory of interreligious violence has left pluralists with a deep dis‐ trust of absolute truth claims. This is the reason for their call to a Copernican revolution: believers have to choose between the absolutism of one tradition and the pluralist reinterpretation of the global religious situation (Hick 1995a: 43). Mark Heim sums up this moral motive as follows:
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We can be hostile or at best patronizing to faiths other than our own, with consequent strife and oppression. Or we can definitively recognize [the other religions] are as true and effective in every relevant respect for their adherents as ours might be, resulting in mutual respect and social har‐ mony. The only morally defensible choice, they contend, requires “a move away from insistence on the superiority of finality of Christ and Christianity toward a recognition of the independent validity of other ways.” (Heim 1995: 3)
This moral motive makes the pluralistic hypothesis much more than a theory. There is a passion that resounds through plur‐ alism that corresponds to a confessional passion. Pluralists are convinced that their approach can lead the different religions out of the age of interreligious violence and into the age of dia‐ logue. Whenever particular truth claims give rise to conflict and polarization, pluralistic theology is the way to solidarity. The metatheory turns out to be a confessional perspective with a claim to normativity, which justifies the pluralistic mission. Hick is committed to a form of mission that negates the tra‐ ditional sense of evangelism shared by most Christian churches.… One may go so far as to say that Hick has re‐ placed the “Good News” for all men and women with a universal ideology of mythification; it is a mythological un‐ derstanding of central religions doctrines that will “set one free.” (D’Costa 1991: 64)
Crossing the Rubicon is a breach moment or, better, a conver‐ sion moment: the choice is between the bank of exclusivist/ inclusivist closedness and the pluralistic bank of openness (Hick 1995a: 47‐48; Race 2001: 108). If we understand crossing the Rubicon as “conversion” to the pluralistic world, then it be‐ comes understandable why pluralism is sometimes called ex‐ clusivist as well. This model defines what obtains as openness and how believers should deal with their religious identity and faith convictions in a “mature” way: the acceptance of soterio‐ logical equality, de‐absolutization, and a common ground. This means that “only those religious communities that accept the conditions of dialogue as suggested by the ‘pluralistic theology’ are worthy of dialogue” (Moltmann 1990: 155). Therefore, ex‐ clusivist and inclusivist Christians (Knitter 1999b: 333) and ad‐
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herents of other faiths (Heim 1995: 109) cannot participate in pluralistic interreligious dialogue. In concrete terms, this means that not only Evangelicals but also Roman Catholics, Chassidic Jews, Sufi mystics, and Tibetan Buddhists are not capable of dialogue according to the pluralist premises (Placher 1989: 147). Pluralism itself thus operates in an exclusivist fashion. In response to this criticism Hick ultimately does acknowl‐ edge that pluralism is also exclusivist. But, in his view, the ex‐ clusivism of pluralism is a “virtue and not a vice” (Hick 1995a: 45). After all, without such a conversion, religions are at the very least latent threats to world peace. Hick thus claims, in other words, to have sufficient reason to turn away from these “closed” believers. He declares that he is prepared to take the perspective of the other seriously. He recognizes the perspec‐ tive of the other as soteriologically equal. If the other is not pre‐ pared to do the same, then the pluralist is open and the other is closed, and the pluralist thus has an excuse not to concern him‐ self with the closed other (Placher 1989: 144). But Hick’s own closedness is nowhere discussed. Pluralism and the Inability to do Justice to Difference Pluralist openness is limited to those who are prepared to cross the Rubicon, the result of which is a dialogue between like‐ minded liberal believers from different traditions. Still it is not because pluralism lays down certain rules for the success of in‐ terreligious dialogue and connects a certain exclusion mechan‐ ism to it that this model must be rejected in principle. The fact that pluralism elevates itself to the norm for interreligious dialogue and thus lays down certain rules for dialogue partners is not the real problem. The problem is that pluralism lays down the wrong rules. The rules that pluralists prescribe are counterproductive for interreligious dialogue: they lead to her‐ meneutical closedness. In this section we will show that, contrary to what plural‐ ists assert, the common ground does not constitute a hermen‐ eutical key but rather a hermeneutical stumbling block for inter‐ religious dialogue. “A unity that omits the real belief and inter‐ est of most people is not the unity we sought” (Cobb 1987b: 35). What is more, because of the assumption of a common ground, pluralism functions as a form of inclusion (Heim 2001; DiNoia
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1992; Fredericks 1999). We will argue that in this respect plur‐ alism displays parallels with inclusivism and thus meets similar problems. We will also demonstrate that there is a problem with the way the pluralism thesis relates to the empirical reality of the different religions. Pluralism claims to be based on induction, to be an empirically based hypothesis, and this claim leads plural‐ ism to distinguish itself from deductively formulated inter‐ pretations of religious plurality. The experience of religious plurality as a source of moral and spiritual wealth is the norm and touchstone for pluralism. That is also an expression of her‐ meneutical openness: letting oneself be interrupted by the otherness of the religious other. From this perspective it is im‐ portant that the pluralism thesis deal with objections. But plur‐ alism promises more than it can deliver, for the pluralist hypo‐ thesis cannot be verified or falsified. As a consequence, plur‐ alism develops a certain deafness to how religions understand themselves and thus becomes hermeneutically closed. Pluralism: A Hypothesis? Hick describes pluralism as a hypothetical interpretation of reli‐ gious plurality.3 A hypothesis makes a claim with respect to knowledge that has not yet been proven and presupposes that its correctness can be tested. It must therefore be possible to ad‐ duce proofs to verify the hypothesis. But the possibility of fal‐ sification is also decisive for a hypothesis. Before one can even speak about a hypothesis, there must be circumstances in which the pluralist hypothesis can be falsified. The possibility of falsi‐ fication saves pluralism from actual meaninglessness (Hick 2001: 5). If a hypothesis cannot be falsified in any way it is not a hypothesis. As I will show, the hypothetical character of Hick’s pluralist metatheory is disputable, and this has important con‐ sequences for the pluralist hermeneutical openness for the oth‐ erness of the religions (Heim 1995: 13‐43; Fredericks 1999: 104‐ 13). 3 According to the philosopher of science Karl Popper (1902‐1994), one can produce a number of proofs for one’s own hypothesis, but only one negative proof is sufficient to negate the hypothesis. That is why a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable. That means that experiments for undermining the hypothesis must be conceivable if the results of the ex‐ periments are in conflict with the hypothesis.
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The pluralism thesis rests on the postulation of the nou‐ menal Real, which cannot be experienced. The Real is mysterious, unknowable, ineffable. Given the character of the noumenal Real, Hick cannot indicate any empirical, experiential reality that can verify or falsify his hypothesis. The gulf between the Real and the concrete religious life is immense—so immense that verifi‐ cation and/or falsification are not possible. “If we cannot even give a description of what kind of experience would serve to verify Hick’s Real then it is in principle neither verifiable or falsifiable, and therefore cognitively meaningless” (Cheetham 2003: 143). This means that pluralism is not a hypothesis.4 The fact that pluralism cannot be verified places the em‐ pirical foundation of this model in question. Contrary to Hick’s inductive method, contrary to his intention to take experience and context seriously in all their concreteness, contrary to his intention to find some connection with reality, pluralism be‐ comes further and further removed from concrete religious ex‐ perience. This distance between the Real and concrete religion explains why references to the actual differences between the religions do not “affect” the pluralist hypothesis. Because of the unknowable character of the Real, as the ultimate religious ob‐ ject of religions, it is pointless to attempt to refute pluralism by referring to conflicting claims among the religions. James Fred‐ ericks, himself a comparative theologian, illustrates this notion via a difference between Taoists and Christians: The Dao is not a transcendent Creator, nor has it entered in‐ to history in human form like Jesus. The Dao is not a person to whom a devotee might pray. Instead, Daoists speak of the Dao in terms of the dynamic interplay of yin and yang unfolding everywhere. Here it would seem that we have a real difference between religions. Christians think of their God as the Holy One who saved his chosen people from the slavery of Egypt and gave them the Promised Land, who raised up the prophets to call his people back to fidelity to the covenant and eventually sent the world his only Son to be our redeemer. The Dao on the other hand, has not en‐ 4
Hick’s attempt to safeguard the hypothetical character of the pluralism thesis finally by pointing to the possibility of an “eschatolo‐ gical verfication” comes to nothing. Even in the eschaton the impossibil‐ ity of experiencing the inexperienceable Real remains (Heim 1995: 13‐43).
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tered into history to save his chosen people, nor is the Dao a redeemer as Jesus is for the Christians. (Fredericks 1999: 106)
Although this quotation indicates clear differences between Taoism and Christianity, it does not have the power to falsify Hick’s pluralist hypothesis. The reason is that the pluralist theory rests on the two pillars of the unknowable Real—about which nothing can be said—and the mythical character of truth claims. The result is that religions no longer conflict with one another—they are harmonized within the one pluralistic theory. Christians who adopt the pluralist position never have to change their minds. This is because the pluralists establish their view of the many religions in such a way that no concrete fact can be offered that would indicate that the pluralist position is not the case. (Fredericks 1999: 109)
The reflections above allow us to understand why it is that a model that clearly claims to be empirically grounded can be accused of being an a priori interpretation of religious reality (Fredericks 2004: 15). Although a priori reasonings are certainly important in theology, they do entail a certain risk. [T]he danger is that [a priori theologizing] begets a compla‐ cency that one’s work is finished. The illusion blunts any sense of need for detailed study of the aims and forms of life pursued by non‐Christians. Certainly lack of concern for specifics is not ingredient to an a priori theology of religions, but it is fairly common. (Duffy 2000: 8)
That is precisely the problem of pluralism: It is a position that is constructed without much interest in the empirical details of what religious communities actually tend to assert, value, and practice. This is evident from the fact that no empirical evidence, as to the extent of incompatibilities among the doctrine expressing sentences, is usually allowed to count against its truth. (Griffiths 1991: 48)
Hick’s original intuition that a general religious interpreta‐ tion must take religion in its concreteness seriously clashes with
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his pluralism thesis that interprets interreligious differences away. According to his original intuition, it would be appropri‐ ate to advocate “difficult spade work” and “long and patient study” (Duffy 2000: 9). The pluralist thesis, however, shows a certain indifference toward difference. Once the chalk lines of pluralism have been drawn, everything fits into the all‐encom‐ passing pattern. In addition, the pluralist urges believers not to worry about conflicting truth claims. These differences are not important with regard to soteriology. They are myths and not doctrines that have to be taken literally. Each refutation slides off the back of the pluralist hypothesis, as it were. Pluralism thus displays a certain deafness for the otherness of the reli‐ gious other. As I will show, this hermeneutical closedness is strengthened by the pluralist assumption of a common ground. The Common Ground: Between Absolutism and Relativism Pluralism rests on the assumption of a common ground for the religions. This concerns not only establishing commonalities, similarities, or overlaps between two or more religions; it also seeks a “common ground in a deeper sense” (Cobb 1990: 604). The idea is that there is one single religious ultimate reality and that it can be expressed effectively by a wide variety of doc‐ trines (Griffiths 1991: 48). The common ground forms the (ontological) foundation on which the pluralist edifice rests. It allows pluralism to avoid the two extremes of absolutism and relativism (Basset 1996a: 269). Pluralism attempts first to transcend absolutism by postulating that the common ground belongs to the essence of all religions but cannot be claimed by any single religion. There is a clear distinction between faith on the one hand and doctrines on the other. Faith exists only in the singular and is shared by all be‐ lievers who have a relationship with the Ultimate; doctrines are different historically and culturally determined and thus rela‐ tive expressions of this deeper unity (Basset 1996a: 425). Relativism is avoided because the common ground unites the religions beyond their differences. The underlying unity en‐ sures that religious plurality is more than a relativistic fragmen‐ tation. In addition, the common ground renders the different religions comprehensible and intelligible to one another: it serves a hermeneutical purpose. The underlying assumption is that there must be “something” that the religions share, so that
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interreligious dialogue is possible (Knitter 2002: 111). This “some‐ thing” is the common ground of all religions (Hick 1995a: 27). Despite its promising prospects, the pluralist presupposi‐ tion of a common framework of meaning can constitute an ob‐ stacle for interreligious dialogue. Many critics note that the pluralist hypothese comes at the cost of religious differences. “Where conflicting truth claims are undeniable, pluralism neu‐ tralizes the conflict by appealing to the mysterious character of the divine or otherwise reality that is the postulate of religious experience” (Merrigan 1994: 427). The pluralist presupposition of commonality leads to the reduction of religions to appearances (phenomena) of the same thing. Thus, the presupposed com‐ monalty between the different religions ends in a homogeniza‐ tion of religious heterogeneity.5 This criticism is not unexpec‐ ted. [This theory] attempt[s] to transform religious diversity from an apparent embarrassment for claims to religious truth into supporting testimony for one truth subsistent in all. It is not surprising that the specifics that distinguish the tradi‐ tions are pushed into the background. (Heim 1995: 123)
The emphasis lies on the unity, universality, and commonality, and not on the plurality, the difference, the specific, of the vari‐ ous religions. Pluralism says that the concrete, religion‐specific content of “salvation” is not important. Such instances are inter‐ esting in an exotic way but soteriologically irrelevant. However, it is precisely because of the thesis that interreligious differ‐ ences and conflicting statements are not important that little room remains for otherness that does not fit into the pluralist schema of harmony and unity. Pluralism forces awkwardly unstable religious realities into a Procrustean bed of untrammeled homogeneity. It sounds plausible to in‐ 5
The Buddhist specialist John B. Cobb, points out, for example, that Hicks’ thesis that the same thing happens in the different places of wor‐ ship of the different religions (Hick 1995b: 37) is very questionable: “The Buddhist might propose that what all religions are truly concerned with is Emptiness or the absolutely immanent process of dependent or‐ igination. But it is significant that Emptiness is not an object of worship for Buddhists, whereas there can be little doubt that worship is, for Hick, central to his concerns” (Cobb 1982: 43).
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They can be oppressive for everything that does not fit and withdraws from the pluralist schema. However positive the ideals of fraternity and solidarity may sound, the moment at which the relationship between individual and community, between the particular and the universal, diversity and unity is thought to be based on identity, the result is a dialectic of immediate and abstract negation of difference. (Jonkers 1999: 91)
The danger is not illusory that the dialogue partners will ulti‐ mately only hear the echo of their own voice or see the reflec‐ tion of their own image in the other. “By defining in advance the canons of acceptable religious value in a multi‐faith world, the normative pluralist project has already determined, and there‐ fore controls, the response which the other can make” (Barnes 2002: 13). The other answers the question that the pluralist has posed. The idea that different religions pose different questions about the “ultimate” and give different answers is not taken in‐ to consideration (Newbigin 1990: 138). The presupposition that the different religions are part of a common framework of meaning emphasizes too much their continuity and does not take interreligious distance enough into account. Pluralism thus leads to a hermeneutical closedness: pluralism does not respect how the religions understand them‐ selves and remains blind to what does not fit. How religions view themselves is replaced by the pluralistic understanding of religion. However attractive the pluralist promise of soteriological equality may appear to be, this is not the openness that interre‐ ligious dialogue demands. However promising the idea of equal valuation may sound—certainly in terms of its contrast with exclusivism and inclusivism—this idea is arrived at too quickly and goes beyond the first and most important condition for interreligious dialogue, namely hermeneutical openness. Be‐ fore judging, before assessing—either positively or negatively— the religious other deserves to be heard:
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We can understand somebody only if we begin to have in‐ sight into what that somebody feels and pursues, what his aspirations and desires are, how somebody understands himself, others, and natural and possibly supernatural real‐ ity. (Van Leeuwen 2003: 66)
Pluralism holds, however, that it understands the adherent of a different religion better than he himself does, along with his tra‐ dition, aspirations, and desires, and does not tolerate, as shown above, being gainsaid. With respect to this Arnulf Camps says: “Even before dialogue takes places, the assumption is that all are alike. One anticipates what the eventual conclusion must be, and that kills any real discussion” (Camps 1983: 30). It could be that pluralist interreligious dialogue is experienced as very frus‐ trating and that precisely this frustration becomes a soil for con‐ flicts again. After all, nothing is so frustrating as not being heard and nevertheless “understood.” This problem is intensified by the fact that pluralism itself is insufficiently aware that it views the situation from its own perspective. Pluralism associates itself with the virtue of open‐ ness. The “vice” of closedness is seen as belonging to “others,” i.e. those who are on the wrong side of the Rubicon. The blind‐ ness to religious otherness goes hand in hand with the blind‐ ness to one’s own pluralistic closedness. Because pluralism dis‐ tances itself from confessional interpretations of religious diver‐ sity, pluralism believes itself to act “disinterestedly.” The result of this aspiration to neutrality is, paradoxically enough, “ethnocentrism.“ Because [the pluralists] have no sense of their [confessional] framework of understanding in describing the other, that framework is given a chance to exercise influence illicitly. The result is that in the other [the pluralists] will recognize only that which is familiar [to them], and, on the other hand, will see what is unfamiliar [to them] as an underdeveloped variant of their own view. (Van Leeuwen 2003: 67)
Pluralism as Inclusivism The presupposed common ground forms the blind spot of inter‐ religious dialogue. The theologian John B. Cobb summarizes the above argument as follows:
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Cobb’s remark shows a suggestive parallel with an objection formulated earlier against the inclusivist paradigm. We will re‐ peat this criticism made by the pluralist Paul Knitter. Inclusiv‐ ism prevents me from truly hearing what my Buddhist or Mus‐ lim friend is trying to tell me. In claiming to open myself to the “truth“ of Buddhism, I am really only opening myself to what I will fit into what I already have in Christ, i.e. to what is already implicitly contained in Christian revelation. In my deeper feelings and convictions that Jesus is God’s last word, I cannot hear, because I cannot recognize, any other Words that might say something different and new. And if I cannot hear what my partner is trying to say to me, I cannot really dialogue with her. (Knitter 1999a: 330)
The analogy between the criticisms of inclusivism and plur‐ alism is remarkable.6 Cobb reproaches the pluralists for not be‐ ing able to hear the true otherness of the religious other because of their presupposed common ground, and Knitter reproaches the inclusivists for not being able to hear the newness and other‐ ness of the religious other because of their Christological criter‐ ion. Pluralism shows strong parallels with inclusivism and thus encounters similar problems. Pluralism is similar to inclusivism first because it wants to confirm as well as advance the solidarity between the religions. Pluralism does this just like inclusivism by emphasizing pri‐ marily the continuity between the religions. Finding points of contact between the religions is imperative here. Both models 6
Mark Heim calls pluralism inclusivist (Heim 1995: 30), Ted Peters calls pluralism a form of supraconfessional universalism (Peters 1992: 339‐49), and Andreas Grünschloss speaks in this respect of pluralism as meta‐inclusivism (Grünschloss 1999: 285‐87).
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differ from exclusivism on this point since exclusivism empha‐ sizes primarily the discontinuity between saving faith in Jesus Christ on the one hand and the lack of this faith in the other re‐ ligions on the other. Pluralism, however, differs from inclusiv‐ ism insofar as it formulates the points of contact not on the basis of a confessional tradition but looks for a common ground that belongs to the essence of each religion. The negative flip‐ side of the affirmation of religious continuity (inclusivism/plur‐ alism) is—as argued extensively above—that the discontinuity is not taken seriously enough: the conflicts, the contradictions, the breaks. Both inclusivism and pluralism are models of con‐ tinuity. The similarity between pluralism and inclusivism, how‐ ever, does not only have to do with the way in which both models confirm the continuity. Just like inclusivism, pluralism also follows the grammar of encompassment/integration (Bau‐ mann 2004: 28). In this grammar, we recall, only two levels are relevant: The lower level of cognition recognizes difference, the high‐ er level subsumes that which is different under that which is universal. To put it somewhat polemically: “you may think that you differ from me in your sense of values or identity, but deep down, or rather, higher up, you are but a part of me.” (Baumann 2004: 25)
This can be clarified by recalling the parable of the blind men and the elephant. In that context we argued that pluralism could claim the position of the king who sees. The religions are the blind people who are not conscious of their own perspec‐ tives. Pluralism functions as a norm that obtains for all religions and stands higher, with respect to authority, than the con‐ fessional perspective. Its most important difference from Chris‐ tian inclusivism is that the “encompassing term” lies, as it were, on a higher level. Not Christ nor God, but the Ultimate is the final end of all religions. Pluralism formulates an integrative perspective that is imposed on all religions that relativizes them (Grünschloss 1999: 281). All religions are ways to the Ultimate and their adherents are anonymous pluralists. From this point of view, the pluralist paradigm also rests on the typical divide of the grammar of encompassment/inte‐ gration. The pluralist claims to have more knowledge than the
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ordinary believer. Unlike the ordinary believer, who is still “fix‐ ated” on the penultimate, the pluralist is already turning toward the Ultimate. This does not mean that the pluralist abandons his own faith tradition, but it is relativized. The pluralist possesses the wisdom to know what is important, and this wisdom em‐ braces all other perspectives.7 It is the hope of the pluralist that all will some day turn to the Ultimate and arrive at the insight that this was their goal all along. Even more, pluralism presents itself as the completion of the true nature of religions. Mark Heim expresses this notion in a striking way: Hick’s approach does seem to be the classically inclusivist one, he otherwise rejects, when it is a Muslim arguing the Hindu’s moral virtue is ultimately rooted in Allah or a Buddhist arguing the Jew’s ethical integrity is anonymous participation in the dharma. He exempts himself from the charge of being an inclusivist because he relativizes the ultimates of particular faiths not in favour of one among them, but in terms of something above and beyond them all. Of course all religious inclusivists also believe that the object of their faith is above and beyond the particularities of other religions—and often their own as well. Hick is hardly unique in the kind of religious object he imagines .… He asserts that the real truth of religion is explicitly grasped only in his meta‐theory. He argues the faiths grope towards his truth in their own conditioned, particular manners: like all inclusivisms, his comes to fulfill and not to destroy. (Heim 1995a: 30)
From this perspective, pluralism appears to have a hierarchical‐ inclusivist structure. The crossing of the Rubicon is, again, much less radical than pluralists claim.
7 Hick 1995a: 81. “Phil: And so you include those who do not be‐ lieve that there is any transcendent reality such as the religions speak of, but who nevertheless work unselfishly for a better human future, among those who are responding in their lives to the Real and are undergoing salvific transformation. It seems that you are a kind of inclusivist after all! Hick: And, why not?”
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Pluralism and “Faith Commitment”: The Difference between Expression and Impression In the two previous sections we showed how pluralism dis‐ plays a certain indifference toward difference. “Particularity [becomes] subsumed under an ethic of openness which quickly becomes rigidly ideological” (Barnes 2002: 13). For that reason pluralist openness leads to its opposite: hermeneutical closed‐ ness. In my view, this closedness is symptomatic of a more fund‐ amental defect of pluralism, namely the lack of insight into the unique nature of faith commitments. The reason for this has to do with the expressivist nature of their theory of religion: the different religions are historically and culturally determined ex‐ pressions of the Real. Pluralism rests on a distinction between faith/belief or the noumenon/phenomena or Real/expressions (Merri‐ gan 1997b: 697‐707). In a certain sense, within pluralism the “in‐ ternal” is uncoupled from the “external,” i.e. the material, the cultural, the historical, and the social are made subordinate to the personal relationship to the Real. Believers are required to have an attitude of “detachment” toward these concrete, ex‐ pressive religious elements. “The ultimate, the liturgical, and everything that is connected with the material is forced back in favour of the internal” (Van Herck 2003: 167) and the personal faith experience. The “external” becomes contingent with re‐ spect to the personal attitude of faith, and this gives rise to the idea that faith consists in a detached attitude toward the “ex‐ ternal.” Over against the expressivism of pluralism, we will for‐ mulate an alternative for which, however, it is difficult to find a suitable term. To give an idea of what is at issue, the following opposition can be suggested: expressivism presupposes a move‐ ment from “internal” to “external”—expression (Hick 2006: 3‐ 12). The experience of the Real is expressed differently in the various religions. Over against that, we would like propose a view of religion that moves in the opposite direction, i.e. from “external” to “internal”—impression. Second, our view of reli‐ gion also presupposes an intertwining of “external” and “in‐ ternal.” We will argue that this theory of religion does more jus‐ tice to the unique nature of the faith commitment than the ex‐ pressivism of the pluralistic approach to religion.
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The Expressivist Theory of Religion According to pluralism, religions are historically and culturally determined expressions of the experience of the religious object (Real). Different experiences of the religious object are possible and, in accordance with these different experiences, the reli‐ gions formulate different answers. The religions do, indeed, dif‐ fer outwardly, but in fact they share the same soteriological structure. Pluralists claim that their interpretation of religious diver‐ sity does not do away with identity. De‐absolutization does not mean the same as relativism, and pluralism does not intend to undermine faith commitment. In this context Hick relates a Buddhist parable of a man who is in danger but sees safety on the other side of the river. Since there’s no bridge or boat he takes branches and makes a small raft and paddles across to safety on the other side. And then, because the raft has been so useful he’s tempted to lift it on the shoulders and carry it with him. What he should do, however, now that the raft has served its pur‐ pose, is to go on, leaving it behind. Likewise, the Buddha said, the dharma (or in Christian terms, the gospel), is “for carrying over, not for retaining…. You monks, by under‐ standing the Parable of the Raft, should get rid even of (right) mental objects, all the more of wrong ones.” (Hick 1995a: 114‐15)
We note here that in the pluralist model the concrete religious elements, the “outside” of religion, are the clothes that people wear on the way to the Real (Van Herck 2004: 147‐60). “The words, prayers, rituals, etc. of a religion concern only its out‐ side, its clothing“ (Van Herck 2004: 152). But people can take their clothes off and put them in the closet. It is also possible to put on other clothes or come up with new combinations. It is possible to become attached to an article of clothing in a certain way, but in the end clothing can be replaced. They can be ex‐ changed, traded. Another pair of pants, a new jacket …. Depending on the context the one piece of clothing is also more useful than another: a warm pullover in cold weather, an even‐ ing dress for a grand ball, old clothes for working in the garden, etc. The value of these clothes is extrinsic and lies in their use.
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It is presupposed in the naked belief/cultural clothing meta‐ phor that there is a moment at which the theologian can take the clothing of her religion off in order thus to judge the clothing as to beauty, design, etc. and to take its mea‐ surements. A new cultural clothing can thus be chosen for the religion that is more suited to the time, that fits better and is more attractive. (Van Herck 2004: 153)
The detached attitude with respect to the “external,” the con‐ crete religious elements, is the mature attitude of faith. Reli‐ giously speaking, there is no reason to be attached to the outer elements, for they function merely as a covering for the internal religion. To be sure, pluralistic discourse acknowledges that be‐ lievers can be psychologically attached to the external religious elements. Hick compares this attachment to the feeling of “na‐ tional pride,” speaking here of a form of “natural parochialism” or “residual tribalism” (Hick 1989: 49). The metaphor of clothes reflects the expressivist theory of religion of pluralism. The religions express the experience of the religious object. The result of expressivisim is, in the first place, the formalization of religion: the differences between religions are formal. That also means that the religions are replaceable and exchangeable. That you have adopted some one among all the mytho‐ logical and perhaps conflicting traditions is salvifically sig‐ nificant because without some such vehicle you cannot cen‐ ter on the Real. To relate to the Real directly is impossible. But to choose one tradition over another or to side with one against another on a specific religious matter and to live concretely on that basis cannot in Hick’s view be de‐ terminative with regard to the nature of the possibility of salvation. (Heim 1995: 27; emphasis his)
The epistemological structure of pluralism, moreover, instru‐ mentalizes the different religions: they are judged in terms of their usefulness in the light of the proposed end: the Ultimate (Sonnemans 2005: 66). Religions are sources of inspiration and are valued within pluralism not so much because of their possi‐ ble contributions regarding content but primarily for the way in which they advance salvific transformation. According to Hick,
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One can think in this context of the Buddhist story cited above that compares the role of religion to the raft that makes it possible to reach the other side of the river. Once one reaches the other side, the raft is no longer of any use and must be left behind. If it is not, then the person confuses means and ends. The means is then incorrectly made absolute, whereas it has value only in light of the intended end. There is no intrinsic connection between the raft and the end. There is no intrinsic connection between the “internal” and the “external.” The raft tells us nothing about the end. The pluralist mistake lies in the insinuation that it can nevertheless be possible at a certain mo‐ ment to find immediate access to religious experience (Basset 1996a: 354). The image of religion as a path that leads to the mountain top is similar. The path itself is functional: it makes it possible to reach the mountain top. But it does not matter whether one reaches the mountain top from the East or from the West. The function of religious myths lies in their ability to arouse the proper, i.e. salvific attitude toward the Ultimate. “Apart from the fact that the enterprise is uncertain—do all religions indeed lead to the same thing—those metaphors are superfluous for the rest” (Van Herck 1996: 87). Theologically speaking, the danger of idolatry arises here. How, after all, can it be avoided that people create a God in their own image? “If one is no longer happy with a God, one does not need to worry—there are, after all, enough other gods to which one can orient oneself.” In an extreme case the believer can always put together “a ‘pleasing’ or ‘agreeable’ God out of the multitude on offer” (Sonnemans 2005: 64). Joerg Rieger agrees with this and argues that the revisionism of liberal plur‐ alism runs the risk of ultimately no longer speaking from God’s point of view but only speaking about the subject: The self ends up turning around itself and its own interests, determined to shape everything else in its image. Theology
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built upon this foundation always runs the risk of turning into special‐interest theology pursuing primarily the inter‐ ests of specific groups of people in charge, however benevo‐ lent and charitable they may present themselves at the mo‐ ment. (Rieger 1989: 131)
This has a great deal to do with the great trust in the abilities of the self. The self is the master: purposeful, active, free, supple, and pliable. The expressive theory of religion thus endorses a voluntarist anthropology. Pluralism does not rest on the offer of grace by a personal God who invites believers into a relation‐ ship of faith but revolves around the active, free self. The Voluntarist Anthropology of Pluralism For the pluralist, crossing the Rubicon is a choice that on the one hand is intellectually honest and on the other has a clear moral import. The pluralistic reasoning is as follows: once the subject has become aware of the evident fact of the historical and cultural contingency of his own religious beliefs and has been confronted with the spiritual and moral fruits of the other religions, he must draw his conclusions and accept the pluralist premise of de‐absolutization: Once you’ve concluded that their moral and spiritual fruits seem to be, although different, more or less equally valua‐ ble, you are driven to the realization that the Real is capable of being humanly thought and experienced in more than one way. This is of course what religious pluralism pro‐ poses, and its justification is simply that it proposes a more realistic view because it takes account of a wider range of data than any of the traditional absolutisms. (Hick 1995a: 47)
The pluralist emphasizes the way in which crossing the Ru‐ bicon is a decision of the will. Pluralism is a choice one makes in freedom. This, according to the pluralist, is the most plausi‐ ble choice. The recognition of soteriological equality is the only feasible answer to the experience of religious diversity as a source of wealth. Moreover, in the light of interreligious con‐ flicts, pluralism is also the only morally acceptable answer. Pluralism offers a clear solution and exit for interreligious con‐ flicts. The result of this analysis is that pluralism connects the unwillingness to cross the Rubicon with misplaced and out‐
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rageous claims to superiority and the finality of salvation that are the expression of not recognizing the contingency of one’s own faith perspective. It is said of believers who point to the in‐ terreligious contradictions and to the seriousness of conflicting truth claims that they are gazing blindly at their own confes‐ sional “perspective.” They are not prepared to place their own “perspective” in the larger pluralist whole. Once the Rubicon has been crossed, a range of possibilities open up. Liberated from the limitedness of the confessional per‐ spective, the possibility of mutual enrichment becomes visible. This connects up with the idea of convergence and complemen‐ tarity. It is possible and desirable to transcend the limitedness of one’s own “faith perspective,” to break through it and sup‐ plement it with the religious insights of other traditions. In in‐ terreligious dialogue religious identity changes because new dimensions of religious reality come to light. Pluralism presupposes the ability of people to be ad‐ dressed by new meanings. People are thought to be receptive to the insights of the other religious traditions, open to new mean‐ ings and new insights. They are not stuck in familiar schemes and surroundings. At first sight, this anthropology seems to entail a certain passivity. Being receptive then means the ability to be addressed or touched by something from outside oneself. This passivity is, however, immediately converted into ac‐ tivity. The potential receptivity is transformed into an active ob‐ ligation. “Be yourself by learning from others.” What is “poten‐ tially” present in the human being must be actualized. Thus, it is always possible to broaden one’s own perspective. Identity is not something that people possess but is a process of becoming that never ends. The identity of people is never complete but is always open for completion. In this context the awareness that one does not know is important (Van Bortel 2004: 262‐67). The truth, to which all are directed but which is not yet known, con‐ stitutes the drive behind interreligious dialogue. Ignorance or not knowing is a not knowing yet that motivates and challenges us to start a dialogue with the other and thus promote a better and more complete knowledge. We strive for fuller and broader insight, in the full understanding that complete knowledge is beyond human beings. This pluralist activism sketches the subject as active, dynamic, and influential. The subject is free
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and liberated with respect to tradition, symbols, rites, and doc‐ trine. What is striking is the speed and ease with which an or‐ iginal hermeneutical limitation, i.e. one’s own perspective, is converted within the pluralist paradigm into an active task without any limitation. The believer can and must grow and be enriched, and apparently he or she does not encounter any lim‐ itations in this. The believer is not hindered by a certain “attach‐ ment” to concrete elements, for they are, after all, relative with respect to the Ultimate. In this context double belonging or multiple belonging is pre‐ sented as a pluralist ideal (Cornille 2002). Double belonging means that people not only make contact on a theoretical level with other traditions but also truly immerse themselves in their traditions, customs, and beliefs. People feel at home not only in their own tradition but also in other religions. Pluralism pro‐ jects the dream of interreligious communion where believers from different traditions are at home with one another and in one another’s traditions. This view is also found in Hick when he speaks of “the universal church in which the pluralistic vi‐ sion has become established …” (Hick 1995a: 136). In this church there is no limitation to drawing from the spiritual sources of other traditions (Hick 1995a: 139). That is not to say that pluralists think that all believers must attain this ideal. Pluralists are however convinced that believers who are funda‐ mentally at home in other traditions have a more complete reli‐ gious identity than those who “limit” themselves to their own tradition. From the perspective of pluralist expressivism, it is not very difficult to become enriched. First, the subject is “free” with re‐ spect to his own doctrines—his own faith perspective is relative because it is related to the ultimate religious object. Mature faith is a “detached” faith. Moreover, the perspective of the religious other is never truly strange. Interreligious differences are, after all, merely formal and belong on the level of phenomena. Ulti‐ mately, pluralist interreligious dialogue is an exercise in estab‐ lishing how the different believers actually agree, despite their differences (Fredericks 1999: 115‐16). It is not difficult to be open to the religious other when the interreligious differences are neither disturbing nor challenging. The religious other can
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never turn “our” world upside down, given that he fits perfect‐ ly into the encompassing pluralistic pattern of which we also are a part. Of course the religious other can “enrich” us. Enrich‐ ment means, after all, only adding, not changing. Or, to put it differently, the religious other brings only the pleasure of the gain but not the pain of the loss (Van Leeuwen 2005: 44). That the encounter with the religious other is indeed an enrichment is not in question. The question is if the pluralist ideal of growth and enrichment does not remain simply on a superficial level. “While the recognition of the possibility of belonging to more than one tradition may arise from a position of humility, it may also result from a posture of superiority. Rituals and beliefs of other religions may be regarded as harmless, if not superfluous from the perspective of the higher truth and efficacy that is of‐ fered in that particular religion” (Cornille 2002: 2). Let us take a moment here to ask: Does pluralism not move a little too quickly here? It seems so easy: the awareness of the historical relativity and contingency of oneʹs own limited per‐ spective and the confrontation with the spiritual and moral fruits of other religions are sufficient grounds to move toward a certain detachment regarding one’s own faith commitment and to be willing to relativize and supplement each religious claim. The awareness of the fact that one does not know is sufficient to move towards knowing better: one’s own insight is supple‐ mented by the other’s insight (Race 2001: 110). It seems that pluralism either understands the unique na‐ ture of faith commitment wrongly or does not understand it at all. We have argued that this is perhaps due to its expressivist theory of religion. Over against the expressivist theory of reli‐ gion, which considers the “external” as the clothing of the “in‐ ternal,” we will argue for a view of religion that assumes the si‐ multaneity and intertwining of both dimensions. This theory of religion points to the fact that concrete religious elements them‐ selves are constitutive for the meaning of the experience of the Real. The relationship to the specific material, cultural, histor‐ ical, and social elements that are part of a religion becomes very different when the connection with the Ultimate is not extrinsic (formal and instrumental) but more intrinsic (sacramental) in nature.
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Expression versus Impression Both pluralism’s voluntary anthropology and the idea that the religious other is not strange but simply different can be dis‐ puted. At the foundation of both premises is the presupposition of expressivism and the accompanying formalization and in‐ strumentalization of religion. This underlying theory of religion does not have enough of an eye for the specific character of a faith commitment. The pluralist indifference toward interreli‐ gious differences does not sufficiently take into account the fact that the believer is much less free with respect to concrete reli‐ gious practices, rituals, symbols, etc. than pluralism claims. This is apparent from, among other things, testimonies by people who actually are in a situation of double belonging. It is im‐ portant here to realize that we are not talking here about people who are “closed exclusivist traditionalists.” Rather, we are talk‐ ing about those who live in a situation of double belonging. What these testimonies make clear is that double belonging is often a heavy load to bear, not because these people are closed but because their relationship to their beliefs—even if these be‐ liefs originate in two worlds—is different from how it is described in pluralist expressivism. It is very doubtful that these people would describe their situation of double belonging as one of freedom.8 The Benedictine monk Henri Le Saux, who immersed himself in Hinduism and is also called Swami Abhi‐ shiktananda, states that he experiences his double belonging as a rift (déchirement) in him between Christianity and Hinduism. He must be quite a poor Christian since he feels Hindu— but he hardly dares to tell this to Christians. He must also be a poor Hindu, since he is a Christian and does not have the courage to “reduce” his Christian faith to the level of the ishadevata (divinity chosen) or of the nama‐rupa (the appear‐ ance of the names and the forms). That is to say, to consider Christ as his chosen symbol for expressing the transcendent 8
One person describes his situation of double belonging as “per‐ ennially trapped on a ’hyphen’ (à la Lyotard) between Judaism and Chris‐ tianity” (anonymous). Another speaks of her conversion as “… a rupture, tearing me apart from my acknowledged identity associated with a ven‐ erable tradition.… Among other things it has given me the tension of multiple identities and conflicting loyalties, to traditions, cultures and val‐ ues” (Ching 1999: 7‐22).
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Expressivism can explain why pluralists accept so much free‐ dom with respect to their own tradition and why they see so few conflicts between the different religions. But it does not do justice to the way in which believers often experience their faith commitment. We do not want to insinuate that believers are not free, but we do want to point to the fact that faith commitment implies a certain restriction that cannot be adequately under‐ stood by expressivist pluralism. First, pluralism does not suf‐ ficiently acknowledge the way in which these religious ele‐ ments also function as impressions in the lives of believers. Sec‐ ond, the expressivist theory of religion is too simplistic. The connection between the “internal” and the “external,” i.e. be‐ tween the religious experience of the transcendent and the con‐ crete religious elements, is somewhat more complex than as‐ sumed by the expressivist theory of religion. The connection is not one of expression but rather one of simultaneous intertwin‐ ing. It would be better then not to speak of expression but of mediation (Chauvet 1993: 25‐34). The “external” is constitutive for the meaning of the “internal.” Or, in other words, the “ex‐ ternal” means the “internal” (Chauvet 1987: 95). There is no im‐ mediate, i.e. non‐mediated, access to the internal. To work out this idea further and to structure our argu‐ ment, we will propose an important nuance for the expressivist theory of religion. Instead of always speaking of the pluralist split between faith/belief and noumenon/phenomena, we will add another element to expressivism. We will turn our attention to the fact that there are certain events that are particularly open to the “experience” of the transcendent. We are thinking here in particular of the major events in life: birth, grief, pain, adversi‐ ty, sexuality, death, etc. These are events that transcend the hu‐ man being and over which he has no control. The involvement with the transcendent occurs through, among other things, the confrontation with these major moments of human life. These are moments that are celebrated (or mourned), and this is an idea on which many religions can agree. Instead of speaking about the pluralist split between faith/ belief and noumenon/phenomena we propose working with the following simple distinction between the major life events that
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make the human being open to the transcendent on the one hand and the religious elements, the institutions, rituals, forms of prayer, symbols, etc. on the other. With this distinction be‐ tween the major events and the religious elements in mind, it is possible to concretize and sharpen our critique of the pluralist interpretation of the faith commitment. For the following discussion, we would now like to for‐ mulate three theses in connection with the above distinction and, in particular, in connection with the relation between the major events and religious elements. These three theses demon‐ strate that the expressivist theory of religion has not properly understood the relationship between the “internal” and the “ex‐ ternal.” First, these major life events (love, sexuality, birth, death, suffering, adversity, etc.) are not religious in themselves. At most, they can be said to be so in a very general way. These are events that make people open to and capable of being ad‐ dressed by the transcendent. These events do not of themselves refer to the transcendent; they are not religious in themselves. Second, these events become religious only via a connection with concrete religious elements. This resembles, perhaps, the position of the expressivist theory of religion but it is not the same. The difference is that the connection with the concrete elements is not purely “expressive” but also constitutive for the meaning of these events. The “external” gives shape to the meaning and thus produces the meaning. The external is not secondary. Third, this theory of religion does not only link up with philosophy of religion; it also links up with theology and the way in which the relationship between God and the con‐ crete religious elements are understood. This relationship is un‐ derstood sacramentally. Sacraments are actions of God. This is a genitive of the subject: God gives something of himself in these religious elements. The movement goes from God to human be‐ ings, mediated by the religious elements. That is also the reason for speaking about the gift character of the economy of salvation. The believer sees the hand of God in those major events. But he sees God’s hand only because those events are connected with religious elements: gestures, rituals, sacra‐ mental acts. It is God himself who “expresses” himself (reveals himself) and “impresses” himself in the life of the believer. There is no direct, immediate access to God. The relationship to
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God is always mediated by concrete religious elements. Expres‐ sivism sees those religious elements as something secondary, as something added to the experience of the transcendent sec‐ ondarily. Over against this expressivist theory of religion we defend a theory of religion that more strongly emphasizes the intertwining of both components and gives priority to God’s in‐ itiative. If we do not look at religion as a historically and culturally determined expression of religious experience but recognize that God also makes an “impression” in the lives of believers via the religious elements, then the attitude of the believer changes with respect to these concrete elements. The unique na‐ ture of the faith commitment comes more sharply into view. Christian Identity and the Renunciation of the Immediate The above critique of pluralist expressivism is theologically in‐ spired and concerns the unique nature of the faith commitment to God and the way in which Christian identity is formed. The religious identity of a believer is determined by her belonging to God. The believer feels herself addressed by God and experi‐ ences her life as a gift from God. God comes from outside and involves the believer in a relationship with him. The initiative lies with God.9 It is thus a matter of grace, but this offer of grace is accepted only in faith. In other words, God runs the risk that his offer will not be recognized or accepted. Faith is a personal answer to being addressed by a living God. This answer of faith places the life of the believer in a very specific relational field. Being addressed by God always occurs indirectly. God seeks people via a detour along events, social practices, sym‐ bols, ritual acts, and objects. Via this route God connects people with one another and with himself. The grace of God that is re‐ vealed is connected with concrete, specific elements from the concrete historical and social reality. From this perspective, reli‐ gion also has a strong “material” side. All these elements give the believers the chance to receive God’s echo. We also call these elements—material objects, symbolic acts, etc.—the exter‐ nal in which God reveals himself.
9
This does not mean that the believer cannot be actively involved with God.
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These concrete elements mediate and mean in a profound way the believing relationship between God and human beings. This is not a question of expressions but rather one of practices, by which the faith commitment to God is mediated in the life of the believer and thus profoundly characterizes and stamps the life of the believer. It is not so that the experience of being ad‐ dressed by God is expressed in these elements. Rather, God breaks into the life of the believer by imprinting himself in con‐ crete elements. The particular and the transcendent are inter‐ twined with each other. God makes an impression in the life of the believer via certain concrete elements, and the Christian identity is formed. The faith with which the believer responds to God is not only an internal conviction or a matter of the heart. Faith devel‐ ops precisely in the close connection between the internal and the external and thus also presupposes the concrete religious elements, such as images and symbols, acts and rites, songs, and other works of art. This means that coming to faith, and thus the formation of the Christian identity, presupposes medi‐ ation (Chauvet 1987: 160). It is only insofar as people succeed in concurring with the mediation that a faith relationship with the living God is possible. Faith is renouncing the dream (illusion) of the immediate. This also takes us to the heart of the Christian Easter faith. The core of the Christian faith and of faith in the resurrection presupposes that people break free of the desire “to touch, see, or find,” so that they learn to accept the life‐ giving Word that comes from elsewhere. This breaking free of the desire for the immediate implies precisely the acceptance of the game of presence and absence. To accept mediation is to acknowledge the lack of presence or, better, the acknowledge‐ ment of the presence of the lack of God. It also means that this lack cannot be removed. “That is faith; that is the Christian faith identity; whoever causes the lack of Christ to die turns Him into a dead body” (Chauvet 1987: 183). To say that concrete events, symbols, rituals, objects, etc. mediate the meaning of God implies that God is neither fully transcendent nor fully immanent with respect to these medi‐ ations. God does not coincide with these concrete elements nor can God be known without them. We find out who God is by relating to the concrete in which He reveals Himself. By the ele‐
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ments in which he “expresses” himself he reveals something about who he is. The relationship of faith and the involvement with God is cultivated and made possible by the connection with the concrete, material, historical, social, and cultural. Even more, arriving at a Christian faith identity means accepting the mediation of the church, for there Christ, the Risen Lord, reveals himself. This also means that the faith connection with these con‐ crete elements may not simply be discarded as a psychological attachment that, for example, one receives along with one’s up‐ bringing.10 This connection has to do, rather, with the fact that God has chosen the elements, as it were, to reveal himself in them and that these elements are thus connected with God. God has, as it were, “imprinted” himself in these elements and, via these elements, he also imprints himself in the life of the be‐ liever. A detached attitude toward the elements could very well lead to a detached attitude toward God and a deterioration of the faith commitment. It is only to the extent that believers can turn to God in concrete religious elements (saints’ images, bread and wine, genuflection before going to sleep, lighting a candle before an exam, reading the Bible, praying the Lord’s Prayer, reciting the creed) that believers can also recognize God in the depths of their existence. The result is a non‐indifference of the believer with respect to the concrete religious elements. It is important for Christians that this mediation is ecclesio‐ logical. God is found not in the most personal depths of an indi‐ vidual but through the ecclesiological mediation of proclam‐ ation, sacrament, and ethics. Just as Christians claim that they do not know who God is apart from Christ in whom he became incarnate, so also the faith commitment is mediated through the proclamatory, sacramental, and ethical dimensions of the reli‐ gion. It is these symbolic elements that are written on the body of the one baptized. One becomes a Christian by entering an institution and allowing this institution to impress its sign, its character, on the body. (Chauvet 1987: 162)
10
This does not in any way mean that we deny that there is always a psychological attachment in religion.
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The argument above can be illustrated via the story of the disciples on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13‐35). This story is about two disciples who are leaving Jerusalem deeply dis‐ tressed and disillusioned. Jerusalem plays a central role in the gospel of Luke: it is the city of the death of Jesus, the city of his appearances after his death, the city where the pouring out of the Holy Spirit occurs. This story is a conversion story: a trans‐ formation from “not understanding, misunderstanding” to re‐ cognition occurs in the disciples. If their view was obstructed at the beginning of the story, at the end their eyes are opened. It is also the story of the transformation of the group, which was first broken up entirely, and at the end finds the strength as a reunited group to go back to Jerusalem and proclaim the good news that Jesus had risen. This transformation does not occur through direct introspection. The recognition of Christ as the risen Lord is mediated by (1) proclamation (this is the Word), (2) the sacraments (breaking of bread, baptism), and (3) ethics (the recognition of the risen Jesus in the suffering fellow human being). Via this testimony it is thus possible to form a com‐ munity around the risen Jesus and to say: “This is my body.” The absent one is sacramentally present. But the recognition of the mediating character of faith is not self‐evident. Believing presupposes a mourning for what has been lost. It is taking the lack seriously. Only through grief for the deceased Jesus can a conversion to the risen Lord occur. This grief for the deceased Jesus implies the acceptance of the ecclesiological mediation. Whoever rejects the church to worship God in private mis‐ understands the sacramentality of the Church (Chauvet 1987: 183). The story of the disciples on the road to Emmaus does not only concern Jesus’ disciples. It also has to do with how people today become Christians. To believe means to let go of the im‐ mediate—this is the dead body of Christ. Renouncing the im‐ mediate means, precisely, mediation through concrete religious elements (Chauvet 1993: 43). The fundamental idea is that Jesus is “absent” after his crucifixion in the sense that his earthly body has left the world. It is thus impossible to touch his earthly body. “Do not look for Jesus among the dead, for he is risen.” But believing in the risen Christ means learning to live with a lack. It is only when believers learn to accept the lack of
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the immediate that they can learn to recognize the mediation of word, sacrament, and ethics. We can have him in our midst only as a symbolized body in the witness of the church, i.e. in the scripture, the sacraments, and the ethical service to the world. Precisely because of the mediation of faith and the way in which God imprints himself through mediation in the lives of the believers, the ease with which the pluralist speaks of re‐ newal and broadening is suspect. Believers do not have that freedom with respect to their faith commitment mediated in concrete practices, symbols, and rituals. All these concrete ele‐ ments in which God impresses himself do not “belong” to the believers. They are not adequately understood as something that believers have and possess and which they are free to dispose of as they choose. Rather, it seems that something happens to the believers in these elements, and thus these elements make a claim on them because God has connected himself with them. It is not so much a movement from inside to outside, i.e. expres‐ sion as it is one from outside to inside, i.e. impression. There is an impression or a mark. Faith is a gift from God and cannot simply be discarded. That is why baptism, for example, is called a mark or brand, and newly baptized people are compared to branded cattle.11 It is via these concrete religious practices, ritu‐‐ als, symbols, etc. that the faith identity or “Christian character” is formed. The Greek word from which “character” derives or‐ iginally meant an “incision, a groove, a mark.” God has marked the life of the believer; he has put his stamp on their soul and
11
In some religions this imprint is very physical, e.g., circumcision in Judaism and Islam. Eight‐day‐old Jewish boys are circumcised, i.e. a scar is made. Through this circumcision Jewish boys are included in the covenant with Yahweh. “The Jewish circumcision is a sign of a seal that can be compared to the seal on a contract” (Schillebeeckx 1952: 489). Although Christianity is a more spiritualized religion, the sacrament of baptism is also seen as an identifying mark or seal (Schillebeeckx 1952: 490). The church fathers spoke in this context of caractère: a feature that is inscribed or “a sign of recognition that is marked on something, an identifying mark.” Paul calls Christ the image or representation (charak‐ tēr) of the Father (Hebrews 1:3). “Christians are called to become like this image of the Father (Romans 8:29). Baptism is the first step in this sealing” (Schillebeeckx 1952: 490).
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transformed their lives.12 The fact that people may not “put their faith between brackets” does not equal a claim to superiority or absoluteness nor does this inability imply uncrit‐ ical obedience to ecclesiastical authority. They cannot do so because faith is a “gift from God.” Conclusion We first demonstrated that the pluralism thesis rewrites the self‐understanding of the religious traditions with a view to participation in interreligious dialogue. Pluralism makes a con‐ fessional claim to normativity that leads to this model be‐ coming exclusivist. Pluralism claims to be a form of mature faith: it does not worship any false gods but understands what is penultimate and what is ultimate. Those who do not adhere to pluralism are guilty of idolatry and are unwilling to place what is relative in the perspective of the ultimate. The “open” plur‐ alist excludes the “closed” exclusivist and inclusivist from inter‐ religious dialogue. A conversion to pluralism—expressed in the image of crossing the Rubicon—is the necessary condition for interreligous dialogue. The result is a dialogue between like‐ minded liberal theologians/believers. We have also argued that pluralism turns out to be a form of “meta‐inclusivism”: all believers as anonymous pluralists! The problems that were previously ascribed to the grammar of encompassment/integration also apply to the pluralist model. The common ground notion renders all differences secondary in importance. All roads lead to the same salvation. The plur‐ alist presupposition of a common ground makes the pluralists deaf to the otherness of the religious other. Moreover, pluralism is a form of inappropriate “paternalism.” The pluralist under‐ stands the religious traditions better than their respective ad‐ herents do. The fact that pluralism does not tolerate being con‐ tradicted by how the religions understand themselves rein‐ forces the pluralist indifference to interreligious differences. Finally, we argued that pluralism does not take the unique nature of the faith commitment sufficiently into account. The reason we gave for this is that pluralism rests on an expressivist 12
In this respect it is suggestive that it is not possible to debaptize oneself.
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theory of religion. This expressivist theory of religion once again confirms the pluralist indifference to interreligious differ‐ ences. Over against this theory of religion we pointed out that believers are in a certain sense bound to concrete practices, ritu‐ als, symbols, etc. because God imprints himself in them. God leaves traces behind in the concrete elements, and believers find God via the concrete elements. By connecting themselves with these concrete elements in which God has revealed himself, people also connect themselves with God. The faith commit‐ ment with respect to God is a belonging to God, which is pos‐ sible only if the believer understands the concrete element as the embodiment of God. The pluralist attitude with respect to these concrete elements in which God impresses himself ig‐ nores this.
CHAPTER 4
The Cultural‐Linguistic Theory, Postliberalism, and Religious Incommensurability In response to the pluralist indifference to interreligious differ‐ ences a new model for interreligious dialogue within theology has emerged (Knitter 2002: 173‐90). This model is intended to put an end to the arguments for openness at the expense of reli‐ gious particularity. Because “[it] sets out to save the particu‐ lars” (Heim 2001: 17‐40); we will henceforth call it “particular‐ ism” (Moyaert 2005). Particularism takes its inspiration from the theology of George Lindbeck and his cultural‐linguistic theory, which fo‐ cuses not on interreligious commonalities but on the particular‐ ity of the religions and the seriousness of religious commit‐ ments (Lindbeck 1984: 22). This theory of religion is an extended reflection on an analogy—on the way cultures and religions are analogous to languages, and languages are embedded in the forms of life of diverse and particular cul‐ tures and religions. (Buckley 2002: xi)
The cultural‐linguistic approach to religion is, moreover, especially interesting because it allows us to elaborate further on the proposed reversal of “inside” and “outside.” According to Lindbeck, it is just as hard to think of religions as it is to think of cultures or languages as having a single generic or universal experiential essence of which particular religions—or cul‐ tures or languages—are varied manifestations or modifica‐ tions. (Lindbeck 1984: 23)
Just like cultures and languages, religions are irreducibly par‐ ticular. Lindbeck’s concern about the particularity of religious traditions, and specifically Christianity, is expressed in postlib‐
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eral theology, which he presents as a necessary correction to the liberal theology that led to the erosion of tradition(s). In this chapter we will sketch the relationship between the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion and postliberalism. We will first trace the challenges that run through Lindbeck’s thinking like leitmotivs. To that end we will look briefly at Lindbeck’s biography. We will then turn to Lindbeck’s cultural‐linguistic theory of religion, explaining why Lindbeck believes this theory is needed, and what the specifics of this model are. In the third section we will demonstrate the connection between the cul‐ tural‐linguistic theory of religion and postliberalism. Finally, we will look at what Lindbeck’s approach means for the challenge of religious plurality and the theology of religions. Biographical Reflections and Theological Concerns In the article “Confession and Community: An Israel‐like View of the Church,” Lindbeck “pictures the process of change of his theological thinking in both archeological and architectural terms.” He claims to have “dug down into earlier layers of ex‐ perience and built on what went before” (Lindbeck 1990: 492). Looking more closely at his biography will make it possible to understand the specificity of his thinking better. The purpose here is to make connections between Lindbeck’s life story and the theological questions that occupied him. Lindbeck’s life story throws light especially on three of his theological concerns: the preservation of the particularity of the Christian tradition, the question of the possibility of inter‐Christian reconciliation, and the cultural crisis. Lindbeck was born in 1923 in Lyoang, a city in east central China. He lived in China and Korea, where his Swedish‐Amer‐ ican parents worked as Lutheran missionaries, until he was sev‐ enteen. His deep contact with Chinese culture taught him how “how little the Christian worldview was self‐evident to Chinese candidates for baptism” (Tambour 2003: 21‐22). There are no points of contact between Chinese culture and Christianity. In China it took years and years ... for [the candidates for baptism] to absorb the language, the understanding (the worldview, to use abstract Christian terms) that enabled their minds to become conformed to the mind of Christ well
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enough for them to begin thinking like Christians. (Lind‐ beck 1996: 251)
The gulf between Christianity and culture led Lindbeck later to conclude that the liberal correlation method, which attempted to disclose the Christian method via common experiences, does not work as a catechetical method. The result of such a correla‐ tion is usually nothing more than a bland decoction of the or‐ iginal Christian message. Lindbeck would later argue that peo‐ ple were given true access to the Christian tradition only through a deep process of socialization and interiorization in which can‐ didates for baptism slowly appropriated the Christian “lang‐ uage”—in the broad sense of the term. One could call it a reval‐ uation of the catechumenate, as it existed in the first centuries of Christianity. In China and Korea Lindbeck also learned that people can develop their true religious identity only if they are supported and assisted by a committed faith community. This also helps perhaps to explain his reluctance concerning individ‐ ualistic approaches to religion. In his later theological works he focuses primarily on “how ideas function in communal tradi‐ tions of language and practice” (Lindbeck 1990: 496). Not only did Lindbeck develop a great sensitivity to cul‐ tural, linguistic, and religious particularity. His years in China and Korea also explain his later theological question of how believers could survive in a situation in which they constitute the minority (Eckerstorfer 2001: 13). The church that Lindbeck learned to know in his youth is not that of the Christianity of Western culture but rather that of a marginalized but strongly committed church. Lindbeck did not experience the Chinese di‐ aspora church negatively—to the contrary. When Lindbeck was confronted in the West with the marginalization of the church, the minority position of the church became an ideal to pursue (Lindbeck 1990: 492). According to him, the continued existence of the church even depends on “communal enclaves that social‐ ize their members into highly particular outlooks supportive of concern for others” (Lindbeck 1984: 21). Lindbeck was seventeen in 1940 when he left Asia and studied theology at the Lutheran Gustavus Adolphus college in Minnesota and at Yale University, where he would work as an instructor. From the beginning of Lindbeck’s academic career it was apparent that his strong foundation in Lutheranism was
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accompanied by an interest in other Christian denominations, primarily Roman Catholicism. In 1955 he thus defended a dis‐ sertation on the medieval Franciscan Duns Scotus. According to Eckerstorfer, Lindbeck’s “interest in medieval philosophy and Catholic theology reflects at the same time that he is stimulating a great desire to see the reunion of his own Lutheran church with Rome” (Eckerstorfer 2004: 13). Lutheranism must again become what it was in the beginning: a reform movement within the Roman Catholic Church (Lindbeck 1990: 493). This conviction became somewhat more concrete when Lindbeck left for Rome at the age of thirty‐eight. He represented the Lutheran World Federation as an ecumenical observer during the last three sessions of the Second Vatican Council. His work in Rome was the impetus for Lindbeck’s continuing practical and aca‐ demic engagement in ecumenism. Even more, ecumenism forms the heart of Lindbeck’s thinking (Lindbeck 1990: 493). What occupies him in particular is the question of inter‐Chris‐ tian reconciliation without capitulation. How can religious groups that have long disagreed come to agreement without repudiating their previous positions, as Lutherans and Catholics seem to have done in the 1999 Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification? Lindbeck is not so much interested in what the parties agree to as in the how— that is, the method by which difference may be overcome. (Dulles 2003: 57)
The cultural‐linguistic theory of religion, which he later de‐ veloped, is Lindbeck’s answer to this question. Lindbeck’s first interest is thus inter‐Christian dialogue, not interreligious dia‐ logue. Although Lindbeck’s ecumenical involvement constitutes the heart of his theological engagement, it was primarily his long stay at Yale that formed his thinking. For more than fifty years, from 1940 until his retirement in 1993, Yale was Lind‐ beck’s academic home. It was primarily the specific atmosphere at the Divinity School that formed the fertile soil for Lindbeck’s original theological position. What made Yale so special was the fact that it broke with the dominant method at that time of studying religion. In the 1950s it was customary to study religion, following scholars like Mircea Eliade, as a “universal phenomenon whose
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themes and symbols manifest the experience of the sacred in different but related ways in different cultures” (Placher 1997: 343). Christian theology was understood as one specific answer to universal human questions. This approach to religion was es‐ sentially correlative. But at Yale “the pattern was different, with an emphasis on the study of particular religious traditions, each in its own historical or cultural context. Students studied Chris‐ tianity or Judaism or Buddhism but not ‘religion’” (Placher 1997: 344). Yale students shunned all approaches to religion that grounded the religious essence anthropologically (the hu‐ man being as homo religiosus). Rather, they studied religious traditions as communal practices more than as expressions of individual experiences, and studied religious texts as they have functioned in their communities more as historical sources or symbols of universal myths. (Placher 1997: 343)
In this atmosphere, a theological current developed that is referred to in the literature as the Yale school of postliberalism. It concerns, in fact, not so much a school as a research pro‐ gramme (Lindbeck 1996: 246), the most important fundamental principles of which are summarized in the following definition: Postliberalism includes (1) a theory that explains the loss of Scripture’s formative authority and (2) the church’s correla‐ tive accommodation to culture as well as (3) a strategy for cultivating Christian identity. (Phillips and Okholm 1996: 11)
Postliberalism assumes a pessimistic analysis of culture in which the consequences of the cultural “tarnishing of the bib‐ lical story” is central. The foundation for this theory was the study The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative by Lindbeck’s colleague at Yale, Hans Frei (Lindbeck 1984: 12). Frei’s analysis rests on the thesis that, until recently, the Bible was the most important work for most people in Christian countries. It functioned as the all‐encompassing pattern within which people placed their lives and were able to draw meaning. The Bible was passed on not only through reading and listening to Scripture but also by an amalgam of closely connected intellectual, literary, artistic, folkloric, and proverbial traditions (Lindbeck 1986: 370). Thus,
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the whole culture was permeated, as it were, by biblical images, stories, metaphors, etc. The situation is different today. It can no longer be said that people live in a “biblical world.” In The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative Frei develops the thesis that the approach to the Bible has changed since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this context he refers primarily to the rise of modernity and the turn to the subject. From that point on, people began to read the Bible in a new way. They no longer saw themselves as characters in the world structured by the text, but as individuals to whom the text had to speak. Reading the Bible this way entailed defining our real world in terms of our daily experience, so that the Bible is consciously placed in this “real” world for its meaning to be explicated. (Goh 2000: 163)
Frei called this change the eclipse of the biblical narrative. As of that moment “interpretation [became] a matter of fitting the biblical story into another world with another story rather than incorporating that world into the biblical story” (Frei 1974: 130). The theological approach to the Bible changed as well. Scripture ceased to function as the lens through which theologians viewed the world and instead became primarily an object of study whose religiously significant or literal meaning was located outside itself. (Lindbeck 1984: 119)
The premodern emphasis on the intratextual meaning of the text was undermined in favour of various modern methods that were extratextual. The meaning of the text is thus sought “be‐ hind” the text (the historical‐critical method) or “before” the text (expressivist theology). In the latter the text is viewed as the symbolic or metaphorical expression of truths or experi‐ ences. The result is a tendency toward adaptation: the Bible is first investigated with respect to its meaningfulness and rele‐ vance for the subject and then adapted to the demands, desires, and experiences of the subject. The loss of biblical literacy is a cultural phenomenon. In this context Lindbeck speaks of the “de‐Christianization” of cul‐ ture. This is bad not only for the church but also for communi‐ cation within society:
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There was a time when believers and unbelievers alike shared a common scriptural language. They could com‐ municate even when they did not agree, on a whole range of issues on which our society, having lost the linguistic and conceptual means, perforce remains silent. (Lindbeck 1986: 370)
The de‐Christianization of the culture leads to a confusion of tongues and conversations between people who cannot under‐ stand one another. “Without a shared imaginative and concep‐ tual vocabulary and syntax, society cannot be held together by communication, but only by brute force” (Lindbeck 1986: 370). The confusion of tongues that paralyzes society must be countered by a revitalization of biblical culture. The modern tendency for adaptation especially must be checked. A critical attitude toward liberal theology—thus postliberal theology—is determinative for Yale theology. What is central in postliberal‐ ism is not the subject and his questions but the social dimension of religion: The community itself plays an indispensable role …. The conventions, the language games, in which one participates, precede individual speech and determine what can and can‐ not be said by individuals in that community. In short, lang‐ uage and the search for knowledge are practices, dependent upon tradition—they are communal achievements. (Mur‐ phy and Clendon 1989: 191‐214)
Postliberalism thus focuses on narrativity and tradition and “on building communities that have internal coherence and integ‐ rity” (Doyle 2005: 158). This brings us to Lindbeck’s very unique approach to religion, which we will now explore more deeply. The Cultural‐Linguistic Theory of Religion and Ecumenism Lindbeck constructs his argument for the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion on the basis of the contrast with what he calls experiential‐expressivism. This contrast between experiential‐ expressivism and the cultural‐linguistic model is especially in‐ teresting. First, Lindbeck associates experiential‐expressivism with pluralism and formulates a constructive alternative that emphasizes primarily the particularity of faith commitments.
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Second, this alternative seems to correspond with the reversal of inside and outside we suggested in the previous chapter. Third, Lindbeck’s cultural‐linguistic theory of religion throws an entirely new light on the possibilities and limits of interre‐ ligious encounter. Finally, this cultural‐linguistic theory of reli‐ gion enjoys a great deal of support among theologians who are inclined to emphasize the particular. With a view to religious plurality, they direct attention to the value of identity. What it comes down to is: demonstrating somewhat more commitment and portraying the particularity of the irreducible differences between the religious languages (Placher 1989: 149). Nevertheless, we should not forget that Lindbeck himself did not formulate his cultural‐linguistic theory with a view to religious diversity and interreligious dialogue. What occupies him is ecumenism, more specifically the question: How can a religion claim to preserve “the faith which was once for all delivered to the saints” (Jude 3) as all religions in some sense do, when it takes so many forms in both past and present? (Lindbeck 1984: 78)
Lindbeck takes note of two things. First, ecumenical reconcil‐ iation exists in practice. Second, it is not the practice but the theory that presents problems. In other words, ecumenical re‐ conciliation happens but is theoretically inconceivable. It is precisely this situation that Lindbeck wants to do something about. That is the reason for his question: How is it theoretically possible to reconcile doctrines that have divided the church for centuries without relativizing these doctrines? How can ecu‐ menical reconciliation between different Christian denomina‐ tions be conceived without speaking in terms of capitulating? According to Lindbeck, there is something wrong with the usual theories on religion and doctrine. On the one hand, there is the cognitive theory of religion or propositionalism and, on the other, the experiential‐expressivist theory of religion. Both theories of religion are unsuitable for ecumenical dialogue. The cognitive model understands doctrines as unchangeable pro‐ positions, with the result that neither change nor reconciliation is possible: once a conflict, always a conflict. In the second mod‐ el reconciliation is an empty concept because doctrines can be infinitely changed and rewritten. The rejection of both models
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constitutes the background for Lindbeck’s alternative, i.e. the cultural‐linguistic model. Propositionalism Propositionalism emphasizes primarily the cognitive dimension of religion. Within this model doctrines are understood as pro‐ positions that express revealed and thus unchangeable truths (Lindbeck 1984: 16). Doctrines have authority because they cor‐ respond with the reality they represent (correspondence theory of truth). Lindbeck associates the cognitive model with the idea of a kind of a timeless deposit of truth (Lindbeck 1984: 47). Moreover, there are no gradations or variations in propositional truth; a proposition is either true or false. The power of the cognitive model lies precisely in the fact that it allows propositional truth claims and makes the religious claim to “unsurpassability” possible. The big problem, certainly with a view to ecumenical reconciliation is that “there is no sig‐ nificant sense in which the meaning of a doctrine can change while remaining the same” (Lindbeck 1984: 17). There is an air of rigidity about propositionalism: propositionalism makes it difficult to understand how new doctrines can develop in the course of time, and how old ones can be forgotten or become peripheral. Second, pro‐ positionalist accounts of how old doctrines can be reinter‐ preted to fit new circumstances are unconvincing: they have difficulty in distinguishing between what changes and what remains the same. (Lindbeck 1984: 78)
Ecumenical reconciliation is possible only if one party or both parties abandon their former truth claims. That is capitulation. This rigid approach to religion goes against the grain and is being displaced by experiential‐expressivism, which can count on the support of the believing community. Historically, the fertile ground for this model was prepared by Kant who de‐ molished the metaphysical and epistemological foundations of propositionalism. Then discoveries in the various modern sci‐ ences especially made it increasingly more difficult for people to believe in the literal interpretations of doctrines such as crea‐ tion. Historical studies resulted, finally, in a strengthened aware‐ ness of the historical determination and thus relativity of doc‐ trines (Lindbeck 1984: 20‐21).
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From a psychosocial perspective Lindbeck points primarily to individualism. To this one can add the rapid social changes and the growing awareness of religious pluralism, and a con‐ text arises that is not very conducive to propositionalism, which has made it notoriously difficult to allow space to the contribu‐ tion of the subject, changes, and pluralism. The combination of these developments places the cognitive model under pressure and makes it difficult for believers “to perceive or experience religion in cognitivist fashion as the acceptance of sets of ob‐ jectively and immutably true propositions” (Lindbeck 1984: 21). The Liberal Experiential‐Expressivist Model Kant did indeed remove the basis for the cognitive model, but he did not succeed in formulating an acceptable alternative for propositionalism. “[Kant’s] reduction of God to a transcenden‐ tal condition (albeit a necessary one) of morality seemed to the sensibilities of most religious people to leave religion intol‐ erably impoverished” (Lindbeck 1984: 21). This gap was filled in with the experiential‐expressivist model that has roots in the liberal Protestantism associated with Friedrich Schleiermacher. According to Schleiermacher, the source of religion is a sense of absolute dependence. Other thinkers who include themselves in this tradition describe the fundamental religious experience differently. But all situate the ultimately significant contact with whatever is finally im‐ portant to religion in the prereflective experiential depths of the self and regard the public or the outer features of reli‐ gion as expressive and evocative objectifications of internal experience. (Lindbeck 1984: 21)
Experience in this model means “inner feelings, attitudes, or ex‐ istential orientations” (Lindbeck 1984: 9). One of the theologians whom Lindbeck places within the liberal model is the Catholic theologian Bernard Lonergan (1972). Lindbeck uses four theses from Lonergan’s theory of re‐ ligion to define experiential‐expressivism: (1) Different religions are diverse expressions or objectifica‐ tions of a common core experience. It is this experience which identifies them as religions. (2) The experience, while conscious, may be unknown on the level of self‐conscious reflection. (3) It is present in all human beings. (4) In most
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religions, the experience is the source and norm of objectifi‐ cations: it is by reference to the experience that their ade‐ quacy or lack of adequacy is to be judged. (Lindbeck 1984: 31)
Believers encounter God thus first deep within themselves and only then do they join a religious community, if they do. This theory of religion rests on a movement from inside to outside. The task of theology is “to relate the expressions or symbols of the Christian religion to the deeper experience that gives them meaning” (Root 1986: 175). The liberal theology that connects up with experiential‐expressivism is correlative. Experiential‐expressivism has been the dominant approach to religion both among believers and in theology and religious studies departments up until the present. Different factors ex‐ plain the success of this model. First, this model is connected with the individualization of religion: being a believer is a per‐ sonal event and not a matter of accepting propositions (Lind‐ beck 1984: 21). The flexibility of doctrines is also conducive to the “popularity” of this model. “The general principle is that in‐ sofar as doctrines function as non‐discursive symbols, they are polyvalent in import and therefore subject to changes of mean‐ ing, or even to a total loss of meaningfulness” (Lindbeck 1984: 17). A third strength of this model is that it bridges the gap be‐ tween context and tradition. The Christian method is grounded in universal structures of experience, rationality, and ethics. The reasonableness of Christianity is thus defended. A fourth and final reason for the success of this model has to do with the fact that (at first sight) it provides a good foundation for interreli‐ gious dialogue. The various religions are different symboliza‐ tions of one and the same core experience of the Ultimate. This means that they must, at the very least, respect one another. But it also means that they can learn from one another and that mu‐ tual enrichment is possible. According to some versions of this model, an increasing convergence between the religions can be expected to occur, for there is at least the logical possibility that a Buddhist and a Christian at bottom believe the same thing, even though they express it differently (Lindbeck 1984: 17). Despite these promising perspectives, Lindbeck rejects the expressivist theory of religion. First, it does not take the differ‐ ences between the religions sufficiently seriously. Experiential‐
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expressivism rests on the presupposition of a common religious experience that cannot be specified. Religions revolve around an “empty experience.” Lindbeck’s criticism of experiential‐ex‐ pressivism here echoes the objections to pluralism articulated in the previous chapter. Experiential‐expressivism leads to vague‐ ness (Lindbeck 1984: 32). Moreover, the liberal correlation scheme leads to an erosion of the Christian tradition. Liberal theologians start with the current situation and contemporary questions and “adjust their vision of the kingdom of God ac‐ cordingly” (Lindbeck 1984: 125‐26). With a view to ecumenical dialogue and the question of reconciliation without capitula‐ tion, Lindbeck finally claims that the experiential‐expressivist interpretation of doctrines is so flexible that reconciliation is meaningless. The Cultural‐Linguistic Model Lindbeck formulates an alternative model that emphasizes those respects in which religions resemble languages to‐ gether with their correlative forms of life and are thus simi‐ lar to cultures (insofar as these are understood semiotically as reality and value‐systems—that is, as idioms for the con‐ struing of reality and the living of life). (Lindbeck 1984: 17‐ 18)
He calls this model the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion. According to this theory, religion is a “comprehensive in‐ terpretive scheme usually embodied in myths or narratives and heavily ritualized. It structures human experience and under‐ standing of self and world” (Lindbeck 1984: 32). Two charac‐ teristics determine the religious character of an interpretation scheme: the orientation to the ultimately important and its claim to all‐comprehensiveness. Precisely because of the reli‐ gious orientation to what is ultimately important, the com‐ parison between language/culture on the one hand and religion on the other does not apply completely. People can learn two or more languages, but they cannot belong to several religions: [Religion] is not like glasses people can take off. Rather, it should be compared to eyes or to the optical receivers of the brain. To suppress them would be to become blind. Reli‐ gions are—more than the cultures and languages they re‐
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semble—abodes that people cannot abandon without chan‐ ging identity. (Lindbeck 2004: 199)
Double belonging is out of the question. Lindbeck argues for his theory of religion primarily on the basis of the contrast with experiential‐expressivism. If experien‐ tial‐expressivism starts with the context and contemporary ex‐ perience in order to build a bridge to tradition, then the cultur‐ al‐linguistic model places the emphasis on the priority of lang‐ uage and tradition. The cultural‐linguistic approach to religion emphasizes especially how experiences are formed, moulded, and even created by cultural and linguistic forms. Only when people are trained in religion and acquire religious skills does the possibility exist for them to have religious experiences. To become a Christian involves learning the story of Israel and Jesus well enough to interpret and to experience oneself and one’s world in its terms. A religion is above all an ex‐ ternal word, a verbum externum, that molds and shapes the self and its world, rather than an expression or thematiza‐ tion of a preexisting self or of preconceptual experience. (Lindbeck 1984: 34)
In accordance with the cultural‐linguistic model, Lindbeck com‐ pares how religion functions with language. The distinction be‐ tween grammar and vocabulary is crucial here. The vocabulary of a religion includes symbols, concepts, rites, commandments, and stories and consists in both a lexical core that remains con‐ stant in every situation, and in a changeable part that expands, changes, and is revised in the course of history. Expansions and/or changes must always be linked to the lexical core. In the case of Christianity, this lexical core is for the most part found in the canonical Scriptures, though by no means everything in the Bible is included. Some con‐ tributions to the basic vocabulary (e.g. Trinitarian language) may also be made by postbiblical traditions, although this is a point that Catholics and Protestants often interpret differ‐ ently. (Lindbeck 1984: 81)
In one way or another, the scriptural canon functions as the normative horizon “in which believers seek to live their lives and understand reality” (Lindbeck 1984: 102).
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In addition to vocabulary, language also consists of gram‐ mar. Following Wittgenstein, Lindbeck speaks of “depth gram‐ mar,” which works implicitly in the tradition and is made ex‐ plicit only in the face of concrete challenges. People can speak a language while being only vaguely aware of the grammatical rules (Allik 1993: 243). This depth grammar arranges the rela‐ tionship between a new vocabulary and the lexical core and de‐ termines what can and cannot be said. Lindbeck compares the role of doctrines with the depth grammar of a language. The only function that doctrines have as doctrines is a regulative one (Lindbeck 1984: 18). They teach believers how to speak and act in accordance with the tradition. They determine what is Christian and what is not and thus guard the Christian story (Lindbeck 1984: 74). Doctrines can be understood in this context by analogy with the rules of a game. The rules are not the game itself but determine how the game is to be played. Doctrines do not say what is but determine how Christian life, thought, and speech must be carried out (Root 1986: 172). Grammatical rules “are second‐order rather than first‐order propositions, and affirm nothing about extra‐ling‐ uistic or extra‐human reality” (Lindbeck 1984: 80). Doctrines are thus not propositional truth claims. As stated above, Lindbeck’s cultural‐linguistic model is, in the first place, a method for understanding ecumenical reconcil‐ iation. In this context the distinction between form and content or even between letter and spirit is a very important principle. When Lindbeck states that doctrines order and structure reli‐ gious life, he does not mean the concrete, doctrinal formulation and the specific verbal presentation of doctrine. Most official doctrines function as illustrations or clarifications of the doc‐ trinal depth grammar. What are important are the regulative or doctrinal principles that they articulate. Their concrete formula‐ tion is secondary in importance because that is also always in‐ fluenced by historical and cultural situations. Any change in those situations may make it necessary to change the formu‐ lation (Lindbeck 1984: 81). The continuity lies not in the inner experience or the formulation but in the doctrinal system. And thus it seems almost self‐evident that the permanence and unity of doctrines, despite changing and inverse formulation, is
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more easily accounted for if they are taken to resemble gram‐ matical rules rather than … expressive symbols .... (Lind‐ beck 1984: 84)
From this perspective, the rule theory can do justice to the ten‐ sion between permanence and change. What is left is the rule, not the formulation. One can thus understand how ecumenical reconciliation is possible without capitulation (Lindbeck 1984: 18). Postliberalism and the Cultural Crisis The cultural‐linguistic theory of religion corresponds with a postliberal theological outlook. Lindbeck’s argument for post‐ liberalism is not connected exclusively with his concern about ecumenism. It “is [also] prompted by convictions about the kind of theological thinking that is most likely to be religiously helpful to Christians and perhaps others in the present situation [crisis]” (Lindbeck 1984: 10). Lindbeck is concerned especially about prevailing individualism, pluralism, the emphasis on feeling, and the opposition between universalism and particu‐ larism. Liberal theology does not sufficiently recognize the seri‐ ousness of the situation. What is more, by looking for a point of contact with the contemporary culture of individualism, liberal‐ ism could make the situation even worse, for “an experiential‐ expressive approach to religion can be used to legitimate the re‐ ligious privatism and subjectivism that is fostered by the social pressures of the day” (Lindbeck 1984: 77). This puts the tradi‐ tion‐specific character of Christianity under even more pres‐ sure. According to Lindbeck, the viability of a unified world of the future may well de‐ pend on counteracting the acids of modernity. It may de‐ pend on communal enclaves that socialize their members into highly particular outlooks supportive of concern for others rather than for individual rights and entitlements, and of a sense of responsibility for the wider society rather than for personal fulfilment. (Lindbeck 1984: 127)
This requires a revaluation of premodern hermeneutics, the usual hermeneutics before the eclipse of the biblical narrative.
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Intratextuality Postliberalism rests on an intratextual hermeneutics, which Lindbeck contrasts with the extratextual hermeneutics of pro‐ positionalism and experiential‐expressivism. These models place the meaning outside the interpretative scheme, either in an objective reality to which the scheme refers or in a prelinguistic experience that it symbolizes. The problem with extratextual hermeneutics is that it leads to theological divergence. If one asks why theologians look for such different things in the Bible, the answer is that they differ in their analyses of what human beings need, i.e., in their anthropologies and/ or in their analyses of the requirements of the contemporary situation and experiences. They adopt some extra‐biblical hermeneutical or interpretive framework within which to read the Bible. The frameworks at least partly determine the kinds of questions which are asked and therefore influence the answers received—the picture of Jesus which emer‐ ges.… Nevertheless, the result of this multiplicity of apolo‐ getic, correlational, and traditionalist approaches is a plural‐ ism which threatens to become chaos. There seems little sign of an emerging consensus. (Lindbeck 1980: 83)
According to intratextual postliberal theology, the hermeneut‐ ical key does not lie “behind” or “before” the text but in the text itself. Meanings are determined intrasemiotically or intratextu‐ ally. This means that the most important task for theology does not lie in connecting (correlation) the Christian tradition with an extra‐biblical reality but in understanding and describing the internal grammar of biblical Christian life, thought, and speech. The way to determine what “God” means, for example, is to in‐ vestigate how the word actually functions in the Christian reli‐ gion and gives shape thereby to reality and experience (Lind‐ beck 1984: 114). Intratextuality, however, does not only mean “explicating religion from within” but also “describing everything as inside, as interpreted by the religion” (Lindbeck 1984: 114‐15). All of reality is given a place and meaning on the basis of the all‐en‐ compassing religious scheme. For the Christian tradition, that means that the Bible functions as an authoritative narrative text that creates and imagines its own world and invites people to live in and out of that world. In this context Lindbeck speaks of
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the absorptive power of Scripture: “It is the text, so to speak, which absorbs the world rather than the world the text” (Lind‐ beck 1984: 118). The principle of intratextuality issues a warning to liberal, apologetic theology. Over against the attempt to translate Christianity into the surrounding cultural context, Lindbeck holds to the view of the untranslatability of Christian‐ ity (and that also obtains mutatis mutandis of other religions). He understands that in our pluralistic society, in which people choose their own religious identity from a number of competing religious traditions, it appears to be essential to adopt an apologetic approach that seeks to dis‐ cover a foundational scheme within which religions can be evaluated, and that makes it possible to translate traditional meanings into currently intelligible terms. (Lindbeck 1984: 129)
In this context translation means the same as extratextual her‐ meneutics: it is the attempt to open up the biblical world of meaning by using categories that are foreign to it, i.e. extra‐ textual. Lindbeck objects, however, saying that “[t]o the degree that religions are like languages and cultures, they can no more be taught by means of translation than can Chinese or French” (Lindbeck 1984: 129). Over against the apologetic attempt to open up the Christian tradition for others through “transla‐ tion,” postliberal theology places the old catechetical method. Instead of redescribing the Christian tradition in strange or new concepts, “adherents” must learn the language and practice of Christianity. Only such practice can open up the world of a religion. Intelligibility is always determined within the context of the religion itself via tradition‐specific criteria. The norms of reasonableness are too rich and subtle to be adequately specified in any general theory of reason or knowledge.… In short, intelligibility comes from skill, not theory, and credibility comes from good performance, not adherence to independently formulated criteria. (Lindbeck 1984: 131)
In this respect postliberalism is antifoundational. What is more, because there are no universal neutral criteria for assessing the truth of religions, postliberalism keeps its distance from every apologetic attempt to connect the Christian tradition to a gen‐
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eral interpretative scheme systematically: “rational justification is an ad hoc procedure, since the sufficient reasons offered for one’s beliefs will vary from case to case” (Thiemann 1985: 43‐ 44). The result of the all‐encompassing character of religion and the fact that intelligibility is understood in terms of skills, as well as the fact that there are no neutral universal truth cri‐ teria is that “judgement in the area of religion will be partic‐ ularly difficult.” (Root 1986: 178)
Categorial Adequacy, Intrasystemic Truth, and Ontological Truth One of the most frequent criticisms of the cultural‐linguistic model and postliberal theology is that this would mean the end of ontological truth. Religion would be stripped of its referential power (O’Neill 1985: 422). Bruce Marshall defends Lindbeck’s position in his article “Aquinas as a Postliberal Theologian.” In Marshallʹs view, there are two issues in The Nature of Doctrine, i.e. the nature of truth and the question of how one can account for the truth of a religion. Critics who lose sight of this distinc‐ tion misunderstand Lindbeckʹs view of truth: The very issue of what it means to say that propositions are true can be distinguished from the issue of how one justi‐ fies, warrants, or tests the truth of propositions. So for ex‐ ample, one might maintain that in regard to propositions “true” should be defined as “corresponds to reality”, or per‐ haps “fitly expresses experience”, or perhaps “is incorpor‐ ated into an appropriate form of life”. By contrast, one might maintain that propositions are justified (to mention a few examples) when they are logically tied to self‐evident truths, when they are supported by experience of one kind or another, or when they cohere with other assumptions or beliefs. In making sense of theological and philosophical ac‐ counts of truth, it is useful to distinguish in this fashion be‐ tween the way truth is defined and the way truth claims (however defined) are justified. (Marshall 1989: 355)
When Lindbeck speaks about “truth” he means ontological truth, i.e. correspondence with reality. Lindbeck attributes the possibility of “correspondence with reality” not only to first or‐ der propositions but also to the “human being as a whole.”
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People can also “exhibit their truth or falsity, their correspond‐ ence or lack of correspondence to the Ultimate Mystery [God]” (Lindbeck 1984: 69). The relation of the believer to God con‐ cerns the correspondence between mind and divine reality (Lindbeck 1984: 66). But the crucial question for Lindbeck is not the nature of “truth” but “to specify the conditions under which propositions can be ontologically true, and the mind conformed to reality, in the religious domain” (Marshall 1989: 359). The first necessary but insufficient condition for formulating propositional truth claims concerns what Lindbeck calls “categorial adequacy.” On‐ ly in a religion that has adequate categories can the question of ontological truth be posed in a meaningful way. “Adequate categories are those which can be made to apply to what is ta‐ ken to be real” (Lindbeck 1984: 48). A religion is categorially true if its categories are able to describe what is ultimately real. Categories have to do not only with the vocabulary but also with the sentence structure, i.e. the normative patterns according to which the terms in the vocabulary are combined. In Christianity ... these normative patterns have reached a high level of fixity by being para‐ digmatically encoded in a canon of sacred texts. (Marshall 1989: 360)
This question of categorial adequacy is a purely theoretical is‐ sue and is completely separate from the question of how a reli‐ gion is actually experienced. Lindbeck clarifies his speaking of categorial/grammatical adequacy by a comparison with mathe‐ matics: Religions may be compared to mathematical systems, for example, because these latter are not by themselves pro‐ positionally true or false in the ontological sense, but rather constitute the only idioms in which first‐order truths and falsehoods can be stated regarding the quantifiable aspects of reality. It is, for example meaningless to say that one thing is larger than another if one lacks the categorial con‐ cept of size. Yet their categorial adequacy does not guaran‐ tee propositional truth, but only makes meaningful state‐ ments possible: if something is quantifiable, statements
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According to Lindbeck, religions are somewhat similar to this. Only if the category “God” can be used in an adequate way can the question of the reference of that category be posed (Mar‐ shall 1989: 361). This also means that Christians, for example, cannot pose the question of the ontological truth of the Buddhist nirvana, given that they do not have the appropriate categories for speaking about nirvana in a meaningful way. Without appro‐ priate categories and concepts, statements cannot be proposi‐ tionally true or untrue. They are completely meaningless. Given the all‐encompassing and particular character of religions, Lind‐ beck considers it very possible that the different religions have incommensurable notions of truth, of experience, and of categorial adequacy, and therefore what it would mean for something to be the most important (i.e., God).… Thus when affirmations or ideas from categorially different reli‐ gious or philosophical frameworks are introduced into a given religious outlook, these are either simply babbling or else, like mathematical formulas employed in a poetic text, they have vastly different functions and meanings than they had in their original setting. (Lindbeck 1984: 49)
Categorial truth is the necessary but insufficient condition for ontological truth. Even if there would be only one religion that had appropriate categories for speaking about God, that would not entail that this language is ontologically true. The question of “what is” can be posed only if a statement is not only categorially but also intrasystemically true. Intrasystemic truth concerns truth as coherence. Statements are intrasystem‐ ically true if they cohere with the whole relevant context. For a religion, understood as a cultural‐linguistic system, this means that not only statements but also related ways of life must be taken into consideration in the assessment of conscious state‐ ments. In this context Lindbeck counters propositionalism. It is not possible simply to separate certain elements from the whole religion. According to Lindbeck, propositionalism here rests on a wrong view of religion, given that it ignores the fact that
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a religious system is more like a natural language than a formally organized set of explicit statements, and that the right use of this language, unlike a mathematical one, can‐ not be detached from a particular way of behaving. (Lind‐ beck 1984: 64)
Lindbeck thus has two criteria in mind for determining in‐ trasystemic truth: a linguistic criterion on the one hand and a practical criterion on the other. Thus religious utterances have intrasystematic truth not only when they fit with the linguistic paradigms by which the re‐ ligion indicates how its categories should be combined but also when they are made in the context of practices which the religion sees as appropriate to that kind of utterance. (Marshall 1989: 362)
Concretely, this means that “performance is the test, not meta‐ physical justification” (Goh 2000: 497). Truth as correspondence means, then, that faith practice as a whole (both the linguistic and the practical dimensions) corre‐ sponds with the will of God. This implies, for example, that the crusader’s battle cry ‘Christus est Dominus’, for example, is false when used to authorize cleaving the skull of the infi‐ del (even though the same words in other contexts may be a true utterance). When thus employed, it contradicts the Christian understanding of Lordship as embodying, for ex‐ ample, suffering servanthood. (Lindbeck 1984: 64)
This statement is indeed linguistically coherent and thus partly intrasystemically true, but it does not meet the criterion of prac‐ tical coherence. For Christian theological purposes, that sentence [Christus est Dominus] becomes a first order proposition capable of making ontological truth claims only as it is used in the ac‐ tivities in adoration, proclamation, obedience, promise‐ hearing, and promise‐keeping which shape individuals and communities into conformity to the mind of Christ. (Lind‐ beck 1984: 68)
Despite Marshall’s defence of Lindbeck, the above analysis shows that Lindbeck advocates a strongly pragmatic‐oriented
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principle of truth. Strangely enough, this means that, with re‐ spect to the criterion of truth, Lindbeck’s postliberalism very much resembles pluralism, which is also pragmatic.1 The major difference is, of course, that for the pluralists the same criterion of truth obtains for all religions, whereas within the cultural‐ linguistic model suitable conduct is determined separately within each religion. Postliberalism, The Theology of Religions, and Interreligious Dialogue Lindbeck’s theory of religion and his postliberal theology toge‐ ther form an attempt that has been pushed quite far in order to do justice to the particularity of religious traditions. One could think here of the proposal to view religion as an all‐encom‐ passing pattern of interpretation that forms, moulds, and directs its adherents to the ultimately important, the rejection of the idea that all religions are historically and culturally deter‐ mined expressions of a common ground or culture, the rejection of a systematic apologetics, the argument for intratextuality, premodern classical hermeneutics, and strong enclaves of be‐ lief. But what are the consequences of postliberalism for the theology of religions and interreligious dialogue? How is the particularity of the Christian identity related to the openness for other religions? What does the intratextual method entail for hermeneutical openness? What are the implications of the “un‐ translatability” of the Christian tradition for interreligious dia‐ logue? Interreligious Dialogue in the Work of Lindbeck: An Ambiguous Relationship The two most important challenges that motivate Lindbeck’s thought are ecumenism and the crisis of church and society. The challenge of interreligious dialogue is not absent from his 1
Hick confirms this: “Although the conceptual system employed by George Lindbeck in his book on The Nature of Doctrine differs importantly from that employed here, there is a certain overlap of conclusions. Thus treating a religion as a vast complex proposition, he says that it ‘is a true proposition to the extent that its objectives are interiorized and exercised by groups and individuals in such a way as to conform them in some measure in the various dimensions of their existence to the ultimate re‐ ality and goodness that lies at the heart of things’ [Lindbeck 1984: 51]” (Hick 1989: 360‐61, footnote 4).
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thinking, but it is less important. Nevertheless, Lindbeck does take up the challenge of religious plurality in the third chapter of The Nature of Doctrine. In addition, there are two articles in particular that are important: “The Gospel’s Uniqueness: Elec‐ tion and Untranslatability” (Lindbeck 1997) and “Relations in‐ terreligieuses et oecuménisme: Le chapitre 3 de la nature des doctrines revisité” (Lindbeck 2004). In both articles Lindbeck applies his argument for a postliberal theology to the discussion on the theology of religions and interreligious dialogue. Lindbeck’s attitude with respect to interreligious dialogue is ambiguous. He does accept that interreligious dialogue is the topic of the day but laments the fact that wider ecumenism is being promoted at the cost of inter‐Christian ecumenism (Lindbeck 2005: 28). In addition, Lindbeck points out that the intention of interreligious dialogue and that of ecumenism are very different. “The first is a matter of learning how to com‐ municate with strangers and the second, of overcoming es‐ trangement within the family” (Lindbeck 2005: 29). Lindbeck emphasizes the importance of ecumenism, not only for the church itself but also for society. According to him, “church unity may be needed more than ever, even for worldly reasons, in view of tensions generated by the simultaneous growth of pluralism and globalism” (Lindbeck 2004: 184). Greater Chris‐ tian unity would entail an infinite number of changes in the world, as well as in a number of religions. Lindbeck’s doubts about wider ecumenism are reinforced by the fact that the experiential‐expressivist model is associated primarily with interreligious dialogue. He considers the rise of interreligious dialogue to be a typical expression of the liberal theological tradition. Moreover, the turn from domestic to foreign affairs fits the now‐dominant God‐world‐church paradigm, for to the ex‐ tent that the world sets the agenda, the problems of reli‐ gious pluralism will in our day seem more pressing than those of Christian disunity. (Lindbeck 2005: 29)
The world has placed interreligious dialogue on the agenda and has turned away from the importance of ecumenism. The in‐ creasing attention for interreligious dialogue is an expression of the liberal tendency to adapt. Lindbeck’s claim that liberal theo‐ logy makes the de‐Christianization of culture even worse and
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his association of individualization with pluralization leads one to suspect that he has serious questions about the turn to the religious other. Nevertheless, we should not draw any overhasty conclu‐ sions from the above. In the first place, Lindbeck is not against interreligious dialogue, although he does give priority to ecu‐ menism. Second, Lindbeck has doubts primarily about the con‐ nection between experiential‐expressivism, the liberal tendency to adapt, and interreligious dialogue. The question is what Lindbeck’s focus on the particularity of religions means for the theology of religions and for interreligious dialogue. Lindbeck’s Analysis of the Three Soteriological Models Lindbeck associates the rise of interreligious dialogue with postcolonialism. The relationship of the church to the religious other is thus one of guilt and concern. On the one hand, the church is experiencing intense guilt feelings about its role in the colonial period and the connection between the proselytism of the missionizing church and the colonialists. On the other hand, the unremitting Christian concern about the salvation of non‐ Christians is present as well. After all, is it not part of the identi‐ ty of the church that only faith in Christ saves (solus Christus)? The dialectic of guilt and concern about salvation constitutes the foundation and driving power behind interreligious dia‐ logue. Given the bad reputation of missionaries, proselytism is no longer acceptable, and thus there has to be a theological rein‐ terpretation of the relationship between the solus Christus prin‐ ciple and God’s will for universal salvation—a reinterpretation that can make friendlier relationships between Christians and non‐Christians possible (Lindbeck 1997: 425). Each of the mod‐ els in the classical typology of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism wrestles with this challenge. Lindbeck criticizes all three. The exclusivist model, first of all, is irreconcilable with in‐ terreligious dialogue. Within this paradigm the only morally re‐ sponsible attitude towards those of other religions is one of winning souls. Non‐Christians must be saved from “burning,” and this is the overriding goal in the relationships with non‐ Christians (Lindbeck 1997: 425). Interreligious dialogue and proclamation converge. Exclusivism excludes openness for the religious other.
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Pluralism attempts to resolve the tension between ortho‐ doxy and openness “by the explicit or implicit rejection of that which since the beginning was part of Christian identity, in par‐ ticular the unsurpassable presence of God on earth in Christ” (Lindbeck 2004: 195). Lindbeck connects pluralism with exper‐ iential‐expressivism and thus with liberal theology. The result is nothing less than the erosion of the Christian identity. The inclusivist model succeeded in confirming three doctrines in a coherent and consistent way that were, viewed externally, irreconcilable with one another. Christ brings the unsurpassable salvation and revelation for all of humankind, and yet non‐Christians can be saved and dialogue and collaboration must be pro‐ moted without proselytism. The success of this solution is impressive. (Lindbeck 2004: 190)
Nevertheless, he assesses inclusivism negatively. The most im‐ portant and perhaps somewhat surprising reason is that Lind‐ beck associates inclusivism as well with experiential‐expressiv‐ ism (Lindbeck 2004: 188). Lindbeck bases himself here on Karl Rahner’s idea of “anonymous Christians” (Lindbeck 1984: 61). But he thus claims that there are also examples of non‐Rahnerians, Catholics and Protestants, of the model of accomplishment, experiential‐ expressivist, and inclusivist. Some are more orthodox than others, but all share with the model of pluralist reciprocity a perspective according to which religions are different ex‐ pressions of the same fundamental religious experience. (Lindbeck 2004: 189‐90)
Both pluralism and inclusivism presuppose a movement from “inside” to “outside”: there is a religious core experience that is expressed in various ways. The differences are situated on the level of these expressions and can be attributed to the historical and cultural context. The differences are, in other words, formal. The distinction between pluralists and inclusiv‐ ists is that, according to the former, the different manifestations are equal, whereas the inclusivists hold that some expressions are more adequate than others. But neither of the models suc‐ ceeds—because of their typical experiential‐expressivist presup‐ position that all religions are historically and culturally deter‐
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mined interpretations of the same striving for salvation—in taking account of the particularity of the other religions. The cultural‐linguistic model excludes the possibility that the same experience lies at the foundation of the various reli‐ gions. Different religious traditions form different religious con‐ texts, thus different religious languages. The adherents of the various religions have, simply stated, different experiences (Lindbeck 2004: 190). In this context Lindbeck speaks about the incommensurability of the religions. Adherents of different religions do not diversely thematize the same experience, rather they have different experiences. Buddhist compassion, Christian love and … French revolu‐ tionary fraternité are not diverse modifications of a single human awareness, emotion, attitude, or sentiment, but are radically (i.e., from the root) distinct ways of experiencing and being oriented toward self, neighbor, and cosmos. (Lindbeck 1984: 40)
The presupposition of a common ground, a common experi‐ ence, or a common goal hinders the communication more than it promotes it. The conversations become noisy fights or degenerate into si‐ lence or trivialities if people are not aware of the fact that beliefs of other religions can be so foreign with respect to what they know in terms of proofs and presuppositions that a productive dialogue on the truth or untruth in question is impossible (that is precisely what incommensurability means). (Lindbeck 2004: 194)
Even if religions employ “the same” categories, such as God, love, peace, or justice, these terms will mean different things, precisely because they derive their meaning from intratextual‐ ity. To say that all religions are ultimately about the same thing, namely love, is to say nothing. If there are similarities and cor‐ respondences, they are superficial (Lindbeck 1997: 433). Pluralism: Experiential‐Expressivism? But is Lindbeck’s view of pluralism and inclusivism correct? In answer to this question we will first explore if Lindbeck’s de‐ scription of experiential‐expressivism corresponds to what we called the expressivist theory of religion in the previous chap‐
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ter. And can pluralistic expressivism indeed be understood as a form of experiential‐expressivism? According to experiential‐expressivism (1) Different religions are diverse expressions or objectifica‐ tions of a common core experience. It is this experience which identifies them as religions. (2) The experience, while conscious, may be unknown on the level of self‐conscious reflection. (3) It is present in all human beings. (4) In most religions, the experience is the source and norm of objec‐ tifications: it is by reference to the experience that their ade‐ quacy or lack of adequacy is to be judged. (Lindbeck 1984: 31)
In Lindbeck’s experiential‐expressivism the idea that the vari‐ ous religions rely on a common core experience occupies a cen‐ tral place. That core experience determines the identity of the various religions and obtains as a norm for assessing them. This focus on the common “core experience” did not arise in our an‐ alysis of the expressivist theory of religion. We did discuss the idea that the religions go back to the experience of a common ground. We also pointed to the notion that the religions share a common soteriological structure despite their differences. But we did not say the various religions go back to the same reli‐ gious experience, for that is too much of a simplification of the pluralist position. Although pluralism does indeed state that all religions go back to an experience of the Real, pluralism does not say that the adherents of the different religions rely on “the same experience.” The religions share a common ground from which they all spring, but that is not the same as saying that there is one and the same religious core experience that is at the foundation of all religions. It is correct to state that pluralism gives priority to the experience over the expressions. It is also correct to state that the religions are historically and culturally determined answers to the Real. There is, indeed, a “di‐cho‐ tomy” of sorts between experience on the one hand and expres‐ sion on the other. But it is incorrect to state that pluralism holds that there is one universal religious core experience. Hick him‐ self speaks of experiences of the Real that are filtered by the two categories, personae and impersonae.
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But these two basic concepts cannot be applied directly to the Ultimate, which is transcategorial. It is correct to state that the religions are historically and culturally determined expressions of the Real, but it is not correct that they are expressions of one and the same religious core experience of the Real. “There are many different conceptions of the Ultimate, the Real, related to correspondingly different forms of religious experience and arising, from these, correspondingly different belief‐systems” (Hick 1995a: 24). The idea that there is one and the same core experience of the Real is difficult, in any case, to reconcile with Hick’s emphasis on the Real as unknowable, mysterious, and unexperienceable. Hick’s “assertion is not of a common core ex‐ perience, with culturally different expressions, but of a common family of experiences …” (Slater 1995: 70). If experiential‐expressivism refers only to the presupposi‐ tion that there is a common religious core experience that lies at the foundation of all religions, then pluralism is not a form of experiential‐expressivism. But if we view expressivism more broadly, as we did in the previous chapter, then it can be said that pluralism is expressivist. Lindbeck himself says that ex‐ perience in the cultural‐linguistic model also has to do with “in‐ ner feelings, attitudes, or existential orientations” (Lindbeck 1984: 16). In that case pluralism is “experiential‐expressivist.” One can think here, for example, of the pluralist “hypothesis” that there is one common ground that unites the religions over and above their differences. The religions are also directed to the same soteriological goal. Interreligious differences are sec‐ ondary with respect to this common foundation, and it makes no difference soteriologically which path people follow. The various religions are essentially about the same thing, i.e. the transformation from self‐centredness to Reality‐centredness. In that sense, pluralism is expressivist and our judgement that it is indifferent toward religious differences still stands. The same salvific process is expressed in various ways. But is this also true of inclusivism?
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Inclusivism and Experiential‐Expressivism? We already pointed to parallels between pluralism and inclu‐ sivism in previous chapters. We even called pluralism a form of meta‐inclusivism. The idea there was that both inclusivism and pluralism emphasize primarily the continuity between reli‐ gions, whereas exclusivism focuses primarily on the discontin‐ uity. We also pointed out that both models make a structural distinction between two levels: a lower and a higher level. From the lower perspective the differences between the religions are important, but only from the higher (Christian/pluralist) per‐ spective are the differences less important. Lindbeck’s claim that both inclusivism and pluralism are strongly inclined to subordinate differences to a common soteriological goal (King‐ dom of God/Real) is connected to the points listed immediately above. We pointed out in connection with both inclusivism and pluralism that there is a danger of hermeneutical closedness, i.e. becoming blind to the actual religious differences. That inclusivism is also a form of experiential‐expressivism is new. Lindbeck deals quickly with this claim, as if it were quite self‐evident. But is that so? Is the inclusivist interpretation experiential‐expressivist? Is inclusivism connected with the lib‐ eral revisionist theology that affirms individualism and subjec‐ tivism? Does inclusivism hold that the different religions are historically and culturally determined interpretations of a reli‐ gious experience? Does inclusivism hold that this experience determines the identity of religions and that this experience is the norm against which religions are to be judged? With respect to inclusivism as well—and here again we are relying on Dupuis—it seems incorrect to state that all religions are expressions of the same religious experience. Nowhere does Dupuis say that all religions share a common religious experi‐ ence. To the contrary, according to Dupuis, God is actively pre‐ sent in the different religions. God manifests and reveals him‐ self in the various religions, but that revelation is simultane‐ ously the same and different. In other words, God reveals him‐ self via the different religions and God is experienced in dif‐ ferent ways in those religions. Lindbeck may incorrectly connect inclusivism with experi‐ ential‐expressivism, but could it not be the case that inclusiv‐ ism—just like pluralism—utilizes an expressivist theory of
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religion? Does Dupuis say that the religions are historically and culturally determined expressions of the way in God manifests and reveals himself? Do we find the schema of a common ground/expression in Dupuis? Dupuis’ soteriological inclusivism does seem to rest on an expressivist notion and shows some similarity to pluralism in that respect. Here Dupuis himself, for that matter, gives clear signals when he criticizes the pluralist model. Dupuis begins his critical analysis of pluralism with the following pertinent question: Is it legitimate to think, from a standpoint of Christian theo‐ logy, that the Ultimate Reality to which those other reli‐ gious traditions refer, is in spite of their vastly different mental constructs, the same which the monotheistic reli‐ gions affirm as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob? Is there an Ultimate Reality common to all religious traditions, even if it is differently experienced and variously concep‐ tualized by the various traditions? One Divine Mystery with many faces? And if such is the case, can this Ultimate Real‐ ity be interpreted in terms of Christian Trinitarian theism, no matter how imperfectly apprehended? Or is it to be viewed as equally distant from all categories, theistic or oth‐ erwise? (Dupuis 1997: 256)
It is striking that Dupuis adopts pluralist vocabulary. The ex‐ pression that religions are “many faces” of the Ultimate Reality is very reminiscent of pluralism. Dupuis does distance himself from pluralism—in the sense that, according to Christian the‐ ology, the Trinitarian God is the ultimate referent of all reli‐ gions—but he does seem to subscribe to the expressivist idea: “Wherever there is genuine religious experience, it is surely the God revealed in Jesus Christ, who thus enters into the lives of men and women, in a hidden, secret way” (Dupuis 1997: 256). According to Dupuis, the Trinitarian God is the common ground of the different religions. The religious traditions of the world convey different in‐ sights into the mystery of the Ultimate Reality. Incomplete as these may be, they nevertheless witness to a manifold self‐manifestation of God to human beings in diverse faith‐ communities. They are incomplete “faces” of the Divine mys‐
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tery experienced in various ways, to be fulfilled in him who is the human face of God. (Dupuis 1997: 279, cf. also 262)
In connection with the expressivist idea, Dupuis also speaks of the religions as paths to salvation (Dupuis 1997: 280, 282, 305). The same soteriological process occurs in the different reli‐ gions. They are the paths along which the Trinitarian God calls people to him. This is not a generic process of salvation but a Christian soteriology that occurs in all religions: For all their differences, the pluralists and the inclusivists hold together that the various religious traditions share a common ultimate goal; they differ, however in identifying the common goals: for Hick it is the Real beyond the personae and im‐ personae; for Christian inclusivists it is God as revealed in Je‐ sus Christ. (Dupuis 1997: 309)
Nevertheless, despite all these indications, we still hesitate to view inclusivism straightforwardly as an expressivist theory of religion. Perhaps the most important reason for this is that we do not see how the idea that Dupuis’ position is expressivist can be reconciled with the wider Christological and Trinitarian perspective within which the above statements about salvific paths, the faces of God, etc. fit. Inclusivism is a confessional Christian soteriological model. It is a theological interpretation of religious plurality, not a philosophical theory of religion. It is striking that Dupuis speaks of religions as “expressions,” but we do wonder if it would not be more correct to fit such a statement within the theological framework with which Dupuis works than understanding them as “evidence” of the fact that Dupuis employs an “expressivist” theory of religion. It seems to be incorrect to separate Dupuis’ expressivism from his theo‐ logical discourse. Dupuis develops an inclusivist theology of religions that deals with the question of the continuing significance of the re‐ ligions in God’s plan of salvation. Theologically speaking, he af‐ firms the universality of God’s will for salvation and argues that God reveals himself via the concrete religious elements of other religions. God cannot address the hearts of adherents of other religions directly but recognizes that human beings are social beings, whose identity is formed by the religion to which they adhere. The idea that God is an “external” who reveals
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himself via concrete religious elements corresponds to the theory of religion that we carefully formulated in the previous chapter. The initiative lies with God who makes an “impres‐ sion” in the lives of believers via the religious elements. If Dupuis then says that religions are the expressions of different experiences of God, then he does not intend to sub‐ scribe to the expressivist theory but to confirm the theological and soteriological value of other religions. In this respect he at‐ tempts to move as much as possible in the direction of the equality of all the various religions (although we do know that inclusivism emphasizes the asymmetry between the religions with regard to soteriology). It is to that end that he adopts plur‐ alist language. Dupuis’ inclusivism presupposes a specific theo‐ logical anthropology that affirms that people can find God. Nevertheless, there is an important difference between pluralist and inclusivist talk of paths to salvation. We already connected pluralist expressivism with a voluntarist anthropology. The re‐ ligions are contexts of salvific transformation, in which the subject himself plays the most important active role. The subject ascends the mountain to the Ultimate via the salvific path. The pluralist subject is not saved but transforms himself. It would be incorrect to associate inclusivism with this anthropology. Dupuis himself says that “it is an abuse of language to say that religions save or even that Christianity saves.… What is meant is that they too can be made use of by God as channels of his salvation …” (Dupuis 1997: 306). It is God who uses the reli‐ gions to draw people to himself, and not people who use the re‐ ligions. The notion that Dupuis’ inclusivism is expressivist is also contradicted by its constitutive Christology. If Dupuis did in‐ deed use a purely expressivist theory of religion, then “incarna‐ tion” would be a historically and culturally determined expres‐ sion of God’s will for universal salvation. But Christ is the sacrament of God’s salvific will. The incarnation is the climax of the divine revelation and effects salvation for all people. Christ is the effective sign and sacrament of God’s salvific will. The incarnation is thus much more than merely an expression of a salvific process in all religions. The incarnation transforms the incomplete answers of the other religions (Dupuis 1997: 279). In
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the light of these theological reflections it is incorrect to state that inclusivism has a purely expressivist theory of religion. But this does not mean that our earlier objections to in‐ clusivism and hermeneutical openness no longer obtain. One of the problems that we have cited in this context is that the in‐ clusivist presuppositions—and this also obtains for plur‐ alism—do not do sufficient justice to the concrete particularity of the religions. Lindbeck does have a good point when he di‐ rects attention to the unique particularity of religions with his cultural‐linguistic model. He emphasizes the particularity of the other religions even more by criticizing the priority of the issue of salvation. On Soteriological Fixation and Interreligious Dialogue Lindbeck calls the fact that religious plurality is understood from a Christian soteriological perspective an unprecedented expression of Christian hegemony. Soteriology is “an agenda which is of interest to non‐Christians to the extent that they feel threatened by Christianity, but not otherwise” (Lindbeck 1997: 425). Other religions feel obligated, as it were, to go along with the fixation on soteriology, out of fear that the failure of interreligious dialogue would entail the return of Christian proselytism (Lindbeck 1997: 426). Because the theology of re‐ ligions and thus the question of salvation determines the in‐ terpretation of religious plurality, Christianity sets the agenda for interreligious relations. Non‐Christians can only answer a question that is posed by Christians. There is one question with different answers: exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism. So‐ teriology determines the way in which the other is present: saved or lost. What is lost to view here, according to Lindbeck, is the fact that “concern for saving souls in anything like the usual Christian sense is not found or is not central in most or perhaps all non‐Christian or non‐biblical religions” (Lindbeck 1997: 425). This testifies to hermeneutical closedness. Taking the particularity of other religions seriously begins with the recog‐ nition that these religions do not all experience the same thing and are not all “different ways” to the ultimate (Christian) goal of salvation. Only then can the question of the hope and the as‐ pirations of the other be posed. Lindbeck himself formulates another approach to religious plurality—an approach that he describes as particularistic uni‐
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versalism because it emphasizes both the particularism and the all‐encompassing nature of religions (Lindbeck 2004: 193). Con‐ cretely, he follows consistently the assumptions of his cultural‐ linguistic theory of religion when he endorses the fides ex auditu of Paul (Romans 10:17): “Faith, according to the cultural‐ling‐ uistic interpretation, arises through accepting and interiorizing the word that comes from outside, i.e. the verbal, sacramental and practical witness given to Jesus” (Lindbeck 2004: 193). The experience of salvation is a specific Christian experience. It fol‐ lows from Lindbeck’s theory of religion that only those who ap‐ propriate the Christian language and Christian skills can exper‐ ience reality in a Christian way. Only the Christian language refers to Christ and only those who speak the Christian lang‐ uage can learn what it means to love God. Just as an individual becomes human by learning a lang‐ uage, so he or she begins to become a new creature through hearing and interiorizing the language that speaks of Christ.… The notion of an anonymous Christianity present in the depths of other religions is from this perspective nonsense, and a theory of the salvation of non‐Christians built upon it seems thoroughly unreal. (Lindbeck 1984: 62)
In light of Lindbeck’s reflections on categorial adequacy, this means that non‐Christian religions do not have the appro‐ priate categories to pose the question of salvation, let alone an‐ swer it. It is meaningless to speak about “anonymous Chris‐ tians” or about implicit faith because saving faith cannot be im‐ plicit—only explicit. Explicit faith is not the expression of a deeper experience of salvation but brings about this experience. “One must, in other words, learn the language of faith before one can know enough about its message knowingly to reject it or be lost” (Lindbeck 1984: 59). Lindbeck calls it a communal af‐ fair on the one hand but combines this, on the other, with an es‐ chatological perspective in which he expresses the hope that at the end of time all creation will acknowledge the Lord as Sa‐ viour. Saving faith can be understood only as an explicit answer to the Gospel. One can no more speak about the salvation of non‐Christians than one can speak of their being lost, given that being lost can be the result only of a deliberate and free re‐ jection of Christ’s redemption. This means mutatis mutandis that not only salvation but also being lost is a purely Christian affair.
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Lindbeck places his hope in the saving encounter with Christ at the end of time. Only then will the decision about life and death for both Christians and non‐Christians be made: The proposal is that dying itself be pictured as the point at which every human being is ultimately and expressly con‐ fronted by the gospel, by the crucified and risen Lord. It is only then that the final decision is made for or against Christ; and this is true, not only of unbelievers but also of believers. All previous decisions, whether for faith or against faith, are preliminary. The final die is cast beyond our space, beyond empirical observation, beyond all specu‐ lation about ‘good’ or ‘bad’ deaths, when a person loses his or her rootage in this world and passes into the inexpressi‐ ble transcendence that surpasses all words, images and thoughts. (Lindbeck 1984: 59)
It is not certain that all will enter the Kingdom of God, but Christians can certainly hope this will happen. This hope is based in God’s mercy. Christians have no reason at all to boast in relation to non‐Christians. Lindbeck shares the Protestant scepticism concerning human nature and abilities. The human being cannot trust in himself or his own accomplishments: sal‐ vation comes from Christ alone. For Christians as well, life in Christ consists not in the already experienceable reality but only in the eschaton. The most important reason for this is that Christians have also just learned to speak the Christian lang‐ uage. The interiorization process is a long process that is still in its infancy. Lindbeck compares Christians with toddlers: they “have by grace just begun to learn of the one in whom alone is salvation, but in moral and religious quality they are like other human beings, worse than some and better than others” (Lind‐ beck 1984: 60). The only difference between Christians and non‐ Christians from the perspective of salvation is that the former already have a foretaste of what is still to come (Lindbeck 2004: 190). Lindbeck calls his theology of salvation non‐discrimina‐ tory. It is, after all, precisely on the basis of religious particular‐ ity that he rejects the “inclusivist and pluralist salvific univer‐ sality.” It is true that Christianity surpasses non‐Christian religions as a religion of salvation. But the other religions are not orien‐ ted to salvation. This claim confirms the specific character of
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Christian salvation, just as it confirms the specific character of religious goals pursued in the non‐Christian religions. If one abandons the monoperspectivism of universal salvation, it is possible to acknowledge a plurality of particular religious “goals.” In anticipation of the eschaton in which the (ontological) truth claims will be settled, the church is called, following the example of Israel, to be a light for the world and to witness to God. What is especially important here is that the church not confuse its role with that of the Messiah. The Messiah, not the church, brings redemption. Israel and the church have to be the light for faith communities of other traditions (Lindbeck 1984: 61). The communities which Gods uses in public history as wit‐ nesses are in their self‐understanding in the Abrahamic line.… The roles to which heathen nations may be elected, so it seems, are either not blessings in the strong biblical sense or else they are not for all, not universal. (Lindbeck 1997: 445)
The shift from soteriology to witness allows the church to abandon all claims to superiority. The church has no reason to feel exalted above the other religions: When uniqueness is thought in terms of means of salvation, as Christians (but not Jews) have usually done, it becomes difficult to avoid unbiblically arrogant claims for the church and, at the same time, retain the exclusivist biblical under‐ standing of election. (Lindbeck 1997: 44)
Because the church, like Israel, belongs to God’s chosen people and is called to be a light for the world, it is obligated to take care of its own interests. The church must see to it that it survives and that it can continue to witness to God’s plan of sal‐ vation in strong faith communities. For Lindbeck, this means concretely that the paradigm is not God‐world‐church but God‐ church‐world. The church must pay special attention to itself, without asking to what extent what it does is meaningful or rel‐ evant for the world. That special concern for oneʹs own group should be part of one’s social and political responsibilities has become foreign
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to many Christians, but it remains familiar to Jews.… Because it is the community in its corporate existence which is chosen by God to witness to the world, members have responsibilities for each other and for their own people as a whole which do not extend to society at large or to other groups. (Lindbeck 1997: 447)
This does not mean that the church is indifferent with respect to the concerns of others. The church’s role as servant implies that it is in its own interest to serve others. Unicity, Incommensurability, Untranslatability, and Interreligious Dialogue It is not only the particularity of the religions that Lindbeck em‐ phasizes. According to him, the religions are so particular and so unique that they are untranslatable. Religions consist “mater‐ ially of the unsubstitutable memories and narratives which shape community identities” (Lindbeck 1997: 423). Lindbeck is build‐ ing here on the analogy between religion and language that he introduced in his cultural‐linguistic model. But is it not precisely an attribute of languages that they can be translated? English texts can be translated into German and vice versa. But Lindbeck is not talking about translation between “natural” languages. The thesis of untranslatability does not have anything to do with the translation of biblical Greek into Dutch, English or any other natural language. Lind‐ beck recognizes that natural languages have the grammatical flexibility and the lexical ability to be suitable media for the bib‐ lical message. Only religious “languages” are untranslatable— because of their all‐encompassing character. It is precisely in that that they differ from natural languages. Religions are all‐ encompassing interpretative schemas on the basis of which all of reality is given significance. One can recall in this context the “absorptive power” of the Bible (Lindbeck 1984: 118). Every‐ thing from outside can be “translated” into the “inside,” but “nothing can be translated out of the idiom into some suppos‐ edly independent communicative system without perversion, diminution or incoherence of meaning” (Lindbeck 1997: 429). But what precisely does Lindbeck mean then by the “un‐ translatability” of religions? Given that religions are analogous to languages but are nonetheless something else because of their all‐encompassing character, that means that translation in
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the context of religions is not the same as translation of lang‐ uages. Lindbeck uses translation as a “metaphor” for what he earlier called extratextual hermeneutics. He associates extra‐ textual hermeneutics/translation with “impoverished abstrac‐ tions” and chooses the restoration of the “rich particularities of native tongues” above translation (Lindbeck 1997: 426). Mean‐ ing is inseparably connected with the context and is intratex‐ tually determined. In a translation context and text are separ‐ ated, resulting in the meaning of religious beliefs, practices, texts being neutralized in the translation. Something is lost. The religious practices, beliefs, and actions lose their expressiveness and become impoverished abstractions. This loss of meaning should be avoided. That is why religions are untranslatable. The untranslatability of religions thus again directs atten‐ tion to the fact that religious meanings are intratextually deter‐ mined. It is not possible to translate the Christian concept of God into the way in which this concept functions in Hinduism. These religions work with entirely different categories. When Lindbeck applies this untranslatability to religions, this points therefore to the fact that the intratextually determined categor‐ ies of the religions are inadequate. That is why it is not possible to understand one religion on the basis of another, just as it is im‐ possible to “translate” religious meanings by means of “foreign theories.” Speaking of the untranslatability of religions is a means of rejecting extratextual hermeneutics and arguing for an intratextual hermeneutic. For Lindbeck, it is a choice between incommensurability and untranslatability on the one hand and selling out the religious particularity on the other. His postliber‐ alism rests either on a dichotomy or an intratextual reading of religions and their religious texts or an attempt to translate them into popular terms (Goh 2000: 523). The categorial untranslatability of religions leads to their incommensurability. It is difficult to compare religions with one another, given that there is no “neutral language,” and there is also the danger that the categories are wrongly understood and that people thus compare apples and pears (Lindbeck 2004: 193). Lindbeck does not deny the possibility of comparison, but he does do so when it is done on the basis of a common framework. Religions can be compared only if they are cate‐
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gorially adequate. How that categorial adequacy can be estab‐ lished between different religious languages is not clear. The greatest disadvantage of this approach is that interreli‐ gious dialogue can become more difficult because of the un‐ translatability and incommensurability of religions. Lindbeck speaks of the “Balkanization” of dialogue (Lindbeck 1997: 427): Not only do [the religions] no longer share a common theme such as salvation, but the shared universe of dis‐ course forged to discuss that theme disintegrates.… Those for whom conversation is the key to solving interreligious problems are likely to be disappointed. (Lindbeck 1997: 426)
The internal religious reflection on interreligious chal‐ lenges and problems is clearly given priority above interreli‐ gious dialogue. It is primarily important that religions, here us‐ ing their own categories, attempt to give meaning to religious plurality. This contrasts with current discourse, in which the attempt is made to subordinate all religions to the Christian pattern of the question of salvation. To the extent that there is room for interreligious dialogue, it can be done only on the basis of tradition‐specific motivations. Just as postliberal theolo‐ gians speak of an ad hoc apologetics, they also speak of an ad hoc dialogue. There are no pre‐determined rules, presuppositions, or topics. Interreligious dialogue grows spontaneously, mostly in connection with specific challenges. Notwithstanding these tradition‐specific motivations, the most important intention of interreligious dialogue seems to be to promote an under‐ standing and experiencing of the particularity of one’s own tra‐ dition. Jews should become better Jews, Buddhists better Bud‐ dhists, and Muslims better Muslims. Conclusion Lindbeck’s cultural‐linguistic theory of religion has far‐reaching consequences for the theology of religions and the dominant fo‐ cus there on the question of salvation. According to Lindbeck, the logical conclusion of his approach is the meaninglessness of speaking about salvation with respect to non‐Christians. Only those who have appropriated the Christian tradition and the language of Christ as their Saviour can be saved. That does not mean that those who have not mastered the Christian language
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are “lost.” The terms salvation or damnation do not apply to non‐Christians (Lindbeck 1984: 57). In a strict employment of the cultural‐linguistic theory, other religions are neither right nor wrong, but rather meaningless as interpreted from within the universe of dis‐ course established by Christian texts. (Fredericks 1995: 81)
Postliberalism introduces a kind of distrust of every at‐ tempt to reduce the particular other to the same. It is a correc‐ tion of certain theological tendencies that are inclined to em‐ phasize the commonalities between religions in a one‐sided way at the expense of interreligious differences (Surin 1988: 189). Possible similarities between religions are purely superficial (Lindbeck 1997: 433). Postliberalism continually warns that the differences are real and not simply “formal clothing” of the same. It rejects the search for universal and tradition‐neutral criteria to settle the “conflict” between religions. Religions are incommensurable. There is no third term, no lowest common de‐ nominator, no universal norm, no common ground that allows us to unite the religions (Lindbeck 1997: 430). The religions are rad‐ ically (i.e from the root) different. A true acknowledgement of religious plurality means accepting that (Lindbeck 1984: 55). Clarity grows and honesty increases when each religion considers its relation to others in terms of its emic categor‐ ies, its native tongue, instead of contorting and distorting its heritage to fit the constraints of a purportedly universaliz‐ able etic idiom of salvation. (Lindbeck 1997: 427)
CHAPTER 5
The End of Dialogue? A Theological Critique of Postliberalism Various theologians are unhappy with the classical theology of religions. Recent literature on the challenges of religious plur‐ ality presents an alternative model that thematizes precisely the cultural‐linguistic focus on the particularity of religious tradi‐ tions. That is why we call this model “particularism” (Huang 1995: 127‐44; Moyaert 2005: 36‐51). This particularistic model is very sensitive to interreligious differences. In this chapter we will first unpack the relation between the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion, postliberalism, and particularism and direct our attention to the fine nuances in these terms. Next we will show that, despite clear resonances between the cultural‐linguistic model and particularism, both are never‐ theless different, especially with respect to the valuation they give to interreligious dialogue. The postliberal connection espe‐ cially between particularity, intratextuality, incommensurabili‐ ty, and untranslatability is, to say the least, not very conducive to dialogue between the religions. Whereas postliberalism seems to seal the end of dialogue, particularism emerged as a kind of critical awareness of difference within interreligious dialogue. Particularism seems to be a softer version of what Lindbeck proposes. Or better yet, it seems to appropriate Lindbeck’s cul‐ tural‐linguistic theory as a way to appreciate difference, but it does not think through the consequences of Lindbeck’s theory regarding the (im‐)possibility of interreligious dialogue. In the third section of this chapter we will critique the way Lindbeck devalues dialogue. We will do so by analyzing and questioning the theological presuppositions of the cultural‐ling‐ uistic theory. Although we applaud the way Lindbeck has drawn attention to the particularity of religious traditions and agree that interreligious openness should not downplay real in‐
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terreligious differences, we will argue that dialogue is im‐ portant for theological reasons—it can even be called a theo‐ logical task. We will conclude this chapter with a critical analysis of Lindbeck’s reinterpretation of the soteriological question. We will argue that his cultural‐linguistic approach amounts to a new form of soteriological exclusivism. This is, in our view, too heavy a price to pay for the recognition of the particularity of adherents of other faiths. The “Reception History” of the Cultural‐Linguistic Model Since the 1990s the irreducible particularity of religions has be‐ come an important theme in the theology of religions (Knitter 2002: 172‐91). Some authors even speak about a new model for interpreting religious plurality. The rather “recent” character of this development can be seen from the fact that there is still no single name for this “model.” Paul Knitter calls this new model the “Acceptance Model”: “the religious traditions of the world are really different, and we have to accept those differences” (Knitter 2002: 173). The pow‐ er of this model lies, according to Knitter, in the fact that “it provides Christians with the opportunity not only to refocus and reaffirm the distinctive identity of Christianity, which had been worn away by the winds of modernity” but also creates space for “the distinctiveness of other religions” (Knitter 2002: 178). This model thus claims to succeed where the classical so‐ teriological models failed, namely in finding a balance between openness and identity. Douglas Pratt speaks along the same lines of “radically differentiated pluralism.” “Religious differ‐ ences signal the Irreconcilable Differentiation of Religious Identities. That is to say, there is no reasonable ground to assume a link across religions: their individual, or particular, identities mili‐ tate against any such linkage. The difference between them is of such a nature that, strictly speaking, it is illicit even to consider that there is any point of meaningful conceptual contact among the religions” (Pratt 2003: 8; emphasis his). Again, Yuang Huang states about particularism: “different religions are regarded as different in their fundamentals” (Huang 1995: 164‐65). Knitter claims that particularism relies on “the ground‐ breaking and foundation‐laying work of Lindbeck, who has
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launched this model and soon attracted a wide following of other theologians and ordinary Christian believers” (Knitter 2002: 177). Knitter hereby suggests that particularism, “though not dependent on” it, is indebted to postliberalism and its cul‐ tural‐linguistic theory of religion. At the very least, it “reson‐ ates” with postliberalism’s groundwork. In what follows we will investigate Knitter’s claim and analyze how the cultural‐ linguistic theory of religion resonates within the particularistic model (Griffiths 1997: 3‐26; DiNoia 1990: 249‐72; Placher 1989: 138‐53). Particularity and Faith Commitment William Placher, a particularist theologian, rightly notes that “[m]any contemporary theologians and philosophers of religion seem extraordinarily uncomfortable with genuine religious pluralism” (Placher 1989: 144). This is clear from the fact that most interpretations of religious plurality try to fit the religious into one scheme of interpretation in which the various religions are related to a common ground. Particularists “claim themselves as more authentic pluralists” (Huang 1995: 129) because they restrain themselves from reducing interreligious differences to commonalities. Thus, the concept of particularity refers to an ir‐ reducible difference, i.e. a difference that cannot be traced back to a common ground or universal structure. Particularism focuses on faith traditions as they are prac‐ ticed, thereby at once subscribing to the cultural‐linguistic idea of intratextuality: Meanings are always acquired through con‐ crete religious practices and cannot be separated from the con‐ text in which they are experienced (Vroom 1989: 379). As Lind‐ beck put it the way to determine what “God” means is to inves‐ tigate how the word actually functions in the Christian religion and gives shape thereby to reality and experience (Lindbeck 1984: 114). To understand a strange religious tradition, one needs to take the inside perspective seriously. For, “[w]hat is seen as accidental or (historically) relative by outsiders can be of essential ‘importance’ for the religious person himself” (Mer‐ rigan 2003: 322). In this context particularism rightly points to the qualitative distinction between the respective perspectives of the participants and the observers. Green expresses this distinc‐ tion as follows:
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If one wants to understand what religion is, one should inves‐ tigate how religion functions in the lives of religious people. The question then is: What does it mean to be Christian, Jew, Buddhist, or Hindu? In line with the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion, partic‐ ularists point out that religion functions as an all‐encompassing interpretative scheme that forms and moulds the identity of the believer. The emphasis here is less on the cognitive than on the practical dimension of religion. Religion is like “a set of learned skills and only secondarily and inessentially ... the possession of information” (Peterson 2000: 415). What religon consists in is seen as a kind of tacit or practical knowledge. It is knowing how rather than knowing that. Particularists thus speak of religion as a way of life (Griffiths 2001: 12), a pattern (Heim 2001: 20‐21; Christian 1987: 186; DiNoia 1990: 254), or a paradigm (Green 2002: 219‐25). Particularism confirms the analogy between language (in the broad meaning of the word) and religion, including the cru‐ cial idea that “language” has priority over “experience.” The appropriation of a way of life and speaking a religious language is the conditio sine qua non for an inspired and vigourous reli‐ gious life. This also immediately emphasizes the communal di‐ mension of religion. Religious identity is acquired not by dig‐ ging into one’s deepest self but by becoming a member of a community that gathers around a religious tradition. That people understand themselves and others comes from the fact that they share a certain way of life. They agree in the way of life. Being brought up is being inducted into a way of life.... The way of life precedes “everything”: the con‐ ceptual, knowledge, identity, all similarities and differences —and thus also each theoretical understanding of [the con‐ cept of] “way of life.” (Van Brakel 1998: 61)
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Clearly, particularism presupposes a kind of holistic approach to religion: ethics, doctrine, spirituality, and ritual are insepara‐ bly connected with one another. This connection forms the re‐ ligious framework on the basis of which people live in the world and make concrete choices and decisions. Thus, the world in which people live is dependent on their particular way of life. The religious object and the ultimate goal of salvation are thus given quite different content within the different traditions, which immediately entails that the actions that help their re‐ spective believers move in the direction of the ultimate are very different (DiNoia 1982: 294). In line with this, the religious way of life is fundamentally different, depending on the tradition to which one belongs. What people find important, how they organize their lives, the values for which they strive and the virtues they attempt to instill, and ultimately what one attempts to be and become as a believer—all these questions are answered completely differ‐ ently within each religion. The believer orients his or her life to a “concrete” ultimate goal (salvation, righteousness, nirvana, enlightenment, etc.) and gears his or her whole life to attaining that goal on the ethical, spiritual, ritual, and doctrinal levels. For example: a Brahmin (a high‐caste Hindu) who attempts seriously to live as such might see his Brahminism as pro‐ viding a frame for all the other forms of life he belongs to. If he is married, he will understand the fact of his marriage, together with all the particular activities that constitute it, as in large part prescribed by the perspectives on marriage enshrined in the relevant ethico‐legal injunctions found in the texts, [rituals, symbols] and traditions that are author‐ itative for Brahmins. The same will be true for his mode of dress, the physical posture he adopts while defecating, and what he does to make a living. There will be no form of life and no particular action or pattern of action, that fails to seem to him to be a proper part of Brahmnism. (Griffiths 1999: 9)
Belonging to a certain religious tradition is determinative for concrete—everyday and not so everyday—choices and deci‐ sions: “choices between truth and falsehood, friend and foe, life and death” (Green 2002: 223). Religion is thus not a certain as‐ pect of personal life but “seems to those who belong to it, to be
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comprehensive. It seems to them to take account of and be rele‐ vant to everything” (Griffiths 2001: 9). This entails that faith commitments are exclusive. They cannot be combined with other religious ways of life. People cannot live in the Buddhist and the biblical world at the same time. But neither can they just “hop” from one religion to the other. Religions, “even more than the culture and languages they resemble, are like places of residence, which one cannot leave, without losing part of oneself” (Lindbeck 2004: 187). Reli‐ gions are not simply interchangeable. When it comes to values, norms and convictions, religions do not simply point at the same direction. In this regard, the possibility of interreligious conflicts has to be taken into account. Though there are cer‐ tainly similarities or points of agreement between the different religions regarding what is held highly, differences persist. At this level, the link between particularity and conflict is blind‐ ingly obvious (Moyaert 2009: 285). The particularist approach emphasizes the deep impact of religion on the lives of believers. This is important with respect to interreligious dialogue. Insight into the way in which reli‐ gions function is conducive to the openness for the particular otherness. It introduces a certain mistrust of interpretations of religion that too one‐sidedly emphasize the continuity between the religions and that therefore make the differences formal. Over against the formal character of interreligious differences, the relativity of the faith commitments and the idea of inter‐ religious complementarity, particularism emphasizes precisely the non‐interchangeability of faith commitments, the absolute character of faith convictions, and thus also the exclusivity of such commitments. Beyond the Soteriological Fixation The attention to particularity translates into doubt about the hermeneutical meaningfulness of the soteriological approach of religious diversity. According to particularists, the focus on so‐ teriology is a special expression of the fact that philosophers and theologians are inclined to offer gener‐ alizing explanations of the religious differences they ob‐ serve.… Many current proposals in theology of religions tend to fix on surface or depth similarities in the structures
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of the major religions in order to field positive Christian evaluations of these other faiths. (DiNoia 1993: 62‐63)
The presupposition especially that “salvation” is a universal and unequivocal term is problematic. The classical soteriolo‐ gical models seem to be insufficiently aware of the complexity of this term (Jantzen 1994: 479, 592). It is precisely this com‐ plexity that particularism sets on the interreligious agenda by pointing to the strong connection between “the path” and “the goal.” The religious path that a believer follows leads to the goal he or she has in mind. Therefore, it is improbable that Muslims will ultimately attain the salvation postulated by Christianity. Speaking about the different but equal paths of salvation here makes no sense either in this respect. Particularism points out that the other is not like me and demands that interreligious dialogue create space for the other as other. Precisely that space is all too quickly filled up by the soteriological approach to religions. “The soteriocentrism of theology of religions … seems bound to equalize or absorb the ineffaceably particular soteriological programs of other reli‐ gious communities” (DiNoia 1990: 43). The soteriological mod‐ els immunize Christians against the concrete otherness of the other religious traditions. The religious other is understood from the perspective of the Christian soteriological structure of prejudices. And once the other has been “understood and cate‐ gorized,” it is no longer as necessary and certainly not as urgent to demand a serious and deep knowledge of the other in his particularity. The theology of religions is too quick with formu‐ lating simple solutions to calm our fears (Duffy 2000: 9). With respect to the religious otherness of the other the single per‐ spective of soteriology is suspect. Hermeneutical openness be‐ gins with the acknowledgement of the “intractable otherness of other religions” (DiNoia 1990: 254). The other is stubborn and cannot be fit without further ado into a theological metatheory (Boeve 2005: 120). Intermezzo The presupposition that there is only one goal, i.e. salvation, is problematic for the success of interreligious dialogue, for that soteriological fixation instills a certain blindness to interreli‐ gious differences. This is clear from a testimony in Jewish‐
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Christian dialogue. At a congress on the fortieth anniversary of Nostra Aetate, the Catholic theologian Philip Cunningham gave a paper called “A Covenantal Christology: Jesus Christ as Uni‐ versal Savior in a Post Nostra Aetate Church” (2005). Cunning‐ ham formulated a Christian theological interpretation of the re‐ lation between Christianity and Judaism, attempting to be faith‐ ful to the Christian tradition and Trinitarian theology and also to the covenant between God and Israel that had “never been revoked” (John Paul II). According to Cunningham, “Jews are saved by their ongoing covenantal participation in God’s un‐ folding plans for the created world, a covenanting that from a Christian point of view involves an intimate relationship—since the Holy One is Triune—with the eternal Logos unified with the son of Israel, Jesus.” Jesus is the path of salvation for Chris‐ tians, and the covenant with Israel is the path of salvation for Jews. The Logos, the second person of the divine Trinity, is unin‐ terruptedly active in the Jewish covenant with God. One could state that, from a soteriological perspective, Cunningham’s approach is open. The divine incarnation in Christ is not presented as a rejection, replacement, or comple‐ tion of God’s covenant with Israel. The Jewish people are saved in and through the covenant with God, whom Christians know as the triune God. Jews are “saved” via the covenant and Chris‐ tians via Christ. Still, Cunningham’s Trinitarian theology was not perceived as open by some of the Jews present. During the panel discussion that followed Cunningham’s paper Edward Kessler, director of the Cambridge Centre for the Study of Jew‐ ish‐Christian Relations, did acknowledge that the soteriological question is central for Christian self‐understanding. But he had two remarks regarding the extent to which Cunningham’s theology was also meant for Jews and intended to do justice to the self‐understanding of the Jewish people. First, he stated that it is insulting to Jews to say that they are “saved” already now. Jews have lived up until the present in an unredeemed world. To say otherwise is to do an injustice to the Jewish tragedy of the Shoah. The soteriological tension between the “now already” and the “not yet” of the coming Kingdom of God means nothing to Jews. Jews are still waiting for the final redemptive coming of the Messiah. It is possible that that Messiah will be Jesus Christ, but no final decision can
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be made on that yet. Some Jews even say that, after Auschwitz, the Messiah does not have to come any more—he is too late. Second, Kessler pointed to the fact that the Jewish and Chris‐ tian understandings of ultimate salvation differ. The Christian view means being saved, being included in a relationship with the Trinitarian God. This salvation is an initiative taken by God in Christ who redeems people from the burden of sin. He brings humanity to perfection. But one important difference is that, according to the Christian view of salvation, people are sinful and are liberated by Christ from this sinful condition. However, the notion of original sin is not a Jewish idea. Within Judaism, salvation is thus not redemption from the sinful state. The idea especially that the second person of the Trinitarian God would be involved in the salvation of Israel (even if that occurs “via their covenant”) is very problematic. The idea that the second person of the Trinity was incarnated in Jesus con‐ stitutes a fundamental point of division between Jews and Christians. The Christian theology of religions, Kessler con‐ tinued, is an internal Christian dialogue. There is no true open‐ ness for the otherness of the other here. It is precisely this short‐ coming that particularism wants to rectify. Keeping one’s Distance and Respecting Boundaries Particularism believes in the power of concrete faith commun‐ ities that are strongly anchored in their traditions. This model is more concerned with acknowledging and accepting the perman‐ ent differences between the religions than it is with attempting to transcend the differences. It demands that the boundaries that separate the religions from one another be respected. The distance that divides religions is not “filled in” or “filled up” with commonalities. The space in between is viewed as a bar‐ rier that divides what is one’s own from that which is strange. The idea we are attempting to evoke by the image of a barrier is the idea that one cannot be simultaneously “here” and “there” or “inside” and “outside.” It is either/or. The other religion is the place where “I” cannot be without losing my own identity. But precisely the acknowledgement of the distance between the religions opens up the perspective of hermeneutical open‐ ness. Openness thus does not, for the particularist, mean striv‐ ing for symmetry, in the sense of soteriological equality, but re‐ cognition of the distance between one’s own religion and oth‐
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ers. Speaking of symmetry or equality always implies, after all, a third neutral term that adversely affects religions with respect to their particularity. Not recognizing the breach by “filling up” the space between the different religions with presupposed commonalities is a form of suppression, i.e. suppressing true difference and true diversity. This also confirms the criticism stated earlier that the correlation tendency present in both in‐ clusivism and pluralism testifies to striving for interreligious continuity at the expense of difference. From that point of view, particularism is an argument for the recognition of discontinuity. Plurality is accompanied by conflict and irreconcilability. Religions thus are not related like yin and yang or like different, mutually complementary perspectives on one reality. State‐ ments about supplementing one’s own identity by aspects from other religions do not do justice to the tradition‐specific charac‐ ter of these elements and the fact that they cannot be removed from their tradition without further ado. From this it follows that particularists pose questions regarding easy pleas for open‐ ness, transformation, complementarity, and convergence. Di‐ versity and plurality are accepted and respected within partic‐ ularism, but this respect is not expressed in a “flirting with and adoration of otherness” that would be at odds with a deep and concrete faith commitment. With respect to this, the postliberal theologian Placher expresses his resistance to the so‐called Don Juans of myth who pay court to every religion: “A lifetime often seems too short a time to complete the journey into the depths of one faith. Dabbling in various religions seems superficial” (Placher 1989: 148‐49). Certainly, pluralistic interreligious dia‐ logue, which gives priority to the ideal of “belonging to and sharing in, more than one religion” (Knitter 1999a: 211), is sus‐ pect. Placher states it as follows: Faith embodies a powerful vision of the world, and such vi‐ sions are neither abandoned nor entered into lightly. Serious dialogue requires openness to change, but it also demands a sense of how significant changing one’s faith would be. No doubt Christians have often lacked the first of these virtues, but many recent writers on these topics lack the second. Openness really is important, but arguments for openness can encourage an ideal of occupying many different posi‐ tions which then becomes a surrogate for the old dream of
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occupying no particular position at all. If we are honest, we will admit that we stand somewhere. If we are serious, we will feel serious commitments to the place we stand. Those whose ideal of interreligious dialogue calls us to abandon such commitments as a precondition of conversation invite us either not to be honest or not to be serious. (Placher 1989: 149)
In any case, particularist interreligious dialogue does not rest “on the mutual discovery of a common centre or a pure trans‐ cultural religious experience that those views informed by liber‐ alism want to know” (Hintersteiner 2001: 260). Interreligious contact is not the occasion for expanding and supplementing one’s identity; rather, it can lead to becoming more rooted in one’s own tradition. Buddhists must become better Buddists, Jews better Jews, and Christians better Christians (Lindbeck 1984: 54‐55, 61‐62). The encounter with the religious other makes one more conscious of one’s own particularity. It is also possible, for example, in this respect that a “forgotten” aspect of one’s own tradition is rediscovered. But there are clear boundaries to interreligious dialogue. Heim states that it cannot create what is not there nor eliminate what is cen‐ tral…. We cannot add a once‐for‐all incarnation of God in Christ to Hinduism and still have Hinduism. We can’t add Buddhist Karma to the Christian will of God and still have Christianity. (Heim 1985: 141)
Particularism or the acceptance model revalues the old vir‐ tue of tolerance, which presupposes disagreement. The differ‐ ences must not be transcended or sublimated but accepted. The hermeneutical closedness to the otherness of the other does not follow from the fact that the participants are not prepared to change their own religious identity. Closedness is rather the consequence of not being conscious of one’s own structure of prejudices. Understanding the other begins when one allows oneself to be interrupted by the concrete other who comes from somewhere else. “Interfaith dialogue is necessary for different religions to clearly realize these fundamental differences, so that they can tolerate each other” (Huang 1995: 127). In this re‐ gard, particularism is characterized by a certain conservative
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tendency. Knitter even compares particularistic theologians to “security guards who stand at the door of each religion to make sure that its identity and integrity are not violated by another religion” (Knitter 2002: 183). Intratextual Hermeneutics and the End of Dialogue The particularist awareness of difference introduces a necessary critical test within the context of interreligious dialogue and finds inspiration for this in the cultural‐linguistic theory of reli‐ gion. Nevertheless, particularism does not match Lindbeck’s position completely. We cannot rid ourselves of the impression that the particularist approach is somewhat selective in its ap‐ preciation of Lindbeck’s theory. Particularists speak of religions as comprehensive patterns that mould and form the lives of believers in their entirety. The seriousness and non‐exchangea‐ bility of faith commitments is discussed, as are religious par‐ ticularities and the plurality of salvific goals. Particularism is also strongly opposed to the correlative tendencies of both in‐ clusivism and pluralism. But it remains (suspiciously?) quiet on the issues of the untranslatability of religions, the principle of intratextuality, and the radical incommensurability of religions. Particularism does seem to be a kind of soft version of the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion. There is nothing wrong with that as such, but we do wonder if the radicality of the cul‐ tural‐linguistic model has not been passed over too easily here. Does particularism take the repercussions of the cultural‐ling‐ uistic model for interreligious dialogue sufficiently seriously? More particularly, it seems to pay insufficient attention to the fact that the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion, to put it mild‐ ly, is not very conducive to interreligious understanding. This theory of religion does not advance interreligious hermeneutics. It is not interreligious dialogue but “intramural discourse on in‐ terreligious problems [that] will flourish,” Lindbeck himself predicts (Lindbeck 1997: 427). One of the consequences of that theological intratextual view is that the rational discussion with other religions and beliefs is futile, even impossible. Given that the different ways of “seeing as” are determined by different in‐ commensurable cultural‐linguistic worlds, no claim on the truth can be made in the public debate of contemporary culture. (Thomasset: 1996: 293)
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This is well illustrated by the following diagram:
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Hinduism
Buddhism
Figure 1: Incommensurability1
The cultural‐linguistic theory does not leave much room for the overlapping of meanings between religions. Any similarities and correspondences are superficial (Lindbeck 1997: 433). Vroom even argues that the holistic logic of the cultural‐ linguistic model makes interreligious dialogue impossible. [T]he components of a religious culture are completely and thoroughly determined by that religious culture. All phe‐ nomena and concepts within a religion therefore possess significance only within that particular religion. Even con‐ cepts which correspond to concepts in other religions bear their specific meaning only within the whole of the individ‐ ual religions. (Vroom 1989: 379)
This places an enormous burden on interreligious dialogue’s chances at success. Lindbeck’s description of relations between Christian and other religions is of synchronic wholes, each using a com‐ pletely different set of language‐games, such that we cannot know whether we mean the same or not when we engage in interreligious dialogue. He cannot tell us whether or not people are referring to the same reality or realities, speaking the truth or uttering conflicting truth‐claims, when they compare notes on what is “most important” in their lives. (Slater 1995: 69)
Lindbeck points out that the soteriological approach to interre‐ ligious dialogue too easily presupposes that the different reli‐ gions are playing the same game. But his cultural‐linguistic al‐
1
The original of this diagram can be found in Vroom 1989: 379.
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ternative that compares religions with languages games leads to their not playing together at all. It thus also seems that the cultural‐linguistic model is more concerned with leaving the other in his otherness than with un‐ derstanding the other. This theory of religion offers no stimulus for an interreligious hermeneutics but rather seems to find some affinity with the multiculturalist motto: Good fences make good neighbours (Placher 1989: 8‐9). Although Lindbeck states explic‐ itly several times that it is not his intention to consign theology to a ghetto position, his hammering on intratextuality and un‐ translatability remains problematic for interreligious dialogue. It is not inconceivable that the cultural‐linguistic model leads to a cult of avoidance, given that it “assumes the near‐isolation of communities of tradition and their grammar of faith and prac‐ tice” (Stone 2004: 767). What is strange is then tolerated to the extent that it does not cause any disruption. Rather than pro‐ viding a stimulus for interreligious dialogue postliberalism en‐ courages a kind of Living Apart Together. According to Michal‐ son, postliberalism even testifies to “a sectarian pride in the im‐ possibility of ever translating Christian faith into anything uni‐ versal” (Michalson 1988: 110). Particularistic authors seem to “forget” too quickly that Lindbeck’s concern with preserving religious particularity is concerned primarily not with other religions but with protec‐ ting Christian faith communities. The danger of closed com‐ munities that are contained with parochial borders is not unreal here. This is confirmed by the postliberal metaphor of absorp‐ tion: Worryingly [this metaphor] suggests a rather unilateral pro‐ cess whereby the world has nothing to offer to the church and does not in any way disrupt and challenge the narrative traditions of the Church, its reading and practice of scrip‐ ture. (D’Costa 2005b: 142)
This metaphor excludes dialogue understood as a discussion. The bottom line is a dichotomy between insiders and outsiders. From this perspective, we cannot rid ourselves of the impres‐ sion that Lindbeck’s particularism is characterized by a certain nosophobia for diversity. His model considers the “between” as a kind of
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cultural condom that protects and shields reality from its characteristic enjoyment and turns it into a pure enjoyment of its own…. In reality, behind the xenophilia hides a xeno‐ phobia that experiences the strange not purely as different from oneself but also as threatening to it. (Visker 2005: 37)
The attitude of the cultural‐linguistic model inclines rather to‐ ward protecting the identity of one’s own religious tradition from possible undermining and relativization that comes from outside. “By acknowledging the other in his otherness, [postlib‐ eralism] has assigned him his place and his ‘homeland’ and can thus also turn its back on him with a clear conscience” (Visker 2005: 37). A Theological Critique of Postliberalism: Dichotomy or Dialogue? The insight into the particularity of religions is an important correction of classical theological models. Particularism rightly directs attention to the point that hermeneutical openness be‐ gins with the recognition of the irreducibility of religions. How‐ ever, the fact that particularism appeals for this to a theory of religion that questions precisely the meaningfulness of interre‐ ligious hermeneutics is both problematic and undermines the credibility of particularism. A selective “use” of the cultural‐ linguistic model, in which the problems that this model pre‐ sents for the project of interreligious dialogue are downplayed, cannot be defended, even though the particularist sensibility for differences is correct. What is possible is an argued adaptation and, where necessary, reorientation of Lindbeck’s position. But that demands a critical analysis of the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion in which we investigate if and why postliberalism is possibly questionable. We will begin our analysis with the question if this theory of religion and the postliberal theology associated with it is theologically acceptable. The reason for this theological starting point is the following. Lindbeck claims that his theory of reli‐ gion is theologically “neutral” and rests solely on philosophical and social‐scientific approaches (Lindbeck 1984: 7). The argu‐ ment for intratextuality, untranslatability, and categorical in‐ commensurability is said to be informed purely by the premises of the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion that explains how
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religion functions. But we question this “theological neutrality.” We suspect that the cultural‐linguistic theory of religion rests on specific theological presuppositions. We will need to sub‐ stantiate this suspicion by exposing the specific theological premises of the cultural‐linguistic model. If we succeed in this, we can then analyze the extent to which these premisses are theologically convincing and acceptable. If the theological premises of Lindbeck’s theory of religion are not tenable, we can expect that critical objections will need to be formulated re‐ garding Lindbeck’s view of interreligious dialogue. Postliberalism’s Fiduciary Interests In our view, postliberal thinking relies on a number of theo‐ logical presuppositions that, moreover, are not obvious. With this claim we join several of Lindbeck’s critics who remark that there are specific “fiduciary interests” (Goh 2000: 259) in the background of the cultural‐linguistic model. Heyer remarks, for example, that “Lindbeck avoids discussions of universal grace or the operations of the Holy Spirit, and is pessimistic regarding sin’s effects” (Heyer 2004: 320). Tanner confirms that postliber‐ alism presupposes a rather pessimistic anthropology (Tanner 1997: 149). Eckerstorfer argues again that Lindbeck lacks a properly worked‐out theology of creation (Eckerstorfer 2001: 320‐22). In the following we will investigate Lindbeck’s specific theological presuppositions respectively from the perspective of creation, ecclesiology and anthropology. Lindbeck’s attitude with respect to the world is rather pes‐ simistic. He associates the world outside the Bible with plural‐ ity and chaos (Lindbeck 1986: 370). After the eclipse of the Bi‐ ble, what remains is the confusion of tongues (Lindbeck 1989a: 59‐61). Lindbeck states in this context that Christian faith com‐ munities must not allow themselves to be dominated by ideas from the world but should maintain and protect their own sym‐ bols so as to be able to preserve their own identity (Eckerstorfer 2001: 230) Lindbeck himself confirms this pessimism and suspicion of the world. Already in his reflections at the Second Vatican Council he formulated serious objections with respect to the op‐ timism behind the aggiornamento. This Catholic optimism as‐ sumes that grace does not destroy nature but presupposes and perfects it (Lindbeck 1965: 237). Lindbeck has difficulty with
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this theological interpretation of the relationship between na‐ ture and grace: evil, which is always present in the human be‐ ing, is minimized. In contrast, Lindbeck emphasizes the discon‐ tinuity between the world and redemption, between nature and grace. With respect to the world, the emphasis, in Lindbeck’s view, lies on the principle of sola gratia. Partly because of past painful experiences, brought about by too much optimism and by an illusory optimism, every con‐ ception that minimizes the constant reality of sin and the power of evil in our lives and in the world frightens us a lot. It is necessary to recognize that ... the world does not go from progress to progress.... We Protestants ... are naturally inclined to speak in existentialist terms more than in evolu‐ tionist ones…. We are wary of an eschatology that places the accent primarily on the horizontal to the detriment of the vertical, which holds to an objective and future cosmic redemption instead of insisting on the authenticity within human life and in the relationship with God in the present. (Lindbeck 1965: 242)
It is striking that Lindbeck does not refer to the world as the place where revelation occurs. In an interview with Eckerstor‐ fer, Lindbeck stated that, although we can learn from the world, what we learn is not revelation. Revelation is contained in Scripture, which interprets itself and the worldly sphere is not woven into that in any causal way. Apparently, it is only—in accordance with the Lutheran verbal character of revelation and the doctrine of justifica‐ tion—transformed exclusively from outside. (Eckerstorfer 2001: 232)
Discontinuity between the world and the revealed Word of God also explains Lindbeck’s allergy to a kind of latent and im‐ plicit Christianity in the world. He places fides ex auditu over against fides implicita (Lindbeck 1973: 185): God can be known only via his Word that pronounces a judgement over the world (Lindbeck 1973: 184). The attempt of liberal theology to build a bridge from humanity to God or from the world to God is doomed to failure. Where one ends up is not with God but with humankind.
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Goh claims that the discussion between Barth and Schleier‐ macher can be heard in Lindbeck’s critique of liberalism (Goh 2000: 252). David Tracy likewise claims that Lindbeck’s substantive theological position [is] a methodo‐ logically sophisticated version of Barthian confessionalism. The hands may be the hands of Wittgenstein and Geertz but the voice is the voice of Karl Barth.… For Lindbeck’s real problem … is theological: like Barth and like some of his colleagues at Yale he is theologically troubled by the liberal tradition. He wants theology to be done from within the confessing community. He wants a new ecumenical confes‐ sional theology. (Tracy 1985: 465‐66)
With respect to ecclesiology, cultural pessimism gives rise to the model of the contrast church, which rests on an antithetical scheme: church versus world (Lindbeck 1994: 48). This scheme allows an ecclesiological argument for the church as a contrast community. The most important mission of the church is viewed as analogous to that of Israel: to be a light for the world and to witness to the Gospel. It is not by posing the question of relevance but by concern with its own Christian identity that the church will be of service to the world. That is also why Lindbeck argues for giving priority to “domestic” issues rather than “foreign” ones (Lindbeck 2005: 29). Theologians who advocate the model of the contrast church emphasize primarily the critical attitude of the church toward the world. The “outside world” and what occurs there is taken up and given a (different) meaning on the basis of the biblical world. Postliberal theology does not expect that the world itself can cast light on the biblical text and on the church. Gustafson calls this “the sectarian temptation”: It is very tempting in our cultural era to isolate Christian theology and ethics from critical external points of view in order to maintain the uniqueness or historic identity of Christianity. I call this the sectarian temptation. (Gustafson 1985: 83)
The danger of the sectarian tendency shows itself here not only as a retreat from the social world but also as the “inclination to deny that the world carries seeds of the good news in itself” (Thomasset 1996: 38).
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Lindbeck’s postliberal theology not only presupposes a specific view of the world and the church, but a specific theo‐ logical anthropology lies behind that view as well. Not only the world but humankind as well is severly affected by sin. This ob‐ tains, for that matter, for both non‐Christians and Christians. The latter have, thanks to the grace of Christ, learned to know the Saviour, but the Christian is not any different from the non‐ Christian with respect to both her religious and moral quali‐ ties.2 “The believer remains a sinner, simul iustus et pecator, be‐ cause, as Luther puts it, we do not yet have our goodness in re, but in fide et spe” (Lindbeck 1973: 84). Lindbeck’s rejection of “implicit faith” can be understood in this respect as well. Faith is not an expression of meanings that people already know or can discern God in the depths of their being (Lindbeck 1973: 83). The world is in darkness, and thus human attempts to find God via the understanding are also darkened. Over against implicit faith Lindbeck places the salvation that comes only through explicit faith in Christ. Here Lindbeck follows the anthropological pessimism of postliberal theology, of which Tanner also remarks: The postliberals are no fans of any positive claims of God’s purposes being generally evident in the world of nature or in the structures of human life. When it comes to the knowledge of God, the particularities of the unsubstitutable personage of Jesus always outweighs discussions of a uni‐ versal Logos or the possibly far flung peregrinations of the Holy Spirit; and that preference is backed by a weighty pes‐ simism about the effects of sin. (Tanner 1997: 149)
In line with this theological anthropology, Lindbeck places all the emphasis on religion as a verbum externum that forms and moulds the identity of the self and brings it into accordance with the Christian tradition (Lindbeck 1984: 34). Human beings are not creators (Allik 1993: 249); they are created by the reli‐ gion to which they belong. In postliberal theology it is not the 2
How Lindbeck reconciles this idea with his cultural‐linguistic model is not entirely clear, for it does not make any sense to speak about sin on the basis of a relationship with God. According to the cultural‐ linguistic model, there can be no such relationship, positively or nega‐ tively.
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autonomous subject that is the active principle but the text. The text is the producer of meanings and experiences. The meta‐ phor of absorption confirms this: the biblical text swallows the subject with all her experiences. The subject is passive; he no longer speaks but is spoken to (Rieger 1989: 71). The anthropology that Lindbeck suggests here is—just like his theory of religion—the reversal of liberalism. Postliberalism breaks with the liberal concept of the human being who has free, flexible, and active disposal of his or her meanings (Lind‐ beck 1984: 126). The voluntarist anthropology and the focus on the individual consciousness are rejected (Lindbeck 1989b: 74‐ 101). The postliberal critique of the sovereign liberal self is right. “Liberal theology’s tendency to assume that God is al‐ ways on our side is reconstructed in postliberal theology: God is first of all on the side of the text” (Rieger 1989: 79). It is not the human being who stands at the centre but Scripture, which contains the Word revealed by God. If the believer wants to know God, then he must turn to the text. Dialogue as the Basic Principle of Theology But is it necessary to choose between insisting on a divine order of creation already inhabited by Christian grace or does one need to consider the coming of Jesus Christ as a radical rupture bringing salvation in a fal‐ len world incapable of rising to God? (Thomasset 1996: 39)
Must one choose between continuity and discontinuity? Be‐ tween creation and salvation? We do not think so. Theologic‐ ally, it is also possible to speak in a different way about the rela‐ tionship between church and world, experience and text. First, I will propose that the world as God’s creation is also a place in which people can encounter God. Next, we will dis‐ cuss an important dimension that remains underexposed in Lindbeck’s theology, in particular the Trinitarian character of God. There are also serious objections to Lindbeck’s position re‐ garding anthropology. We will look here at the creative capaci‐ ties of human beings. This will bring us, finally, to looking anew at the dichotomy between experience and tradition. a) The World as a Place for Encountering God Because postliberal theology sees the world as severely affected by sin, it seems to pass over the idea that God can also be
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known and experienced in the world. The world is not re‐ cognized as a source of theological knowledge. This also has consequences for the relationship to other religions. Just like the world, interreligious dialogue is no place to encounter God. In our view, it seems that Lindbeck pays insufficient attention the‐ ologically to the createdness of the world. The idea that the cre‐ ation is also an expression of God’s glory and love is not found in postliberalism. This implies “a dangerous mutilation of the world, given that it excludes elements of creation theology ex‐ tensively” (Eckerstorfer 2001: 232). If we take another starting point, i.e. that of sacramentality, then another perspective opens up on the theological appreci‐ ation of the world—a perspective that also shows a different picture of interreligious dialogue. Over against the discontinu‐ ity thinking of postliberalism we propose a thinking that takes both the continuity and discontinuity seriously. Sin has dam‐ aged the world but has not destroyed its character as creation. A theology that takes both continuity (the creation is good) and discontinuity (sin has affected creation) seriously is a theology that recognizes the essential ambiguity of reality. Grace and na‐ ture are not viewed as being in opposition, just as creation and salvation are not. God reveals himself in the created order in which good and evil are often intertwined. God “expresses” (brings himself up) and “impresses” himself in the life of the believer, using what is present in the world. Vincentius a Paulo stated this idea as follows: “Events are the masters given from God’s hand” (Facelina 1974: 313). This means, on the one hand, that not ev‐ erything is good and, on the other, that not everything is dis‐ torted by sin. It also entails that one needs to investigate for oneself what is true and good. A priori determinations are not suitable. The principle of sacramentality does not mean that every‐ thing in reality is holy. Everything in the world can in principle be holy, reality, however is ambiguous. “Not everything that people do and experience is valuable. And much is partly valu‐ able but can also be partly criticized. If we understand that reality is ambiguous, we also understand that not everything is good.” That is also the way in which reality is experienced, at least for Christians:
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On the one hand, Lindbeck’s critical attitude regarding reality is confirmed. A critical questioning of the world from a Christian theological perspective is necessary, for we still live under the “eschatalogical restriction” in expectation of the Kingdom of God. Eschatological faith, the vision of the Kingdom of God, ex‐ horts us not to call any part of reality “good” and “salvific” without further ado, even though this is experienced subjec‐ tively as such. There is always a “credit.” The Bible and the Christian tradition, just like experiences of others, are means to carry out this “critical test” time and again. (Dillen 2003: 192)
On the other hand, the one‐sided negative attitude toward the world must be rejected because in that way a limitation is im‐ posed on God’s involvement with his creation (Speelman 2003: 17‐23). b) God as a Dynamic Relational Reality Lindbeck’s exclusive theological attention for the biblical text downplays God’s dynamic and relational character. That God still reveals himself today to people receives little attention, and the idea that revelation is a never‐ending process between God and people remains underemphasized as well. The result is that within postliberalism revelation becomes merely recorded tex‐ tual data that, moreover, must interpret itself. As Goh puts it, postliberalism identifies the Word of God with the word of God. Lindbeck’s case rests on an interpretive framework that is strictly identified with the scriptural narrative. But scripture clearly points beyond itself, to the reality of the risen Christ, as well as to his living presence amongst humanity. Further‐ more, Scripture points to the unfolding future which its his‐ torical narrative does not and, indeed, cannot encompass. One may concur with Lindbeck that the identity of Jesus is unknown apart from the narrative framework. But that Je‐ sus is now the Christ, the living Lord, who is present in hu‐
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man community in Spirit, whose story continues to unfold existentially in every age, and whose final revelation lies be‐ yond the pale of human history and everything in it, includ‐ ing the holy Scripture that points to the eschaton. (Goh 2000: 287; emphasis his)
From this perspective, we would like to recall the important distinction to which Dupuis pointed earlier, i.e. that between the Logos ensarkos and the Logos asarkos, that between the incar‐ nate Word and the eternal living Word. The economy of salva‐ tion of the Logos asarkos, about which the prologue of the gospel according to John states that “The true light that gives light to every man was coming into the world” (John 1:9), also con‐ tinues after the divine incarnation (Logos ensarkos) (Dupuis 1997: 298). The Word of God has become human but that becoming human does not exhaust God. It is precisely this distinction that postliberal theology forgets when limiting the revelation to the biblical text and fixing it to that text, as a result of which the reality of the second person of the Trinity is exhausted in the re‐ ality of Jesus of Nazareth. Lindbeck is also particularly quiet about the third person of the Trinity, “the holy spirit, who ensures the communication of the revelation till the eschaton” (Goh 2000: 309). Neverthe‐ less, he does acknowledge the activity of the Paraclete (John 14:16, 26). Lindbeck does speak about the Spirit as verbum inter‐ num, i.e. the capacity of the human being to receive God’s Word (Lindbeck 1984: 34). The Paraclete prepares people to receive God’s Word in Christ. From this perspective, the discontinuity between the triune God and the world is thus not absolute: God is actively present in and through the Holy Spirit in the world and lives of all people. Nonetheless, discontinuity is given the upper hand over continuity in Lindbeck’s theology. This explains why the pos‐ sibility of natural theology, which plays such an important role in the dialogue with the world, is rejected within postliberalism (Émery 2004: 56). Much more strongly than Lindbeck, we em‐ phasize that God remains involved in the creation and is active in it. That is why it is said that seeds of the Word (semina verba) can be found (see Ad Gentes §11 and Nostra Aetate §2) and men‐ tion is made of the Spirit who blows where he wills (John 3:8). It is possible for people to encounter God in God’s Spirit. People
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can experience God in daily reality, because God’s Spirit search‐ es for people. One can also think in this context of the meaning of the Hebrew word Shekinah, which refers to God’s presence among people. Unlike the solus Christus principle and contrary to the notion that revelation has come to an end in Christ, we argue that “the revelation of the Word of God, spoken defin‐ itively in Jesus Christ, and the work of the Holy Spirit, bringing to fruition the ‘seeds of the Word’ in creation, represent to‐ gether a single continuous action of God in the World” (Barnes 2002: 45). The God of the Jewish and Christian traditions is a re‐ lational God: a speaking transcendence that unremittingly reaches out to the people he has created (Burggraeve 2003: 337‐ 57). Lindbeck’s postliberalism, and precisely his concern for the preservation of the tradition, risks ending in a silent rather than a speaking transcendence. c) Theological Anthropology and Hermeneutics The danger of reification is a real threat in postliberalism. This danger coheres in the first place with the fact that the Word of God seems to be identified with the word of God. Because of that Lindbeck forgets that God reveals himself at present as well to people through history and underestimates the dynam‐ ics of the reality to which the Bible refers (Heyer 2004: 321). This process of reification is reinforced even more by Lindbeck’s anthropology. Although Lindbeck’s critique of the modern self that places itself in the centre and has the tradition freely at his disposal is correct, we wonder if the reversal from inside to outside has not silenced the subject altogether. When Lindbeck speaks about the text as self‐interpreting and self‐referential (Lindbeck 1997: 433), he does not only ex‐ clude an extratextual hermeneutic but also imposes silence on the “reader” of the text. Lindbeck seems to assume that the bib‐ lical world “is there” to be found and confirmed. Postliberal theology minimizes the contribution of the reader (Stiver 1996: 143). The text does all the work and interprets itself. In this con‐ text Goh finds that “the claim that the Bible embraces our ex‐ perience or absorbs our World is perplexing, because it is an‐ thropomorphizing the text—speaking as if it does things” (Goh 2000: 237). It is not only surprising that the text in Lindbeck’s postliberal theology becomes “an active principle.” It is perhaps even more surprising that the subject is described as a direct ob‐
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ject. The “believer” is seen as a kind of blank slate that can be written on. The particularity of the believerʹs context, with his or her specific experiences, is not part of the process. The idea that people are not only the product of a religion but are also producers of religion is not taken into consideration either (Speelman 2003: 65). Volf argues that Lindbeck’s metaphor of absorption ends in a hermeneutical simplification: We can look at our culture through the lenses of religious texts only as we look at these texts through the lenses of our cul‐ ture. The notion of inhabiting the biblical story is hermen‐ eutically naïve because it presupposes that those who are faced with the biblical story can be completely dislodged from their extratextual dwelling places and re‐settled into intratextual homes. (Volf 1996: 103)
We object to this anthropology, arguing that the human being is not a blank slate that can simply be written on but lives in sev‐ eral contexts that give shape to his or her relationship to the Bi‐ ble and tradition. This is not a matter of two monolithic blocks that stand next to or opposite each other. People are not the products of the Bible or their culture. The identity of people is a multiform and always particular datum that is given form by a number of experiences, encounters, and texts. The idea that Christian believers live in the biblical world ignores this. Tilley agrees with this and accuses Lindbeck of forgetting his “public.” It could well be that the biblical texts can be un‐ derstood without an extratextual hermeneutics (Lindbeck 1984: 116‐17).3 But if the terms of the text in question do not mean anything to the reader, then the text will remain unintelligible. The proclamation of faith can be successful only if the core con‐ cepts of the Christian faith tradition can be understood by the hearer: creation, providence, sin, incarnation, Trinity, escha‐ 3
“Masterpieces such as Oedipus Rex and War and Peace, for example, evoke their own domains of meaning. They do so by what they them‐ selves say about the events and personages of which they tell. In order to understand them in their own terms, there is no need for extraneous references to, for example, Freud’s theories or historical treatments of the Napoleonic wars. Further, such works shape the imagination and per‐ ceptions of the attentive reader so that he or she forever views the world to some extent through the lenses they supply.”
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tology, etc. (Tilley 1989: 98‐99). This means, on the one hand, that searching for connections with the world of the listener is necessary for making the Christian message intelligible. Ex‐ plaining the Christian story means translating and finding a connection with the world of the listener. On the other hand, this also means that in this hermeneutical process the text does not remain unchanged. The reader unlocks new and different meanings of the biblical texts because of his or her particular context. A plurality of interpretations arises, which does not end, as Lindbeck claims, in a confusion of tongues and thus means the end of speaking about God. Rather, it is precisely the expression of the fact that people search for God and God searches for people. Speaking about God is varied, but—paradoxically enough— his authority is confirmed through that. Critical, intelligent reading of the Scriptures and kerygmatic listening to the Word that has come from on high and from afar do not ex‐ clude each other. (Pareydt 2000: 281)
Unlike the earlier pessimistic anthropology, which is part of the background of the Yale school, we presuppose an anthro‐ pology that understands the human being as a hermeneutical creature.4 This is an anthropology that starts from the idea that the human being is called to openness toward the world, his or her fellow human beings, and God. This calling does not imply a denial of sin and thus a denial of forms of closedness. To the contrary. Human beings do not always live up to their calling. They are inclined to turn away from God and creation. Every hu‐ man being sinned in Adam, but this sinfulness did not eclipse the rational ability of human beings. Moreover, the human being still has the ability to discover God with the help of grace (Thiel 1994: 100). Such an anthropology, which presupposes that the human ability to discern God is not completely ob‐ scured, an anthropology that presupposes that human beings are not blind to this calling also displays a more positive atti‐ tude toward a hermeneutics that recognizes the creative contri‐ bution of the interpreting subject—a subject who is always situ‐ ated and who inevitably includes precisely this situatedness in reading the Bible: 4
We will elaborate on this anthropology in the next chapter.
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The survival of the Christian revelation depends on human response. [This is] an inescapable dimension of its character as essentially divine self‐communication. Revelation, as a relational reality is not something which the human subject “receives”, but a reality which human subjects bring about.… An incarnational theology valorizes human subjec‐ tivity and accords it a central role in the realization of God’s revelatory and salvific project in history. (Merrigan 2002b: 81‐82; emphasis his)
Faithfulness to God does not presuppose any intratextual her‐ meneutics but is rather a creative hermeneutics. The meaning of a text can be discerned only when the text is read and inter‐ preted, and “any mode of reading must feature an emphasis on the dynamic and interactive nature of both the text and the act of reading” (Goh 2000: 295). We see yet another problem connected to Lindbeck’s an‐ thropology. The way in which the passive subject is formed, moulded, and determined by the religious framework to which he or she belongs limits how the subject can be affected in his or her capacities by everything that does not fit into that frame‐ work. It is not clear how something from “outside” the frame‐ work, which does not “exist” within the religious framework, can break into and interrupt that framework. If, in connection with pluralists, we spoke of a passivity that is (too quickly and too easily) converted into activity, then here we speak of passivity as such. Not only is the creative abil‐ ity of the human individual cut short by the cultural‐linguistic model but his or her critical voice is as well. The danger exists that the text itself becomes “inviolable.” The basic idea is that God’s word as embodied in text‐ shaped selves and in text‐shaped communities is the most reliable source for theology and while it may not be above all distortions, a safety net against which the text could be double‐checked in regard to the referent does not seem ne‐ cessary. There is [within postliberal theology] no plan for examining the text’s relation to other people. (Rieger 1989: 79)
The lack of space for a voice critical of ideology is reinforced by the fact that the Word of God and the word of God seem to be
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identified in postliberal theology. D’Costa correctly points in this respect to the impersonal nature of the metaphor of absorp‐ tion. What disappears from view here is the fact that there is a great difference between being faithful to God and being faith‐ ful to a tradition. In other words, faith does not concern faith‐ fulness to a tradition or to conformity to the “norm” but to a relationship between God and human beings—a relationship that, for that matter, not infrequently is a struggle. It is also a re‐ lationship in which there is room for protest and resistance—a resistance that is also directed sometimes at God and his “plans.” This “struggling relationship has taken on endless forms be‐ tween ecclesial persons and God” (D’Costa 2005b: 143). There is an important distinction between Barth’s Protestantism, in which the turn to the Wholly Other is central, and Lindbeck’s intratextual theology, which focuses on the turn to the text. It is not God but the text that is the actor here: This close relation between God and the word of Scripture elevates the biblical texts into a strong position of authority. This authority can indeed challenge certain contemporary structures of exclusion. But how does it deal with structures of exclusion in which the biblical authors and their com‐ munities participated and which are reflected in the texts. (Rieger 1989: 76)
Experience as a Locus Theologicus Postliberalism does not have much of an eye for deep‐rooted human experiences that that can challenge and interrupt one’s own comprehensive systems. The dichotomic reversal of “inter‐ nal” and “external” cuts the traditions off from an important source of life, renewal, and criticism, i.e. experience. The dy‐ namic and continuing character of God’s revelation and God’s involvement with creation and humankind is minimized. One of the consequences is that the traditions here threaten to become petrified. Experiences, after all, play a great role in keeping traditions alive. A theology that emphasizes exactly this dynamic character should perhaps declare that revelation happens precisely in the dialectic between Scripture and experi‐ ence. If the activity of the Spirit and the Logos is universal and if we see the world as God’s creation, then theology cannot be limited to intratextuality. Scripture is the interpretative frame‐ work that makes the knowledge of and constant encounter with
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God possible. But that does not mean that we cannot discern God via the creation. Traces of God can also be discovered “outside” the text, and these traces can cast light on our un‐ derstanding of God’s Word. God displays something of himself in the world. Earlier, we proposed a theory of religion that distinguishes between the major life events that make the human being open to the transcendent on the one hand and the religious elements, institutions, rituals, forms of prayer, symbols, etc. on the other. The movement is from God to human beings via religious ele‐ ments. The believer sees the hand of God in major events, but she or he sees Godʹs hand only because those events are con‐ nected with religious elements: gesticulation, rituals, sacramen‐ tal actions. It is God who “expresses” (brings up) himself through these religious elements and “impresses” himself in the life of the believer. But where God reveals himself and what he expresses of himself in the world cannot be one‐sidedly lim‐ ited and established by the biblical text. “[T]he Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of interpreting them in the light of the Gospel” (Gaudium et Spes §4). The church exists in the world and is called to labour “to decipher authentic signs of God’s presence and purpose in the happenings, needs and desires in which this People has a part along with other men of our age” (Gaudium et Spes §11). Ex‐ perience is an “indispensable element for theological reason‐ ing” (Goh 2000: 378). Discovering meaning is not an intratextual event but a dia‐ logical event, whereby experience is also recognized as a theo‐ logical source. Here experience is not “separate” from the text‐ ual context, but it is not limited to it either. The relation be‐ tween text and experience is dialectical: The experience has an interpretive context which defines its meaning and shapes the dimensions of the experience itself, as all experiences must. And yet the nature of that experi‐ ence (so interpreted) demands a transformation of the inter‐ pretive context and a bursting open of cultural‐linguistic boundaries. (Stell 1993: 692)
The Spirit is not limited to the verbum internum but has a trans‐ formative and critical power. The experience of the Spirit means the possibility of questioning the existing cultural‐linguistic
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framework and possibly changing it, however difficult that may be. The text must enable a “critical conversation with novel and dissonant experiences to allow a dialectical disclosure of truth” (Goh 2000: 359). But this requires a sensitivity to otherness. Such sensitivity must be cultivated, and awareness of the activ‐ ity of the Spirit can help in this respect as well (Danneels 2005a: 5‐6). In light of the above, theological faithfulness means that intratextuality and extratrextuality are inseparably connected. Or rather, the relation between text and experience is not one of dichotomy but one of dialectics. Without the text experience is blind; but without experience the text is frozen. “Encountering” God in reality then does not imply a kind of intuitive emotional experience of “God,” but neither does it mean that Scripture swallows reality. Concluding Reflections on Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Hermeneutical Openness The postliberal polarization of text and experience also influ‐ ences the relationship between the church and the other reli‐ gions and thus the place and valuation of interreligious dia‐ logue. We already alluded to this in the foregoing. Does the di‐ chotomic thinking of intratextual theology not end again in a form of exclusivism? If this is indeed the case, it seems to be a heavy price to pay for the recognition of the particularity of those of other faiths and a limitation of God’s activity and his universal will that all be saved. Lindbeck’s theological presuppositions are determinative for his turn to particularistic incommensurability between the religions. He cannot acknowledge the real challenge of the con‐ temporary experience of religious plurality as a source of moral and spiritual truth. Just as the world cannot be conceived as a place to encounter God or as a location for the seeds of the Word, religions cannot be either. The consequence of his thought is that the religions can indeed be recognized in their particularity but are theologically meaningless. They are not a context for natural revelation, given that Lindbeck does not connect natural revelation with experiential expressivism. Lind‐ beck also excludes non‐Christians from salvation (Lindbeck 1984: 57). Only those who confess Christ explicitly can attain
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salvation: fides ex auditu. In this respect D’Costa is also correct to situate Lindbeck within the exclusivist paradigm (D’Costa 2005a: 631). Because Lindbeck holds that the definitive decision is made only after death, he does manage to avoid a hard form of soteriological exclusivism. It is, after all, possible that people who are confronted in the hereafter in an explicit way with Christ’s message of salvation will still be converted. But it is still the case that they are saved only if they confess Christ and thus become Christians. There is no salvation outside the church (Lindbeck 1984: 59), and he excludes both the inclusivist and pluralist possibility that non‐Christians can be saved (Lind‐ beck 1984: 58). In this respect Lindbeck’s postliberal theology is closer to the exclusivism of evangelical theology (Okholm and Phillips 2005: 506‐21). Both reject all forms of a latent Chris‐ tianity; there is no such thing like an implicit faith (Lindbeck 1984: 62). Exclusivism is thus the logical consequence of the cul‐ tural‐linguistic model. Those who do not speak the Christian language do not know Christ, and those who do not know Christ cannot be saved. According to Stell, there is still an additional problem. Not only does Lindbeck’s position exclude non‐Christians from sal‐ vation, but for non‐Christians as well, Stell notes, there is little continuity between the now and the hereafter. The ultimate decision about one’s salvation is made in the hereafter with regard to both Christians and non‐Christians. The only thing that counts in this decision is faith in Christ: Solus Christus (Lindbeck 1984: 59). But for non‐Christians, according to Stell, this ultimate decision of faith has little to do with their particu‐ lar faith commitment in this world. This is a consequence of the discontinuity between the comprehensive Christian interpretive schema and the other religions. “The demand for an explicit faith leaves salvation totally in the future and disconnected from our current experience of life” (Stell 1993: 682). The result of Lindbeck’s theology is that our salvation is detached from our current existence. According to Lindbeck, all previous decisions, whether for faith or against faith are preliminary.… The final die is cast beyond our space and time, beyond empirical observation … when a person loses his or her rootage in this World and passes into the inexpressi‐
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This means that the definitive decision about salvation is made only after death, i.e. when people lose their “worldly roots.” Surin formulates still another serious objection here to Lindbeck’s position, primarily with respect to his anthropology: It is doubtless true that at death our physical or bodily exist‐ ence comes to an end. My body however, is not just some bit of material “stuff” which I “use” instrumentally to inter‐ act with other human beings. My body is more than this. My body, to use the terminology of current literary theory, is a “text” replete with filial and affiliative inscriptions.… If it is acknowledged that our bodily (and hence our “person‐ al”) identities are socially and culturally constituted, then the non‐Christian individual who, as Lindbeck sees it, con‐ fronts Christ and the gospel at the eschaton will certainly have, in “this” life, been the bearer of a quite specific set of cultural and social inscriptions. (Surin 1988: 195)
By emphasizing so much what happens at the eschaton, Lind‐ beck seems, first, to say that people no longer have these in‐ scriptions after death. Second, he seems to suggest that the “fal‐ ling away” of these specific social and cultural inscriptions makes people receptive to the Gospel. If these reflections are sound, then this means that postlib‐ eralism understands the religious particularity of non‐Chris‐ tians as an obstacle to coming to God. Only after death does this obstacle disappear. Lindbeck sees the non‐Christian after death as a kind of tabula rasa who now experiences no “interference” by his or her particular religious inscriptions in hearing God’s Word (fides ex auditu). Despite all Lindbeck’s attention for reli‐ gious particularity, he is unable to conceive of this particular situatedness as the way in which God seeks people. In the light of our theological reflections above on God as a dynamic and relational being, the creation, the universal ac‐ tivity of the Spirit, and the distinction between the Logos ensar‐ kos and the Logos asarkos, we have quite serious doubts about the price Lindbeck pays for the “recognition” of the particular‐ ity of religious traditions. It seems, after all, that Lindbeck suc‐ ceeds in recognizing the different religions in their particularity
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only when he undervalues both the universal activity of the Spirit and the distinction between the Logos ensarkos and the Logos asarkos. The recognition of the radical and irreducible par‐ ticularity of the religions means, theologically, a return to a Christocentric theology that leaves the Trinitarian activity of the Spirit and the Word and the world as God’s creation “underex‐ posed.” First, the dialogue with the other religions is no longer ne‐ cessary theologically. Moreover, learning from other religions has no theological relevance any longer either. Interreligious dialogue, one could say, is then the expression of a kind of cul‐ tural interest, like tourism or going out for an exotic dinner. Interreligious dialogue is thus something with which Christians can occupy themselves if they want to take the trouble. Like ad hoc apologetics in postliberalism, there is also very little ad hoc interreligious dialogue here. Ad hoc here means sporadic pri‐ marily. Dialogue does not constitute a systematic part of theo‐ logy. Conversely, all this also means that as soon as the activity of the Spirit and the traces of the Word are recognized in the re‐ ligions, the gulf between these religions can no longer be abso‐ lute. It is the Trinitarian character of the Christian faith that in‐ vites Christians to a dialogue with the world. It is the Trinity that, theologically speaking, makes the search for connections possible, for it is the Logos that makes dialogue possible and the Spirit who represents connectedness. Theology means speaking about God in response to God’s Word. And this also entails not only listening to the possible seeds of God’s Word but to what God has perhaps said in this new context of otherness. Interreli‐ gious dialogue is also thus a context of otherness. If postliberalism and the God‐church‐world schema ends in a form of exclusivism, we then advocate a church that lives in the world and feels called to enter into dialogue with the world. This is not the same as saying that the world determines the church, but it does mean that the church has to listen to the world. After all, the Spirit blows where He wills. Theologically, the inclusive principle is to be chosen above the exclusive prin‐ ciple. Human beings may not limit Godʹs revelation a priori. To use Goh’s terminology, we would reather speak of the Spir‐ it/transformation paradigm that states that the world,
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Bracketing the relational involvement of God with his crea‐ tion and all people—because otherwise injustice would be done to their self‐understanding—is very difficult to substantiate the‐ ologically. God’s will for universal salvation extends to his whole creation and to all people, also to those who do not ex‐ plicitly believe in Christ. Those of other faiths are not outside the reach of God’s will for salvation. The fact that people are so struck by the moral and spiritual truth of religious plurality is an expression of the fact that non‐Christians also participate in God’s salvation history. Non‐Christians are already now work‐ ing on the Kingdom of God: In Christian salvation, the final decision of the future is seen to be based on the experience of the present and the experi‐ ence of the present is shaped by that impending future; the present subjective quality of love directs one towards spe‐ cific future goals and the path toward a particular goal en‐ genders subjective qualities in the present; the Holy Spirit is a pledge of future glory precisely because it is in some measure already the participation in that future, while con‐ versely the promise of future fulfilment nurtures our pre‐ sent participation; finally, the character of human experi‐ ence guides one’s acceptance of a tradition, while the ex‐ plicit claims of a tradition shape one’s experiences and the faith implicit herein. (Stell 1993: 683)
Does this mean that the problems with inclusivism that we cited earlier have now been solved? No, it does mean that theo‐ logians must understand what is all at stake if they “sing the praises” of the cultural‐linguistic model and the principle of in‐ tratextuality too quickly, for the wholly other is the meaningless other. If theologians are inspired by the cultural‐linguistic mod‐ el, they should have a good idea of what the theological presup‐ positions underlying it are and what the consequences are for the interreligious learning process. The postliberal attempt to protect its own and to acknowledge the other in its “irreducible
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particularity” ends in locking the other in his or her otherness and the otherness becoming theologically insignificant. It means that a recognition of the otherness of the other, and thus of the discontinuity, can occur only if the continuity is also re‐ cognized. From a confessional theological perspective, the other is never radically an irreducible other but already connected with God. This confessional language does not do justice to the self‐ understanding of the other; it does not yet allow the other to be understood in his or her otherness but only from a Christian confessional perspective. Inspired here by Lindbeck, particular‐ ists have correctly pointed to the hermeneutically problematic character of the soteriological principle. First, we learned that soteriological openness does not yet mean hermeneutical openness. It is not because the soteriological value of other reli‐ gions is recognized that the other religions are thus understood in their otherness. Hermeneutical openness requires the dia‐ logue partners in the first place to listen and attempt to under‐ stand the other in his or her otherness. The particularist critique has brought the distinction between soteriological openness and hermeneutical openness to light. It has pointed out cor‐ rectly that the question of salvation is a Christian question that does not inquire into the particular goals of the other religions. The cultural‐linguistic model points out correctly that both inclusivism and pluralism are inclined to emphasize the contin‐ uity between the different religions too much because of the idea that religions are different paths to salvation. Indeed, this soteriological interpretative framework does not form the best hermeneutical starting point for understanding the other in his or her otherness. We agree with this criticism, this distrust of the soteriological principle, of continuity thinking and the cor‐ relative tendency, but, theologically, we cannot accept the cul‐ tural‐linguistic model. The result of this model is a far‐reaching form of intratextuality, through which the hermeneutical possibility of interreligious dialogue also becomes problematic. The cultural‐linguistic model does give the other back his or her otherness, but the flip side is that the other remains completely foreign. It is not clear how the world of the religious other can be understood. The religions are, after all, untranslatable.
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The challenge of the following chapter is to give a con‐ structive place to the particularist awareness of difference, which warns agains emphasizing interreligious continuity too much, in the theological argument for dialogue given above. We endorse the particularist thesis that all our speaking is col‐ oured confessionally and that there is no such thing as a helicopter perspective. There are no tradition‐neutral criteria for evening out the differences between the religions. But we do not subscribe to the view that the religions are so radically dif‐ ferent that dialogue is impossible. Dialogue is an important theological principle, and it cannot be the case that the recog‐ nition of the otherness of the other leads to the end of dialogue with the other. The question now is: How is dialogue possible without minimizing the distance between that which is strange and that which is one’s own? And what role can particularism play in this?
CHAPTER 6
Interreligious Dialogue and Hermeneutical Openness In this chapter we will elaborate further on our theological ar‐ gument for an interreligious dialogue that leaves room for par‐ ticularity. Special attention will go to the question of what her‐ meneutical openness for the other is and how this hermeneut‐ ical openness relates to the commitment involved in religious identity. In line with our previous chapter, we will argue that this openness does not undermine Christian identity. To the contrary: Christian identity takes shape precisely in its relation‐ ship to otherness. The heart of our argument consists in a dialogical reori‐ entation and adaptation of the cultural‐linguistic model. Two mutually cohering analogies are central in this reorientation: the analogy between language and religion and the analogy be‐ tween translation and hermeneutics. Unlike the cultural‐ling‐ uistic theory of religion, which holds that religions are untrans‐ latable, we will argue that “translation” is a good model for un‐ derstanding the possibilities and difficulties of hermeneutics in general and of interreligious hermeneutics in particular. We will first look at the analogy between language and re‐ ligion, particularly the cultural‐linguistic version of it. Our pre‐ vious theological criticism led us to formulate a number of ob‐ jections to how the analogy between language and religion is viewed within the cultural‐linguistic model. This model pre‐ supposes a (too) narrow view of language, which is then too quickly and too easily applied to religion. We will develop an‐ other more adequate view of language that can also give the analogy between language and religion a constructive turn. To that end we will turn to the Bible and, more particularly, to the story of Babel, which tells of the confusion of language and the scattering of the peoples over the face of the earth. This choice can come as a surprise, given that the classical interpretation of this story focuses on the curse of Babel and the end of dialogue.
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But a new theological hermeneutics of this story will offer or‐ iginal perspectives, also for reconceiving the analogy between language and religion. We will then discuss the cultural‐ling‐ uistic claim concerning the (un)translatability of religions. In light of the theological priority of creational (inter)connected‐ ness, God’s unremitting involvement in the world, and the es‐ chatological hope, we cannot say that religious plurality divides people in an insurmountable way. Over against the dogmatic principle of untranslatability (Lindbeck 1997: 429) we will argue that translation is a more theologically suitable attitude. On the one hand, we will confirm that translation does not occur with‐ out loss of meaning, but we will argue, on the other, that more is lost if translation is no longer done. In this context we will then turn to the French philosopher Paul Ricoeur, placing his concept of linguistic hospitality as a model for interreligious dialogue (Ricoeur 2006: 24). Finally, we will conclude our reflec‐ tions by drawing the various lines of our argument together in‐ to a theology of interreligious hospitality. The Analogy between Language and Religion The cultural‐linguistic theory of religion rests on a analogy be‐ tween language and religion that has been pushed quite far. The content given to this analogy within this approach to reli‐ gion is problematic for various reasons. The first problem is that the cultural‐linguistic model ends in a reification of language. By reification we mean here that language turns into something having fixed properties (Van Brakel 2003: 146). Language is viewed as a static entity and a closed system, and this reifying discourse is then applied to re‐ ligion. A consequence of this reification is that the differences between the religions are magnified and absolutized. Religion is viewed as a monolithic block characterized by coherence and continuity (Wijsen 2000: 43). A concept of religion thus arises that bears within itself the inevitability of a world existing in isolation, separated from other cultures with other values, beliefs, feelings, and habits: a humanity divided into discon‐ tinuous blocks, another culture as another planet. (Van Leeuwen 2003: 187)
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However, languages and cultures as well influence and af‐ fect one another, intentionally or unintentionally. In this respect Richard Rorty remarks correctly that [a]lternative geometries are irreconcilable because they have axiomatic structures, and contradictory axioms. They are de‐ signed to be irreconcilable. Cultures are not so designed, and do not have axiomatic structures. (Rorty 1985: 9)
The same obtains for religions. The history of religions can be understood as a history of encounter, interaction, interrelation, clashing, synthesis, adaptation, exclusion, and inclusion (Ru‐ parell 1995: 62). A second problem concerns the fact that language loses its referential function within the cultural‐linguistic model. Lang‐ uage here only has an “inside” and no “outside.” This has to do with the fact that language—and religion—is understood as a semiotic system. It is indeed so that language can be analyzed as a semiotic system and that the question of reference is then bracketed. Structuralist linguistics, for example, limits itself to that. But such a view of language is one‐sided because it is often forgotten that language also has the ability to become “discourse” and thus to say something about something to someone (Ricoeur 1995b: 39). The cultural‐linguistic model seems to follow the structuralist view of language.1 Lindbeck stakes everything on the question of the adequate use of the categories of particular religious language but forgets about the question of reference. His theory of religion thus ignores the fact that believers understand their religion and the doctrines for‐ mulated within it as referential. Believers do claim that their doctrines have something to say about how the world is or should be (Griffiths 2001: 48). Wallace states correctly that meaning understood as “use” and truth understood as “re‐ ference” (and not simply as coherent usage, as Lindbeck holds) specifies the two complementary, not contradictory, aspects of how language actually works. (Wallace 1990: 106)
The analogy between language and religion can hold true only if the referential aspect of language is not forgotten.
1
We will return to this below.
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Third, the cultural‐linguistic theory is problematic from an an‐ thropological perspective. The focus is on the linguistic struc‐ tures at the expense of the autonomy of the subject. Language forms and moulds the identity of the subject. The emphasis lies on initiation and on conformity to the linguistic structures of the tradition (Lindbeck 1984: 126). The consequence is that peo‐ ple are viewed only as bearers of the tradition and not as indi‐ viduals with their own personal histories. “But people are not stuck in the continuity and reproductivity of a never‐changing tradition. They have the gift and the desire to withdraw from the known, recognizable, and the familiar” (Van Leeuwen 2005: 45). Whatever breaks through and breaks open the familiar indices of meaning also attracts and can generate new mean‐ ings. A fourth problem regarding the analogy between language and religion concerns the way in which faith commitment is un‐ derstood. Religious commitment is viewed as belonging to a tradition, as speaking a particular language of faith, as applying the religious depth grammar. That is why Jameson identifies this theory of religion with the authority of the letter, texts, doctrine; the scholastic weighing and comparing of juridical formulas; the concern with coherency and system; and the punctual textual dis‐ tinctions between what is orthodox and what is not. (Jame‐ son 1994: 114)
The dynamic relationship between the faith community, indi‐ vidual believers, and God is overshadowed by faithfulness and conformity to the grammatical rules of faith (doctrines). The distinction between speaking the Christian language on the one hand and a Christian faith attitude on the other is insufficiently recognized. It is perfectly possible that someone can speak the Christian language but not be a Christian. Not including this distinction in the analogy between language and religion opens the door to a tradition without faith. Finally, there is still the question of the untranslatability of the religions. Within the cultural‐linguistic theory the preserva‐ tion of the particularity of the tradition is expressed in the prin‐ ciple of untranslatability. The problem is that the cultural‐ling‐ uistic model creates
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all too empathically a separation between Christians and persons of other faiths. And while this is a logical appli‐ cation of cultural‐linguistic theory, this separation does not match the lived experience of persons in a pluralistic con‐ text. (Hill Fletcher 2005: 76)
In light of the connection with creation, God’s unremitting sal‐ vific involvement with the world, and the eschatological hope, the idea of the untranslatability of the religions is difficult to di‐ gest. Theologically, the notion that religious plurality divides people from one another in an unsurmountable and unavoid‐ able way cannot be confirmed. A Theological Hermeneutics of the Story of Babel We intend to give a creative turn to the analogy between reli‐ gion and language. We want to give back to language its dy‐ namic character, as well as its referential aspect, and to do so we will look at the biblical narrative of Babel. With a view to the complex contemporary context of diversity and plurality, the Bible incites one to think: “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light for my path” (Psalm 119: 105). The Bible is the first theological source to throw light—in the dialectic with experi‐ ence—on the enigmas of existence and the way in which people are called to relate to one another and to God. There is no better approach in this context than the Babelian myth, which tells of the dispersion of the peoples and the confusion of language. We will read this story about Babel in the light of the human exis‐ tential condition of plurality. The Curse of Babel The story of Babel belongs to the primordial myths or stories of the beginning that are concerned with the condition humaine. The first eleven chapters of Genesis narrate the creation, the pri‐ mordial history, and the first generations of humans. These stories are situated in primordial time, the time before ordinary time, and in primordial space, the space before ordinary space (Van Wolde 1995: 15). Abraham appears on stage in chapter twelve and only then does the history of Israel begin. The story of Babel is read traditionally as a struggle with the mystery of linguistic diversity, which consists in the tension between the universality of language and linguistic particular‐
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ity. On the one hand, linguistic ability is a universal human ca‐ pacity, but, on the other, this universal capacity seems to be contradicted because one language appears to disintegrate into a plurality of particular languages. In a certain sense, it seems wrong that there are people like us who speak a language we do not understand (Gowan 1988: 116). Why do people not speak one language? What is the meaning of linguistic diversity? What does this narrative tell us about this enigmatic situation? What does this text teach us about the will of God? What is the purpose of human existence? a) The Punishment of Babel: The Second Fall into Sin Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. As men moved eastward, they found a plain in Shi‐ nar and settled there. They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower that the men were building. The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.” So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. That is why it was called Babel—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth. (Genesis 11:1‐9)
In the classical Christian interpretation of the story of Ba‐ bel, both the geographical scattering and the confusion of lang‐ uage is God’s punishment for the alleged human pride of want‐ ing to be like God (Berges 1994: 54). Verse 4a received the most attention. Here the building of the tower is central: “Then they said, ‘Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens ….’” It is thus also clear that people wanted to remain together, for they said: “so that we may not
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be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” The chances that this large project would succeed seems to be reinforced by the linguistic unity that connects people, creates a “we” feeling, and grounds a sense of community. According to the classical reading, the expression “a tower that reaches to the heavens” refers to human striving to be like God. It is the preeminent symbol of human pride. That is why God punishes the builders and makes an end of the idolatrous human grasp at power.2 He confuses their language so that peo‐ ple are no longer able to understand one another, thereby be‐ coming estranged from one another. The name Babel expresses plurality and confusion. An explicit connection is made be‐ tween Babel (bbl) and confusion (bll). Generally, a parallel is drawn between the Babel episode and the command in the Paradise narrative against eating the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. With the transgression against the first prohibition, human beings were driven from Paradise. The price that the builders of the tower must pay for their pride is the confusion of their language. Ba‐ bel is thus also called the second Fall. The tongue of Eden was like a flawless glass, a light of total understanding steamed through it. Thus Babel was a second fall, in some regards as desolate as the first. Adam had been driven from the garden, now men were harried, like yelping dogs, out of the single family of man. And they were exiled from the assurance of being able to grasp and communicate reality.… Our speech interposes itself between apprehen‐
2 The expression “a tower that reaches to the heavens” is usually understood as a sign of human pride. But this reasoning holds only if one assumes that God “lives in the heavens.” However, the heavens are not where God lives; rather the term refers to the firmament between the waters. “The heavens” is not a sign of God, as also appears from the fact that in verse 5 God must descend to view the tower with its top in the heavens. From this perspective, the idea that God acts in “self‐defense” against the “proud” building plans of people is questionable. This doubt is reinforced by the conclusion that God’s “punishment” for “human hu‐ bris” can be called successful only with difficulty. “A large number of languages does not seem to help much against human pride” (Van Wolde 2004: 7).
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This plurality of languages is also the beginning of a plur‐ ality of peoples, cultures, and religions that spread out over the whole earth (Genesis 10). People give shape to their culture and expression to their identity via language. According to this reading of the story of Babel, this cultural and religious scat‐ tering is likewise viewed in a negative way. Just as the lost paradise corresponds to the future promise, so the promise is directed at the return of that global, uni‐ versal unity of people and languages. The historical time that we experience, characterised by a multiplicity of nations, languages, cultures and religions, takes place following this “regrettable” verdict. Multiculturality, pluralism, diversity, otherness—all this is then regrettable, all this is a punish‐ ment for the hubris of Babel. (Ebach 2001: 26)
b) Linguistic Unity as a Condition for Communication In addition to this regrettable loss of unity, there is a nostalgic longing for the restoration of Paradise as it was before the Fall and the restoration of the unity of language (Bost 1985: 215). This nostalgia is also a nostalgia for a language that allows for “complete” comprehension, that is, a longing for a transparency free of misunderstandings. This nostalgia probably lies at the origin of various projects by theologians and philosophers to undo the curse of Babel. That is why, among other reasons, people have engaged in the search for the Ursprache, the language that was spoken before the confusion of language and that would have been spoken in Paradise. This language not only put people in a position to un‐ derstand one another in a perfectly transparent way, but the Ursprache was also in total accord with reality (Steiner 1975: 58). So‐called Esperanto represents another project concerned with the search for a universal language.3 Esperanto is an inter‐ national artificial language, developed to allow people from dif‐ ferent cultures to communicate with one another. Esperanto is intended to be a language in which all nuances of human 3
In the context of interreligious dialogue Leonard Swidler argues for an ecumenical Esperanto (Swidler 1987).
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thought can be expressed. Just like the search for the Ursprache, Esperanto expresses the hope of a restoration of linguistic unity and connectedness. Behind the hope of restoring the Paradisean unity of lang‐ uage, as well as in the idea that Babel is a curse, is the assump‐ tion that a common language is necessary in order to arrive at mutual understanding. The plurality of languages is seen as a hindrance to communication. A language of unity would re‐ move this obstacle and make it possible for people to under‐ stand one another completely. It seems that this view of lang‐ uage and of communication is also implicit in the cultural‐ling‐ uistic analogy between language and religion. Religion is un‐ derstood as a language system (a way of life) that enables the believers who belong to it to understand one another. If there is a shared religious language that makes meaningful commun‐ ication possible, linguistic plurality is problematic for interreli‐ gious communication. Precisely what allows for ecumenical progress (the sharing of a sacred story) makes interreligious relationships more strained. Whereas the New Testament provides all Chris‐ tians with the same categories for experiencing the universe and organizing its stimuli, the diverse stories of the World’s religions provide different categories altogether. (Hill Fletcher 2005: 73)
According to Lindbeck, we no longer live in a biblical world but in a Babelian world of linguistic confusion (Lindbeck 1989a: 56‐61). There is no longer any shared biblical language that makes social discourse possible. Genuine argument is impossible, and neither agreements nor disagreements can be probed at any depth.… Without a shared imaginative and conceptual vocabulary and syntax, society cannot be held together by communication, but only by brute force. (Lindbeck 1986: 370)
The cultural‐linguistic model thus endorses the classic reading of the story of Babel: the plurality of languages is a curse. The differences between the religious traditions are too great, and it is not possible to find a common language transcending these differences (Moyaert 2005: 45).
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Babel as Blessing On the one hand, the classical interpretation is connected to the actual human experience that the formation of community be‐ tween different peoples is very difficult and that linguistic plur‐ ality constitutes an obstacle or even a curse for communication. Attention is correctly focused on the confusing aspect of ling‐ uistic difference. The curse of Babel takes the actual experience of people who are confronted with alienation and diversity seri‐ ously. On the other hand, this is not the only way people ex‐ perience plurality. Indeed, communication with those who speak other languages is difficult, but it is not impossible. Peo‐ ple testify as well to the blessing of plurality. Moreover, the ex‐ clusive focus on the curse of the linguistic confusion is difficult to accept theologically as well. There is something about the idea of Babel as a curse that does not fit with God’s blessing of creation. We spoke earlier about a God whose actions in his creation are directed to promoting creation’s interconnected‐ ness. The dialogue with the world and thus with other religions belongs to the heart of the Christian faith. From this perspec‐ tive, it is rather improbable that God would pronounce a pun‐ ishment, even a curse, that would stand in the way of his plan for creation (which does not detract from the fact that the Ba‐ belian confusion of language can be experienced as a curse!). On the basis of the theological priority of solidarity, giving up dialogue seems to be a worse sin than the sin of the alleged Ba‐ belian pride. The question then is if the classical reading of the story of Babel is the most feasible. Is it, theologically speaking, not more likely that the linguistic confusion and the cultural diversi‐ fication are, strangely enough, in line with God’s rich activity of blessing in creation (Marty 1991)? This theological “hypothesis” is supported by exegetical argumentation. Indeed, it is worth‐ while taking a critical look at the Babel narrative, because, as I will show, the story actually points to the opposite of what the classic reading suggests: Babel is shown to be a blessing both for creation and for intercultural and interreligious communica‐ tion. a) Babel and the Theme of Dispersion Genesis 11:1‐9 is inserted into a different narrative line, i.e. the table of nations in Genesis 10 and Genesis 11:12‐32. The story of
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Babel thus forms an interruption. The connection between these stories is important. Genesis 11, on the confusion of language and culture, fol‐ lows from Genesis 10, the “table of nations,” which gives a summary of the nations that existed at that time, scattered over the earth, each with its own language. It is a sort of map of the world as it was then known. In Genesis 10, the confusion of language and the scattering of the peoples has already hap‐ pened. The various nations are introduced as descendants of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, and Japheth. This genealogy af‐ firms the fundamental unity of all humanity (Brueggemann 1983: 93). These three sons are the origin of the populations of Asia, Europe, and Africa. In total, this story mentions seventy tribes each of which “represent[s] a nation, a tribe or an area and that thereby represent the ethnic and linguistic multipli‐ city” (Uelinger 2004: 55). In Genesis 10 cultural dispersion and linguistic diversity are simply recorded as aspects of the human condition. Being human entails speaking a specific language and belonging to a particular culture. It is not a very dramatic claim and, what is more, the multiplication of the nations is seen as the fulfillment of creation. The cultural peoples are, like creation, blessed. They are fruitful and multiply. Following the above‐mentioned table of nations, the story of Babel at first appears to be “out of place, since it explains how people came to be dispersed throughout the earth just after chapter 10 has presented in detail the results of God’s plan for repopulation after the flood” (Gowan 1988: 115). In fact, Genesis 11 needs to be read as a sort of flashback in which one aspect of the preceding narrative is highlighted and further elaborated (Van Wolde 1995: 170). The story of Babel recalls a situation before chapter 10—a situation consisting of one people, one language, and one place—and then tells us how the dispersion of nations and the confusion of language and cultures came about. Genesis 11:1‐9 is followed by Genesis 11:11‐32 in which the table of nations is completed. Babel is thus actually an insertion that interrupts the narrative line of the table of nations. If we look at the story itself, a number of things stand out. First, the story only talks about “men” in general; nobody is
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mentioned by name. The grammatical subject is “they,” and who “they” are is left unstated. We are, however, told what they do. They migrate east, establish themselves there, and build a city with a tower. When the people speak, they do so in an inspiring way: “Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly.… Come, let us build ourselves a city … let us make a name for ourselves.” The goal of this whole undertaking becomes apparent in verse 4: “so that we may … not be scat‐ tered over the face of the earth.” The theme of one language is thus complemented by the theme of one place (Hiebert 2007: 35). Human striving does not appear to be geared towards “becom‐ ing equal to God” but rather towards staying together. It is at this moment that God intervenes by confusing their speech and scattering them. From this perspective, the centrality of the tower can be questioned. God is not concerned with the building of the city or the tower as such but with the fact that there is one people and one language. This is also confirmed by the fact that verse 8 does not refer to the tower any more. It is only stated that they stopped building the city. In this respect it seems that the classic focus on the tower—although clearly addressing the imagina‐ tion—is not only misplaced but also deviates from the actual story line, which revolves around unity and scattering (Cassuto 1961: 226). This story should not be called the builders of the tower or the Tower of Babel but the narrative of the dispersion of the peoples. The intervention of God is presented not as a punishment but rather as an act that is necessary for creation (Berges 1994: 55). The whole earth must be populated and the unity of language, place, and people hinders this. Indeed, the idea of the scattering of the peoples over the whole world clearly harks back to aspects of the creation narra‐ tive in which God calls upon his creation to multiply (Genesis 1). The same theme is found after the story of the Flood. Again, Yahweh says that people and animals must be fruitful, must become great in number, and must populate the whole world. Genesis 1‐11 is the story of creation: of separation and distinc‐ tion, of multiplication and population, and of scattering. Babel must be read in light of this theme. Thus, the story of Babel as‐ sumes an important position since it fulfils the condition ne‐ cessary to make the continued survival of creation possible,
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namely, that of the scattering of the peoples (Brueggemann 1983: 98). The story of Babel teaches important lessons on the relationship between unity and diversity. This story suggests that there are different forms of unity and connection, just as there are different forms of diversity and scattering. Unity in itself is not the goal of creation, just as God does not intend diversity and scattering in themselves. Both unity and diversity can be signs of disobedience to God. Unity and diversity, connectedness and scattering must be qualified, and the story of Babel helps to make this clear. God objects to a unity that ends in a homogeneity or a self‐ involved unity that opposes heterogeneity. Babel relates that human intention is directed toward such a self‐involved and self‐sufficient unity. People want to make a name for them‐ selves: “This is a self‐made unity in which humanity has a for‐ tress mentality. It seeks to survive by its own resources” (Brueggemann 1983: 100). There is no room for strangeness and otherness. Different authors see an analogy in this unity with the modern struggle for progress, i.e. one closed technological striving by people that they realize as “we.” This is, indeed, a possibly contemporizing reading, but it is not necessary to con‐ nect such homogenizing tendencies to socio‐political enter‐ prises. The striving for unity can also be found in all human at‐ tempts to form one cultural and/or religious unity that does not allow itself to be disrupted. “The unity of humankind that is achieved at the expense of its cultural diversity is not pleasing to God” (Neckebrouck 2001: 19). This also means that the linguistic and cultural diversity belongs to the human condition, which is blessed by God. Cul‐ ture and language are not “additional” to humanity. It is a universal constitutive characteristic of being human as such. The human being is a human being only via the ap‐ propriation of a culture. He is dependent on culture both for his genesis and for his continued existence as a species and as an individual. (Neckebrouck 2001: 17)
Both linguistic and cultural diversity are willed and blessed by God (Redemptoris Missio §55). Roman Catholicism expresses this idea by the term inculturation. No culture is privileged. The church has understood its mission from the beginning in such a
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way that it must be possible for each people to understand the Christian message in its own language (Acts 2:11). This explains the choice for translation and inculturation. b) The Origin of the Word: The Adventure of Babel Not only does the story of Babel tell the story of God’s blessing of the scattering of the peoples and cultural diversity, but it can also be read as a story about the plurality of languages. How can the Babelian confusion of languages be understood as a blessing against the background of the lost linguistic unity? That blessing cannot consist in there being no linguistic barriers in communication. Nor can it mean that dialogue between the different linguistic communities is a matter of course. But in what does the blessing of Babel consist, taking into account the experience that communication between people who speak dif‐ ferent languages is far from easy? To answer this question, let us return once more to the story itself. This time the Jewish Talmudic scholar André Ne‐ her4 will be our guide (Neher 1981). His reading of the Babel narrative is especially interesting because, according to him, Ba‐ bel does not mean the end of communication but rather its be‐ ginning. Neher’s point of departure is the observation that there is no successful dialogue in the first ten chapters of Genesis. As a consequence, the confusion of languages at Babel cannot mean the end of dialogue: there was, after all, no successful dialogue to speak of before Babel. Indeed, dialogue became possible only after speech was liberated by the confusion at Babel. Neher’s reading of the story of Babel entails, in other words, a reversal of the classical interpretation. This somewhat unconventional hermeneutic will throw important new light on the cultural‐ linguistic hypothesis that the plurality of religious languages spells the end of interreligious dialogue. So let us reread the story once more in view of communication and dialogue. One of the most important words in the Bible is the He‐ brew word dabar. This word has a number of meanings, includ‐ ing but not limited to “speak,“ “word,“ “thing,“ “fact,“ “object,“ “revelation,“ “command,“ “message,“ and “promise.“ Neher 4
André Neher (1914‐1988), Jewish scholar, philosopher, and writer. He was professor of Hebrew and Hebrew literature at the University of Strasbourg and wrote several books on the Torah, the Talmud, the Mid‐ rash, and the Prophets.
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notes correctly that this important word does not appear in the first ten chapters of Genesis. The Hebrew dabar arrives on the biblical scene only in the first verse of the eleventh chapter: “Now the whole earth had one language ...” (Genesis 11:1). This observation is surprising. Does it mean that God did not speak in the first ten chapters of Genesis? Does it mean that people said nothing and did nothing before the story of Babel? No. The issue is a little more complicated. According to Neher, God did indeed speak, but not words (devarim). He did create, but not things (devarim). In the first ten chapters of Genesis we find only stammering and stuttering, an initial, hesitant, and waver‐ ing start that leads to nothing, an embryonic attempt that fails. The first ten chapters of Genesis tell the story of the “failure of the word” (Neher 1981: 96). The reason for this “failure,” ac‐ cording to Neher, is connected to the failure of dialogue. In the first eleven chapters of Genesis, the word is prevented from bearing its full, natural fruit: dialogue. Neither vertical dialogue between God and human beings nor horizontal communication between people was successful. Communication became stuck in a monologue. This failure of communication between people is apparent in three stories: Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, and Noah and the Ark (Neher 1981: 96). Let us look at some of these narratives from this perspective. The first human couple, Adam and Eve, do not succeed in communicating with each other. They simply talk past each other. The only verse where one might actually be able to speak of a dialogue between them is Genesis 2:23 where it states, “The man said, ‘This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called “woman,” for she was taken out of man’.” One cannot, however, really call this passage a dialogue. It is a monologue “wavering between the first person and the third person, oblivious of the second person, the ‘thou’ and the ad‐ dress, which are the sole foundation of dialogue” (Neher 1981: 96). Eve also speaks only in monologues, first when Cain is born (Genesis 4:1) and then when Seth is born (Genesis 4:25). There is no I‐thou conversation. Neher notes that Eve is well aware of the techniques involved in dialogue, (only its technique not its essence, for she does not reply in the second person, answering her interlocutor directly), but
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The failure of horizontal dialogue continues with Cain. Here the silence is deafening, even frightening. Abel says no‐ thing and remains silent during the entire dramatic course of events. Cain, on the other hand, speaks a great deal, but there is absolutely no dialogue between the two brothers. Cain does, of course, begin something that resembles a conversation. Literally translated, “Cain said to his brother Abel.”5 In the Hebrew text, Cain’s speech has no content. The fact that no mention is made of the content is significant, for it indicates the emptiness and lack of content in the relationship between Cain and Abel. What follows these strange opening lines is well known: “And while they were in the field, Cain attacked his brother Abel and killed him” (Genesis 4:8). According to Neher, it is as if the obliteration of the dialogue were the cause of the murder. Because the brothers, like the parents, were in‐ capable of inventing the dialogue, they invented something else, a substitute for the missing word: death, which ap‐ pears here for the first time explicitly in the text. (Neher 1981: 97)
It is not only the dialogue between people that fails but also the vertical dialogue between God and human beings. Here, too, there is no exhange, no word and response. The hu‐ man being hides from God, takes shelter in lies, resists, or re‐ mains silent. Human beings lack responsibility, i.e., the ability to respond. This is evident again in the creation stories. In the creation narrative, following the creation of Adam, God ad‐ dresses humans and blesses them: “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground” (Genesis 1:28). They do not respond. The same silence occurs in the Garden when God forbids Adam to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Adam gives absolutely no indication that he is even interested.
wy’mr qyn ‘l‐hbl ‘hyn.
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In response to the law he can express nothing, say nothing. It is not he who would invent the hineini, the ‘here I am!’ which Abraham, Moses, and the Jewish people were to enunciate in order to enter with God into the dialogue of the mitzvah and the torah. (Neher 1981: 99)
With Cain, the silence extends even further. The Lord asks Cain why he is so angry, but Cain does not answer. Instead of beginning the vertical dialogue by formulating an answer, Cain speaks horizontally to Abel, with the well‐known dramatic course of events that follows: Cain murders his brother. Neher calls the third moment of silence the most scandal‐ ous. Noah, who is the replacement for humanity and is chosen by God because of his righteousness, is just as unsuccessful as Adam and Cain in formulating a meaningful answer to what God says to him. God speaks to Noah several times. He an‐ nounces the Flood, gives Noah the task of building the ark (Genesis 6:13‐22), tells him about the final preparations and in‐ forms him as to when the Flood will come (Genesis 7:1‐5), tells him when he and his family can leave the ark (Genesis 8:16‐17), gives Noah his blessing, promulgates a new law (Genesis 9:1‐7), and establishes a covenant with him (Genesis 9:8‐17). But Noah never says anything to God. According to Neher, Noah’s si‐ lence is an expression of an indifference that arises out of self‐ involvement (Neher 1981: 103). Creation is turned in on itself. Then, in Genesis 11:1, “the word” (dabar) finally appears. But this appearance of the word dabar still does not spell the triumph of the word. After all, the Hebrew shows that the de‐ varim spoken of in this story are ahadim, “which teaches us the surprising lesson that the devarim were ‘closed’” (Neher 1981: 95). The words have not yet been able to become spoken words or speech; they are self‐absorbed. They are open neither to transcendence nor to otherness. The reason for this is that the word has no chance because the builders are so focused on things. In other words, in the story of Babel, the thing dimen‐ sion of dabar smothers its word dimension. The language of the builders of the tower is an efficient language that seeks to facilitate immediate comprehension; there is no discussion or interpretation necessary. The builders know precisely what is expected of them. They all rally behind a common goal, which gives them a clear sense of belonging
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and identity. But in this instrumental striving for unity the word is suffocated: The word has become an economic unity, not of a qualita‐ tive economy which knows the price of the word and wishes to pronounce it worthwhile, but of a quantitative economy which dispenses words according to their efficacy and the mechanical requirements of their use. (Neher 1981: 105‐06)
This praise of economic instrumentality smothers individuality, difference, and transcendence. The nation of Babel is focused entirely on itself; the world of Babel is a world of anonymity. We see that the people express themselves in the first person plural, in an encouraging way: “Let us ….” Here, too, there is no dialogue. Instead, there is demagogy. The collective speaks; there is no room for individuality. All the people can do in the context of demagogy is listen and obey (Neher 1981: 98). The I‐ thou of dialogue still has to develop. With Neher, we can conclude that the situation before Ba‐ bel was not one of a perfect language and perfect communica‐ tion. On the contrary, time and again it becomes clearer that this is not about a genuine dialogical communication, but about a pure self‐ talk, pure redundancy. The successive exhortations (nine times) make the means of unhindered communication clear. Nevertheless, communication in pure consensus means the death of communication, because if everybody agrees about everything, what is left for one to talk about. (Berges 1994: 44)
The language of the tower‐builders is so closed that it ex‐ cludes the possibility of dialogue. The dialogue of Babel is a col‐ lective monologue (Ebach 2001: 29). There is no successful dia‐ logue, only the totalitarian demagogy of a nation immersed in itself. Through the closedness of the word, the discourse of unity results only in an egocentric image of the builders of the tower. The tower does not reach God but bends back towards the human being. The language forms a closed circle. As long as the language is closed and self‐absorbed, the people are also self‐centered and not in a position to attain or to refer to trans‐ cendence. As long as the language is no more than self‐reflec‐
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tion, it can never, for example, refer to God as living reality, be‐ cause God is never in the world in the same way that things are. This is also expressed in the fact that people want to make a name for themselves. But, as the rest of Genesis teaches us, it is in the name that people do not give to themselves that they find blessing (Genesis 12:2). God promises to bless Abraham and to make his name great. Abraham does not make a name for himself but is blessed in the name that he receives from God. It is not self‐involvement but the heteronomy that comes from outside that saves (Ebach 2000: 264). And so there is need of an agent who will break through the tower builders’ collective and establish difference. God does so by breaching the instrumental language. It sufficed for God to break the insulation—like a strong draft bursting into a hothouse—for the word of the outside kingdoms to confuse the system and put it out of order. No word, henceforth, was any longer intelligible, for, in the face of an impersonalized humanity, man arose once more in his inalienable otherness. The confusion of the tongues had re‐ opened the word to diversified meanings; the word had de‐ tached itself from the thing. (Neher: 1981 113)
In other words, God breaks the suffocating connection be‐ tween “the thing and the word.” He creates a “breach” between words and things. Words and things no longer coincide, and the polysemy of words arises: “the feature by which words in natural languages have more than one meaning” (Thompson 1981: 11). Yet this breach, which is generally referred to as “the confusion of tongues,” does not mean the end of communica‐ tion but, indeed, its beginning. Language becomes creative when words lose their immediacy, transparency, and univo‐ cality. This breach gives rise to subtle and sensitive conversa‐ tions, to the plurality of meanings, to nuances, poetry, creativ‐ ity, and individuality. Here room is made for otherness and transcendence. Only then does a language come into being that can refer to God and allow human beings to talk about God. For God does not coincide with the world of things. God cannot be locked up in an instrumental language that can only talk about things that can be grasped. To bring up God requires a lang‐ uage other than instrumental language. It requires a symbolic and poetic language that can never be exhausted.
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By breaching the immediate transparency, space is created not only for talk about God but also for dialogue between God and human beings, a dialogue that begins with God and Abra‐ ham. And so it happens that Abraham, who received his name from God, calls his wife by her name (Genesis 12:11), and, like‐ wise, his nephew Lot (Genesis 13:8).6 Abraham breaks through the silence of the word. The scattering and the confusion of Babel mark the transition to the salvation history that begins with Abraham. The history of God and Israel can begin only when all the peoples have been scattered and language has been confused. At Babel the movement is from world unity to scattering; with Abraham/Israel the movement is from a scattering to world unity. The scattering at Babel is the scenario as it ex‐ isted before the gathering that begins with the call of Abra‐ ham (Genesis 12:1‐3). (Berges 1994: 53‐54)
From this perspective, God’s intervention in Babel is a continu‐ ation of the creation project that he began in Genesis 1‐2: crea‐ tion as separation. God wants to bless his creation, not curse it. The Lord had said to Abram, “Leave your country, your people and your father’s household and go to the land I will show you. I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you.” (Genesis 12:1‐3)
Babel and the Blessing of Intralinguistic Breach One could still conclude that a dialogue between different ling‐ uistic communities is not possible. Perhaps there is now simply a plurality of linguistic communities that exist alongside one an‐ other. Perhaps there are now simply many different cultural peoples with different languages who have spread out over the 6 Even though Abraham had discovered dialogue, this does not yet mean that he has mastered this skill. The dialogue proceeds with dif‐ ficulty. Catherine Chalier notes in this regard, for example, that Abraham addresses his wife Sarah as you, but that she is still the object of what he says: “I know what a beautiful woman you are” (Genesis 12:11). Sarah only speaks to Abraham in Genesis 16:2. Cf. Chalier 1987: 14‐59.
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whole earth. Each community having a perfect language of unity, that allows mutual consensus and makes internal dialogue possible. There is interlinguistic dissensus, but there is also con‐ intralinguistic consensus. This reading would actually confirm the cultural‐linguistic model. There are two reasons why we do not endorse this inter‐ pretation. First, the idea that the Babelian dispersion divided humankind into linguistic communities closed to one another does not take God’s intentions for creation sufficiently serious‐ ly. As stated above, a balance between unity and diversity is sought with respect to creation theology. Splintering human‐ kind into a plurality of languages of unity focuses one‐sidedly on diversity, and both the creatural and eschatological connec‐ tedness are lost from view. Second, the most important idea of the reading developed above is the problematization of the self‐involved, closed lang‐ uage of unity that removes, ignores, or denies everything that is strange. God’s act in the story of Babel is directed against a non‐ referential view. For a language that is not referential is also closed to the transcendence of God. Babel is God’s answer to the closedness of the language of unity. And this answer is not simply linguistic plurality but also the fact that God makes a “breach” in language. “The blessing of Babel is renouncing the unique language that denies the differences” (Jervolino 2000: 90). The dispersion of languages is thus not a process that splin‐ ters the “original language of unity” into individual “perfect languages of unity”; this dispersion is also continued within the different languages. The “breach” that God makes in the “mon‐ ological language of unity” is a “breach” that is also continued within the different languages. This breach means the begin‐ ning of polysemy of language, and this polysemy means: “It is always possible to say the same thing in another way” (Ricoeur 2006: 25). Important here is the notion that each linguistic commun‐ ity is a dialogue community, precisely because the “breach” makes a concluding attribution of meaning impossible. There is no unanimity on the meaning of certain expressions, practices, rituals, and beliefs that are or are not shared within the com‐ munity. The dialogue is kept in motion by something on which the participants do not fully agree or which they cannot fully
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express verbally. In every language there is an unsaid, some‐ thing which escapes. That which is strange establishes the dia‐ logical community and means that the community must con‐ stantly begin anew. There is never, perhaps, a complete or exact understanding. That would, for that matter, mean the end of dialogue. Within the linguistic community we also have to do with the mystery of the unfindable identical meaning (Ricoeur 2006: 2). This theological reading is also confirmed by philosophy. Babel establishes a loss of immediacy, as a result of which words are no longer fixed or stuck to things. “This movement— establishing an irreducible loss and the impossibility of neutral‐ izing this loss—belongs to the internal structure of language” (Moyaert 1976: 444). The Babelian aspect introduces a strange‐ ness into language. The break with immediacy is the condition of possibility for the manifestation of meaning. There is an open space within the language where meaning can appear. That break, that breach, that open space should not be understood in a privative way as a lack or a shortcoming that can or must be filled in. The breach forms the basic structure of language. “Language is supported by an absence that cannot be filled up” (Moyaert 1976: 443). Only in that way does language receive life. The message of Babel is that the breach is a blessing, i.e. hu‐ man beings are to keep the breach open. “Language revolves around an emptiness, its movement is infinite because that which must be said can never be completely said” (Moyaert 1976: 445). With a view to the analogy between religion and language, this implies an important correction of the reifying discourse on language and religion in the cultural‐linguistic theory of reli‐ gion. If religion is understood as analogous to language, this does not in any way mean that religions are closed semiotic sys‐ tems. Theologically, we suggest that the Christian faith com‐ munity testifies to the living transcendent God, who reveals himself in creation and has revealed himself in Jesus Christ. But this always means testifying to the fact that God never expresses himself completely on the one hand and that God can never be completely expressed and grasped on the other. The Word of God is not the same as the word of God.
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Building further on the idea of the “breach” in language, we hold that the Christian tradition must also remain conscious of that breach, which forces it to step outside of itself and to search for traces of God in the whole of creation. The moment that Christian religion closes the breach it closes itself off from God. Then faith commitment becomes faithfulness to the gram‐ matical doctrinal rules. Just like language, the Christian religion must also recognize the strange in its own tradition. This strange is found not only between the different religions but also within each religion. The extent to which each religion succeeds in giving a place to the strange in itself will be determinative for its rela‐ tionship to strange others. The moment religion places the strange one‐sidedly outside itself the breach in religious lang‐ uage is sealed and dialogue stops—not only between the reli‐ gions but also within the religious community. Unlike the cul‐ tural‐linguistic model, the Babelian analogy between religion and language holds that the dialogue is maintained not only through consensus but also through dissensus—within and be‐ tween religions. The analogy between language and religion is retained but dynamized. Linguistic Hospitality After Babel, the primordial history turns into salvation history. From that perspective, Babel is not an end but a beginning (Henaff 2006: 69). The question now is: What are human beings to do after Babel? What does God want from human beings in this context of plurality? What task does the myth of Babel en‐ tail? God has in mind a unity for his creation that leaves room for diversity, and a diversity that does not lose sight of connec‐ tedness. With a view to this creaturely connectedness, linguistic plurality does not divide peoples in an insurmountable way. The answer to Babel is thus not withdrawing into the closed‐ ness of one’s own symbolic linguistic community. Nor does the story of Babel speak of a language of unity that forms the common ground or frame of reference for the different lang‐ uages. The search for the Ursprache or the development of Esper‐ anto is not the appropriate answer to God’s intervention. But what are human beings then to do after Babel?
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In light of linguistic plurality we propose that translation is the appropriate answer. In this respect as well we will continue with the analogy between language and religion, for translation concerns both natural languages and religious languages. We thus draw the opposite conclusion than the cultural‐linguistic model does, which argues for the untranslatability of religions. Because the question of the possibility of “translation” be‐ tween religions is a crucial point with respect to interreligious dialogue, we will first briefly recapitulate below what precisely is understood by translation. We will then investigate the cult‐ ural‐linguistic rejection of translation and specifically the idea that translation always entails loss of meaning. On the one hand, we will confirm the inevitability of the loss of meaning in translation but will argue on the other that much more is lost in the refusal to translate than in the translation itself. The Model of Translation Within the cultural‐linguistic theory translation is a model for the hermeneutical process that consists both in the explanation of one’s own religious language to “others” and in the “inter‐ pretation of the religious language” of others. Lindbeck’s an‐ alogy between translation and hermeneutics is not original.7 Thinkers like Schleiermacher, Gadamer, and Dilthey also took translation as the model for hermeneutics (Ricoeur 1989: 145). The analogy between translation and interpretation is that both attempt to say the same thing in different ways and thus to unlock the meaning of what is said. Just as in translation, it is the task of hermeneutics to mediate between the familiar and the strange on the one hand and to make the transfer of mean‐ ing possible on the other. The phrases “hermeneutical translata‐ bility,” “translation of religious languages,” or “the untranslata‐ bility of religions” are used to express the analogy. Translation in the context of interreligious dialogue means explaining, clarifying, and elucidating particular religious mean‐ ings by searching for correlations and possible analogies be‐ tween the strange and the familiar language. In the process of 7
In his article “Hermeneutics” in Die Religion und Gegenwart Ger‐ hard Ebeling indicates three layers of meaning of the Greek hermeneuein. Ebeling speaks not only of aussagen (ausdrucken) (expressing) and auslegen (erklären) (explaining) but also of übersetzen (translating). Cf. Ebeling 1959: col. 242‐62, esp. 243.
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translating it is important to not simply remove and abstract words, actions, practices, and doctrines out of their context but to reflect precisely on the way in which practices, doctrines, and actions are embedded in the broader field of religious meaning. Bearing the particularity of religions in mind, translation re‐ quires digging deeper underneath the prima facie similarities and differences to the rich and complex world of meaning that lies behind words, expressions, and practices, in the full un‐ derstanding that it will perhaps never be possible to explain those complex fields of religious meaning completely to “out‐ siders.” Interreligious dialogue resembles translation between languages in this respect as well. Translation in the context of interreligious dialogue, how‐ ever, is not that different from what Christians have always done in their relationships with non‐believers, adversaries, in‐ terested parties, children, novices, etc. Explaining one’s own faith by searching for points of contact in the world in which people live (the miracle of birth, God as Father, the love of Mother Mary, the church as a body, sin as a stain, etc.) is every‐ day practice in the communication of faith. For example, spe‐ cific Christian practices like blessing or the reverence of images can be explained by reference to activities performed by non‐ Christians (burning a candle near a photo of a deceased relative or friend, sleeping with the teddy bear of a child who has died, etc.). The Christian tradition always has to be told differently and thus translated in relation to the audience. The problem of interreligious dialogue is thus, in a certain sense, not a unique problem. That being said, interreligious dialogue does require a great deal of creativity, and not every translation is successful. Each topic and each public demands a different translation. This seems obvious perhaps, but in light of the challenge of the cultural‐linguistic model it is not unimportant to emphasize this somewhat trivial idea. This too is a way of removing the fuse from the interreligious powder keg. Religion must be explained to many groups—that has always been so. The other religions that are now part of our pluralist society also face the challenge of explaining their language of faith to adherents of other reli‐ gions and worldviews. But translation is not only directed toward “outsiders”; it is also directed toward insiders. The message must always be told
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differently to Christians as well. The Christian narrative is con‐ tinually in search of recontextualization and actualization. Only in that way can the Gospel touch the hearts of people. Again, this does not entail an uncritical affirmation of culture, context, and world. The attitude of the church to the world is one of confirmation and critique (and we are not forgetting that the church as well is to be critiqued by the world). The translation of the Gospel happens in a movement of correlation and anti‐ correlation, connection and critique, continuity and discon‐ tinuity. On Loss of Meaning The cultural‐linguistic model associates translation with loss of meaning. This is not incorrect. Lindbeck does have a point when he argues that something gets lost in the attempt to trans‐ late religious meanings into another idiom. To understand this loss of meaning better, we will distinguish between strongly and weakly embodied meanings. The danger of loss of meaning occurs with strongly embodied meanings. In the case of weakly embodied meanings the connection between signs and the signified is loose. These are meanings that are not fixed to embodiment in specific, unchanging signs. One could think here, for example, of mathematics (Courtois 2002: 218‐19). It is very different with respect to the strongly embodied meanings. One could also speak here of “incarnated meanings” or of the incarnation of meaning. Over against the weakly incarnated meanings of mathemat‐ ics are the strongly incarnated meanings of the poetic, the sacred or the ceremonial. What a poet wants to express can be separated only to a limited degree from the way in which the language—a specific language—is used. That is why poems are more difficult to translate than scientific explana‐ tions. [Religious] meanings are also strongly incarnated, i.e. profoundly interwoven with well‐defined words, tradi‐ tional formulas, or material symbols. That is the reason why the irreverent use of holy names themselves can already be viewed as blasphemous behaviour. (Burms and De Dijn 1995: 35)
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Strongly embodied meanings cannot exist apart from their embodiment in the context in which they are experienced. The medium is constitutive for the content; it makes a certain content possible and indicates meaning in a particular way. Moreover, this embodiment gives these meanings their evocative charac‐ ter. The greater the evocative character the more difficult it is to separate that meaning from its actual embodied meaning. “Without that ‘flesh’ the values cannot exist and will lose sig‐ nificance” (Van Leeuwen 2003: 209). This is certainly also the case for religious meanings. The idea that the transcendent is incarnated in the imman‐ ent confirms our criticism of the expressivist theory of religion. The performance, the words, the name … are not the house in which the transcendent finds a temporary accommoda‐ tion, not the incarnating envelope that is simply wrapped around the incarnatum, as the body is to the soul. They are neither sign nor expression nor supplement; they sign‐ify, in‐form, im‐press themselves … they produce that which one would be mistaken to think they only serve to supple‐ ment. (Visker 2004: 138)
However, incarnation also means that the transcendent cannot be swallowed up by the immanent. Though the transcendent needs the flesh to express itself, it cannot be reduced to it. Strongly embodied meanings are vulnerable to loss of meaning and contamination. When the external/the form/the material in which the meaning is embodied, changes, its mean‐ ing alters and something is lost. That is why we can say that ev‐ erything of value is vulnerable (Lucebert). Precisely because the meaning of certain words and stories is so tightly interwoven with specific external signs, these signs can also begin to lead their own lives and initiate un‐ foreseen connections with other signs that do not initially seem to be able to be united with them. Thus, certain words can lose the sense they originally had for the users. They can evoke something else through relationships with other bearers of meaning, or produce associations that were not previously present. Because there is no independent content, the connotation of words changes as soon as they are placed in a different context. (Van Leeuwen 2003: 92)
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Willy‐nilly, contexts of embodied incarnations come into contact with one another, clash or combine, change meanings, shift, etc. Contexts disturb one another and become confused. Meanings in one field (such as science) penetrate another (e.g. religion) and play havoc with everything there, or meanings within one construction cross one another and cause one another to deviate from their paths, the intended point to become lost. (Courtois 2002: 5)
The swastika is a very significant example. In various Eastern cultures it represents power, energy, strength, and movement. In Japan it stands for protection against evil and for good for‐ tune. It is often found on images of the Buddha, for example. In the West, however, the clockwise swastika is a symbol of fas‐ cism and neo‐Nazism. An originally positive symbol has be‐ come contaminated: it does not evoke the association of good fortune but of violence and oppression. The possibility of loss of meaning, however, points to the fact that languages, cultures, and religions are not monolithic blocks existing alongside one another. Rather, they are open, porous, and dynamic. Languages, cultures, religions are in con‐ stant movement and are also constantly involved in a process of acquiring different meanings. This is also the case in the process of translation, which af‐ fects the original embodiment of meaning. Steiner speaks in this regard of the violent nature of translation. The translator in‐ vades, extracts, and brings home. Not only does he break the original embodiment of meaning, but he follows up on his ag‐ gression by proposing “another” embodiment. But this process is not without risk. Not only is something of the original always lost in the translation, it is also possible that the translation of a text into another language evokes connotations that adversely affect the original meaning constellation. The same danger ob‐ tains for interreligious translations. Lindbeck is thus correct when he states that translation en‐ tails the risk of loss. It is also correct that this can bring about alienation: that which once sounded familiar can become strange. However, we think that Lindbeck associates translation too one‐sidedly with loss of meaning. Translation is also a way of giving new life to one’s own religious tradition.
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The “Gain” of Translation Theologically, the most important question is: When is the loss the greatest—when the Christian tradition is translated and brought into the public sphere or when its particularity is pro‐ tected from the danger of loss of meaning by abandoning the public aspect of theology? On the basis of the criticism devel‐ oped above, we will argue that the cultural‐linguistic model loses sight of an essential dimension of Christian faith precisely in its urge to protect it, i.e. the ad extra calling of the church that consists in, among other things, explaining the Christian faith to “outsiders” (Heyer 2004: 307‐27). And this does not mean, of course, that translation can completely reveal the meaning of what it means to be a Christian and to devote oneself to the Trinitarian God. And, of course, something is lost of the particularity of the Christian tradition in this search for points of contact and bridge‐building. Finding correlations can never replace the depth of a religion. And, of course, being a Christian cannot be linked with being human without further ado. Not all contextual experiences are of value for the Christian faith, and there are a number of experiences that are not compatible with the Christian faith. The church must, of course, have a critical attitude toward the world, and the qualitative distinction between the inside and outside per‐ spective must not be lost to view. But all these objections do not detract from the fact that the search for points of contact with the “world outside” is theologically valuable and that something very important is lost in protecting the particularity of the Christian faith from the “world outside,” i.e. the ability of the Christian tradition to engage in dialogue with the world, God’s creation (Eckerstorfer 2001: 56). Translation is obeying God’s in‐ tentions for creation. The theological “gain” of translation is greater than the in‐ evitable loss that translation entails. Translation acknowledges the diversity on the one hand but denies, on the other hand, that this diversity divides the different communities from one another. Translation is a matter of moving between the strange and the familiar, between the particular and the universal, be‐ tween diversity and unity. From a theological perspective, translation is the preeminent recognition of the fact that the par‐ ticularity of the Christian identity can never be safeguarded by
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establishing and promoting closed symbolic communities. The moment that untranslatability and intratextuality become the only means of protecting and defending Christian particularity the Christian tradition and the faith community have already lost the battle, for the particularity of Christianity consists precisely in striving for a connection between God and human beings and between human beings. That is why we will argue in what follows for a positive valuation of translation. The type of translation that interests us more concerns the “broad” view of translation as a model for the hermeneutical process and particularly interreligious translation/hermeneut‐ ics. But instead of turning immediately to the question of inter‐ religious hermeneutics, we will first look at the “narrow” view of translation, i.e. translation between natural languages. The fact that the model of translation serves as a model for hermen‐ eutics means, after all, that thorough reflection on the chal‐ lenges, possibilities, and difficulties of translation can also throw light on the hermeneutical process. Reflecting on ling‐ uistic translation can clarify the relationships between different cultures and religions of which it is thought a priori that they cannot communicate with one another. In this context Paul Ricoeur is our obvious discussion part‐ ner, given that he argues that the only way to deal with the plurality of religious languages consists precisely in “transla‐ tion” viewed as a model for the hermeneutical process. Ricoeur indicates that the model of linguistic hospitality can serve as a model for interreligious dialogue (Ricoeur 2006: 43‐44). The Model of Linguistic Hospitality Ricoeur’s view of language is different from the cultural‐ling‐ uistic view. He considers language to be like a verbal body through which the human being opens himself up to the world “outside” his body. Language is not a place of closure and re‐ treat; rather, it constitutes the always finite anthropological commitment to the world. A person’s mother tongue does not lock him or her in an exclusive ethnic belonging but potentially opens them to the whole of humanity (Ricoeur 1986: 19). Via our mother tongue we learn other languages and become acquainted with other cultures (Ricoeur 1998a: 169). Right from the start language entails an involvement with that which is outside. Here we encounter the referential capac‐
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ity of language. This capacity is exercised whenever language becomes discourse. Language is then not considered to be a mere combination of grammar and vocabulary but more of a com‐ municative process. Here language finds its purpose. In this context Ricoeur remarks that people speak the language, not language people. In Ricoeur’s view of language the subject does not disappear. In On Translation (2006) Ricoeur takes up the enigma of linguistic diversity and the question of the (un)translatability of languages. He has an eye for both “great difficulties” and for the “small happiness” of the translation. Ricoeur searches for a “recognition of the heterogeneous without remaining stuck in the problematic” (Hettema 2004: 59). A first important step in this undertaking is the search for a substitute for what Ricoeur calls the theoretically paralyzing alternative between translata‐ bility and untranslatability. a) On (Un)Translatability, Relativism, and Universalism Linguistic diversity is a strange given that gave rise not only to the myth of Babel but also to a number of theories that reflect on the question of what precisely makes translation possible. These theories confirm two opposite tendencies, i.e. universal‐ ism on the one hand and relativism on the other. This opposi‐ tion ends in a paralyzing alternative. Either the diversity is rad‐ ical and translation is a priori not possible. Or one starts from the fact that translation happens in practice and this fact is ex‐ plained on the basis of the hypothesis of common linguistic structures. But people are then also obliged to show what the common linguistic structures are. Until now that has not been successful (Ricoeur 2006: 13‐14). This failure is seen by the rela‐ tivists as further support for their rejection of translation. The debate between universalism and relativism, and thus between translatability and untranslatability, seems endless and has borne little fruit. This is precisely why Ricoeur dis‐ tances himself from the discussion and follows a more prag‐ matic approach. Perhaps translation is theoretically impossible, but the practice of it continues unabatedly. Therefore, theory has to listen to practice. Reality teaches that there is enormous linguistic diversity in our world and that translation presents itself as the answer to this given. The experience shows that it is
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possible to understand foreign speakers, to learn different lang‐ uages, and to start a translation process. But if translation is possible in practice, what is the reason for the ever‐recurring discourse on untranslatability? According to Ricoeur, statements concerning the impossibility of transla‐ tion—irrespective of whether natural or “religious” languages are the subject of discussion—express the real obstacles a trans‐ lator encounters. A translator is a go‐between, constantly moving between the familiar and the strange. She serves two masters: the foreigner with his written work and the reader with her de‐ sire for appropriation, dwelling in the same “familiar” language as the translator (Ricoeur 2006: 4). The translator must bring the author to the reader and the reader to the author. Thus, trans‐ lation is a constant mediation between the strange and the fa‐ miliar. This mediation is far from self‐evident, and the trans‐ lator runs into obstacles that stem mostly from a desire for per‐ fection and purity. These obstacles are present on the side of the reader (familiar language) and on the side of the author (foreign language). The obstacles on the side of the reader relate to a strong desire to sacralize a mother tongue nervous of losing its own iden‐ tity. The refusal to translate equals the refusal to recognize what is strange as a challenge and a source of nourishment for one’s own “linguistic identity.” One sets out to keep one’s own lang‐ uage pure. This self‐sufficiency has secretly nourished “numer‐ ous linguistic ethnocentrisms, and more seriously, numerous pretensions to the same cultural hegemony” (Ricoeur 2006: 4). The obstacles on the side of the foreign language flow especially from a certain conceitedness: the foreign language is so exceptional that it is untranslatable. The strange is thus pre‐ sented as a “lifeless block of resistance to translation” (Ricoeur 2006: 5). This claim of untranslatability shows what Ricoeur calls the banal insight “that the original will not be duplicated by another original” (Ricoeur 2006: 5). The desire for a perfect translation is an illusion. Translation can never result in an iden‐ tical equivalence because there is no reservoir of meaning that can be pulled out of one context and inserted into another with‐ out changes in meaning. However, “to dismiss the validity of translation because it is … never perfect is absurd” (Steiner 1975: 134).
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Translation becomes possible only when the translator both recognizes and overcomes these obstacles. Thus, transla‐ tion has to be won on the battlefield of a secret resistance motivated by fear, indeed, by hatred of the foreign, perceived as a threat against our own linguistic identity. And it implies a labour of mourning, applied to renouncing the very ideal of the perfect translation. (Ricoeur 2006: 23; emphasis his)
Only when the translator succeeds in acknowledging this irre‐ movable gap or fissure between the familiar and the foreign, without inflating it into “ethnocentric fatalism,” will the road be made clear for the happiness of translation. This happiness ex‐ ists in “equivalence without identity” (Ricoeur 2006: 35). b) Faithfulness and Betrayal Over against the theoretical contradistinction between translat‐ ability and untranslatability Ricoeur places the pragmatic ten‐ sion between faithfulness and betrayal. This tension corre‐ sponds with the somewhat uncomfortable situation of the translator who serves two masters: the foreign and the familiar. The translator makes a vow of faithfulness and lives constantly with the risk of betrayal. Berman, an important inspirational source for Ricoeur, explains this situation as follows: If the translator chooses exclusively the author, the work and the foreign language as master with the ambition of en‐ forcing them in their pure strangeness to his own familiar cultural space, then the translator runs the risk of coming over as a stranger and a traitor in the eyes of his own lang‐ uage. Moreover, it is not sure, that this radical attempt does not emerge into a text, bordering on the incomprehensible. If the translator limits himself to simply adapting the stranger’s work, then he will have probably succeeded in satisfying his not so demanding public, but he will also have betrayed the strange work and obviously also the es‐ sence of translation. (Berman 1985: 14)
It is well known that translators often feel the need to apol‐ ogize for their translation. In a sense, they mourn over what is lost in their translation. They feel guilty because of the way they have “violated” the foreign or the familiar and feel ashamed for
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their betrayal despite their promise of faithfulness. All of these “negative” feelings actually reveal a very positive commitment, namely, the translator’s commitment to faithfulness. The only reason why the translator feels sadness and guilt is because he is called to be faithful to both the familiar and of the foreign but at the same knows that betrayal is inevitable. For this rather awkward situation there is no solution. That is why it is appropriate to designate the space between the fam‐ iliar and the foreign as fragile. This notion not only refers to the constant tension between betrayal and faithfulness but also as‐ sumes the concrete practice of translation in which the translat‐ or has to come to terms with the fact that there are no absolute criteria by which to determine a “good translation.” There is no original language, no third term and no common ground which enable us to assess in a final way the equivalence of a transla‐ tion. “The equivalence can only be sought, worked at, sup‐ posed” (Ricoeur 2006: 22). Working within this fragile condi‐ tion, the translator accepts, in place of verification, only the task of retranslation (Ricoeur 2006: 10). Viewed in this light, the translator’s exclamation concern‐ ing the untranslatability of the foreign receives a different con‐ notation than within postliberalism. Here the discourse on un‐ translatability becomes a way of expressing the inevitable loss paired with translation and the fear of betrayal toward both the original text and the native tongue. It is a way to give expres‐ sion to the irreducible value of both the foreign and the famil‐ iar. It conveys the recognition that the original cannot be repro‐ duced in translation. It also voices the acceptance of the asym‐ metry between the foreign and the familiar. This acceptance then precisely forms the condition for translation. What is at stake in this exclamation is not an a priori form of untranslata‐ bility but rather the acknowledgement of the untranslatable in every translation. The translation itself reveals what is left be‐ hind: that which cannot be translated. But this untranslatability is not something negative; rather, it is that which keeps the translation going. Thus what drives the foreign and the familiar apart also keeps them driving towards each other. c) Translation as an Ethical Paradigm Both the desire for purity and the fantasy of the perfect transla‐ tion bear witness to an incapacity to recognize the impassable
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difference between the foreign and the familiar. The recognition of the asymmetry between the familiar and the foreign entails the recognition of the non‐interchangeability of both “perspec‐ tives.” To ignore this difference is a form of misrecognition. Following this line of thought, Ricoeur argues for a transla‐ tion ethics, which he names linguistic hospitality, “where the pleasure of dwelling in the other’s language is balanced by the pleasure of receiving the foreign word at home, in one’s own welcoming home” (Ricoeur 2006: 10). It is not possible nor is it desirable to remove the asymmetry between the familiar and the foreign, and it is hence not possible to be ever fully at home in a foreign linguistic context. To accept this impossibility implies a mourning. But this mourning opens the gates of the happiness of translation. In spite of the agonistics that make a drama of the translator’s task, one can find happiness in linguistic hospitality, in which the foreign is hospitably welcomed in the familiar. (Ricoeur 2006: 10)
On the one hand, this linguistic hospitality refuses to inflate the differences between the foreign and the familiar and resists the ethnocentric tendency of good fences make good neighbours. On the other hand, it also objects to each attempt to dominate or absorb the foreign, thereby neutralizing the asymmetrical in‐be‐ tween. For Ricoeur, translation runs counter to the ethnocentric sacralization of one’s own language and by doing so it also res‐ cues language from a lack of oxygen (Ricoeur 2006: 10). To translate means to nourish the familiar with the unknown, and hence to keep the familiar alive. This is the gain of translation. In contrast to Lindbeck, Ricoeur thinks of translation in terms of enrichment. Translation makes it possible to rediscover forgot‐ ten dimensions of one’s own language. For it is always possible that translation reveals a meaning which was concealed in the original language (Berman 1985: 20). Thus translation has the potentiality of opening people to new horizons of meaning (Wilhelm 2004: 772). This model also acknowledges human finitude: it is not possible to fill in the gap between the familiar and the foreign just as it is not possible to transcend one’s own roots and enter a foreign language as a tabula rasa. One’s linguistic horizon is
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always at stake. As a consequence, no two translations are the same. Just as in narration it is always possible to tell the story in a different way, likewise in translation it is always possible to translate otherwise, without ever hoping to bridge the gap between equivalence and perfect adhesion. (Kearney 2006: xvi)
Hermeneutical Openness as Linguistic Hospitality At the start of this chapter we stated that we want to elaborate further on the theological argument for a dialogue that leaves room for particularity. But, in particular, this chapter is in‐ tended to clarify how this hermeneutical openness to the other‐ ness of the other relates to the commitment of religious identity. We have already traveled a long way—a way that first led us away from a reifying discourse about language and religion to a more dynamic view of language that breathes life into the an‐ alogy between language and religion. We also questioned the cultural‐linguistic argument for the untranslatability of reli‐ gions. In this context we suggested that translation that is done between natural languages can be a model for understanding what is at stake in translation in the broad sense. The analogy between language and religion is carried through to the anal‐ ogy between translation and hermeneutics. To understand is to translate (Ricoeur 2006: 11). The analogy between translation and hermeneutics is one of trying to say the same thing in a different way in order to un‐ lock meaning. To translate in the broad meaning of the word is to explain, to clarify, to illuminate particular religious practices, rituals, and doctrines, for example, by connecting them with meanings from a strange idiom. To explain religion is to show something in terms of something else. One has to correlate the foreign and the familiar. In both translation and hermeneutics one finds (1) an expo‐ sure to strangeness, (2) a question concerning understanding and the transfer of meaning, (3) the desire (pulsion) to under‐ stand the other in his or her otherness, (4) the trust that this is possible, (5) the recognition of the asymmetry between the fa‐ miliar and the foreign, (6) the violence of hermeneutics making way for the necessary transfer of meaning, (7) the recognition
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that complete and perfect understanding without something re‐ maining behind is impossible, and (8) the recognition that it is impossible to be ever fully at home in the religious language of the other, which makes way for what we could call hermeneut‐ ical hospitality or openness. Encountering the other in dialogue means just that: dia‐legein, welcoming the difference. In the context of interreligious dialogue, the strangeness to which we are exposed is religious in nature. The religious other wants to be understood, just as we want to unravel the meaning that commits her. By applying the paradigm of translation to in‐ terreligious dialogue, it becomes possible to avoid both the postliberal claim of untranslatability without falling into the trap of the pluralist hypothesis. Let me elaborate further on this idea. Interreligious hermeneutics begins with a confrontation with religious otherness, i.e. that which stands in opposition to what is known and hence questions the naturalness of our own familiar horizon of meaning (Schutz 1972: 59). Precisely because the other withdraws somewhat from our immediate control, she catches our attention. The other makes an appeal that can be experienced both negatively and positively. The other can both disturb and appeal to us, repulse and attract us, disorient us and catch our eye. The reason for this dialectic is the recalci‐ trance of otherness, although, strangely enough, it is a vulnera‐ ble recalcitrance that is at stake: it is always possible to ignore the appeal coming from the other or to reduce the otherness of the other to the same. It is, moreover, also always possible that once a certain meaning appeals to us, we become fanatically or one‐sided‐ ly engrossed by it or become obsessed by one particular in‐ terpretation. Then we lose sight of the richness and great‐ ness of this particular meaning. (Van Bortel 2004: 272‐73)
The fact that this is possible at all points to the vulnerability of the other and hence to the ethical dimension of hermeneutics. In this respect, the appropriate attitude towards the other who wants to be understood is that of hermeneutical openness or hermeneutical hospitality. The religious other wants to be un‐ derstood in his otherness and desires from his dialogue partner the willingness at least to be interrupted by a strangeness that does not meet familiar expectations (Van Leeuwen 2003: 64).
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Hospitality entails being prepared to renounce the tendency to “absorb” the other or to annex him or her to what one knows. The other is not a projection of what is known (Ricoeur 1998b: 191). The basic principle is to not reduce another person, culture or religion to a variation of what the interpreter knows based on his own “form of life.” This principle cannot be overemphasized, since in the interest of making other religions accessible, [interpreters] all too often present them as simply variations on the familiar. They might present another’s religion entirely in the terms, struc‐ tures, and categories familiar to Christians. (Berling 2007: 25)
This hospitable attitude presupposes the trust that there is something that can be understood (Pellauer 2003: 372). This trust is grounded in the more fundamental trust in the reada‐ bility of reality on the one hand and trust in the ability of the fi‐ nite human being to decipher strange meanings on the other. According to hermeneutics, “the other is neither too close nor too far, neither too familiar nor too strange to be understood” (Kearney 2003: 159‐60). Thus, hermeneutics is grounded in an act of faith. Ricoeur expresses this faith as follows “Hope tells me there is meaning: find the meaning” (Ricoeur 1974: 107). While it is true that hermeneutics affirms the possibility of understanding the other in his otherness, this does not mean that complete transparency is either possible or desirable. Just like translation and linguistic hospitality, interreligious hermen‐ eutics too presupposes the recognition of the non‐interchange‐ ability of the familiar and the foreign (Ricoeur 2006: 23). The asymmetry between the familiar and the other is irreducible. A hermeneutics that is intended to bridge the distance between the familiar and the other, without being disturbed, challenged, or interrupted by the other, is suspicious. For one can assume that such a hermeneutics has forgotten the gap, fissure, or asym‐ metry between what is known and what is other. This also means that a hermeneutics that focuses one‐sidedly on the con‐ tinuity and hence on the priority of the commonalities between the other and the familiar and ignores the discontinuity existing between them is problematic. To be challenged, disturbed, and interrupted by the recalcitrant other is not an expression of closedness but, on the contrary, a sign of the readiness to take
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the other seriously in his or her otherness. Hermeneutical closedness is not a matter of misunderstanding the religious other—that is one of the risks of every hermeneutical under‐ taking. Rather, it is much more fundamental and begins with the misrecogniton of the asymmetry between the other and the familiar. Hermeneutical hospitality begins with bearing this asymmetry without inflating it. Just as the perfect translation is illusionary, a complete un‐ derstanding of the religious other is not possible (Vroom 2006: 57‐59). A hermeneutics that starts from the ideal of a complete and perfect understanding can only be disappointed and will inevitably conclude that it is not possible to understand the Other. This, indeed, brings an end to interreligious hermeneutics since the different religions are thereby deemed “untranslatable.” Al‐ though it is true that a complete understanding of the religious other is not possible, this should not signal a quick end to at‐ tempts to understand the other, for there are gradations in un‐ derstanding (Edmondson 2003: 45‐80). There is understanding more or less, but, in any case, every understanding will always be partial. There will always be something left that resists the hermeneutical process. Following Ricoeur, we could add here that complete un‐ derstanding is impossible not only in the relationship between the familiar and the strange but also in the way believers relate to the mystery of their own tradition. Every linguistic tradition contains an unsaid, a mystery, something that cannot be spoken of, something that resists translation, something untouched by hermeneutics. If translation has to move away from the fruitless contradistinction between translatability and untranslatability, then hermeneutics has to do the same with the equally fruitless antithesis between the possibility and impossibility of compre‐ hending the strange. In the context of interreligious translation, Ricoeur’s alter‐ native dilemma between faithfulness and betrayal seems much more valuable because it correlates with the difficult task of the interpreter. She also has to mediate between two masters. Like the translator, the interpreter hears the appeal of the other to understand him in his otherness. The interpreter promises to be faithful to both her own religious language and a strange reli‐ gious language, even though she inevitably runs the risk of be‐ trayal.
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As a consequence, the gap between the familiar and the foreign is a fragile hermeneutical space—fragile because every interpreter finds herself in a field of tension between faithful‐ ness and betrayal. It is fragile because the interpreter has to find a difficult balance between continuity and discontinuity, be‐ tween commonalities and differences, between interconnected‐ ness and fissure, etc. It is fragile also because there are no final criteria for determining the equivalence and adequation of “in‐ terreligious translation” once and for all. This fragile hermeneutical space in which the interpreter has to move has traditionally been called the hermeneutical circle. Just like the Greek god, Hermes, hermeneutics attempts to make the strange comprehensible and accessible. Like Her‐ mes, the hermeneut attempts to bridge the distance—not by tracing the familiar and the strange back to a “shared founda‐ tion” but by moving back and forth between the familiar and the strange (Jeanrond 1991: 1). This moving back and forth is un‐ derstood within the hermeneutical tradition as a circle.8 Although Ricoeur does not write about interreligious dia‐ logue, his hermeneutics offers new and challenging perspec‐ tives for exploring the openness for the other further. His philo‐ sophy attempts to make the strange more familiar and the fa‐ miliar more strange (Kearney 2003: 151). The onus is on us to reflect on his hermeneutics in the context of interreligious dia‐ logue. But first let me make two remarks about Ricoeur’s hermen‐ eutics. First, Ricoeur argues in Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning (1976) that hermeneutics concerns what he calls discourse. This idea remains the starting point of his hermeneutics. Discourse is distinguished from language un‐ derstood as a system of signs. Discourse implies language use (Ricoeur 1998b: 133). Characteristic for each discourse, irrespec‐ 8
Let me state immediately that the image of the circle is actually somewhat unfortunate, for it evokes the association of a closed imman‐ ent system that is curved in on itself, which nothing internal nor external can break. This is precisely the reverse of what hermeneutics advocates. Hermeneutics is not an undertaking that shuts the interpreting subject up in a circle which she cannot break out of. That is why the terms her‐ meneutical spiral and hermeneutical arch are used—because the idea of a circle constantly evokes the connotation of being vicious, even though it is not, as we will see, a vicious circle (Ricoeur 1998b: 57).
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tive of its being oral or written, is that someone says something to someone about something. The referential function of each discourse is important here: discourse is related to an extra ling‐ uistic reality. Ricoeur holds that language achieves or attains its purpose in discourse (Ricoeur 1998b: 134). Second, Ricoeur’s hermeneutics is first and foremost a text hermeneutics. The text is a model for understanding actions, institutions, ritual practices, symbols, foundational events, etc. (Ricoeur 1998b: 197‐221; Ri‐ coeur 1995a: 305). Following Ricoeur, this is what we also mean by “text.” Ricoeur’s Version of the Hermeneutical Circle Ricoeur’s hermeneutical circle consists of three phases: a naive understanding, objective explanation, and appropriation. A du‐ al dialectic occurs between the three phases of the circle, which goes from understanding to explaining and from explaining to understanding. The dialectic between understanding and ex‐ plaining can be understood from the perspective of the au‐ tonomy of the text. The moment discourse assumes the form of a written text distance is created between the author and his work. Ricoeur calls this verfremdung or distantiation. This allows the text to acquire a threefold autonomy: with respect to the intention of the author; with respect to the cultural situation and all the sociological conditions of the production of the text; and finally, with respect to the original addressee. (Ricoeur 1998b: 91)
Ricoeur sees the autonomy of the text as a hermeneutical opportunity. Since the text is decontextualized with respect to the author and his original cultural and sociological context, room for recontextualizing arises and hermeneutical translation becomes possible (Ricoeur 1998b: 91). “Verfremdung is not only what understanding must overcome, but also what conditions it” (Ricoeur 1998b: 140). Because of its autonomy the text can enter the realm of interpretation, and the most important her‐ meneutical question is no longer what the text meant but what the text still means and can mean. The text is not a historical relic or an archeological fossil but a living entity with possible rel‐ evance for today. Distantiation makes the transfer of meaning possible, and it is up to the reader to use this opportunity.
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a) The Naive Understanding The first phase in the hermeneutical process consists of a pre‐ liminary, pre‐critical reading of the strange text. This first read‐ ing is synthetic in the sense that the interpreter attempts to un‐ derstand the text as a meaningful whole (Ricoeur 1976: 72). Here the interpreter approaches the text from his own horizon of understanding. The interpreter belongs to a certain linguistic community and is formed by a tradition, a cultural context, and a historical background. It is because of the interpreter’s own horizon of understanding that the strange text can appeal to the interpreter and that the interpreter can already understand “something” of the text. It is up to the interpreter to make a first “wager” concerning the meaning of the text. He does this pre‐ cisely starting from his own prejudiced historical and cultural horizon of understanding. Given this view of the constructive role of prejudices in the interpretive process, hermeneutics sets itself against the mod‐ ern tradition that aspires towards objective thought without pre‐ judices. Like Hans‐Georg Gadamer in Truth and Method (1975), Ricoeur defends prejudices. “Prejudice is not the opposite pole of a reason without presupposition; it is a component of under‐ standing, linked to the finite historical character of the human being” (Ricoeur 1998b: 71). The idea that we can read a text without prejudices is a modern illusion, which generally results in blindness. For the meaning of what is strange can only reveal itself when it is approached from and connected with the fa‐ miliar horizon of understanding. There is no “spectator’s point of view” that allows the whole of reality to be surveyed and understood. People are linguistically contextualized beings who always begin in medias res. We cannot put ourselves between brackets when we interpret. The idea that we can read a text without presuppositions is a modern illusion, which usually re‐ sults in blindness. This rehabilitation of prejudices also means that hermeneutics distances itself from so‐called foundational‐ ism. Insight begins not with “pouring foundations” but with a listening attitude (Ricoeur 1995: 224). b) The Critical Phase of the Interpretation of the Text While it is true that the first interpretation of the text’s meaning is made possible through the interpreter’s horizon of under‐ standing, this horizon is always finite and limited. And thus “a
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specific onesidedness is implied in the act of reading. This one‐ sidedness confirms the guess character of interpretation” (Ri‐ coeur 1998b: 212). That is why there is a second phase, one of validation. This is a scientific approach, which supports an atti‐ tude of critical distance. The latter is necessary to prevent the hermeneutical circle from becoming a vicious one, i.e. to pre‐ vent the interpreter from encountering only his own mirror image. The interpreter’s “anticipations of meaning” are tested on the text itself. It is not possible to establish and ground the meaning of the text with certainty and in an unambiguous way, but it is possible to introduce arguments and proofs and to draw conclusions, analogously to the juridical process. Con‐ firmation is more a question of argumentation and follows logi‐ cal probability. Understanding means standing in the tension between the inside perspective of one’s own horizon of interpretation and taking a critical outside perspective. We could state the follow‐ ing as well: instead of the strange being “absorbed” by the familiar horizon of understanding, the latter is pulled outside. The critical dimension compels us to go beyond the prima facie similarities and differences to the deeper dynamics of meaning of a particular religion and the practices, etc. in question. In a certain sense, critical distance necessitates becoming conscious of the incarnation of meaning and the idea that, for example, formally equivalent practices can have very different meanings. Here we can also think of pluralist theology and its generic concept of salvation. The latter can be understood as an attempt to acquire insight into the strange phenomenon of religious plurality. However, that pluralism pulls precisely the cart of so‐ teriology is not “innocent” but in fact inspired by the pluralists’ Christian horizon of understanding. The question of salvation is a Christian question. If pluralist theology does intend to do justice to the self‐understanding of the different religions, then a correction via the “objectivity” of religion is needed. Pluralist theology must then pass through the critical phase and allow its presuppositions to be tested against the self‐understanding of “other religions.” Not providing this space is a form of hermen‐ eutical closedness. There is room for different methods in the critical phase of the hermeneutical circle: the historical‐critical method, literary critique, linguistic analyses, etc. One critical method, i.e. struc‐
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turalism, needs our special attention. In the period in which Ri‐ coeur formulated his hermeneutical circle structuralism consti‐ tuted an important challenge in France. Structuralism is a syn‐ chronous approach to the text that explores the immanence of the text. The interpretation of a text consists in analyzing the structure, the codes, the grammar, and the vocabulary of the text. The text is then considered to be a system constructed out of different parts between which there are coded relationships. Structuralism attempts to decipher these codes (Ricoeur 1998b: 153). This method does not ask about the author of the world outside the text but considers the text purely and simply within its internal dynamics. In other words, structuralism does not ask about the reference of the text but attends rather to the sens of the text. Ricoeur values this method because it allows the trans‐ fer from a superficial and too general first interpretation of the strange text to a deep reading that has come through the con‐ frontation with the objectivity of the text. Different critics see an analogy between the cultural‐ling‐ uistic theory of religion on the one hand and the structuralist method on the other (Wallace 1990: 104‐05; Thomasset 1996: 300‐02; Amherdt 2004: 570‐73; Poland 1985: 132‐33). The new Yale theology focuses on the one hand on the codes that struc‐ ture religion(s) and place the question of reference between brackets. Just like structuralism, the cultural‐linguistic model focuses on the sens and not on the reference of religion. Again, just like structuralism, the cultural‐linguistic model looks pri‐ marily at the interaction between the doctrinal grammar on the one hand and the specific vocabulary of the faith community on the other. This cultural‐linguistic theory of religion focuses on the particularity of each religion individually. In line with Ri‐ coeur’s positive valuation of structuralism as a critical phase, the cultural‐linguistic model also receives a place as a critical test within interreligious hermeneutics. In the context of interre‐ ligious dialogue, we can state with Ricoeur that, in the critical phase of interpretation, the particularist consciousness of differ‐ ence plays an important role. This consciousness of difference functions in the hermeneutics of the religious other as a kind of hermeneutics of suspicion, which points out that the religious other is not a mere continuation of one’s own pattern of expec‐ tation. This hermeneutical suspicion compels the interpreter to test his or her own pre‐understanding and the first pre‐critical
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understanding of the strange. In the context of interreligious dialogue this entails that priority is given to the self‐under‐ standing of the religious other. This consciousness of difference can be supported in a fundamental way by the cultural‐linguis‐ tic theory of religions that explains the coherence between reli‐ gious grammar and vocabulary. Thus, quick generalizations on the various religions and attempts to remove the distance be‐ tween the strange and the familiar by formulating a shared ground or purpose can be corrected. Each religion can then be treated as a unique entity, with its own questions, desires, etc. c) From the Interpretation of the Text to the Phase of Appropriation Notwithstanding the importance of the analytical phase, her‐ meneutics cannot stop there, for the meaning of the text is not limited to the “inside” of the text (Ricoeur 1995a: 240). Text her‐ meneutics must also pose the question of the “outside” of the text, i.e. the reference of the text (Ricoeur 1995a: 241). After all, it is not language that hermeneutics is concerned about but discourse. Characteristic for each discourse, irrespective of whether it is oral or written, is the fact that someone has something to say to someone about something. Important in this, as already briefly mentioned above, is the referential function of each dis‐ course. There is always a connection to an extra‐linguistic reality. However, there are two types of discourse: oral and written. In oral discourse the problem of reference is resolved by the ostensive function of discourse, in other words, reference is determined by the ability to point to a reality common to in‐ terlocutors. If we cannot point to the thing about which we speak, at least we can situate it in relation to the unique spa‐ tiotemporal network that is shared by the interlocutors. (Ricoeur 1998b: 141)
Ricoeur assigns the ostensive function of discourse to both com‐ mon and scientific speech, since he views the latter actually as an extension of common descriptive and denotative discourse. Truth is understood as empirical truth, which is in principle verifiable.
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In written discourse the referential function is more complex than in oral discourse. “There is no longer a common situation between the writer and the reader. And at the same time, the concrete conditions for the act of pointing something out no longer exists” (Ricoeur 1995b: 42). Thus in written dis‐ course the ostensive referential function is suspended. This sus‐ pension, Ricoeur states, elicits two possible attitudes to the text: “We may either remain in a kind of state of suspense as regards any kind of suspended reality, or we may imaginatively actual‐ ize the potential non‐ostensive references of the text in a new situation” (Putti 1994: 198). The first attitude is to place the reference of the text in brackets. This happens in the phase of critical analysis. Here Ri‐ coeur is thinking primarily of the structuralist method dis‐ cussed above. “While structuralism has rightly recognized that a text escapes the finitude of its author, structuralism cannot account for the creation of new meaning in discourse beyond the bounds of a text’s semiotic codes” (Wallace 1990: 35). Struc‐ turalism is concerned with the internal linguistic codes and at‐ tends to the application of grammatical rules and vocabulary. In contrast, hermeneutics is directed to the discourse that is characterized by its referential function. Reference thus distinguishes discourse from language [langue]; the latter has no relation with reality, its words re‐ turning to other words in the endless circle of the diction‐ ary. Only discourse, we shall say, intends things, applies itself to reality, expresses the world. (Ricoeur 1998b: 140)
Ricoeur’s objections to structuralism can be applied to the cul‐ tural‐linguistic theory of religion (Ricoeur 1998b: 216). Accord‐ ing to Ricoeur, “the Yale school … makes the same mistake as structuralism, which, via a methodological decision, treats lang‐ uage as a closed whole of meaningful units without an outside” (Amherdt 2004: 571). Within this theory of religion, “the text no longer has an outside, it has only an inside” (Ricoeur 1998b: 216). The fact that the reference of the text is not demonstrable allows still another attitude than that of the structuralist refer‐ ential deferment. The text does not, indeed, refer to the familiar of the surrounding context—as was the case in dialogue—but the text speaks about possible worlds in which the reader could
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live. In written discourse the possibility arises of referring to a world that is not given in the immediate environment. The de‐ ferment of the indicative reference that belongs to the realm of the known and familiar opens up the realm of the unknown and unfamiliar. The world unfolded before the text is what Ricoeur calls the referent or the referential meaning of the text. The referen‐ tial meaning of the text reveals itself when the intratextual and the extratextual are connected. “It is mainly in the reception of the text by an audience that the capacity of the plot to transfig‐ ure experience is actualized” (Ricoeur 1995a: 240). In this re‐ spect it becomes very clear, for that matter, that Ricoeur op‐ poses the dichotomy between intratextuality and extratextual‐ ity. We could say that the hermeneutical circle begins where the reader brings his own horizon of understanding to bear on the text and ends where the text brings itself to bear on the reader. To interpret a text is thus not only to explain the text but also to bring to bear what must be understood on whoever is a‐ ttempting to understand. Ricoeur terms this last comprehending phase of the her‐ meneutical arc the phase of appropriation. By this Ricoeur means the process through which something that was once strange is made one’s own. Appropriation is the anchoring of the arc in the ground of living experience. The hermeneutical goal of appropriation is attained only when the interpretation actualizes the meaning of the text for the current reader (Ri‐ coeur 1998b: 185). But does this not look like a kind of projection by a narcis‐ sistic ego that is unable to break free of itself? Is it not again a subject who draws the text towards itself and determines and controls its meaning? Has the meaning of the text not been placed under the power of the subject? Ricoeur refutes this critique as follows. First, he refers to the fact that it is the text that projects a world and not the other way around. Reference is the projection of a world, yet it is not the reader who projects himself, but rather the text that reveals a world. That which the interpreter makes his own is the hori‐ zon of a world to which the work itself refers. The text brings the interpreter into contact with imaginative variations of “be‐ ing in the world” (Ricoeur 1998b: 189). This insight constitutes an important critique of the all‐powerful ego for Ricoeur. It is
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only by letting go of oneself that the text can present itself. In‐ terpretation here means to follow the trail of the text until its re‐ ferent, the world of the text, shows itself (Ricoeur 1998b: 191). Second, in this phase there is once more the notion of dis‐ tance, more precisely with respect to the subjective engagement of the reader to the world of the text. The world of the text asks the interpreter to distance him‐ or herself from the known and the familiar and to step into the world of the unknown. In this context Ricoeur speaks of alienation, insofar as the reader is able to distance himself so that he can then discover himself again, different, renewed, and with his horizons broadened. The interpreter can appropriate the world of the text only to the extent that he expropriates himself. Hermeneutical appropria‐ tion is thus not the expression of an imperialism or colonization but rather the expression of detachment and letting go. The atti‐ tude of the interpreter to the text is a listening one. In his article “Naming God” Ricoeur explains this attitude as follows: Listening excludes founding oneself.… The movement to‐ ward listening requires giving up (desaissement) the human self in its will to mastery, sufficiency, and autonomy. (Ri‐ coeur 1995a: 224)
Ricoeur also speaks of “the dispossession of a narcissistic self.” Understanding means ultimately to understand oneself before the text, that is to say, to receive from the text an enriched and enlarged self. In the dialectical process of expropriation and appropria‐ tion imagination plays an important role (Ricoeur 1986: 213‐36). The world of the text projects a possible way of “being‐in‐the‐ world.” But this new world unfolds itself only in the imagina‐ tion. Bridging the distance between the strange and the familiar does not happen in grounding the strange and the familiar in the same but in activating the imagination. Imagination often evokes the connotation of fantasy gone wild (Ricoeur 1995a: 144). But this is not how Ricoeur views the imagination. Ricoeur argues that the imagination—just like every human capacity—is simultaneously free and determined. For Ricoeur, imagination has two characteristics. First, he states, following Kant, that the imagination is a rule‐guided produc‐ tivity. The imagination is creative, but that creativity is assisted and guided by rules. Second, the imagination can rewrite re‐
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ality. It can “bring us outside of the real World” (Ricoeur 2004: 153). When these two characteristics, i.e. rule‐guided produc‐ tivity and the power to rewrite reality, are achieved, then one can speak about fiction. “Fiction is my name for the imagination considered under this double point of view” (Ricoeur 1995a: 144). The imagination is the place where we are free to trans‐ cend ourselves and can open ourselves up for the “other.” Whatever this other may be that first alienates us from the familiar and the identical, it is in any case radically different from all that is obvious and precisely because of that it ap‐ peals to our imagination. (Philipsen and Van Den Brandt 2002: 1)
Not only does the imagination lead us away from the world of actual reality to the world of the possible, it is also a stimulus for creative and transformative action. That is why Ricoeur con‐ nects the imagination with the power to rewrite reality. Narratives especially have the ability to lead the interpreter into a different unfamiliar world. Narratives allow one to iden‐ tify, in an imaginative way, with characters, to see new possibil‐ ities, and to develop other perspectives. They activate the imag‐ ination of the reader, so that she can come to a new and differ‐ ent understanding of herself and the world in which she lives. If one wants to form an image of a strange religion, then one must make room for the narrative dimension of religion. Just as people learn to construct an image of the Christian God by reading the stories in the Bible, we could thus state that we will be able to learn to construct an image of the Buddha and his message by listening to Buddhist stories (Berling 2007: 27). Religion lives only if the beliefs are not simply propositions and dogmas but are also supported by imaginative representations and if one can form an image of what the religious stories say. In listening to narratives we “are called upon to use [our] im‐ aginations to enter into the world [of the other], to discover what it looks like and feels from the vantage point of the person whose world it is” (Greene 2000: 5). Hermeneutical Openness and the “Faith Commitment” For Ricoeur, the imagination is like a laboratory where the read‐ er can temporarily forget about reality and try other possible
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modes of being‐in‐the‐world (Ricoeur 1992: 115). But that does not answer the question if the interpreter can actually live in this possible world. How is this imaginative “playtime” related to the identity of the interpreter? How is the imaginative realm of the possible related to the realm of reality? How is the her‐ meneutical path to the strange related to the familiar? What if the possibilities that the text unfolds before itself are not possi‐ ble for the interpreter? What if the world before the text is not a world in which the interpreter can live? What if the meaning of the text is not meaningful for the interpreter? What if the reader, despite the fact that he has understood the meaning of the strange text, does not feel addressed by the world before the text? It is not, after all, because we understand (in a hermeneut‐ ical sense), comprehend, or know that we are able to live with this knowledge, that the other ceases to disturb us and that we can appreciate the other (Visker 2005: 24). Let us make these questions somewhat more concrete in the context of interreligious dialogue. Hermeneutical openness is realized in the appropriation of the world that the text un‐ folds before it. With respect to the stories of the New Testa‐ ment, the referent of the text is God who has become human. The biblical stories tell about the living God who reveals him‐ self in history, has revealed himself in an eminent way in Christ, and does not cease being active in his creation in the hope of reconciling people with him. God is three‐in‐one. It can be expected that a Jew can appropriate this “referent of the New Testament stories” in an imaginative way. It thus becomes pos‐ sible to understand what Christians believe. But this under‐ standing does not mean that she can now live in the world of the New Testament. Perhaps this understanding of the texts does throw another light on the way in which she reads certain Bible passages, perhaps the understanding of these New Testa‐ ment writings does lead to more mutual understanding, but the imaginative access to the world of the other does not yet mean that the world of the other also becomes an existential possi‐ bility. But is this a question of closedness? We arrive here again at the question of the dialogical ten‐ sive relationship between openness and identity. How do we understand identity and how is personal identity related to the hermeneutical openness sketched above? How is the human ability to imagine other ways of being in the world related to a
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person’s identity? How is the hermeneutical openness for the other related to the identity of the interpreter, which is always formed by a tradition, a cultural context, and a historical back‐ ground? How do we travel the road from this imaginative openness to personal identity? How is this hermeneutical open‐ ness related to the commitment of religious identity? How is self‐constancy related to the hermeneutical laboratory of the im‐ agination? How is the hermeneutical appropriation related to the religious commitment of the believing person who has de‐ voted himself to God in a religious community? Are faith com‐ mitment and hermeneutical openness two unconnected mat‐ ters? Or can we, in light of the theological argument for dia‐ logue, say that hermeneutical openness is an expression of the faith commitment? Does the faith commitment precede her‐ meneutical openness, or is hermeneutical openness a means of giving shape to the commitment of the believer to God? To an‐ swer these questions we will now turn to Ricoeur’s hermeneut‐ ical anthropology (Ricoeur 1992). Narrative Identity What does Ricoeur understand by identity? First of all, Ricoeur remarks that the question of “identity” presents itself against the background of the passing of time. When people say that something/someone has a certain identity, this means that there is a permanence in time. Second, Ricoeur remarks that it is crucial to make a distinc‐ tion between the identity of things and the identity of persons. When an inquiry is made about the identity of a thing, then it is a what question. Personal identity concerns a who question. If the distinction between the what question and the who question is denied, reflection on personal identity becomes problematic. The identity of things differs, after all, from the identity of per‐ sons. The what question is answered by a list of characteristics and properties. The who question is answered by a story. Ricoeur views the identity of things in terms of an un‐ changing, static, ahistorical substance. Permanence in time then refers to that which does not change and thus remains the same in that way. It also obtains for people that identity implies per‐ manence in time—this could mean that a person is the same at the beginning and the end of her life—but that permanence is
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conceived differently than in the case of the permanence of things. The question that occupies Ricoeur is: What does it mean to say that a person is identical at two different times? Or rather: What does it mean to say a person is the same at the be‐ ginning and at the end of her life? We know that this perman‐ ence cannot be understood in terms of an unchangeable sub‐ stance—for that would answer a what question. A person is not a thing but a self that unfolds in time and is also subject to time. The self cannot be compared to an unchangeable thing but has its own history. Theo de Boer says that, actually, Ricoeur dis‐ tinguishes between “impersonal” and “personal” identity (De Boer 1991: 393). Ricoeur introduces his own terminology for this distinction, defining impersonal identity as idem identity and personal identity as ipse identity. But what does this dis‐ tinction mean precisely and in what does personal identity consist? Two Different Definitions of Identity The foundation of Ricoeur’s hermeneutical anthropology is the distinction between idem, which means the same (même), and ipse, which means oneself (soi‐même) (Ricoeur 1999: 53). Ricoeur’s hermeneutical anthropology is directed to understanding per‐ sonal identity as ipse identity, in distinction from identity understood in terms of idem (Ricoeur 1992: 116), which does not allow an adequate understanding of the identity of a person. Idem identity answers a what question whereas ipse identity answers a who question. To speak in terms of idem identity is to say that something does not change but remains the same. There are various criteria for establishing such an idem identity (Ricoeur 1992: 115‐ 17). The strongest criterion is the so‐called numerical identity, which holds that x is the same as y; they are one and the same. Numerical identity indicates a unity and places this over against diversity. A second criterion of idem identity is qualita‐ tive unity. The similarity then extends to such a degree that we say that x and y are equal. Ricoeur gives the example of two persons who wear suits so much alike that we say that both persons are wearing the same suit. Nonetheless, as soon as the temporal dimension enters the picture, recognizing something or someone as the same thing or the same person is less obvi‐ ous. Is the person in front of us the same as the person in our
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memory? We hear a hesitation, a certain doubt, in this question. That doubt can be removed, and the presupposed identity be confirmed by a third criterion for idem identity, i.e. uninterrupted continuity. Thus, we can say of a tree, for instance, that it is the same from seed to fully grown tree. Something can thus remain the same even if the external characteristics no longer show any similarity with earlier characteristics. With respect to idem iden‐ tity, diversity is always presented as the opposite of similarity (similitude), discontinuity over against continuity. Time and change constitute a threat to idem identity, for time is inevitably a factor of difference. Time interrupts and complicates the re‐ cognition of idem identity. The concept of idem identity emphasizes stability, un‐ changeability, and continuity. It is not a suitable concept of identity for reflecting on personal identity. The identity of a person cannot be adequately understood by speaking about an unchangeable core. The “subject,” after all, has a history and is able to change. Personal identity cannot be understood in terms of mêmeté, identity as the same, but in terms of ipséité, identity that develops precisely in time and history. Speaking about the subject as a “self” clearly refers to Ricoeur’s roots in reflexive philosophy, which strives for self‐knowledge. But what is im‐ portant is that Ricoeur recognizes that the self is also embedded in pre‐reflexive dimensions of existence. The consciousness of the subject is rooted in a non‐conscious and unchosen soil of desires, interests, properties, givens, limitations, and abilities. The reflexive self is a kind of finite openness to the world (De Boer 2000: 164). Ipse identity “implies no assertion concerning some un‐ changing core of the personality” (Ricoeur 1992: 2). The histor‐ ical dimension is not a threat for personal identity but precisely the horizon against which the life of a person plays out. The person is a self/ipse that is situated in time and undergoes changes. This is possible if the identity of a person, the ipséité, is understood as occurring in a narrative fashion. The difference in meaning between idem identity and ipse identity is nothing more than the difference between a substantial or formal iden‐ tity and a narrative identity. Narrative identity includes the possibility of change, but change does not exclude permanence in time. The question is how the permanence of personal iden‐ tity is to be understood.
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Character and Promise Ricoeur proposes two models for permanence in time that have to do with personal identity, i.e. character and promise. There is a relationship of polarity between both models that is actually the duplicate of the tension between idem and ipse (Ricoeur 1992: 115‐25). Character refers to the idem pole of identity and promise to the ipse pole of personal identity. By character Ricoeur understands “the set of lasting dispo‐ sitions by which a person is recognized” (Ricoeur 1992: 121). Here he has in mind biological characteristics, habits, the form of life in which one has grown up, the language one speaks, the religious pattern to which one belongs (Ricoeur 1992: 121). This criterion accentuates, first, that which remains the same within personal identity, which does not seem to change, that through which someone is recognizable. Second, this criterion has to do with aspects of identity where the person is less free. But, Ricoeur says, “this overlapping of ipse and idem is not such that it makes us give up all attempts to distinguish between them” (Ricoeur 1992: 122). It is important, first of all, that we not approach character as if it is impersonal, as if it is a thing. Personal identity appears here only in the form of idem, but it is still the self: my character that I myself am. “Behind the im‐ personal identity of character hides the personal identity of self‐ hood” (De Boer 1991: 393). When people tell who they are, they often refer to their character traits. They thus say that they are something or other and explain certain actions in terms of their character (I am fearful by nature, thus it is to be expected that I do not dare drive to France all by myself). Or they explain that in light of certain characteristics it goes precisely against all ex‐ pectations that they have done certain actions (Given that I am fearful by nature, it was strange that I nevertheless dared drive to France all by myself). In his early work Freedom and Nature: The Voluntary and the Involuntary (1966) Ricoeur associates character with what he calls the sphere of the involuntary (Ricoeur 1966: 355). The in‐ voluntary refers to those aspects of identity that the subject has not chosen herself and that are beyond the control of the self. It is, Ricoeur argues, anything but easy to know that one’s own life, one’s own identity, is also determined by things that one has not chosen. For character limits that as well: it points to fi‐
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niteness. In this respect Ricoeur also speaks of la tristesse du fini (the sadness of the finite): Character makes me a “someone,” a “Jemeinigkeit”; person‐ ality denies man and the singular denies the universal. I suf‐ fer from being condemned to a choice which consecrates and intensifies my particularity and destroys all the possi‐ bles through which I am in contact with the totality of hu‐ man experience. (Ricoeur 1966: 447)
Despite the fact that the identity of the self is also determined by things beyond one’s control, these involuntary aspects also belong to personal identity and make the person who she is. The involuntary is not a secondary area of personal identity but accompanies the person at each step. And sometimes, Ricoeur says, it is unbearably difficult to be unique, condemned to be like oneself (Ricoeur 1966: 448). In Ricoeur’s view one should not deny the involuntary nature of character but accept that it is an integral part of personal identity. It is the unchosen limited perspective from which persons relate to the world and use their own abilities. The human being is involved with the world, but, because of character, that involvement is always limited and finite. The character is a symbol for those things that root and also hold the human being (Ricoeur 1966: 445). In the second part of The Philosophy of the Will, Fallible Man, Ricoeur continues to reflect on the nature of character. Here he describes the human being in terms of disproportionality. Ricoeur indicates by this term that the human being does not converge with him‐ or herself (Ricoeur 1986: 133). The human being is both finite and infinite, perspective and openness. Character points, among other things, to the human condition as limitation and finitude (Ricoeur 1986: 50‐51). Character limits the openness to the world of things, ideas, values, and persons, but, Ricoeur argues, that embedding is not static or ahistorical. Although the character refers to the idem dimension of identity and thus primarily to previously static elements of identity, it does have a history and falls under the influence of temporality. This is apparent especially in the tension between innova‐ tion and sedimentation. Although character consists in, among other things, a number of characteristics that are given at birth, and are thus indeed unchangeable, character also includes a number of characteristics that have attached themselves to the
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character. Thus, first, there are habits that are typical of the character of a person. These put us on the trail of the history of the character. Some habits are already acquired, whereas others are in a process of development. Here it is a game of renewal and attachment in which the focus is on attachment. A second aspect that puts us on the trail of the inevitable temporal di‐ mension of character are what Ricoeur calls acquired identifica‐ tions. The identity of a person—but also that of a community —is constituted to a large extent by the values, norms, ideals, and persons with whom one identifies. The fact that people see themselves in a certain individual or value makes people recog‐ nizable to others. Third, Ricoeur also speaks about cultural and religious prescriptions. These are cultural and religious patterns that also form personal identity. It is not unusual for people to attribute certain behaviours to the culture or religion to which they belong. The choices that people make are often influenced by their character, to which the religious pattern belongs. But, Ricoeur argues, these cultural and religious patterns also change over time. He distinguishes yet a second model for permanence in time, i.e. faithfulness to the word that has been given. Whereas character is the point where the idem and ipse identities virtually con‐ verge, the reverse is the case for faithfulness to the word given (Ricoeur 1992: 123). Here this convergence ceases. The question of “faithfulness” does not lead back to the what of the identity but to the who of the identity. Character is what makes a person recognizable, but the referent of a promise is always a who. Whereas character embodies the pole of idem identity and thus of permanence and unchangeability, promise incorporates change and history and thus symbolizes ipse identity. In the durability of faithfulness the self receives the identity of some‐ one who preserves herself. If a person promises and takes something on, he says ultimately that, despite changes, disap‐ pointments, unexpected events, as well as new opportunities and possibilities, he will keep his word. He is reliable and can be counted on (Ricoeur 1992: 124). Once that person has given his word, he feels obligated to remain faithful. Via that given word the person is connected to something that refers beyond himself. Ricoeur expresses this by speaking of the promise as self‐constancy. This reliability, constancy, that is symbolized in faithfulness to the word given makes relationships possible.
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Persons are not characters, they are relational beings. A human being becomes a person only when others can count on him or her. One can have as much character as one wants, but it is only when one also becomes reliable as a person over time that it be‐ comes possible to make lasting relationships (friendships). Over against character, promise puts us on the trail of the dynamic. If the question of the freedom of the will does not arise in connection with character, the power of choice clearly appears in faithfulness to the word given. This choice of this en‐ gagement is a lasting faithfulness to a chosen direction. Narrative Identity There is a clear tension between character and promise, and idem and ipse identity—a tension between permanence and change, continuity and discontinuity, attachment and relationship, in‐ voluntariness and choice. Ricoeur argues that the tension be‐ tween the who question and the what question can be kept to‐ gether through narrative identity (Ricoeur 1999: 53). Under‐ standing the narrative of personal identity makes it possible to reconcile identity defined as “being the same” with change and diversity. It is narrative that creates unity between who and what (Ricoeur 1999: 53). The narrative self is not a permanent substance (mêmeté) but a self‐(re)interpreting identity that knows that its narrative will never be finished (Ricoeur 1988: 248). This narrative identity does not exclude the idem dimen‐ sion of identity but brings it into a dialectic with the ipse iden‐ tity. The question of who can be answered only by telling one’s life story. “The human being is a being who tells a story. His orientation in life has a narrative structure: we are characters in the life story that we tell about ourselves to others and in our own internal conversation” (Groot 1998: 101). It is through continually telling one’s own life story anew—intersected by planned and unexpected events, characterized by filled and frustrated desires and expectations, startled by experiences of alterity and encounters that break through the known—that the different story lines constitute a plot. Plot is characterized by concord and discord (Ricoeur 1992: 77). By telling one’s own life story anew one learns to know oneself and arrives at self‐understanding and insight. Learning the narrative of one’s own identity also means learning to tell
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the story of one’s identity differently. “We are always in the process of revising the text, the narrative of our lives. In this sense, we may construct several narratives about ourselves, told from several points of view” (Ricoeur 1995a: 309). In this re‐ spect we can, with Ricoeur, point again to the role of the im‐ agination that makes it possible to make room for the other. As stated above, reading and listening to narratives plays a major role in the formation of the identity of the self. This stimulates the imagination, opens up new perspectives, and prompts the rewriting of identity. Listening to and telling stories opens the way to understanding one’s own identity differently (Ricoeur 1992: 80). Let us apply the above reflections on identity to our own specific interest in religious identity. Ricoeur himself did not ap‐ ply his thinking on personal identity to the religious context. What follows is thus a tentative interpretation of his thought. Religious identity is also a narrative identity that mediates in the dialectic between idem and ipse. Both poles are tensively present in religious identity. For Jews, Christians, and Muslims, being a believer means being faithful to God and living one’s life for God, in the understanding that God expresses himself in concrete, particular events, practices, and rituals. From the perspective of idem, religious identity means spe‐ cific religious schemas, norms, values, rules, doctrines, and texts that prescribe what is appropriate. At issue is the identification with specific traditions that influence the choices a person makes. As such, it is not wrong to point to the fact that religious identity is formed by the idem pole as well. It is indeed so that faithfulness to God, the faith commitment, is also determined by religious customs, practices, rituals, doctrines, the reading of certain holy texts, etc. By reading certain texts, by adhering to certain rules, by agreeing with specific doctrines, and by performing certain religious practices, which remain rather stable, the believer submits his or her life to God. A Muslim, for example, who prays five times a day is at least reminded then to thank God for his life. For a Catholic Christian, beginning a relationship of faith with the Trinitarian God means agreeing with the mediation of the church. God enters the life of the believer through kerygma, sacrament, and ethics, and the faith relationship is given form within the community of believers. God impresses himself in the life of the believer via the
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mediating practices, via which the believer dedicates her life to God. The whole of religious practices gives form to religious identity and the faith commitment. There is thus no single reason to formulate a negative judgement about the idem dimension of religious identity. The idem aspect is not added to the faith commitment but is consti‐ tutive of it. The promise to God is kept by, among other things, performing certain actions and maintaining certain rituals. That keeps the commitment to God alive. Eating kosher foods, cele‐ brating Ramadan, crossing oneself before going to sleep, com‐ munion, keeping the Sabbath, etc. Religious identity is however more than the idem dimen‐ sion. Religious identity implies a commitment with respect to the living God—a commitment to which the believer attempts to give form in and through the practice of faith. Religious identity implies a relationship to God. Here religious identity appears from the perspective of the dialectic between the idem and ipse dimensions and faithfulness to the word given. From this perspective of faithfulness to the word given, religious identity does not appear to be a matter of conforming to the “grammar” of the religious tradition but a relationship with a living God who reveals himself in the particular. One of the most important theological questions is: Does God still speak through the things that “have attached” themselves to one’s own religious identity? Is loyalty to specific ritual practices, symbols, actions, etc. still loyalty to God? From the perspective of a believing commitment to a living God this is a very important question. It is, after all, a form of idolatry if one does not direct one’s life to God but to the preservation of religious practices that have already long been abandoned by God. Being a believer means, on the one hand, raising the issue of God when reading Scripture, per‐ forming daily rituals and maintaining the tradition and, on the other, allowing the tradition to be broken open by God so that his transcendence does not become fixed. In that way the dialectic between idem and ipse in religious identity refers to the dialectic between sedimentation and innovation. The two always go together in the forming of religious identity. Religious identity receives form through telling the story of this faith commitment. In the narrative of religious identity be‐ lievers tell and witness to the way in which they have attempted to raise the issue of God in their lives, where they have
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experienced and encountered him. They tell about their ques‐ tions, their uncertainties, moments of happiness, and challenges. Faith is a fides quaerens intellectum and the narrativization of identity is a way to express this. This narrativization is a never‐ ending process in which one’s own life story is told from differ‐ ent perspectives. The story is never finished and always con‐ tains loose ends. The story of narrative identity is an open‐ ended story (Ricoeur 2005: 125‐29). From Narrative Identity to Personal Identity: “Here is Where I Stand” How is religious identity as narrative identity related to reli‐ gious plurality? What place can the narratives of adherents of other religions be given in the stories of the narrative identity of Christians and vice versa? The first step in this challenge was described extensively above in our discussion on the hermeneutical circle. The chal‐ lenge to take the distance between one’s own identity and the strange seriously entails first of all developing an attitude of hermeneutical openness. This means making imaginative room for the other. The projection of the world before the text gives the reader new possibilities for knowing and understanding him‐ or herself in relation to God and creation. Ricoeur calls this, with an expression borrowed from phenomenology, the im‐ aginative variation. That confrontation with a diversity of models is an exercise in freedom. By thus attempting other ways, we create room for reconsidering our attitude. Fanat‐ icism arises when someone is no longer prepared to under‐ take this kind of thought experiment. (Groot 1998: 105)
The imagination grants us “access” to other possible ways of being‐in‐the‐world. The hermeneutical circle and primarily the phase of im‐ aginative appropriation cannot, however, have the last word. In imaginative openness the believer receives the possibility of entering another world. It is ultimately up to the believer to ask if and where God arises in those stories. The hermeneutical ap‐ propriation does not mean that the meaning of a text can be in‐ tegrated without further ado into one’s own horizon of under‐ standing. It is always possible that the strange remains unfamil‐
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iar to one’s religious identity. It is up to the believer to consider the extent to which the imagined world of the text actually links up with one’s religious commitment to God. There is always a moment of decision: here is where I stand. The role‐playing that [the believer] does belongs in the space of deliberation, which is not the same as that of the decision. There I stand; I see the world from that perspective. Each person is situated in one way or another. He can change places, if he revises his opinion, is converted or whatever. But we never stand in a neutral space. (Groot 1998: 105)
In the imaginative hermeneutical space the believer can become a character in the narrative of another religion, but in the end he must ask what his place in the world ultimately is and what place the stories of the others are given in it. To speak about “decision after deliberation” can wrongly give rise to the impression that this is a completely rational pro‐ cess in which the believer reflects on the different possibilities and determines what fits and what does not. But identity is characterized by both will power and by things that are beyond the individual’s control. Character symbolizes the sphere of the involuntary. It is crucial to see that the involuntary plays a role in each decision. Not everything is possible and what is possible or impossible is also determined by the things that have settled on identity. It can be that there is a kind of “involuntary re‐ sistance” to certain strange meanings that perhaps cannot be completely explained. Character is, as it were, the finite perspec‐ tive on the world. Account must be taken in hermeneutics of the fact that character is sometimes very stubborn and that the embedding or attachment is sometimes very strong, without the person being able to identify what it is that holds him or her back. It can thus happen—and this is not unusual—that it is not explained, justified, or argued why something remains unfamil‐ iar. Here one must keep the involuntary of identity in mind. The involuntary points to those aspects of identity that are beyond the person’s control. These are things that help to give form to identity but in a certain sense escape the person’s will. The involuntary dimension of identity means—certainly with re‐ spect to religious belonging—that the “why” of identity escapes people to a certain extent. Thus, it can happen that precisely that
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which someone considers to be of essential importance for her identity, for example, a particular religious belonging, is not completely clear to her. Ricoeur points out that it is usually not at all necessary to argue the “why” of a certain religious alle‐ giance. Self‐understanding is commonly implicit and this also obtains for the understanding we have of the tradition or com‐ munity to which we belong. It is frequently a shared under‐ standing that is incarnated in morals, norms, usages, customs, nourished by collective memories, and kept alive by telling stories. This is an understanding that is revealed in concrete ways in life. Identity also always exists by the grace of the unsaid (Ricoeur 2006: 267). It is usually a “strange other” that constitutes the challenge to argue and justify the particularity of one’s own religious identity. To argue why one is a Christian and not a Buddhist is often less self‐evident than would be ex‐ pected. That is also why narrative identity, which is formed in dialogue with others, is never completed. This incompletion is, on the one hand, an opportunity but, on the other, also difficult to bear. This points precisely to the fragility of identity. In any case, there are limits to the “imagination,” and those limits have to do primarily with personal identity. We can “im‐ agine,” on the one hand, what it would mean to be Hindu, but, on the other hand, we cannot. Imagination comes to a stop in the sphere of the unreal. Ricoeur explains this as follows. We do know that chance determines our nationality, religion, language and other things. In a certain sense, that is a confrontational and disturbing idea. Thus, we can imagine that it could have been completely different. Nevertheless, Ricoeur claims that imagin‐ ing falls short, for the idea that if I would have been born in China, I would not have been a Christian is incorrect, for that person is then someone other than me. I can conceive of myself as an other, and that “con‐ fusing” fantasy gives rise to thought. (Ricoeur 1999)
Ricoeur’s hermeneutical circle thus does not intend a har‐ monizing consensus of the familiar and the strange. His her‐ meneutics offers permanent room for conflicts that Ricoeur says belong to life. The appropriation of the strange thus does not mean that the world of the text, i.e. the projection of the world in which the interpreter can possibly live, also actually becomes a possibility for the interpreter. It is not because the referent of
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the text projects a possible world that the interpreter can live in that world. In that way something like an incommensurability between religions continues to exist. But we must not under‐ stand that incommensurability as a hermeneutical incompre‐ hensibility or untranslatability but rather as an existential in‐ commensurability: Between the imagination that says, “I can try anything” and the voice that says “Everything is possible but not every‐ thing is beneficial (understanding here, to others and to yourself),” a muted discord is sounded. It is this discord that the act of promising transforms into a fragile concordance: “I can try anything”, to be sure, but “Here is where I stand.” (Ricoeur 1992: 167‐68)
For the believer this means first: here is where I stand be‐ fore God in faith, hope, and love. This is precisely what faith consists in. It is attaching oneself to God; it is a promise of faith‐ fulness, experienced in and through the ecclesiological media‐ tion of the sacraments, kerygma, and ethics. In faith, the believer sees God as a support and refuge and promises faithfulness. To believe is to say “Amen” to God’s offer of faith.9 It is a response of faithfulness to God’s self‐revelation. Linking up with the reflections on the involuntary of character, we can state that both will power and the recognition of the heteronym can be heard in this “Here is where I stand before God.” It is the re‐ cognition of one’s “own place,” the acceptance of this place without giving up the possibilities of the imagination but also without the desire of omnipotence that everything is possible and is as it should be.10 The identity that appears here is not the 9
The basic meaning of the verbal root of “Amen”, i.e. aman, is “to be firm,” “stable.” 10
Here we can think of the Greek mythological tradition where the god Hermes is continually depicted together with the goddess Hestia. Hestia guards the home, the known, and familiar sphere. She is the god‐ dess of “real estate.” From the perspective of narrative identity we can say that Hestia is also the patron goddess of identity as idem. Here identity is distinguished from otherness. The familiar is distinguished from the strange, and Hestia protects the familiar from the strange. This is one aspect of personal identity. But it is important not to forget that Hestia is accompanied by Hermes. Hermes is the god of travellers and
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identity of the self‐assured subject nor the fragmented subject who is no longer able to be committed and does not dare to oc‐ cupy any place. It is an identity characterized by both fragility and conviction. Faith is viewed as a path and a wager. Faith does not offer the certainty of a possession at the believer’s free disposal and to which the believer has complete access. In faith God gives people the power to see the goodness in their crea‐ tureliness despite their shortcomings. The certainty of faith is grounded in hope, i.e. the hope that not brokenness, not conflict, and not evil but love will have the last word. For this hope is the “anchor for the soul” (Hebrews 6:19). The basis for our hope is our faith in Christ, resting here on the gracious activity of the Spirit. Believing is being sure about those things we hope for (Hebrews 11:1). But, conversely, it also obtains that we draw the power of our faith from God’s unrelenting reaching out to people, from his promise that he will never abandon his creation, and from the way in which God has revealed in Christ the hope for ul‐ timate reconciliation among humans. “Let us hold unswerving‐ ly to the hope we profess, for he who promised is faithful” (Hebrews 10:23). It is the love of God in Christ that also today gives believers the power to hope and to say “Here is where I stand” and to respond to God’s offer of faith and at the same time to work on the hope of the ultimate reconciliation among all people. Love is the new commandment given by Christ and it is this commandment that commands us to allow not broken‐ ness but the eschatological hope of solidarity to prevail already now. of shepherds without a fixed home. Hermes is sensed every time a threshold between two strange places, the sphere of the idem and the sphere of the strange, must be crossed. Hermes is the symbol of the seek‐ ing mind that mediates between the strange and the familiar. Ricoeur’s hermeneutical anthropology understands identity as a search for mean‐ ing that honours both Hestia and Hermes. This entails, on the one hand, the recognition of the embedding of the self. No autonomy without roots. On the other hand, it also entails the refusal of the self to be merged with its roots. Hestia’s answer to the question Who am I? is as follows: “your origin is your future.” Hermes prohibits merging identity with the idem identity. Together Hermes and Hestia preserve the dialectic between idem and ipse and between the familiar and the strange (Greisch 2003: 31‐ 37).
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Conclusion: A Theology of Interreligious Hospitality In this concluding section we will bring together our reflections on translation, hermeneutical openness, and religious identity. We will explore what these reflections entail concretely for interreligious dialogue and, in particular, for the theological im‐ plications of interreligious dialogue. For Christians, interreli‐ gious dialogue receives meaning only through posing the ques‐ tion of the relationship between hermeneutical openness and Christian identity that implies a specific faith commitment to God. For Christians, the “confrontation” with religious others is a challenge to their Christian identity, and it is precisely on the basis of their Christian commitment to God, mediated by the concrete tradition and experience, that they step into the her‐ meneutical circle (Berling 2007: 30). Central to Ricoeur’s hermeneutics is the connection be‐ tween personal identity on the one hand and hermeneutics on the other. A person acquires an identity only via the detour of narratives, symbols, and metaphors (Ricoeur 1995a: 30). In the introduction to the book Figuring the Sacred Mark Wallace ex‐ presses the crux of Ricoeur’s hermeneutical anthropology as fol‐ lows: “the journey to selfhood is made possible by the subject’s willingness to receive new ways of being through its interac‐ tions with the text‐worlds of literature, myth and religion” (Wallace 1995: 2). We will now apply this notion to what we could call a theology of interreligious hospitality. We will argue that the insights on linguistic hospitality or hermeneutical openness link up with the theological reflections on the “uniqueness” of Christian identity developed above. To that end we will indicate what the theological points of contact are that can turn the Christian community into a community with the quality of lis‐ tening to and learning from the other. The theological presup‐ position is that Christians who appropriate the skill of her‐ meneutical openness can be surprised by what they learn about God. A Theology of Hermeneutical Openness In interreligious dialogue the religious other asks to be under‐ stood in his or her otherness, and hermeneutical appropriation meets this request precisely: the willingness to be addressed and interrupted by “an unfamiliarity that does not meet our patterns of expectation” (Van Leeuwen 2003: 64). Not meeting this re‐
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quest for hermeneutical openness is an expression of not taking the otherness of the other seriously. Put more forcefully, a lack of willingness to take the other seriously in his or her otherness is a form of closedness. The hermeneutical openness with which the world of the religious other is received is comparable to what Ricoeur earlier called linguistic hospitality. Hospitality is not absorbing the other. Nor does the other become, in hermen‐ eutical appropriation, a projection of the other. Hermeneutical openness means making room in one’s own abode to receive the other (Thele 2003: 131). It means primarily a letting go or an ex‐ propriation (Ricoeur 1998b: 191). The image of hospitality gives us a first point of contact for explaining the theological implica‐ tions of interreligious hermeneutics. Hospitality is a biblical virtue. It means welcoming the stranger who comes from elsewhere, i.e. making room for the stranger in one’s own place. The biblical motivation for this hos‐ pitality is twofold. On the one hand, Israel is called to receive strangers because the Jewish people were themselves strangers (Leviticus 19:33‐34). On the other hand, God reveals himself among strangers (Genesis 18). Both notions are very relevant with respect to interreligious dialogue. We will first look at the idea that hospitality rests on the acknowledgement that the Jews themselves were strangers. Because they were strangers, they must now show hospitality to strangers.11 God calls Israel to act 11 Not all strangers are of equal status in biblical tradition. The Bible uses different terms to express the English concept of “stranger.” There are the nokri and zar. These are true strangers who are found outside of Israel, outsiders with no connections to Israel. They do not belong to the group and are therefore strange. This strangeness can have various applications. It can be used individually, “someone can be a nokri to me,” or in terms of family, a nokri is someone who does not belong to oneʹs own family or clan. It is also possible that someone is nokri with reference to ethics or religion. “Nokri and zar are the outsiders, the non‐Israelites, those who belong to a different people—and consequently to a different religion and culture” (Schmidt 1993: 227‐40). The nokri and zar are some‐ times spoken of in a neutral way, and in exceptional cases positively, but usually the connotation is negative. The attitude to the nokri and zar is, at the least, reserved. Usually there is even the notion of enemy. This shows that the biblical ideal of hospitality, even for Israel, is anything but self‐evident. There is yet another term in the Bible for stranger, i.e. ger. The ger is a stranger who lives in Israel and enjoys a protected status. We could
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differently than the Egyptians did. The theological motivation is that God acted in a liberating way toward Israel and that Israel must act as God acted toward them. This is a way of being in the image of God. God enters the picture wherever hospitality is observed. This tradition was continued by the first Christians, as is evident from, among other things, the story of the disciples on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13‐35). There, deeply grieved by what had happened, a stranger crosses their path (Luke 24:19). Through the instructive conversation with this stranger who explains the Scriptures to them, their eyes are opened and they encounter Jesus (Valkenberg 2000: 3‐4). Christians would do well to remember this tradition and to allow themselves to be inspired by it. Christians are also called to be open to strangers: “I was a stranger and you invited me in” (Matthew 25:35). Here believers must not forget that they live in the grace of God. Everything has been given to them as a gift. They live with God as guests. “For I dwell with you as an alien, a stranger, as all my fathers were” (Psalm 39:12). The heteronomy of God colours Christian identity. Ricoeur argues that a living retention of the memory of be‐ ing a stranger oneself promotes hospitality. Because we our‐ selves are strangers, we must be hospitable to other strangers (Ricoeur 1999). This connection between the recognition of one’s own status as a stranger and hospitality is reminiscent of Ri‐ coeur’s anthropology: oneself as another. Acknowledging the strangeness of one’s own identity entails acknowledging the fra‐ gility of one’s own identity. This is acknowledging that we are never completely at home with ourselves and that our own identity partly escapes us. The fragility of identity consists in the fact that personal identity always contains a strangeness. One could think here of the involuntary dimension of personal iden‐ tity. There are certain dimensions of our own identity that we compare the ger with guest workers in European society. The ger is a guest. His or her status is between that of an inhabitant and that of a nokri/zar. Biblical hospitality concerns this ger. The theological motivation is that Jews themselves were gerim (Ruth 1:1; 1 Kings 20; 2 Kings 8:1). “The ger holds a position that is distinguished from that of the person who is an Israelite by blood, but the appreciation of him is not negative. He is not viewed as an enemy. To the contrary, precisely because of his weakness and lack of protection as a non‐Israelite special and protective attention is given to him” (Schmidt 1993: 227‐40).
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do not choose ourselves and are also beyond our control: the body, the unconscious, the contingency of existence. The self is never completely at home with itself. As long as identity and otherness are thought of as oppo‐ sites, openness for the strange other will be difficult. It is only to the extent that the strangeness of one’s own identity is acknowl‐ edged that one can open oneself to the strangeness of the other. Hermeneutical openness concerns, from this perspective, not only the strange other but also one’s own strangeness. The mo‐ ment when one’s own strangeness is forgotten is the moment that closedness arises. The memory of one’s own strangeness precisely prevents identity from being considered as something that is “complete” and thus also prevents any kind of antithesis between “we” and “they.” The inability to deal with the strange‐ ness of the other is a reflection of the unease that is experienced with respect to the strange in one’s own identity. A second motivation for hospitality has to do with the idea that God reveals himself in the stranger. This is an important theological idea with a view to interreligious dialogue. “God en‐ ters the picture as a God incognito, to whom we offer or do not offer hospitality. God reveals and conceals himself in the stranger and, without knowing whom we are dealing with, we discover with surprise and only later the attitude with which we met God” (Jansen 2002: 299). But people can receive God in the stranger only when God is no longer fixed to the known and the familiar. This presupposes again acknowledging the strange‐ ness in the familiar and thus not understanding religious iden‐ tity exclusively in terms of the permanence of the idem pole. This idea is strengthened by the biblical idea that God re‐ veals himself in the form of the stranger. Something of God’s own strangeness breaks through in the strange other, i.e. his Holiness, which cannot be exhausted by our categories but tunes the human being to the unexpected. “Do not forget to en‐ tertain strangers, for by so doing some people have entertained angels without knowing it” (Hebrews 13:2). The religious challenge is to find God’s image in someone who is not in our image, in someone whose colour is differ‐ ent, whose culture is different, who speaks a different lang‐ uage, tells a different story, and worships God in a different way. (Sacks 2004)
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This tradition is continued, for that matter, in the Gospel where it is said that Christ reveals himself in the stranger who is received with hospitality (Matthew 25:28‐38).12 The virtue of hospitality entails a receptivity by the dialogue partners. It is possible that it is precisely where people expect it the least that God will reveal himself. Hermeneutical openness is thus also theological hospitality. It must be said that in the biblical tradition hospitality in‐ volves primarily strangers, the poor, orphans, widows. Hospi‐ tality is concerned first of all with people in need—people who are seeking shelter, searching for a place to rest or to regain their strength, etc. By using hospitality as an image for hermeneutical openness we indicate another turn that is not obvious perhaps for the Christian tradition. What hermeneutical openness asks is a hospitality for a stranger who is not in need. The religious other does not seek any shelter, any food, or drink. She is not looking for help. Rather, the religious other asks to be heard and understood. In the context of interreligious dialogue the experience of religious diversity shows that the religious other is anything but destitute and needy. Rather, she is proud —proud of her belief, faith commitment, and religious tradition. One of the most important motivations for interreligious dialogue is precisely the contemporary experience of religious diversity as a source of spiritual and moral wealth. The religious stranger appears, not as poor but as rich. And yet the strange other asks us to receive him or her hospitably, i.e. to be understood. At the risk of sounding cynical, we would argue that it is sometimes easier to be hospitable to the needy than to the reli‐ gious other who speaks on the basis of his or own beliefs. Here we can think of a well‐known statement by Alain Finkielkraut in a passage in which he fulminates against the one‐sidedness of humanitarian help that is “too occupied in filling with rice the mouth that is hungry to still listen to the mouth that is speaking” (Finkielkraut 1996: 128). Regardless of whether Fin‐ kielkraut is right or not in his analysis of humanitarian help, he does point in his fulmination to an important point for Christian hospitality. First, it is sometimes easier to fill the mouth of the other than to listen to what the other has to say. This is easier 12
See also Matthew 8:20; Luke 9:58; Hebrews 13:14.
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because the listening attitude that belongs to hermeneutical openness is also an attitude of receptivity and questioning of itself. In a certain sense, hermeneutical hospitality is the reverse of “biblical hospitality.” In the latter the host provides (food, drink, shelter) and receives the guest. Hermeneutical hospitality actually requires the “hermeneutical host” to hold off on “giv‐ ing” and to restrain himself and draw back so that the other can unfold his world. The other who asks to be understood and comprehended challenges the interpreter to listen and to make room in his own identity for the strange. In this hospitality an attitude of hermeneutical receptivity is expected that consists in the interpreter giving up his or her control to some extent (Ricoeur 1998: 191). One’s own religious self‐understanding is challenged. This is, in a certain respect, much more difficult than helping the destitute other. To learn hermeneutical hospitality is a challenge for Christians in the context of reli‐ gious plurality. It is one of the ways, as Christians, to live up to their calling to work on the coming Kingdom of God, in the consciousness that this will not be achieved by people alone. Applied to hermeneutical openness, hospitality concerns the dialectic of expropriation and appropriation. Ricoeur even speaks of the fact that people must lose themselves before they can find themselves through receiving the stranger. Making room for the other entails forgoing giving the other a place im‐ mediately within one’s own theological framework (theology of religions). Thus, hermeneutical openness means that the dia‐ logue partners interrupt their own structure of prejudices. We have to learn and, perhaps, be regularly reminded that our most taken for granted beliefs about human failing and flourishing will not necessarily be found in the traditions and texts of other religions. (Dickens 2006: 208)
It is also for that reason that Ricoeur speaks of the necessity of taking a critical attitude that must be brought within the her‐ meneutical circle. In that way generalizations can be quickly un‐ masked (Ricoeur 1998b: 211). This demand for hermeneutical openness is anything but obvious. Not only is it not obvious to interrupt one’s own structure of prejudices, but it also requires a great deal of trust from the interpreter. Theologically, it seems that this hermen‐ eutical openness is possible only on the basis of an optimistic
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anthropology, a belief in the “readability” and thus comprehen‐ sibility of the creation, and the trust in faith that God also re‐ veals himself in the other religions. Here pneumatology seems to have an important role. Hospitality is assisted by the activity of the Spirit: “The Spirit makes it possible to accept the strange‐ ness of others and to understand strange languages. The Spirit sets people in motion toward others, toward strangers” (Sun‐ dermeier 1996: 211). Christians ask the Spirit for support in the hermeneutical process. From a Christian theological perspec‐ tive, the hermeneutical attitude also implies a praying attitude. The Christian asks for the gift of the Holy Spirit to understand the religious other properly. Theologically, this testifies to a trust in the activity of the Spirit that people hazard the her‐ meneutical process and “expropriate” themselves to receive the strange in what is their own. The Spirit leads the community to the truth (John 16:13). “The wind blows wherever it pleases” (John 3:8). But it is also the Spirit who warns against claims to domination. From this perspective, interreligious hermeneutics means receiving the religious other, thanks to the Spirit’s help, in trust. This trust makes it possible to adopt an attitude of re‐ ceptivity in hermeneutical hospitality and to allow one’s own “structure of prejudices” to be interrupted. The Spirit makes it possible to understand the “strange religious languages” (Acts 2). The Spirit does not remove the differences but makes them accessible. This trust in the activity of the Spirit confirms the trust of interreligious hermeneutics. Without this trust in the Holy Spirit’s help it is difficult from a Christian perspective to understand where Christians can get the courage and trust to‐ day to adopt such an attitude of receptivity in interreligious dia‐ logue. John writes in John 16:12‐15: I have much more to say to you, more than you can now bear. But when he, the Spirit of truth, comes, he will guide you into all truth. He will not speak on his own; he will speak only what he hears, and he will tell you what is yet to come. He will bring glory to me by taking from what is mine and making it known to you. All that belongs to the Father is mine. That is why I said the Spirit will take from what is mine and make it known to you.
John is alluding in this passage not only to the activity of the Spirit but also to the eschatological perspective. That is also an
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important theological point of contact for hermeneutical open‐ ness on the one hand and interreligious dialogue on the other. Hermeneutical Openness and the Question of God Hermeneutical openness creates a kind of laboratory in which “other possible worlds” can be imagined. The imagination al‐ lows the subject to see matters differently. Because of the im‐ agination people can appropriate the strange world of the reli‐ gious other. Here the thing is to penetrate into the internal dy‐ namics of meaning of the strange world of the religious other. Interreligious theology, however, cannot be limited to un‐ derstanding the religious other. If interreligious dialogue is to be theologically relevant, the question of God should be posed. Understanding the other is one thing, theology another. Thus, interreligious dialogue cannot stop at the phase of appropri‐ ation without asking what the newly discovered meanings say about God. From a theological perspective, the purpose of interreli‐ gious dialogue is not the complementarity between religions. Nor does interreligious theology have in mind an interreligious consensus that removes the conflicts between the religions. In‐ terreligious theology is also not concerned with a simple com‐ parison of the differences between the religions. The point is not that interreligious dialogue is successful only if a kind of transformation occurs. We do not subscribe to an interreligious activism that holds that interreligious dialogue is genuine only if believers are prepared to change in light of the encounter with the other. We distance ourselves from the normativity of trans‐ formation and activism that occurs in pluralist interreligious dialogue. No more than we can say beforehand that changes are not possible through encounter can we state that it is theologically necessary that the tradition and faith change. In interreligious theology we gropingly ask where God comes into view and do so with an open attitude of hospitality. Interre‐ ligious dialogue is a theological space only if it is related to God. Where does God reveal himself? The theology of interreligious hospitality poses the ques‐ tion of God and starts from the idea that God cannot be under‐ stood without understanding what happens in the world. God constantly expresses himself in an external, and it is only by turning to the outside that we can trace God. But, theologically
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speaking, the hermeneutical circle does not revolve around broadening one’s horizon or the enrichment of one’s self‐under‐ standing but is directed to the theological enterprise of under‐ standing God and how the believer can view his or her rela‐ tionship to God. It is an expression of one’s faith commitment to take up the challenge by the religious other to understand him or her and to be hospitable. But it is also a challenge to one’s faith commitment not to avoid making the connection to one’s faith in God. Interreligious theology must be true theo‐logy. The quest for God is fundamental to the theological implications of interreligious dialogue. Speaking about theology as a quest for God can sound quite rational, certainly in comparison with our reflections above on the tension between the voluntary and the involuntary, between idem and ipse. Just as in hermeneutics, theology will also be coloured by that dialectic. The quest for God happens on the basis of a trust in God and a love for God. This quest involves all one’s heart, mind, and soul (Mark 12:30). The searching believer is not involved in a purely rational way in this process but includes his own life history in his quest for God. For the believer the hermeneutical circle entails a way of giving shape to the fides quaerens intellectum. Here, what is im‐ portant is that “the more faith is willing to allow that it is al‐ ways a quaerens, the more open to alterity, more realistic, and more tolerant of ambiguity hermeneutical reconstruction will prove to be” (Grünschloss 1999: 298). What we have in mind is an interreligious dialogue that stands precisely in the tension between the faith commitment on the one hand and the open‐ ness for the religious other on the other. This interreligious theology rests on the idea that the fides quaerens intellectum in the context of religious plurality means that, as a believer and theologian, one actually keeps one’s ear to the ground. The idea that Christians can learn about God through the encounter with the religious other is not foreign to the Bible. One can think here, for example, of the three magi from the East who made use of their own astronomy to find the newborn baby Jesus and to worship him. The story makes clear that the three are aware of the importance of this birth. They kneel before Jesus and bring him presents (Matthew 2:1‐12). “The people from outside the chosen community appear to under‐
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stand more profoundly what an important person Jesus is …” (Nissen 2003: 323). Another inspiring story is that of the Syrophoenician woman (Mark 7:24‐30; cf. also Matthew 15:21‐30). This woman demands that Jesus pay attention to her and asks that he not limit his mission to the Jews. Mark states clearly that this woman is a non‐Jew (Mark 7:26). She begs Jesus to help her daughter who is possessed by an unclean spirit. Jesus refuses to help her13 and answers that his mission is directed in the first place to the Jewish people: “‘First let the children eat all they want,’ he told her, ‘for it is not right to take the children’s bread and toss it to their dogs’” (Mark 7:27). But the woman answers Jesus; even more, she puts him in his place, using his own image of the dogs and children. She does not deny Israel’s pride of place but she does say that despite this the children and dogs do belong to the same household (Mark 7:28). She thus argues against the notion that God’s mission through Christ was lim‐ ited only to Israel. This woman, who is not a Christian, con‐ fronts Jesus and asks him critical questions. And Jesus learns something from her and changes his position. Jesus changes be‐ cause of what the woman does. That is why he states, not without approving amazement: “For such a reply, you may go; the demon has left your daughter” (emphasis mine). This woman breaks through Jesus’ religious and cultural prejudices and makes it clear to him that his mission has a broader public than simply the Jewish people. Jesus must be converted as well. He shows himself willing to change his self‐ understanding in light of the heathen woman’s objection. This openness to change rests on a great trust in God. Jesus discov‐ ers, as it were, how God addresses him in a person who does not belong to his own faith community. This story will also make clear that God himself is at stake for Christians in inter‐ religious dialogue. It is God who challenges us: Jesus’s willingness to enter into a dialogue and thus to change a negative judgement about others that he without a doubt shared, this openness and capacity for self‐criticism is clearly not a weakness but a strength. It is a strength because 13
In Matthew’s version Jesus does not respond initially (Matthew 15:23a). It is only after the disciples insist that Jesus answer the woman in order to be rid of her intrusiveness (Matthew 15:23b) that he does.
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[this openness and self‐criticism] emerge from the freedom of a trust in God that thus makes the encounter with others possible. (Feldmeier 1994: 226)
Another example is the conversation of Jesus with the Samaritan woman recorded in the gospel of John. This is a story that can be read in various ways—for example, as a story about Jesus breaking through social, racial, or gender boundaries (Jesus speaks with a Samaritan woman). There is another way to read this story. The Samaritan woman asks Jesus a religious question: “Our fathers worshiped on this mountain, but you Jews claim that the place where we must worship is in Jerusalem” (John 4:20). As a Jew, Jesus knew the answer: it is Jerusalem where God must be worshiped. The temple is in Jerusalem. Every year the diaspora Jews came from Judea to worship God there—as did Jesus’ parents (Luke 2:41). This is one of the customs of the Jewish religion and also plays a role in determining what it means to be a Jew. The normal answer in that dialogue, would have been, “Yes, that is true, at least that is what I believe as a person of the Jewish faith.” But John surprises us by representing Jesus as someone who was well aware of his own tradition and yet be able to rise to a spirituality of religious awareness that was called for in that particular interreligious‐intercultural encounter. (Ariarajah 2003: 65)
Jesus answers: Yet a time is coming and has now come when the true wor‐ shipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for they are the kind of worshipers the Father seeks. God is spirit, and his worshipers must worship in spirit and in truth. (John 4:23‐24)
Not only is Jesus able to rise above the cultural and religious givens of his own religious beliefs, but especially important is the fact that someone from the outside appears to be the catalyst in this process. We thus get a glimpse of how interreligious dialogue is a source of interreligious theology. Jesus’ example teaches us to meet the other freely and in trust. We learn from these stories that Jesus also finds traces of God outside the
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boundaries of Israel. Just like Jesus, people must recognize that God brings himself up in his creation. Hermeneutical Openness and Theological Assessment A theology that relies on the presupposition that God reveals himself in the strange, the unknown, and the unfamiliar paves the way for what we can call an interreligious theology (Nichol‐ son 2005: 204). With respect to intention, interreligious dialogue is not very different from, for example, feminist theology, eco‐ logical theology, or liberation theology. Each of these theologies causes a kind of creative field of tension that compels the theologian to view the familiar and the known differently and especially to convey it differently. One sees one’s own tradition through the context of the other. The tension that arises between the strange and the familiar can be creative theologically. The encounter with the religious other challenges the Christian believer and compels her to what we could call linguistic flexibility. Not only is it so that the strange is received in one’s own language. We have also learned from Ricoeur that one’s own language changes willy‐nilly as a result of this. The encounter with the religious other also results in our telling or translating the message of faith differently. People learn about the familiar through the strange. That explains the desire to translate. Translation thus stands opposed to the sacralization of one’s own language (Ricoeur 2006: 4). Translation also means nourishing the familiar on the strange and thus keeping the familiar alive. Shifts in meaning occur in this process (sometimes willed, sometimes not). And thus new dimensions of meaning arise, and interreligious hermeneutics breathes new life into familiar meanings. To state it in Babelian terms, it means to acknowledge and keep open the breach that God made in language. This imaginative appropriation of the strange can be a creative theological source that warns the faith community that God cannot be fixed to or reduced to the familiar. It is a way of giving shape to the notion that it is not up to theology to determine a priori the limits of God’s activity. It is one thing to appropriate dimensions of meanings through the familiar becoming unfamiliar; it is another to decide on that basis that all these possibilities are valid. The faith commitment and the commitment to God cause the believer to judge the religious other (this is so not only for Christians but
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for all parties involved). At a given moment the “normative theological judgements” that were temporarily suspended are brought back into the hermeneutical circle (Nicholson 2005: 199). This judgement is not a form of closedness or of an inabil‐ ity to transcend one’s own confessional perspective, as pluralists would claim. The fact that judgements are made means that the challenge of the other and one’s own faith commitment are taken seriously. The faith commitment implies non‐indifference and thus also a positive or negative (or nuanced judgement). The idea that judgements of the religious other on the basis of one’s own faith commitment are misplaced betrays a desire for a unity perspective or helicopter perspective that does not belong to human possibility. Judging a religious other is not ethno‐ centric as such but becomes ethnocentric only if it precedes her‐ meneutical openness (Van Leeuwen 2003: 93). It is both a ques‐ tion of openness for the religious other and one of openness for God’s transcendence not to determine a priori what is and what is not theologically meaningful. Integrating certain aspects of a religion into one’s own religious identity testifies no more to openness than rejecting certain aspects of another religion testi‐ fies to closedness. Both can display superficiality. Taking one’s own faith commitment seriously, and thus also acknowledging one’s own roots, means accepting that not all possibilities that appear in interreligious dialogue are truly possible. Accepting an attitude of hermeneutical openness that is required by the fides quaerens intellectum is like balancing on a tightrope, between focusing one‐sidedly on one’s own religious finiteness (the world is limited to one’s own perspective) and a denial of this finiteness as shown in the faith that people can simply transcend and leave these religious roots behind them. It is up to the believer to say: “Here is where I stand” (Ricoeur 1992: 168). This notion is not an expression of closedness but is linked to what we stated above about the particularity of religious identity. It entails renouncing both the isolation thinking of the cultural‐linguistic model and the “desire for infinity” in plur‐ alist theology. The cultural‐linguistic model of religion leads to a magnification of the differences. The expressivist theory of religion reduces the interreligious differences to formal differ‐ ences capable of being exchanged. But if we focus on the par‐ ticularity of the religious commitment and the way in which
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God impresses himself in the lives of believers, it can be under‐ stood that not everything is compatible theologically. On the one hand, God is always greater than these concrete elements, but, on the other hand, these elements cannot simply be viewed as external. They are constitutive for theological meaning. God reveals himself in history, and how he does that tells us some‐ thing about him. What precisely he wants to say to us is a question of deciphering and interpreting. God is transcendent and mysterious but not completely unknown. The incarnational entwining of divine transcendence on the one hand and the con‐ crete elements on the other determine the particularity of the Christian faith commitment. Faithfulness to God is not, as we have said, something separate from the material elements but is connected with them in a complex way. Precisely the fact that the expressivist theory of religion does not do justice to the in‐ terreligious particularities also means that too easy an argument for openness understood in terms of convergence, comple‐ mentarity, and consensus is not acceptable. Because of the en‐ twining of the inside and outside there are conflicts between the religions—conflicts that cannot be resolved here and now. This approach to religion does not exclude the overlappings and similarities between the Christian religion and other religions nor does it exclude the possibility of shifts in meaning and newly discovered meanings. What is excluded is the idea that there will be no obstinate conflicts between the religions. In the light of interreligious dialogue, this means that it is very possible that the religious other is understood, but it does not yet mean that the possibility of the religious other will also be theologically acceptable. For Jews, praying to Christ as the Son of God is not possible. For Muslims, the doctrine of the Trinity is blasphemy. Thus, the translation of religions has its limits. Translation in the context of interreligious dialogue al‐ ways has to do with an “untranslatability,” precisely because there is a gap between understanding and having sympathy for something. It is always possible—and it will even often occur— that the strange other remains inaccessible even though we have appropriated him hermeneutically. “This inaccessibility is not primarily cognitive—I can learn to know and reconstruct this tradition—it is primarily existential …” (Visker 1999: 158). What makes the other strange is not so much that we cannot under‐ stand the other. We can unlock the strange meanings her‐
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meneutically, but this does not yet entail that these strange meanings are valuable for us theologically. But on what basis can a theological judgement be formu‐ lated? On what basis can a believer make a judgement about the religious other? Interreligious dialogue and hermeneutical openness are insufficient theological grounds to judge what is true and good. The sources of theology are, on the one hand, tradition and, on the other, the experience of people in “our time.” An interreligious theology must therefore link up with what we above called the dialectic between tradition and experi‐ ence. Interreligious theology must keep both the synchonic and diachronic character of theology in mind. Anton Houtepen cor‐ rectly remarks in this respect that “without considering ‘the faith of the church through the ages’ contextual theologies are in danger of becoming ideologically determined” (Houtepen 2003: 32). Making an appeal to the tradition does not in any way mean a return to a static view of religion or a confirmation of “dogmatism.” First, we have already pointed out that such a reified view is unacceptable. Diversity is found not only outside the Christian tradition but also within it. Second, traditions are not static; rather, a dialectical interaction between context and tradition occurs. Precisely because of the dynamic character of religion it is not possible to determine a priori where exactly in‐ terreligious conflicts will occur. Nor is it possible to state that certain conflicts will never change. An interreligious theology is never “finished.” Interreligious theology is a difficult undertaking. The theo‐ logian is confronted with the task of understanding the other in his or her otherness and to live up to the hermeneutical circle with an attitude of hospitality. The risk that the theologian does not do justice to the religious other because of his or her struc‐ ture of prejudices is not non‐existent. There is no perfect and complete understanding. The interpreter will always fall short with respect to the strange other. But the theologian not only swears an oath of loyalty to the religious other; there is also the possibility that he does injustice to his faith commitment to God. Perhaps the theologian sees traces of God where none are to be found or thinks that the religious other does not reveal anything about God whereas God does want to tell him something. Interreligious theology is also difficult because the theological judgement of the religious other is to a certain extent uncertain.
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With the help of the sources of tradition and experience theologians grope for the boundaries of the possible. In doing so, they develop new ways of speaking. One’s own faith narra‐ tive is told differently. Interreligious theology is a particularly precarious undertaking because theology cannot provide any fixed criteria for what can and cannot be. Both the Christian tra‐ dition and the other religions are constantly in motion: How can the relationships between these religions be set once and for all? The tradition and the context itself are continually changing. From this point of view, whoever ventures into interre‐ ligious theology is also caught in the tension between faithful‐ ness and betrayal. But this time the tension has to do not only with the relationship with the strange other who must be hos‐ pitably received but also with the relationship between the theo‐ logian and God. The theologian also promises in hermeneutical openness to be faithful to the otherness of the other, in the full understanding that there is the constant danger of betrayal. But the situation of the theologian is still even more difficult because the theologian is not only a hermeneut or a translator but also someone who is connected to God in a constantly mediated way. It is not the task of interreligious theology to transcend or remove the tension between faith commitment and openness. That would not succeed anyway. That tension points precisely to the fact that both the faith commitment to God and the oth‐ erness of the other are taken seriously. Interreligious dialogue can be theologically fruitful only if the theologian endures this tension and wrestles with it. The moment theology no longer wrestles with the religious other is the moment the strange oth‐ er is reduced to the same or is deleted as a totaliter aliter. The moment the theologian no longer wrestles with his faith com‐ mitment to God is the moment he has fixed God to the familiar or deleted God as the mysterious, unknowable Real. Theology means wrestling: wrestling with God, with the strange other and with one’s own faith, and understanding that this wrestling can never occur without injury (Genesis 32:22‐32).
CHAPTER 7
Testimony and Openness A Theological Perspective At the end of the previous chapter we compared interreligious theology to wrestling with God, others, and oneself. This meta‐ phor confirms our argument that interreligious dialogue occurs within a fragile hermeneutical and theological space. The reli‐ gious other is the vulnerable other who challenges us to under‐ stand her. But that challenge is not experienced as “pleasant” as a matter of course. The religious other can be experienced just as easily as disruptive or disturbing, as someone whom we’d rather ignore. In this respect, hospitable openness cannot be taken for granted: it is a difficult virtue. We also spoke of the vulnerability of religious meanings in light of the hermeneutical process of translation. Interreligious translation implies not on‐ ly the possibility of a gain in meaning but also of a loss of meaning. Interreligious dialogue thus also presupposes the work of mourning. A discourse that speaks one‐sidedly of in‐ terreligious dialogue as a source of enrichment ignores the vul‐ nerability of religious meanings. Moreover, we pointed out that dialogue partners contin‐ ually run the risk of betrayal—not only the betrayal of the reli‐ gious other whom one is attempting to understand but also the betrayal of one’s own faith commitment to God. Every believer who engages in interreligious dialogue finds himself in a some‐ what difficult situation, given that there appears to be no pre‐ cise balance in the tensive relationship between openness and faith commitment. Our theological reflection taught us that dia‐ logue and openness belong to the heart of Christian identity. But this insight does not give any clear answer to the question of how open the believer may or should be. Nor is it clear as to whether it is appropriate to close oneself to the other. On the one hand, the believer must be careful of imposing limits to God’s activity in the world a priori. On the other hand, she must also be wary of seeing God where God is not. God can reveal
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himself in the other, but not every strange other is a “mes‐ senger” of God any more than every Christian is. Viewed in that way, the relationship between faith com‐ mitment and openness is something of an unsolvable problem. It is impossible to prescribe the precise dosage in the context of interreligious dialogue. There is no correct proportion, no defin‐ itive answer, no exact balance. That is why the search for God can never be done outside of hermeneutics. This fact yields a certain restlessness, even discomfort. It is not always easy to live without clear and unequivocal answers and to do so con‐ stantly in the full awareness of the possibility of betrayal. In the previous chapter we argued that believers have to endure this discomfort. They must live in the midst of the tension. In that sense to believe is always to be searching. The relationship to God is not a harmonious one but a path that is difficult to fol‐ low, filled with moments of amazement as well as those of ob‐ stacles and trauma. That is also why we hold to the image of theology as an uneasy wrestling with God. Theology seems primarily concerned with promoting the search for a “solution” to the tension between openness and faith commitment. We should recall here what Hans Küng said: The main issue in any interreligious undertaking is pre‐ cisely this: Is there a theologically justified way that allows Christians to accept the truth of other religions without re‐ linquishing the truth of their own religion and their own identity? (Küng 1991: 242)
Although Küng himself has not found any solution to the dia‐ logical tension between openness and identity, he is convinced that it should be possible to find a theologically justified way of reconciling openness and identity. In response to Küng’s question we have discussed various possible answers: exclusivism, inclusivism, pluralism, and par‐ ticularism. We have even constructed a theological argument for a theology of hermeneutical hospitality. It would be wrong, however, to think that this notion of hermeneutical hospitality could solve all “problems” concerning the tensive relationship between openness and identity. It is, after all, not at all clear when believers must “be open” and when it is more appro‐ priate to be “closed.” That is why we speak about the insolva‐
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bility of the tensive dialogical relationship, the outcome of which is a certain restlessness and unease. That the theology of interreligious dialogue pays so little attention to this aspect is surprising, given that the human rest‐ lessness, alienation, doubt, even the despair that can accom‐ pany the perception of unsolvable problems are part of theo‐ logical anthropology (Psalm 77). One could suggest that it is neither important nor meaningful that this human restlessness is not discussed very much in theological reflection on interreli‐ gious dialogue. We suspect, however, that there is more in‐ volved here and that there are, moreover, consequences to ig‐ noring this problem and the unease that emerges from it. In‐ deed, we suspect that the non‐acknowledgement of the insolva‐ bility of the tensive dialogical field on the one hand and the restlessness accompanying it on the other are problematic for the relationship to God and the religious other. How interreligious theology is to deal with this fact in an appropriate manner without being able to formulate a truly fit‐ ting solution is the central question of this final chapter. We understand that this reflection will lead us into unexplored ter‐ ritory. Because of the importance of this theme, however, we nevertheless want to hazard a number of preliminary ideas, at the same time recognizing that the topic of this last chapter requires further research. We will structure our argument in two steps. In the first section we will analyze the notion of restlessness from anthro‐ pological and theological perspectives. In the second section we will investigate what possibilities theology offers for dealing with human restlessness and the insolvability of the tension be‐ tween openness and closedness. A theology that understands hermeneutical hospitality as a theological virtue must also ask where people can derive the strength to persevere in interreli‐ gious wrestling despite their restlessness. With a view to hu‐ man restlessness and fragility, we think that interreligious theo‐ logy must be placed in a ritual and liturgical1 framework. The idea that interreligious dialogue needs a ritual frame‐ work is also a refinement of the discussion in the previous chapter, in which we perhaps treated interreligious dialogue 1
“Liturgical” is being used here is the broad sense of “service to God.”
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too much as a purely intellectual activity. Despite the strong ini‐ tiatives in Ricoeurʹs anthropology, the involuntary dimension and the impact thereof on interreligious dialogue remained somewhat underdeveloped. Hermeneutical openness is not a matter of the intellect alone: the whole person has to be in‐ volved in it. If theology is serious about interreligious dialogue, the encounter with the religious other needs to be delimited rit‐ ually. For interreligious theology lives by the grace of the ritual sites of hope, connectedness, and trust. Fragility and Human Restlessness In this section we will first place the irresolvable tensive rela‐ tionship between too much openness and too little openness in a broader existential perspective. After all, the insolvability of the correct relationship between openness and closedness, and the “unease” that results from it, is connected with human fra‐ gility. Because human beings are fragile, they do not succeed in “solving” the tensive dialogical relationship. We will then show that this fragility is also a part of theological anthropology and that the Bible also acknowledges this restlessness. Third, we will explain how this fragility is manifested in the irresolvable tension between openness and closedness. Finally, we will ar‐ gue that when people are unable to cope with this restlessness both openness and closedness can derail. Fragility in a Broader Existential Perspective Fragility is a concept borrowed from the philosophy of Ricoeur, who holds that human beings are fragile by nature (Ricoeur 1986: 1). For various reasons this idea is especially fruitful theo‐ logically. First, this concept confirms both humankind’s recep‐ tivity and its vulnerability. It enables a discussion of the fini‐ tude of humankind without ignoring human capacities. Second, this concept says something about human nature, and thus it reflects on all people. Third, it is a pre‐ethical category. Fragility refers to human fallibility as an inevitable possibility but not as a necessity (Ricoeur 1986: 133). Fault is always contingent and secondary (Ricoeur 1986: 144). Fourth, this concept creates in‐ sight into how it is that fault can occur. Fragility is, as it were, the place where evil can find purchase. Fifth, the notion of fra‐ gility expresses the fact that the human being is not whole and thus desires healing and wholeness. People go astray if they do
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not acknowledge their fragility and attempt to find a definitive solution for their lack of wholeness themselves. Fragility and vulnerability2 point to the idea that ability and inability, choice and given, autonomy and heteronomy, ca‐ pacity and incapacity continually go hand in hand in the hu‐ man being. Each ability, each capacity, each choice presupposes an inability, an incapacity, or a lack of freedom. The possibil‐ ities of the human are constantly followed by the negative (Le Blanc 2006: 250). The condition of human existence is character‐ ized by an irremovable tension between what is given and what is possible. All of life, both its beginning and its end, as well as whatever occurs in between, is framed by this tension (Le Blanc 2006: 250). There must be constant mediation between finitude and infinity. That is why Ricoeur also speaks about the human being in terms of disproportion (Ricoeur 1986: 13). And this dis‐ proportion deceives human beings with respect to perception, speaking, thinking, emotion, judgement, and action. Ricoeur thus posits the human being as vulnerable and fragile over against the human being as lord and master. Still, human fra‐ gility should not be understood in a pathological way. Rather, Ricoeur connects this notion with the project of the capable man, i.e. the human being who can act, speak, tell, testify, promise, and remember (Ricoeur 2007: 73). That is why Ricoeur also says, for example, that the human is hypothetically autonomous. “Because as a hypothesis human beings are autonomous, they must become so” (Ricoeur 2007: 72). Human fragility stamps personal identity. Identity is not something human beings control; rather, it is a hermeneutical project that never ends. Narrative identity is the identity of a subject in search of meaning (Greisch 2001). “Identity does not allow itself to be ‘grasped,’ as if I could say ʹNow I have my‐ self,’ or ‘Now I know who I am’” (Jansen 2002: 83). Thus, the human being is not completely transparent to himself. The fra‐ gile narrative identity can always be undone and is constantly open to someone’s else narration. For the encounter between the self and the other this fra‐ gility constitutes both a possibility and a problem. The possi‐ bility has to do with the fact that the fragility implies a human 2
The terms vulnerability and fragility have the same meaning, but Ricoeur chooses to speak about fragility (Ricoeur 2007: 73).
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receptivity and ability to be affected. Only via the detour of the “outside” does the ipse arrive at self‐understanding. Unlike the Cartesian cogito that postulates itself as an autonomous and self‐sufficient principle in a kind of exile from the world, Ri‐ coeur posits the fragile ipse that does not converge with itself and comes to know itself only via a mediating detour of stories, metaphors, and rituals. The encounter with the other permits one to tell one’s own story in constantly different ways and to discover new dimensions of meaning. But human fragility does not only create hermeneutical possibilities. The narrativization of one’s own identity is a chal‐ lenge and a task that is not guaranteed. In reflecting on the meaning of the fragility of Ricoeur’s anthropology, Le Blanc ex‐ presses this notion as follows: If there is indeed a plasticity of narration that makes the narrative power appear like a human power par excellence, there is, conversely, a violence of cancellation of the power of the narrative that achieves the double process of disquali‐ fication and dehumanization of the self. (Le Blanc 2006: 259)
Ricoeur himself confirms this when he says that we must not lose sight of the possibility of an inability to at‐ tribute some identity to someone or something because we have not acquired the ability to apply what I have called narrative identity. (Ricoeur 2007: 79)
At any time we could be confronted with something/someone that/who causes our whole identity to waver, making it diffi‐ cult, if not impossible, to narrate our own identity. That is any‐ thing but a pleasant and welcome experience. People some‐ times become anxious, restless, or fearful because of their own strangeness—the fact that we do not have control over the beginning and end of our lives, over our character, our sub‐ conscious, our body, or things that happen to us. Dealing with heteronomy is so difficult, regardless of the form it takes. That is why fragility is not only receptivity but also vulner‐ ability and breakability. We can explain this best perhaps via the metaphor of the body. The human individual is a physical being. As stated above, the body is both openness and closed‐ ness, both receptivity and vulnerability. It is the locus of the in‐ teraction between the strange and the familiar, where openness
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and closedness converge. The body can feed indeed on “strange meanings.” The body does this to stay alive, but that does not mean that all meanings are equally nourishing and compatible. The body absorbs meanings, and absorbing also means diges‐ ting. But is it not always so that some meanings are easily di‐ gested whereas others are indigestible? Some meanings go down well, but others lie heavily on the stomach. Some mean‐ ings hurt, cut deep into the skin, leave traces. Some meanings are nourishing, breathe life into one’s “own cells,” bring new life, give strength. But other meanings make one ill. Nor are all meanings equally nourishing. The body develops a resistance to some meanings and the immune systems kicks in. Some mean‐ ings are rejected, discharged, and spit out. It is not always pos‐ sible to bring strange and familiar meanings in a life‐giving, en‐ riching context. But the question why some meanings are di‐ gested by the body and others are not is not always given a clear answer, just as it is not a matter of course to articulate the tension between receptivity and vulnerability and to narrate them in a story. That which we cannot control makes us un‐ easy. Heteronomy is difficult to bear, regardless of whether it comes from without or within. The metaphor of the body re‐ minds us that interreligious dialogue is not merely intellectual. Human fragility and the unrest that accompanies it are not as such signs of an evil will nor of a bad closedness. But anthro‐ pological fragility is the place where evil can find purchase and where human striving can go astray (Jansen 2002: 230). Being fragile is not the same as breaking, but the possibility of human failure is included with the fact that the human being is not identical with himself (Ricoeur 1986: 133). That fragility and fal‐ libility are closely connected is apparent from Ricoeur’s very specific choice of words to describe the human existential con‐ dition: The word “fault”, at least in Fallible Man, should be taken in this sense as it is in the geological sense: a break, a rift, a tearing. Ricoeur frequently uses the word faille (break, breach, fault), which is akin to faillibilité, as well as écart (gap, di‐gres‐ sion), fêlure (rift), déchirement (a tearing, a torn) to describe man’s existential condition. (Kelbey 1986: xxxv)
Because the human being is fragile he is also fallible. The possi‐ bility of evil lies precisely in the fragile mediation between fini‐
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tude and infinity (Greisch 2001: 5). As a result of the dispropor‐ tion, we are never completely at home with ourselves, and therefore the fault can settle in. Fragility can derail in the di‐ rection of evil. But this derailment happens primarily when the human being does not recognize his finitude, limitation, and fallibility. The ultimate freedom of the human being does not consist in the denial of human finitude that is part of life but in a creative and responsible acceptance of it. Fragility in Theological Anthropology The objection could be raised that, from a theological perspec‐ tive, fragility as discussed here revolves too much around the fragility of the subject and too little around the relationship of the believer to God. This is an appropriate remark and has a great deal to do with the fact that we are inspired by a reflexive philosophy. Theology and philosophy cannot be reduced to each other. Ricoeur would be the first to acknowledge this. He always went to great pains to distinguish his theological reflec‐ tions from his philosophical thought. Crypto‐theology is, according to Ricoeur, to be avoided at all costs. That is one of the reasons why he puts God between brackets in his reflections on the anthropological tension between finitude and infinity. Nevertheless, the anthropological perspective that we sketched via Ricoeur is theologically fruitful. Theological anthropology acknowledges this restlessness and fragility and asserts that it is part of being human. We will look at this notion of fragility first from the perspective of the creatureliness of the human being and then show that this fragility misleads the human being in his relationship with God. a) The Creatureliness of the Human Being Speaking of fragility reminds us theologically strongly, in the first instance, of creation. Creation is a matter of ordering and separating, but the creation itself is also vulnerable, given that the threat of chaos continues to exist. Creation has not nullified this threat of recurring chaos. The threat of chaos, of disharmony, of disorder also affects the “creatureliness” of the human being because of the entirely unique constitution of the human being. The human being is si‐ multaneously finite and infinite. The idea that the human being is characterized by a disproportion is not foreign to the Chris‐ tian tradition. This theological anthropology can be found al‐
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ready in the psalms. Thus Psalm 8 answers the question, “What is man that you are mindful of him, the son of man that you care for him?” (Psalm 8:4; see also Psalm 144:3 and Job 7:17), by emphasizing human finitude on the one hand and human dig‐ nity on the other through giving human beings a special place in creation: “You made him a little lower than the heavenly beings and crowned him with glory and honor” (Psalm 8:5). Henri de Lubac speaks of the human being as having “a shaky constitution, which makes the human being a creature that is at the same time greater and smaller than itself” (De Lubac 1967: 149). The human being is a kind of intermediate being. Created as a finite being, the human being is nevertheless predestined for the Infinite. To say with Blaise Pascal (1623‐ 1662): the human being is “[a] Nothing in comparison with the Infinite, an All in comparison with the Nothing, a mean be‐ tween nothing and everything” (Pascal 2007: 43). Still the fra‐ gility of the human creature does not lie simply in the fact that the human being lives between earth and God. Fragility has to do with human nature itself: the human being is characterized both by the finitude of the earth and by the perspective of infin‐ ity. In this respect, the image of God who, like a potter, moulds (ytsr) the human being from the earth (‘dmh) and breathes life into him (nphsh) (Genesis 2:7) is very suggestive. The conver‐ gence of earth and the breath of God in the human being links up with the idea of human fragility as described conceptually above. The earth points to human finitude. As a created being, the human being is clearly distinguished from God. He is creature, not creator. That means that the human is not almighty and must live with the heteronomy of the involuntary, of limitation, and the uncontrollable: character as the entirely unique per‐ spective on the world, the body, passions, etc. Thus he finds himself in a paradoxical situation: We are finite beings who are surrounded on all sides by limitations: the circumstances of our birth, the family in which we grow up, the country and time in which we live, our gifts and shortcomings, the short duration of our exist‐ ence—these are just so many limitations. The best proof of this is that we suffer under our finitude and our inability to transcend our limitations. (Sesboué 2000: 29)
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Although the earth points to the finitude of the human being, the human being does not “converge” with it. The experience of finitude is not the only experience of human beings. The earth is not the human being’s destiny. He is also characterized by the infinite, by the divine. “The human being not only bears the stamp of God, he breathes the breath of God. His life force and energy are ‘animated’ by God and animated from God” (Houte‐ pen 2006: 76). The idea that all humans, prior to their particular‐ ity, are marked by God points to fundamental creaturely soli‐ darity. It also means that God can be encountered in one’s fel‐ low human being. The human being is receptive to God in a special way, but he also has the freedom to live as if God does not exist (Psalm 53:1). Theologically, we can also understand the tension between finitude and infinity in terms of the human being as imago Dei (Genesis 1:26; Wisdom of Solomon 2:23). On the one hand, as imago Dei the human being is distinguished from the animals. The human being reigns over creation, which is entrusted to his care. He is not absorbed into his environment, is not deter‐ mined by it. From God the human receives a consciousness to reflect on (the meaning of) life and the freedom to give direc‐ tion to life. He is the only creature that can respond to God. That is his greatness. The human being is called to help God to realize his plans with creation and the final coming of the king‐ dom of God. But it is precisely the greatness of the human be‐ ing that is his burden and his need. Life is a gift and a task. In addition, the human being is only the image of God: he is not infinite and almighty. The human being is not only free will but is also determined by forces difficult to control, which form a point where any number of feelings can find purchase that often make the relationship to God and fellow human beings ambiguous as well. “In all truly human areas the ‘passions’ are the affective forces that collide, divide the human being so that he is faced with the task of ordering and orienting them” (Ver‐ gote 1984: 191). The tension between the finite and the infinite plays tricks on the human being and makes her vulnerable and fallible. Theological anthropology also acknowledges the restlessness that accompanies this fragility and fallibility. It is not given to the human being to live without failing. Her physicality, mor‐
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tality, perspectivism, character, etc. make her fragile in what she does. The human being is tempted and seduced. This se‐ duction can reveal itself in a non‐acceptance of the finitude and an unchecked desire for perfection and infinity. It can also con‐ sist in dejected resignation and scepticism: we are finite and can do nothing. The heile Welt (perfect world)—in which the human being is always able to make the right choice between good and evil, between happiness and unhappiness, is not bound to the earth from which he came, is absolutely certain of his purpose and destiny—that heile Welt is not where human beings live (Houtepen 2006: 81). b) Human Fragility and the Restlessness of Faith Human dignity consists in that the human being is self‐ aware and has the freedom to give direction to his life. This sense of human existence is not included immediately in this existence. Being human is therefore a path that is open and leads into the infinite. (Belgian Bishops’ Conference 1986: 14‐15)
In other words, the human being is a fragile hermeneutical be‐ ing. He is a creature who seeks for meaning, who always poses questions, and is never satisfied. No single answer can prevent a person from posing further questions. Ultimately, the human being remains a mystery to himself (Psalm 139:1‐7). Because the human being does not coincide with himself he is also restless. Therefore he searches for a home where he can find rest. It could be argued that believers escape this restlessness by trusting in God. Faith is more certain than all human knowl‐ edge because it rests on a Word that comes from God himself. Did Cardinal John Henry Newman not hold that “ten thousand difficulties do not make one doubt” (Newman 1878: 239)? We wonder, however, if this language of the certainty and trust of faith does not sometimes slide too quickly over the ten thousand difficulties Newman is talking about. The believing human being wrestles with questions to which he does not receive answers, and problems and moral dilemmas to which he is given no so‐ lutions. Speaking about certitude does not deal sufficiently with that field of tension. Fragility is part of human existence and believers cannot escape this—to the contrary. “Faith is, on the one hand, an orientation that is confirmed by expressions and
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acts of faith and, on the other, is shocked by questions, doubts, and contradictory acts” (Vergote 1984: 195). The relationship between the human being and God does not flow smooth as a matter of course. This restlessness of faith has a great deal to do with the fact that the believer constantly finds herself in a field of tension—a field that is marked by contradictions: transcend‐ ence/immanence, universality/particularity, mystery, and prox‐ imity, etc. The identity of the believer is determined by a Word that comes from elsewhere, which can never be completely ex‐ pressed. God is always greater. As finite beings, we cannot un‐ derstand God’s infinity: “Oh, the depth of the riches of the wis‐ dom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable his judgments, and his paths beyond tracing out! ‘Who has known the mind of the Lord? Or who has been his counselor?’” (Romans 11:33‐34). The human being cannot fathom God; all his imaginations fall short. Paul expresses this as follows: “Now we see but a poor re‐ flection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known” (1 Cor‐ inthians 13:12). Moreover, believers often grope in the dark with respect to God’s reasons. What does God want from people? They can even suffer under God’s transcendence, under the fact that their lives are marked by someone who does not allow himself to be grasped, to be proven, to be established, and worse—does not listen when they cry out (Habbakuk 1:2). In addition, there is also the fact God sometimes does strange things that human beings do not understand. (Why place the tree of the knowledge of good and evil in the garden of Eden and then say that people are not to eat of it?) God often demands a great deal of his people, such as when he asks Abra‐ ham to leave his country. He also makes promises that are ap‐ parently “impossible” and thus difficult to believe, such as the promise that Sarah would bear a child at a very advanced age. Sarah, the matriarch of Israel, laughs—she does not believe God (Genesis 18:12) (Abecassis 1996: 7‐14). God asks incomprehen‐ sible things, such as when he asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son (Genesis 22). And through it all he asks unconditional faith‐ fulness, loyalty, and obedience.
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Believing is listening to the Word that comes from else‐ where, but if we could just see God only once, would we not be redeemed from this unease in the depths of our soul? Still, the incarnation does not remove the restlessness—to the contrary. The incarnation does not allow itself to be estab‐ lished and proven either. God’s self‐revelation in Jesus Christ does not remove this restlessness (John 14:8). The idea that the transcendent God, the creator of heaven and earth, became in‐ carnate in the son of a Jewish carpenter, who died on the cross and rose on the third day, leans toward the absurd. Universal‐ ity and particularity come together in Christianity, but how can both be made to square with each other? The incarnation is a mystery of faith. In light of the plurality of religions, faith in the incarnation is even more difficult to digest. What can we do with a God who dwelled among people? It is not given to the believer to fathom the mystery of the incarnation. So God is at the same time too transcendent and not transcendent enough, too nearby and not nearby enough. Seeing God dwell among us is not a solution. c) Restlessness in a Spiritual Framework Faith is a theological virtue that is directed at perfection, but the human being can reach this perfection only through God’s grace. It is thus always possible for the believer to go astray here, either through thinking that he can resolve the restless‐ ness himself while needing grace to do so—this is the sin of pride—or by thinking that he can do nothing and that nothing is meaningful—this is the sin of despair. God is the one who de‐ constructs both our apparent autonomy and our acquiescence and irony into a sound realism (Houtepen 2006: 85). The biblical tradition does more than mention human rest‐ lessness and fragility and tell stories about them. It also has a tradition of spiritual prayer that brings “redemption.” God does not reject vulnerable people, does not condemn human fragility, and understands human restlessness. God opens him‐ self up for the people who turn to him in prayer. He does not demand that they seek solutions themselves for their unease or live alone with the pangs of that restlessness. Not only do people seek God; God seeks people. That is why God also re‐ joices when people turn to him. He never rejects the vulnerable person who presents him with his crushed and broken heart
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(Psalm 51:19). That is why the believer prays to God: “Do not hide your face from me when I am in distress. Turn your ear to me; when I call, answer me quickly” (Psalm 102:3). The believer turns to God in prayer from out the depths of a humble and contrite heart (Psalm 130:1). This becomes very clear if we turn to the tradition of the psalms. In the psalms people talk about the most divergent situa‐ tions of their lives, which are often also characterized by sor‐ row. They talk about deep human feelings, about happiness and misfortune, rest and unrest, loss and gain, love and hate, protection and danger (Tromp 2001: 11‐54). The psalms are of‐ ten true conversations about conflict with God (Janowski 2003). They are like windows to the human soul. They are prayers that are directed to God and offer a way out of the restlessness. We thus learn that the first step in relieving the soul and calming restlessness consists in calling on the Name of God (Waaijman 2004: 55‐67). The human being states his restlessness and seeks refuge in God, who is a protective shield (Psalm 5:12). Only when the person feels safe with God will his soul be at rest once again. From his prayer the believer draws strength to re‐enter the world and to do what he is called to do. And is it not pre‐ cisely because of prayer that the fragility does not break and that evil can find no purchase in the fragility of the human be‐ ing? Is it not so that the believer who directs himself to God in his despair finds hope? Is it not so that the believer who screams out his rage, calls for revenge, and asks God for help abandons taking revenge on his own? Is it not so that this spir‐ ituality of prayer keeps the restlessness from leading the be‐ liever astray? Is it not so that the believer finds perseverance in his prayer, so that he keeps to the path (Psalm 51)? The Fragility of Testimony in Interreligious Dialogue Depending on the context, “restlessness” can take different forms. Believing in God means standing in the midst of a field of tension, but each context displays a different tension. There is restlessness in confrontation with suffering, with the violence of nature, with injustice, with love and being in love, passion, rage, etc. Restlessness always has to do, however, with the hu‐ man experience that not everything is possible for humans, that they are small and fragile. Given that restlessness is part of be‐ ing human, it would be surprising if this did not play any role
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in the context of interreligious dialogue. Moreover, we have al‐ ready indicated that the experience of religious diversity cannot only be understood in terms of enrichment. There is no gain without loss. On the one hand, religious plurality entails the ex‐ perience of contingency. This is difficult to digest, certainly when a faith commitment implies a claim to universality. More‐ over, there is a risk of loss and contamination of meaning. One’s “own” meanings clash or mix with “strange” contexts and lose their original meaning or become distorted. This loss or contamination can cause pain and sorrow. What makes this all the more difficult for the believer is that it is never completely clear what God exactly expects in this context. God saddles human beings with contradictory ex‐ pectations that can be reconciled with one another only with difficulty. God demands faithfulness, commitment, loyalty. But this commitment goes in two directions: testimony on the one hand and openness on the other. God demands that his Word be proclaimed but at the same time we must open ourselves up to the strange other, for God reveals himself precisely where one must go to great lengths to recognize him (Genesis 18:1‐15). God reveals himself in the strange other but at the same time states that he is a jealous God who erupts in anger even when his “people” only glance at “other gods” (Exodus 34:14; cf. also Deuteronomy 4:24; Nahum 1:2). The believer must witness about God to the other but must at the same time be open to what the other might reveal about God. It is anything but a matter of course to reconcile both poles in the faith commit‐ ment. Christians are thus committed to someone who does not offer them any clear guidelines. The question of the exact rela‐ tionship between openness (hermeneutical hospitality) and commitment thus poses an unsolvable problem. And, therefore, believers who engage in interreligious dialogue must learn to live with a certain discomfort, unease, a feeling of falling short with respect to God and the religious other, without being able to state precisely how they are falling short (Orth 2004: 21). Is one too open or too closed? The experience of falling short without knowing exactly where or how one has fallen short makes the believer uneasy. We will elaborate on this idea below
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by exploring the entirely unique nature of the testimony of faith. In his article The Hermeneutics of Testimony Ricoeur devel‐ ops a semantics of testimony from which six characteristics can be derived (Ricoeur 1980: 119‐54). First, a testimony is always quasi‐empirical, i.e. the testimony is not the event itself but is what is told about the event. This is the content aspect of the testimony. Second, the testimony always occurs in a dialogical situation. It is a communicative treatment whereby a listener is involved. Third, the testimony presupposes a situation of con‐ flict. It is precisely because there is a dispute that it becomes necessary to provide a testimony. The witness attempts to con‐ vince others of what happened. Fourth, the testimony cannot be separated from the judgement. The outcome of the judgement is never certainty but probability based on a culmination of ar‐ guments. This brings us to the fifth characteristic: the risk inher‐ ent to any testimony. It can always be the case that a testimony is not believed. Not only does the witness testify about some‐ thing but she is also personally involved in the testimony. The specificity of testimony lies in the fact that the assertion of a reality at which the witness says he was present is paired with the self‐designation of the testifying subject. And this is part of a dialogical relation. The witness attests before someone to the reality of what is reported. The dia‐ logical structure of testimony immediately brings out its di‐ mension of trustworthiness. The witness asks to be be‐ lieved. (Ricoeur 2005: 131)
Sixth, the reliable witness is prepared to give her life for what she believes (Ricoeur 1980: 130). Her personal involvement in the testimony makes the witness particularly vulnerable (Ri‐ coeur 2005: 131). The risk of rejection reflects on the person her‐ self. If the testimony is not believed, the credibility of the wit‐ ness is actually placed in question. The most important difference between “ordinary” testi‐ mony and religious testimony is that the religious testimony does not belong to the witness. The believer testifies about a Word that comes from elsewhere and engages him. The initia‐ tive is taken elsewhere and the content also comes from else‐ where (Jansen 2002: 84). This becomes eminently clear if we look at the prophets who are God’s witnesses par excellence. The
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testimony of the prophet begins with “This is what the Lord says …” (e.g., Isaiah 44:6). But Jesus also tells his disciples that the meaning of that about which they testify partially escapes them (Acts 1:7‐8). This reorientation does not take anything away from the fact that the characteristics of ordinary testimony are preserved in the religious sphere. There is also a situation of conflict. Wit‐ nessing to one’s faith means that there are others who do not share this faith. It can be that others are open to it, interested, or averse and distrustful. To testify means to speak to others with conviction. That is also the case in the context of interreligious dialogue. The connection to the empirical is present in the testimony about God: “It is not possible to testify for a meaning without testifying that something has happened which signifies this meaning” (Ricoeur 1980: 133). One cannot testify about God if one does not testify about his liberating acts. The testimony of faith is always a testimony about what God has done. Beliefs cannot be grounded, but the testimony will none‐ theless not fail because of mistrust, even though this risk is al‐ ways present. The testimony gains power through the personal commitment of the witness to what he testifies on the one hand and the willingness of the witness to testify again if asked. The genuine testimony of faith presupposes commitment that is ex‐ pressed here in the witness’ faith. This faith is a “yes” that seals the covenant of a life that responds to the word that the Other addresses to the human being (Vergote 1984: 189‐90). The wit‐ ness gives power to the testimony by using his own person to back it up. The notion of “testimony” points to a fragile certainty, fra‐ gile in the sense that that certainty cannot be grounded in an ir‐ refutable way and can thus be constantly disputed. A testimony is fragile because there are no irrefutable criteria to decide its truth, fragile because of the risk of rejection. But the testimony does not fail because of a kind of sceptical uncertainty, for the believer herself is convinced and certain. And she gives power to her testimony by standing surety for her belief. The lack of a foundation is partially compensated by the sure and convinced commitment of the testimony.
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This semantics of testimony is particularly fruitful in view of interreligious dialogue. In interreligious dialogue, under‐ stood as a context of dispute and difference, adherents of differ‐ ent religions testify to their faith commitment, which is charac‐ terized by a strong existential significance: The dialogue is the space for authentic testimony—on both sides. Interreligious dialogue is not a coming together of scholars in religious studies who compare religions in a neutral and “objective” way with one another. Every true dialogue is in some deep sense “religious,” i.e. everyone may, indeed should, bring his faith commitment from the start to every dialogue encounter.... He must introduce him‐ self with that which he is and what he believes. (Sunder‐ meier 2000: 328)
Ricoeur’s semantics of testimony brings out both the trust with which people participate in interreligious dialogue and the vulnerability of people in their faith identity. Or, as he puts it: “Here to believe is to trust. With the testimony, it seems to me, the problem of truth coincides with that of truthfulness” (Ri‐ coeur 1994: 95). The witness wants to speak to and convince others. His motive is not egotistical—he is not defending his own inter‐ ests—nor altruistic—it is not his intention to please others. The witness is involved in something that transcends him and yet obligates him. He is engaged by something that precedes him and prompts him to speak. This personal involvement of the witness in that about which he is testifying makes him vulner‐ able. “At the same time recognition has something involuntary about it: it withdraws from my decision, happens ‘despite’ myself” (Visker 2005: 222). Testimonies are not directly intended to produce the hap‐ piness of recognition—that is a pleasant side effect. Nor are they directly concerned with avoiding injury. What the witness intends is that that to which he devotes his life and from which he draws hope can also move others. That is the reason why the recognition we wish to receive is essentially indirect. We feel appreciated if others appear to be struck by the significance of what we communicate al‐
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though this relates only indirectly to ourselves. (Burms 1990: 74)
The question of recognition cannot, therefore, be answered by giving that recognition because the other needs that for his self‐ image. That means that “the desire for recognition is only successful if both parties manage to ignore it and if it does not play a direct role in the interaction” (Burms 1990: 71‐72). Al‐ though people long for recognition, they also want this recog‐ nition to occur independently of this desire. From this perspec‐ tive, recognition is an act of grace, which is the reason for the immense gratitude whenever this happens. Recognition is an act of grace: it is the happiness of what is freely given (Ricoeur 2005: x). The witness is recognized or receives recognition (Ricoeur 2004: 138‐60). The risk of non‐recognition, therefore, cannot be excluded. God himself took this risk by speaking: God speaks, and by speaking—and this is important—He subjects Himself to all the misunderstanding that is part of using language. Whoever speaks can be misunderstood. Thus, the God of Israel is not a God who reigns, sits on His throne, and is silent. He speaks. And, actually, He thus makes Himself particularly vulnerable. For whoever speaks posits himself through speaking to someone opposite him who is a conversation partner and, as a result, allows this conversation partner the freedom to say yes and to listen or to say no and to reject him. It is an enormous risk that the God of Christianity and Judaism takes. That can be found nowhere else. (Danneels 2005: 18)
Christians speak because God spoke first, and the believer must run the same risk that God ran. Derailment: The Evil in Fragility Believers should be able to open themselves up to the religious other, knowing that that openness contains the possibility of re‐ jection. To do so requires a spiritual tour de force, for openness not only means the ability “to be affected” but also the possibil‐ ity of becoming hurt by the strange other. In light of that, we can understand how difficult it can be to open oneself up to the religious other. Hermeneutical hospitality is not a natural atti‐ tude. It is far from easy to make room for the strange in one’s
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own sphere. It is so difficult to encounter God in the strange, which fascinates us perhaps but also disturbs us, demands our attention when all we want is to look away, challenges us when we simply want to be left alone—this perspective can also be understood as believers having to search for themselves for a way to escape the tension, difficulties, and restlessness. The mo‐ ment believers themselves attempt a solution for what appears to be an unsolvable problem—i.e. the precise relationship be‐ tween openness and testimony—is the moment restlessness de‐ rails and fault finds a purchase. This derailment can go in one of two directions. On the one hand, it can go in the direction of a closedness whereby the at‐ tempt is made to “solve” the uneasy and uncomfortable ques‐ tions by answering them one‐sidedly and unequivocally and by avoiding dialogue with the religious other. On the other hand, there are situations in which the attempt is made to resolve the unease and restlessness by having the “balanceʺ swing toward too large an openness. Because of the fragility of the faith commitment to a God who is simultaneously transcendent and immanent, too remote and too near, too universal and too particular, the strange other is often experienced as a threat. Since our own relationship to God is partially hidden in darkness, the strange other can give us a particularly uncomfortable feeling. The confrontation with the religious other can cause us to forget who we are, where we come from, and where we are going, not to mention why. It can happen that the encounter with the religious other leads to a “involuntary doubt,” i.e. “hesitation in believing, difficulty in overcoming objections connected with the faith, or also anxiety aroused by its obscurity” (Catechism of the Catholic Church, §2088). Only a few believers are never affected by such doubts. The consequence is that we do not always look forward to en‐ countering the religious other. Hospitality is a theological call‐ ing: this means that it does not come naturally. In the literature on interreligious dialogue such negative feelings are linked spontaneously to claims of absolute truth and claims to superiority and normativity. That is true perhaps, but there is another possibility. Could it not be that “absolu‐ tism” is a way to be redeemed from the unrest caused by one’s own strangeness—a strangeness that is felt truly only in the en‐
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counter with the strange other? The believer is always already strange, but the strange other makes us aware of our own strangeness. The human being is never whole; she is always a wound. But this wound that the human being is is felt more strongly in certain situations. We need to recognize that with human fragility the desire for a certain and strong identity is rooted deeply in us (Ricoeur 1999). This desire flows from a lack of wholeness. Sometimes people want to be “at home” without being reminded of their own strangeness. The other is often, because of all those reasons, viewed as a threat (Ricoeur 1999). How tempting is it to reduce the other for the time being to a common denominator or, conversely, to blow him up into the meaningless strange other? How tempting is it then to for‐ malize the differences or to withdraw behind the closed doors of one’s own community? To protect my breakable, fragile identity, I am never at home enough by myself and I am never sufficiently safe and protected against the strange other. The balance can also swing in the other direction: too large an openness as a solution for the restlessness. If adherents of different religions no longer appear strange to one another but are fundamentally viewed as the same, then the restlessness and vulnerability will also be resolved. The other is no longer a threatening other but an enriching other. The other is not the enemy but a friend. The opposite of “demonizing” the other is “divinizing” him. The idea of openness gone astray is like translation gone astray. Interreligious dialogue is the place where the believer both witnesses to his faith and is called to hospitality. Witnessing in the context of interreligious dialogue entails translation. The be‐ liever attempts to make his own faith comprehensible to those of other faiths. Somewhere the idea exists that we can explain our witness well enough to someone of another faith so that positive recognition follows. If the other can recognize himself in our testimony, then there will no longer be any risk of re‐ jection. The strangeness is resolved; the vulnerability is no long‐ er present. But a translation that is too open does not say any‐ thing in the end. Then openness for the “language” of the other betrays “the particularity” of one’s own faith language. Then open becomes too open.
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Balm for the Soul: The Generosity of the Feast The theme of human restlessness has not been discussed much in theology of religions and interreligious dialogue. The none‐too‐hidden assumption is that interlocutors are transparent to themselves, if not to the other, and the diffi‐ culty in communication will be overcome once the “right” language has been learned and the other becomes more fa‐ miliar. (Barnes 2002: 23)
It seems to be presupposed that it is possible theologically to find the right dosage for the tensive dialogical relationship. That dosage is not present yet, but it should be possible to find it. The idea is that if we get our theology and doctrines “in order” we can then take a clear position regarding the relation‐ ship between openness and closedness. As should be clear from the above, I do not agree with this line of thought. Unsolvable problems are always difficult to live with: pow‐ erlessness is what people fear the most. If it is indeed so that restlessness is difficult to bear, could it not be that the search for solutions is a way of not acknowledging the restlessness? Could it not be that theology is actually avoiding the confrontation with restlessness? The desire for a definitive solution—the cor‐ rect theological interpretation of religious plurality and, in con‐ nection with that, the correct understanding of the relationship between openness and closedness—is a desire to be redeemed from restlessness. Anything is better than a feeling of power‐ lessness. We can add this: Could it be that the literature on inter‐ religious dialogue purposely ignores human fragility because of the fear that a theology that focuses too much on this could give occasion for an attitude of resignation—a kind of laisser‐faire— fragility as a theological excuse for a non‐dialogical attitude? If we cannot solve the problem between openness and closedness, then we will not do anything: fragility as the end of interreli‐ gious dialogue. Is searching for a solution better than doing nothing? This analysis is wrong. It is not because theology of reli‐ gions does not discuss the insolvability of the tensive dialogical relationship that the restlessness has disappeared. Those who deny this problem still have to deal with it. Moreover, not men‐
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tioning the discomfort is precisely what paves the way to de‐ railment. Not acknowledging the problem paves the way for going towards one of the extremes—too open or too closed. Wherever the restlessness is not acknowledged, there the evil of derailment can gain a purchase. But it is not because theology cannot “solve” a problem that it cannot do anything and is powerless. The theological mention of restlessness is already a first way of dealing with this problem. By citing the problem people are no longer left alone, and the possibility of going astray is limited. Restlessness is an expression of the here and now, caught in the tension between the already and the not yet. Learning to live with tension is part of a true encounter—with both God and the other (Barnes 2000: 71). This means that the attempt to take vulnerability “out of the game” or, better, the attempt to move “shock‐free through the interreligious encounter” will end, willy‐nilly, in an indifference to the difference. In the here and now there is no way out of the fragmentation. Restlessness must be placed within the theological frame‐ work of hope. Without that horizon, one can refer correctly to a pessimistic anthropology. The eschatological hope is utopian. But this utopia does not evoke “acquiescence” but is rather a stimulus for the here and now. The basic attitude of hope, on the one hand, encourages the Christian not to lose sight of the final goal which gives meaning and value to life, and on the other, offers solid and profound reasons for a daily commitment to transform real‐ ity in order to make it correspond to God’s plan. (John Paul II 1994)
Already in the here and now people can sample the future recon‐ ciliation—a reconciliation that will not arrive through people alone but on which they can and must work. The fact that interreligious dialogue happens is a sign of what is possible. That hope must be cultivated even more and made “tangi‐ ble” in the here and now. Thus, theology must search for loci of wholeness that function in our time as a kind of foretaste of what is yet to come. People also draw courage from there in order to endure their restlessness on the one hand and to dare to engage in encounter on the other.
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We thus search for a locus where (1) the restless and wrest‐ ling heart can find rest for a time; (2) people can be recognized; (3) mutual trust can grow; (4) there is room to acknowledge one’s own fallibility; (5) one can sample the reconciliation that is still to come; (6) people can also find the strength, against the horizon of hope, not to surrender the space between adherents of different religions but, to the contrary, to attempt constantly to live up to the calling of hermeneutical hospitality. Specific‐ ally, we think that feasts can be such a locus. The notion of feast is related to the tradition of hospital‐ ity—a tradition on which we reflected in the previous chapter in connection with hermeneutical openness. Nonetheless, we did not look at the ritual and symbolic power of hospitably re‐ ceiving the stranger at our table. This means making room in one’s own home for the other. Interreligious dialogue stands or falls with signs of hospitality. A dialogue that is not grafted on to a practice of hospitality lacks authenticity. By being hospita‐ ble to the other, one makes connections and acknowledges the other to be someone with whom one wants to remain connected in the future. Hospitality is a religious virtue, because God pre‐ sents himself via strangers. The guest can always be a mes‐ senger of God. In the context of interreligious dialogue hospi‐ tality shows itself in very concrete things, such as providing ko‐ sher food for Jewish guests, dealing carefully with Jewish feasts, not scheduling any talks, lectures, etc. on the Sabbath. Although the notion of feast shows clear affinity with hospi‐ tality, we think that that the notion of feast is symbolically richer than hospitality. That is why we emphasize festive hospi‐ tality or the hospitality of the feast. The notion of feast has all the ingredients to function as a peaceful locus of recognition and as a kind of foretaste of the es‐ chatological reconciliation hoped for. Feasts have, after all, a proleptic meaning. Moreover, feasts engage the physical human being. Interreligious dialogue is not purely a matter of, for, and by the intellect. The feast is a place where connections are made, tightened, and strengthened. But at the same time it tempor‐
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arily puts a halt to something, i.e. the dialogue of the under‐ standing. In the feast people also acknowledge that there is something greater than themselves and they confirm that they cannot “solve” the challenges of interreligious dialogue them‐ selves. At the same time, the feast is the place where people can experience that which cannot be thought. In that way the feast is situated in the realm of the imagination and refers to what could be. To work these reflections out more, we will first place the notion of feast in a broad existential framework, in which we will define its most important characteristics. We will then ex‐ plain the biblical understanding of feasts, with reference to the dimension of hope. We will end this explanation by arguing that an interreligious theology that confirms the “virtue of her‐ meneutical hospitality” must also practice festive hospitality. The Concept of Feast in a Broad Existential Framework We will distinguish between three characteristics of feasts: (1) the feast as a moratorium on the everyday; (2) the feast as an event that places people in a larger context that transcends them and acknowledges the smallness and fragility of the hu‐ man being; (3) the feast as something that belongs to the im‐ aginative sphere of utopia. a) The Feast as a Moratorium on the Everyday A feast is a moratorium on the everyday (Marquard 1989: 654‐ 91; Deile 2004: 1‐19). During a feast people become involved in a ritual and artificially delimited time and space and place themselves in an order that differs from the everyday. Ac‐ cording to Jan Assmann, everyday time is characterized by: (1) accident, contingency, incalculable events, (2) lack, from which human desire and striving flows (i.e. also conflict and struggle), and (3) routine: the constant return of the familiar and the or‐ dinary. One can also speak of an inclination to see the world as identical to one’s own view of it (Assmann 1991: 14), i.e. that people are inclined in everyday life to lapse into familiar pat‐ terns. (1) The feast is distinguished from accident and contingen‐ cy because it has a ritual character and can thus be repeated. Feasts that occur only once are a contradiction in terms. A feast is a rite, not a routine (Assmann 1991: 16‐17). Even though feasts are characterized by exuberance, enthusiasm, and spon‐
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taneity, they do have method and order. Feasts demand a great deal of preparation. Each feast has a specific place, space, oc‐ casion, suitable clothing, specific actions, a time to begin and a time to end, etc. The exuberance of the feast does not mean the absence of rules. (2) The feast creates a distance to the everyday understood as cares, work, struggle. The daily struggle is suspended temp‐ orarily, and people regain their strength. Unlike the everyday world, the feast is characterized by abundance and generosity. The abundance of food and drink, as well as of dancing and music, is supported by the exuberance of those present. People let themselves go. The feast intensifies what daily life reduces (Assmann 1991: 16). That is why it can also be said that the feast points to the fullness of existence and those at the feast point out that everyday life is not the be all and end all of reality. The break with the everyday is both expressed and established in special practices. Thus, those at the feast will dress festively. Coming to a feast without appropriate clothing can be an ex‐ pression of contempt. It says that people do not want to share in the joy of the feast and to leave the sphere of the everyday. Those at the feast also bring gifts to thank and acknowledge their host. The break with routine is also apparent from the ex‐ uberance of those at the feast. (3) Because the feast occurs outside the sphere of the every‐ day, it is the space par excellence for otherness. The ritual char‐ acter of the feast breaks through the routine of the everyday and opens those attending the feast to the surplus of reality. There is more than the known and the familiar. The feast is het‐ erotopic: there is space for otherness and others (Assmann 1989: 13‐30). “The feast is the place of the other. Feasts makes places available where the other, which has disappeared in everyday life, can occur. This other does not happen as a matter of course but must be arranged” (Assmann and Sundermeier 1991: 7). During the feast the silence is broken, the loneliness forgotten, and people are open to the other and others (Nauta 1995: 99). b) The Feast and the Cosmic Dimension of Existence The feast finds its origin perhaps in the confrontation of people with forces that they cannot control and events that are larger than them. It is a human answer to the amazement, joy, fear, sorrow that falls to them in confrontation with the overwhelm‐
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ing character of certain events. We can state that the feast places people in the context of the cosmic dimension of existence. [The human being] attempted to placate the spirits, to force the benevolence of the gods through sacrifices and to in‐ voke the help of supernatural beings through prayer and song, to suppress the evil forces through purification rituals and incantations. The small human being in his confronta‐ tion with the (creative) power and (destructive) violence of the cosmos senses the sacral character of life: that which transcends him. He senses the limitation of his own ability and invokes the aid of power forces and supernatural be‐ ings that control the sacral character. And after success he will express his gratitude in sacrifice and song, in prayer and dance. (Haemers 1999: 18)
In the feast people affirm that there are dimensions to existence that transcend them, over which they have no control. Al‐ though this idea is disappearing in our secularized society, the feast is thus characterized by the cosmic dimension of existence. In the feast time and space are freed for the worship of the “gods” (Pieper 1952: 72). By participating in feasts people become related not only to themselves but also to that which is larger and greater than them. It is an occasion where the human being can acknowl‐ edge that there are dimensions beyond his power and control. Thus, the human can acknowledge his own smallness and fra‐ gility in the light of all that transcends him. Here on earth we are all included in a play of forces that both involves us with one another—we need one another—and sets us against one another. We affirm that what drives us to one another will cause conflict time and again. In the feast the human being recognizes the tension be‐ tween his destiny on the one hand and that which he normally achieves on the other. It is the place where he, in the midst of all that abundance, which refers to the fullness of existence, can ac‐ knowledge that he often falls short in ordinary life. Thus, the feast is the place where the human being can acknowledge his own fallibility: In their exuberance and abundance feasts critique ordinary life, but they make the ordinary bearable as well. Feasts say
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c) The Feast as Utopia Not only does the feast create space for otherness (heterotopia), the acknowledgement of human fallibility, and the destiny of the human being in the larger whole, the feast is also utopian. Here an affinity between the feast and the imagination becomes visible. The imagination is the locus where people are free to transcend themselves and to open themselves up to the other. The imagination leads us away from the world of factual reality to the world of the possible. Because of imagination, it is pos‐ sible for the reader to see himself differently and to enter the world of the text. It is a kind of laboratory where scores of vari‐ ations of one’s own identity can be attempted. The merging with the horizon of the everyday is broken and pulled open not only by the imagination but also by the feast. Sometimes the everyday world is too narrow, is inclined to cherish the known. In this respect feasts provide a certain compensation (Assmann 1991: 16‐17). The feast cancels the rules of ordinary life; it offers room for what is rejected as im‐ possible in the everyday world to happen. Over against the “cannot” of ordinary life the feast posits possibility. In a certain sense we could say that the feast creates the imagination: it shows what could be. “In celebration there seems to be no lim‐ its to what is possible” (Nauta 1995: 99). Or, better, that which people considered to be impossible in daily life becomes possible in the feast. In that sense the feast also displays correspond‐ ences with the imagination that also allows one to abandon the world of the known and familiar and to enter the world of the possible. But what does the feast imagine? Although there are very many different feasts, each with its own space, rules, reasons
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for existence, and guests, the feast is always a place of solidar‐ ity. The conflictual character of everyday life is acknowledged in the feast but also suspended temporarily. There is solidarity among those at the feast. What often seems to fail in the ordin‐ ary world is possible in a festive context: being together in sol‐ idarity. In that way hospitality acquires the sense of a celebra‐ tion. Victor Turner speaks of a communitas experience (Turner 1966: 96). Close connections are created, damaged connections are repaired, and existing connections are strengthened. The special sphere of solidarity is effected by, among other things, the abundance present at feasts. Every feast includes a great deal of eating and drinking. Without that, a feast would be a contradiction in terms. The abundance of food also contrib‐ utes to the solidarity among the guests. Eating and drinking together creates friendship every‐ where. The meal at a feast is the concluding climax of a suc‐ cessful overture between strange families, tribes, and coun‐ tries. That is also the case with us. (Greschat 1980: 29‐39)
Celebrating together creates solidarity and community. Eating and drinking together loosens the tongue and everyone can speak with everyone. Nowhere am I present with others and at the same time myself as during a feast (Sundermeier 1996). The importance of eating and drinking also points to the fact that a feast involves the whole person and not only his intellect. At a feast the human being is a physical being, involved in it with all his senses. To feast is to taste, smell, touch, hear, and see (Ford 1999: 267). Here one tastes and smells otherness. Is it so strange then to suggest that people learn to listen to another during the feast, learn to see with the eyes of the heart? That people, touching one another, understand that all are included in the play of forces that life is? The feast shows us a reality that is not yet but can be seen. In that sense the feast also belongs to the optative mood. It is important that the feast be done when it is done, but the mem‐ ories of the feast continue to have an effect. “The human being who remembers the ‘other time,’ reflects on his belonging to a comprehensive community” (Assmann 1991: 25). The contrast between the daily order and the feast continues to have a crit‐ ical effect. The feast confirms the daily sphere as struggle and conflict but also shows that it can be otherwise. The feast cre‐
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ates a space of trust and solidarity, and the memory of this gives people the strength not to give the struggle the last word and also to strive in the daily sphere for mutual recognition and dialogue. They are moments when life can receive a different direction and can be renewed in trust. Feasts give a view of paradise. In that respect they are am‐ biguous. At the same time they critique the ordinary and serve as a foundation for the everyday. They refer to the emptiness of ordinary life but also confirm the meaning of everyday existence. In an ambiguous way they refer in their symbolism of death and resurrection, of becoming and per‐ ishing to the creation and recreation of the world, to the genesis and renewal of life. (Nauta 1995: 100)
In this respect, not only does the feast suspend everyday life, but it also has the power to transform everyday life and the re‐ lationships within it. d) The Threat of the Everyday The phenomenology of feast given above shows primarily its positive sides and the way in which it revitalizes reality and gives people hope and thus strength to give a new turn to the everyday where necessary. Before we explore the place feast has in the Bible and what role feast can play in the context of in‐ terreligious dialogue, we should look at the question if the nature of a feast is as obvious as sketched above. Certainly in light of our earlier reflections on hospitality as a difficult virtue and the idea that the strange (religious) other is not self‐ evidently welcome in one’s own sphere we can ask if the above view of feasts is not too optimistic. Or, in other words, has our focus on utopia not led us to lose sight of reality too much? The relationship of the feast to everyday life is, indeed, much more complex than sketched above. It is not only so that the feast suspends everyday reality, it is also the case phenom‐ enologically that the feast is constantly confronted with the threat of everyday. The feast as well is characterized by fra‐ gility. This threat is apparent from the fact that also during the feast solidarity and making room for otherness is far from being a matter of course. There are four reasons for this. First, feasts can also exclude; they divide as much as they bring together (Nauta 1995: 103). This division occurs not only
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between those who are invited and those who are not but also among those present. People can feel excluded during the feast, have the feeling that it is too much, that they are exhibiting bad style, that they are not able to find a place for themselves any‐ where, etc. (Weitman 1973: 217‐38). For some, simply the thought of a feast causes them to shudder. In this respect the feast also proves to be ambiguous: it can lead to the confirma‐ tion of one’s own closed circle as well as to crossing the boun‐ dary of the familiar and the known. Second, a feast often results in a magnification of differ‐ ences, regardless of whether they are social, cultural, or reli‐ gious in nature, which can stand in the way of the solidarity be‐ tween those present at the feast. The feast can also be the oc‐ casion for conflicts, irritation, jealousy, etc. One only has to look at family parties to see this. From this perspective we can in‐ deed ask to what extent it is plausible to expect that the feast can create something like solidarity among strangers. Third, feasts can also be problematic with respect to their coercive character. They obligate people to participate in the joy of the feast (Bringeus 1978: 101‐03). Someone at a feast with a sour face or someone who does not feel like wishing anyone the best for the new year or begins to cry at a happy announcement is not only viewed as spoiling the fun but is actually distancing himself from the feast. The normative character of the feast re‐ sists this kind of behaviour, perhaps also because it reminds one too much of the everyday. It is not unusual that this norma‐ tivity produces a “great hidden sadness” (Nauta 1995: 102). This brings us to the next and fourth qualification. We have said that the feast is distinguished from the everyday as a heterotopia. That which does not seem possible or conceived in everyday life can be possible during the feast. In light of the above reflections, we must also recognize that the feast can be disappointing, for how often does it not happen that the every‐ day struggle is continued precisely in the feast? The reality of the feast makes people vulnerable, touches them in their weakness. Hoping for a better life, the feast unexpectedly appears to be nothing else than the already known. Instead of effecting openness and surrender, uncer‐ tainty increases, uncertainty about one’s own value and about the supportive power of the community to which one
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Without wanting to trivialize these objections, we never‐ theless hold that they do not destroy the power of the feast. It is not because feasts are not a matter of course that they would therefore no longer be important. To the contrary. Precisely the fact that feasts are not a matter of course confirms the need for them, because otherwise the everyday can no longer be inter‐ rupted and suspended and the utopian dimension of the pos‐ sible would disappear. It is precisely the pressure of the struggle and the conflict of everyday life, which also threatens to be carried over into the feast, that underscore the importance of temporal and spatial loci of rest and suspension, of reconcili‐ ation and solidarity—even though it is not stated that the feast will succeed. Not to feast would give the struggle the last word. Not to feast is to give up and means that people accept the given situation in resignation. With respect to the fear of people to engage in a feast, be‐ cause of their vulnerability and the uncontrollability of the feast, we will make two comments. First, this objection has to do with what we stated above about human fragility. Not only is it indeed so that people are vulnerable, we also stated that this vulnerability is confirmed precisely in the feast. It belongs to the nature of the feast that people acknowledge their own smallness, breakability, and fragility in the light of the cosmic dimension present in the feast. We cannot do it alone. Second, we hold that giving up the feast is the wrong answer to human vulnerability. Not to feast is an expression of not wanting to acknowledge human fragility. The avoidance of a feast is, again, a kind of turning one’s head away from the fact that peo‐ ple cannot do everything on their own. It is not giving up feasts that is the appropriate answer to human fragility but the ac‐ knowledgement of such in the feast. A feast becomes power‐ fully utopian, connecting, and heterotopic when people ac‐ knowledge their own shortcomings (without knowing precisely what it is in which they fall short), their own imperfections (without having a precise image of perfection), and their own
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finitude. That is why feasts require faith and hope; where feasts disappear, hope will disappear as well. With that dimension of hope we now turn to biblical theology, where the feast is situ‐ ated within the horizon of hope. The Feast as a Biblical Theme: The Inclusive Table Commmunity and the Historical Jesus The idea that the feast refers to a future reconciliation is a well‐ known biblical theme that can be found in both the first and second testaments. On the one hand, the feast is a hymn of praise to God and thus an expression of hope, love, and trust. It is a theological duty to feast! It is to confirm trust in God above doubt. And the feast must be characterized by exuberance and abundance (Deuteronomy 16:15). To eat and to drink is to celebrate the goodness of God’s creation: “Taste and see that the Lord is good” (Psalm 34:8). The abundance of the feast praises the gen‐ erosity of God. Eating and drinking together is a way to witness to the measureless generosity of God. Each person gives to the extent that God has blessed her (Deuteronomy 16:17). Because the feast is connected with God’s creation, it also refers to the universality of God’s love. In light of creation it is important to refer to the fact that, theologically speaking, the feast not only creates solidarity but also already presupposes it. As imago Dei, people are already bound to one another in their creatureliness and geared to one another, even though that cannot be noticed very much in reality. That is why the feast also extends beyond the borders of one’s own community to strangers3 (Deuterono‐ 3
In chapter 6 we pointed out that Israel distinguished between the stranger as ger, i.e., the stranger in their midst, and strangers as nokri en zar, the strangers who are found outside of Israel. The passages in the First Testament that speak of feasts with strangers have in mind the first category, the ger. This confirms again that, just like hospitality, the feast with strangers in that category is not self‐evident either. It also confirms what we stated above in connection with our critical remarks, i.e. that feasts also exclude and that feasts often lead to solidarity with one’s own rather than with the strange. That the feast is not a matter of course can also, just like hospitality, be connected on the one hand to the fact that it is anything but easy to receive the strange (religious) other. On the other hand, it also points to the ethical dimension of hospitality and the feast: the other is indeed also the vulnerable other who can be excluded. It is precisely the fact the feast is not self‐evident that confirms the human
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my 14:22‐29; 16:10‐17).4 The feast means responding to God’s loving and generous gift of life by giving to others and in that way expanding the community at “specified times” (Deuteron‐ omy 14:22‐29). On the other hand, the feast is what is called a proleptic act in theology. This means that the feast contains a foretaste here and now of what will come at the eschaton. Re‐ conciliation is not yet and is therefore expected, but the hope of final reconciliation can also be experienced here and now. The tension between the here and now and the escha‐ tological hope implies the acknowledgement of the uncontrol‐ lable and unmanageable dimension of interpersonal and, in particular, interreligious relationships. Up until now we have been in the here and now. Redemption has not yet arrived. To speak about the here and now is also to acknowledge that we, people, cannot do it alone. Reconciliation presupposes the grace of God. But the feast is a way to entice and provoke God’s grace. In the feast Christians invite God to make his grace tan‐ gible and thus to allow Christians to experience what is possible. Eschatological hope is a stimulus that induces people to contribute to that now. In celebrating together, people praise God and imagine the final reconciliation. Refreshing themselves at this horizon of hope, believers also find the strength now to work on that reconciliation. This becomes clear when we look at the life of the earthly Jesus. Characteristic of Jesus’ earthly life is that he regularly ac‐ cepted invitations for “dinner.” Jesus travelled around with his disciples without any fixed abode (Luke 9:58) and was therefore “dependent” to a certain extent on the hospitality of others.5 fragility of the self and the vulnerability of the other. 4
Deuteronomy 16 talks about the feast of unleavened bread, the feast of weeks, and the feast of tabernacles. Strangers are invited to each of these feasts as well. 5
Jesus and his disciples travelled around and did not have any fixed address. To follow Jesus the disciples had to abandon their homes. It was not unusual in first‐century Palestine that “teachers” were invited to people’s homes. This was certainly the case with Hillel and Shammai, two of Jesus’ contemporaries. According to Koenig “these teachers were not rich in material goods—Hillel is said to have worked for a time as a day laborer—but they did have Torah wisdom to offer, and so it was common for them to be invited into the homes of people who wanted to
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Aside from John, the different gospel writers relate that Jesus was a guest of Pharisees, sinners, and tax collectors. These stor‐ ies refer to memories about the historical Jesus. Luke writes how Jesus accepted the invitation of a Pharisee three times (Luke 7:36‐50; 11:37‐52; 14:1‐24). Levi as well, a tax collector, gave a large banquet for Jesus. Jesus was reproached for being “a glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and ‘sin‐ ners’” (Matthew 11:19; Luke 7:34). This image of Jesus is also confirmed in the gospel of Mark and is the reason why F. O’Collins gave Jesus the title of The Man Who Came to Dinner (O’Collins 2005: 172). By eating with tax collectors and sinners Jesus also brings a message of community and solidarity: “Jesus uses food to communicate his acceptance of all types of people” (Brawley 1995: 29). It is, however, primarily the evangelist Luke who imagines the hope of an inclusive community via the feast. The notion of the communitas also appears here (Luke 14:22). Luke empha‐ sizes strongly the universality of the Christian message. By eating with those who live on the margins Jesus breaks through the structures of society and shows what is possible (Luke 14:7‐ 11). God’s measureless and abundant love is expressed in the here and now in the generosity of the feast. Here it is striking that Jesus does not limit this feast to his own disciples but also extends it to the area of the “extra‐ordinary,” i.e. the “extra‐ ordinary” stranger. The heterotopic character of the feast here truly breaks through the known and accepted social structures. And precisely for that reason Jesus is viewed with suspicion, for there is a great difference between eating with his disciples and with the Pharisees on the one hand and eating with those who live on the margins and are strange on the other. But Jesus is not only a guest in the houses of others. He al‐ so takes on the role of host: “Blessed is the man who will eat at the feast in the kingdom of God” (Luke 14:15).6 In this invi learn. In exchange for food and lodging they taught members of the household and their friends.… In many ways Jesus conformed to this model of the travelling wisdom teacher and was almost certainly invited to share his learning at table” (Koenig 1974: 17). 6
Matthew 22:1‐14 tells a similar parable. The major difference between Luke and Matthew is that the former underscores universality, whereas the latter places the emphasis much more on the idea that
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tation Jesus recalls the vision of Isaiah which tells of a Messianic banquet that God will give for all people on Mount Zion. Isaiah’s view inspired him perhaps (Wildberger 1977: 373). This vision, which follows the description of the destruction of the old order of violence and pride, depicts how God now reigns on Mount Zion. Yahweh gives a feast in connection with his ascension to the throne (Isaiah 24:23). As is constantly the case with feasts, there is an abundance of food and drink (Deuter‐ onomy 14:26). This banquet is an act of generosity and abun‐ dance. It is a celebration because God is the saviour (Isaiah 25:9). The feast means the affirmation of existence. It is a hymn of praise to God. It is also important that this feast create a com‐ munity. All people are invited to this banquet. The theme of the inclusive community that extends to all is repeated later in Isai‐ ah (Isaiah 56:7; 60; 66:18) (Brawley 1995: 17). This community exists not only among those who are invited; it also reflects a certain intimacy and familiarity with God (Wodebecki 1989: 42). Jesus presents himself as the one who will give the banquet at the end of time (Léonard 1982: 119). “He is God’s travelling householder (oiodepotēs), inviting every Israelite to the banquet of the kingdom ([Luke] 14,16‐24)” (Koenig 1974: 91). The idea of one great feast community is central. Feasting together is thus not only a song of praise to God but also a foretaste of what is still to come. “The messianic banquet of tomorrow can be preactualized today” (Peters 1978: 504). The Kingdom of God is like a moveable feast, a moving banquet hall that seeks the people of Israel as guests and hosts. At this table they may find reconciliation with one an‐ other, as well as a true home and plenty that fills them up and propels them toward sharing relationships with their neighbors. (Koenig 1974: 42)
By having a feast in the here and now the reconciliation that will occur in the hereafter is imagined, which gives people the strength to work at this hope step by step in everyday life and by trial and error. Hope is stronger than despair. To the question Why give? Why feasts? the biblical‐Christian tradition answers that the response to God’s loving gift con‐ cerns passing it on to others. Because we have received more “many are invited, but few are chosen” (Matthew 22:14).
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than we deserve, we give more than we must. The logic of abundance that characterizes the feast is rooted in the Christian tradition in the sense that we must give because life is given to us. In the feast the fullness of life is celebrated. God loves to be loved, thus let us love one another in the feast. Does this re‐ move the conflict? No. Does this make the fragility of human life disappear? No here as well. But the sense that God has done more for human beings (logic of abundance) than they deserve also offers them the power to do more than they must (logic of equivalence), and in that way people already work here and now on the hoped for reconciliation. Christian Identity and Feasts with Adherents of Other Religions “Christian identity” is not something that Christians “have” and can “preserve, protect, and hold fast” like a kind of deposit of faith. Christians are characterized by faith, hope, and extend‐ ing love to the world and others. It is not up to Christians to impose limits on God’s activity in creation. Moreover, the bib‐ lical tradition tells us that God reveals himself in the strange other, a tradition on which hermeneutical hospitality rests. Christian identity can never imply isolation, but always implies the search for a community, even if such can never be achieved definitively here and now. How should koinonia be realized now? What significance does it have? One is to hold on to: Theology may never iso‐ late itself. It always seeks the exchange, it seeks brothers and sisters, however differently they may think. Indeed, precisely because they think differently, we must come to‐ gether and learn from one another. (Sundermeier 1994: 307)
But hermeneutical hospitality presupposes that people are prepared to share a table with others. The shared space be‐ comes a sacramental space through eating and drinking toge‐ ther. The generosity of understanding, we could say, presup‐ poses the generosity of festive hospitality. This ritual framing is thus not secondary to interreligious dialogue but shows pre‐ cisely that, despite the real differences, the misunderstandings, possible injuries, and the non‐recognition of the religious other, a choice is made for solidarity in the hopeful expectation of final reconciliation. Making room for the religious other is not
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simply a question of the understanding. Only when the ad‐ herent of another religion is recognized as a table companion is hermeneutical openness also theologically meaningful. Chris‐ tians are called, aided and supported by the Spirit, to work on solidarity and reconciliation with all people. The feast is also a pre‐eminent expression of this calling as a constitutive contribu‐ tion to this hope. In light of the above reference to human fragility, this is not a solidarity that removes or, more strongly, wipes out real differences—differences of opinion and conflicts. Rather, it is a solidarity in which people remain conscious of their differences. On the one hand, people acknowledge in the feast that they will not bring interreligious strife to an end, but, on the other, also acknowledge that this strife does not mean the end of sol‐ idarity. Even though we cannot produce appreciation for all re‐ ligious particularities, we nevertheless want to enter into a re‐ lationship with all adherents of other religions. The feast ac‐ knowledges both the continuity and discontinuity. Christians must learn not only to invite adherents of other religions hospitably and to offer feasts but also to be guests at feasts that others give for them. The rejection of an invitation is a rejection of a mutual relationship. The hope for reconciliation can be taken seriously only if it is set out in a symbolic way in time and space. We think that the celebration together of adher‐ ents of different religions can give the strength and hope to work on solidarity in everyday life as well in the understanding that, for now, it is not yet. For in the feast people acknowledge their fragility on the one hand and, on the other, draw the strength to enter the fragile hermeneutical space in which inter‐ religious dialogue occurs in the hope of the final reconciliation. There is reason to celebrate only if we respect and acknowledge the weakness of ourselves and others. But then there is also a real reason to celebrate. Frans Van Steenbergen Barmhartigheid, dat is de grote liefde (Mercy: That is Great Love)
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Index of Subjects betrayal ............... 229‐30, 235‐ 36, 276, 277, 278 Bible .................. 16, 17, 43, 116, 125‐26, 133, 136, 157, 176, 182, 184‐86, 197, 201, 210, 245‐46, 262, 269, 280, 306 biblical world ............ 125, 137, 166, 178, 184, 185, 205
absolutism ............. 60, 75, 80, 83, 90, 96 absorption ......... 86, 122, 136, 167, 174, 180, 184‐85, 188, 213, 214, 231, 234, 239, 262, 283, 286 activism ..................... 109, 268 Ad Gentes .................... 13, 183 anthropology ....... 3, 9, 20, 22, 25, 29, 53, 57, 81, 107‐08, 111, 152, 176, 179, 180, 184‐87, 192, 247, 248, 260, 261, 263, 267, 279, 280, 282, 284, 286, 299 optimistic ...... 25, 57, 267 pessimistic ........... 20, 22, 53, 81, 176, 186, 299 theological ....... 152, 179, 184, 279, 280, 284, 286 voluntarist ....... 107, 152, 180 antithesis ................... 235, 264 apologetics ................ 79, 142, 159, 193 ad hoc .............. 159, 193 appreciation ....... 5, 47, 48, 53, 56, 73, 74, 81, 82, 172, 181 263, 314
categorial adequacy ... 138‐40, 154, 159 certainty ............. 52‐56, 72, 81, 239, 260, 287, 292, 293, 307 character ....................... 250‐53 Christ .............. 1, 12, 14‐25, 27, 30‐33, 39, 43, 45, 51‐54, 58‐61, 63‐64, 66, 81‐83, 85, 88, 90‐91, 100, 101, 112, 115‐18, 122, 141, 144, 145, 150‐52, 154, 155, 159, 168‐69, 171, 179‐80, 182‐ 84, 190‐92, 194, 218, 246, 260, 265, 270, 274, 289 Christology ........ 20, 21, 24, 25, 34, 53, 61, 82, 152, 168 Trinitarian ....... 24, 61, 82 closedness .................. 6, 38, 47, 65, 81, 86‐87, 91, 92, 96, 98, 99, 103, 149, 153, 171, 186, 214, 217, 219, 234, 235, 239, 246, 262, 264, 273, 279, 280, 283, 296, 298 commitment .............. 1‐4, 6, 8, 18, 44, 45, 47, 48, 52, 54,
Babel ........ 197, 201‐11, 213‐14, 216‐19, 227 as blessing ....... 206, 210, 213, 215‐18, 221 as curse ............ 197, 201, 204‐06, 216 dispersion ........ 197, 201, 202, 204, 206‐10, 216, 217
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56, 59, 72‐74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 86, 90, 103, 110‐16, 118‐20, 128, 163, 164, 170, 191, 197, 200, 219, 226, 230, 232, 247, 254‐57, 261, 265, 269, 272‐76, 277, 278, 291‐94, 296, 299 common ground .......... 67, 75, 76, 78, 84, 86, 91, 92, 96, 97, 99‐101, 119, 142, 146‐ 48, 150, 160, 163, 219, 230 complementarity ........... 1, 27, 51, 62, 63, 69, 76, 82, 108, 166, 170, 199, 268, 274 conflict .............. 42, 91, 92, 95, 97, 128, 166, 170, 260, 290, 292, 293, 301, 303, 305, 308, 313 consensus ... 17, 136, 214, 217, 219, 258, 268, 274 continuity ................ 52‐56, 63‐ 65, 81, 82, 87, 98, 100, 101, 134, 149, 166, 170, 177, 180, 181, 183, 191, 195, 196, 198, 200, 222, 234, 236, 249, 253, 314 correlation .... 25, 64, 123, 132, 136, 170, 222 creation ....... 20, 21, 28, 43, 52, 78, 129, 154, 176, 180‐86, 188, 189, 192‐94, 198, 201, 206‐09, 212, 213, 216‐19, 225, 242, 246, 256, 260, 267, 272, 284‐86, 306, 309, 313 crossing over ....................... 60 cultural crisis ............ 122, 135 cultural‐linguistic theory ............. 7, 8, 121‐22, 124, 127‐28, 132‐35, 138, 140,
142, 146, 148, 153, 154, 157, 159, 160, 161‐64, 172‐ 76, 179, 187, 189, 191, 194, 195, 201, 205, 210, 217‐22, 225, 226, 232, 240‐ 42, 273 derailment .................. 280, 284 dialogical tension ..... 1‐4, 7, 8, 45, 47, 52, 67, 69, 71, 73, 81, 85, 246, 277‐80, 298 betrayal ............ 229, 230, 235, 236, 276, 277, 278 faithfulness ....... 17, 187, 188, 190, 200, 219, 229, 230, 235‐36, 252‐55, 259, 274, 276, 288, 291 identity ......... 1‐9, 11, 27, 30, 33, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52‐ 57, 59‐61, 64, 67, 69‐74, 80‐82, 84, 85, 91, 98, 101, 104, 108, 109, 111, 114‐16, 118, 123, 125, 128, 132, 137, 142, 144‐45, 147, 149, 151, 162, 164, 169‐72, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182, 185, 197, 200, 204, 214, 225, 228, 229, 232, 246‐61, 263, 264, 266, 273, 277‐78, 281, 282, 288, 294, 297, 304, 313 openness ............ 1‐9, 11, 13, 27, 36, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52‐54, 56, 59, 60, 63, 65‐ 67, 69, 73‐75, 77‐79, 81‐ 85, 85, 86, 88, 91‐93, 98, 99, 103, 119, 121, 142, 144, 153, 161, 162, 166, 167, 169, 170, 175, 186, 190, 195, 197, 232, 233, 236, 245‐47, 249, 251, 256,
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 257, 261‐62, 264‐76, 277‐ 80, 282, 291, 295‐98, 300, 307, 314 unsolvable ....... 278, 279, 291, 296, 298 dialogue ...... 1‐9, 11‐13, 15, 16, 23, 28, 30, 38, 45, 47‐54, 56‐63, 65‐84, 85‐88, 91, 92, 97‐100, 108, 109, 119, 121, 124, 128, 131‐32, 142‐ 46, 153, 157, 159, 161, 162, 166‐76, 180, 181, 183, 190, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 204, 206, 210‐14, 216‐ 21, 225, 226, 232, 233, 236, 240, 241, 246, 247, 258, 261, 262, 264‐76, 277‐ 80, 283, 290‐94, 296‐301, 306, 313, 314 end of ............... 161, 172, 196, 197, 210, 218 dichotomy ........ 158, 174, 175, 180, 190, 243 discontinuity ........... 52, 54‐56, 63, 81, 82, 101, 149, 170, 177, 180, 181, 183, 191, 195, 222, 234, 236, 249, 253, 314 diversity ................ 3, 4, 13, 22, 24‐28, 33‐35, 54, 65‐67, 71, 79, 83, 97‐99, 104, 106, 107, 128, 166, 170, 174, 201, 202, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 217, 219, 225, 227, 248, 249, 253, 256, 265, 275, 291 doctrine ............. 14‐15, 25, 35, 72, 74, 80, 95, 109, 124, 128, 129, 134, 138, 142, 143, 165, 177, 200, 274
343
encompassment ................. 182 equality ............. 44, 66, 75, 82‐ 85, 91, 98, 107, 152, 169, 170 ethnocentrism ............ 231, 273 Evangelicalism ........ 15‐21, 35, 38, 49, 51, 53, 191 exclusivism ...... 4, 6, 11, 14‐16, 19‐22, 45, 47‐50, 53‐57, 63‐65, 81, 82, 85‐87, 92, 98, 101, 144, 149, 153, 162, 190, 191, 193, 278 experience .......... 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 25, 26, 32‐40, 44, 50, 61, 68‐69, 73, 77, 80, 83, 84, 93, 94, 103‐07, 110, 112, 114, 115, 122‐24, 126, 130‐34, 136, 138, 140, 145‐ 50, 153‐55, 163, 171, 180, 181, 184, 188‐91, 194, 195, 201, 204, 206, 210, 227, 243, 251, 261, 265, 275‐76, 282, 286, 290, 291, 301, 305, 310 experiential‐expressivism ............. 127, 129‐33, 135, 144‐49 expression .... 19, 21, 30, 32‐34, 49, 75, 77, 93, 103, 108, 111, 112, 114, 118, 126, 133, 143, 147, 150, 152‐54, 166, 179, 181, 186, 193, 194, 203, 204, 213, 223, 230, 234, 244, 247, 256, 262, 269, 273, 299, 302, 308, 309, 314 expressivist theory of religion ........ 104‐05, 110‐14, 120, 128, 131, 146‐47, 149, 151, 152, 223, 273, 274
344
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
external (see also outside) .................. 223, 236, 249, 268, 274 extratextuality ..... 126, 135‐37, 158, 184‐85, 243 faith ................ 1‐3, 6, 8, 12‐15, 17, 22, 25, 28, 35, 37, 40‐ 45, 47, 52‐57, 59‐61, 66, 68, 70‐75, 77‐83, 85, 87, 91, 96, 98, 101‐05, 107‐20, 123, 127‐28, 141, 144, 150, 154‐56, 163, 166, 169‐70, 172, 174, 176, 179, 182, 185, 188, 191‐95, 200, 206, 218‐19, 221, 225‐26, 234, 240, 247, 254‐56, 259‐61, 265, 267‐76, 277‐78, 287‐ 89, 291‐94, 296‐97, 309, 313 faithfulness ............ 17, 187‐88, 190, 200, 219, 229‐30, 235‐ 36, 252‐55, 259, 274, 276, 288, 291 Fall ................... 58, 202‐04, 275 feast ....................... 298, 300‐14 fissure ................. 229, 234, 236 God .......... 14‐17, 20‐24, 28‐33, 35, 37, 39, 43, 45, 51‐53, 55‐62, 65‐66, 76‐77, 81‐82, 88‐90, 94, 101, 106‐07, 113‐20, 130‐32, 138, 140‐ 41, 143, 145‐46, 149‐52, 154‐58, 168‐69, 171, 177, 179‐84, 186‐90, 192‐95, 200‐03, 206, 208‐09, 211‐ 19, 221, 225‐26, 236, 245‐ 47, 254‐57, 259‐72, 274‐ 76, 277‐79, 284‐91, 293, 295‐96, 299‐300, 309‐10, 312‐13
as dynamic relational re‐ ality ............ 31, 47, 67‐68, 78, 80, 82, 114, 182, 184, 187, 192, 194, 253 Incarnate ............... 35‐36, 90, 116, 183, 289 Trinitarian ..... 24, 57, 61, 81‐82, 90, 133, 150‐51, 168‐69, 180, 193, 225, 254 grammar ......... 55‐56, 65, 101, 119, 133‐34, 136, 174, 200, 227, 240‐41 hermeneutical circle ........ 236‐ 37, 239‐40, 243, 256, 258, 261, 266, 269, 273, 275 hermeneutical openness ............. 47‐48, 53, 56, 60, 65, 73‐74, 85, 93, 98, 142, 153, 167, 169, 175, 190, 195, 197, 232‐33, 245‐47, 256, 261‐62, 264‐68, 272‐ 73, 275‐76, 280, 300, 314 hermeneutical stumbling block ...................................... 92 hermeneutics .................... 8, 64 135‐37, 142, 158, 172, 174‐ 75, 184‐87, 197‐98, 201, 220, 226, 232‐38, 240‐42, 258, 259, 261‐62, 267, 269, 272, 278, 292 extratextual .............. 126, 135‐37, 158, 184‐85, 243 intratextual ............... 126, 135‐36, 142, 158, 172, 185, 187‐90, 243, 267, 269‐70, 273, 276 hope ............ 3, 68, 102, 153‐55, 198, 201, 205, 246, 259‐60, 280, 290, 294, 299‐301, 306, 309‐14
INDEX OF SUBJECTS hospitality ......... 198, 219, 226, 231‐35, 261‐68, 275, 278‐ 79, 291, 295‐97, 300‐01, 305‐06, 309‐10, 313 identical equivalence ...... 228 identity ................... 1‐9, 11, 27, 30, 33, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52‐ 57, 59‐61, 64, 67, 69‐74, 80‐82, 84, 85, 91, 98, 101, 104, 108, 109, 111, 114‐16, 118, 123, 125, 128, 132, 137, 142, 144‐45, 147, 149, 151, 162, 164, 169‐72, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182, 185, 197, 200, 204, 214, 225, 228, 229, 232, 246‐61, 263, 264, 266, 273, 277, 278, 281, 282, 288, 294, 297, 304, 313 Christian ...... 6‐8, 57, 59‐ 61, 114, 115, 125, 142, 145, 178, 197, 225, 261, 263, 277, 313 idem ...................... 248‐55, 259, 260, 264, 269 involuntary ..... 250, 251, 257, 259, 263, 269, 280, 285, 294 ipse .......... 248‐50, 252‐55, 260, 269, 282 narrative .......... 247, 249, 253, 254, 256, 258, 259, 281, 282 voluntary .. 111, 250, 269 imagination . 185, 244‐47, 254, 256‐59, 268, 301, 304 impression .......... 63, 103, 111, 115, 118, 172, 174, 257 incarnated meanings ....... 222 inclusive pluralism (inclusiv‐
345
istic pluralism; pluralis‐ tic inclusivism) ........... 25 inclusivism .......... 4, 11, 14, 17, 22‐25, 27, 33, 45, 47, 48, 54, 57, 59, 63‐66, 81, 82, 85‐87, 93, 99‐101, 144‐46, 148‐53, 170, 172, 190, 194, 195, 278 incommensurability ......... 121, 140, 146, 157‐60, 161, 172, 173, 175, 190, 259 indifference ........... 86, 96, 103, 111, 116, 119, 120, 121, 213, 273, 299 ineffable .................... 40, 67, 94 inside (see also internal) ....................... 25, 60, 118, 127, 131, 136, 163, 184, 225, 239, 254, 274 integration ......... 54, 63, 65, 82, 101, 102, 119 interpretation ........... 3‐5, 7, 8, 17, 22, 25, 26, 28, 33, 36, 37, 39, 42, 48, 56, 65, 67, 71, 81, 82, 86, 93, 95, 104, 113, 132, 142, 149, 151, 153, 154, 163, 168, 177, 197, 202, 206, 210, 213, 217, 220, 233, 236‐41, 243, 244, 254, 298 internal (see also inside) ................... 217, 218, 236, 240, 242, 253, 268 interreligious dialogue .................. 1‐9, 11‐13, 15, 16, 38, 45, 47‐54, 56‐61, 63, 65‐68, 70‐84, 85‐88, 92, 97‐99, 108, 109, 119, 121, 124, 128, 131, 142‐44, 153, 157, 159, 161, 166,
346
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
167, 170‐76, 181, 190, 193, 195, 197, 198, 204, 210, 220, 221, 226, 233, 236, 240, 241, 246, 261, 262, 264, 265, 267‐76, 277‐80, 283, 290‐94, 296‐301, 306, 313, 314 intratextuality .......... 135, 136, 142, 146, 161, 163, 172, 174, 175, 188, 190, 194, 195, 226, 243 Lausanne Conference ........ 18 Lausanne Covenant ...... 19‐21 Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization .................................... 15, 16, 18 liberal theology .......... 20, 122, 131, 135, 143, 145, 177 linguistic hospitality ....... 198, 219, 226, 231, 232, 234, 261, 262 logos ........ 31, 32, 168, 179, 188 asarkos ................. 32, 183, 192, 193 ensarkos ............... 32, 183, 192, 193 loss of meaning ........ 158, 198, 220, 222‐25, 277 love ................. 20, 22, 90, 113, 146, 154, 181, 194, 221, 259, 260, 269, 290, 300, 309, 311, 313, 314 mission ............... 14, 18, 49‐51, 58, 88, 91, 122, 144, 178, 209, 270, 271 mutuality ............................. 62 myth ................ 35, 43, 44, 170, 201, 219, 227, 261 Nostra Aetate ........... 13, 23, 24,
47, 168, 184 noumenon ............. 40, 89, 103, 112 openness ................ 1‐9, 11, 13, 27, 36, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52‐ 54, 56, 59, 60, 63, 65‐67, 69, 73‐75, 77‐79, 81‐84, 85, 87, 91‐93, 98, 99, 103, 119, 121, 142, 144, 153, 161, 162, 166‐67, 169, 170, 175, 186, 190, 195, 197, 232, 233, 236, 245‐47, 249, 251, 256, 261‐62, 264‐76, 277‐80, 282, 291, 295‐98, 300, 307, 314 otherness .............. 2, 4, 5, 9, 48, 53‐56, 64, 65, 70, 71, 73, 74, 81, 82, 85, 87, 93, 96, 97, 99, 100, 119, 166‐67, 169, 171, 174‐75, 190, 193, 195, 196, 197, 209, 213, 215, 232‐35, 259, 261, 262, 264, 275, 276, 302, 304‐06 outside (see also external) ................... 13, 15, 23, 31, 38, 49, 50, 59, 66, 104, 108, 114, 118, 126, 127, 131, 136, 154, 157, 175‐77, 184, 191, 194, 215, 219, 225, 226, 239, 240, 242, 245, 262, 268, 269, 271, 274, 275, 278, 302, 309 Parable of the Elephant and the Blind Men ........................ 88, 89, 101 particularism ................. 8, 121, 135, 153, 161‐67, 169‐72, 174, 175, 196, 278 particularity ................ 7, 8, 27, 31, 33, 45, 121‐23, 127,
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 128, 142, 144, 145, 153, 155, 157‐59, 161‐63, 166, 167, 170, 171, 174, 175, 185, 190, 192, 193, 197, 200, 202, 221, 225, 226, 232, 240, 251, 258, 273, 274, 286, 288, 289 phenomenon ................ 72, 79, 112, 124, 126, 239 pluralism ......... 4, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 22, 24‐26, 33‐36, 38, 45, 47, 48, 54, 62, 63, 67‐70, 75, 82, 83, 85‐112, 119‐20, 127, 129, 130, 132, 135, 136, 142‐50, 153, 162, 170, 172, 195, 204, 239, 278 de facto ............ 14, 26, 42 de jure .............. 14, 26, 27 pluralist hypothesis ......... 36, 38‐42, 44, 70, 86, 93‐96, 233 plurality ...... 1‐5, 11‐15, 21, 22, 25‐27, 33, 34, 37, 38, 44, 49, 57, 68, 82, 83, 85, 86, 93, 96, 97, 106, 122, 128, 142, 151, 153, 156, 159, 160, 161‐63, 170, 172, 176, 186, 190, 194, 198, 201‐06, 210, 215‐17, 219, 220, 226, 239, 256, 266, 269, 289, 291, 298 postliberalism .......... 7, 8, 121, 122, 125, 127, 135, 137, 141, 142, 158, 160, 161, 163, 174‐76, 180‐84, 188, 192‐93, 230 prayer .................. 48, 113, 116, 189, 289, 290, 303 proclamation .......... 14, 15, 18,
347
51‐53, 57‐59, 61, 116, 117, 141, 144, 185 propositionalism .............. 128‐30, 135, 140 psalms ......................... 285, 290 Real, The .................. 12, 36, 39, 41, 53, 54, 67, 68, 83, 84, 88‐90, 92, 94, 99, 100, 102‐ 05, 107, 111, 126, 139, 147‐49, 151, 160, 161, 178, 184, 190, 228, 245, 276, 313, 314 impersonae ........... 40, 147, 151 Ineffable ........... 40, 68, 94 personae ................ 40, 90, 147, 151 recognition ........ 14, 48, 69, 73, 78, 82, 83, 91, 107, 110, 117, 118, 153, 162, 169, 170, 175, 190, 193, 195, 196, 225, 230‐34, 249, 259, 260, 263, 294, 295, 297, 300, 306, 313 Redemptoris Missio ....... 29, 209 Reign of God (Kingdom of God) .......... 32, 33, 51, 52, 56‐58, 65, 132, 149, 155, 168, 182, 194, 266, 286, 312 relativism ....................... 17, 44, 49, 75, 80, 96, 104, 227 renunciation of the Imme‐ diate ...................... 87, 114 restlessness ......... 282, 287, 300 revelation ................. 20, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 52, 60, 62, 63, 66, 82, 100, 145, 149, 152, 177, 182‐84, 187‐88, 191, 193, 259, 289
348
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
Rubicon (crossing of) ........ 34, 83, 86‐88, 91, 92, 99, 102, 107, 108 sacramentality ........... 117, 181 salvation ......... 4, 13‐16, 18‐34, 41, 43, 45, 49‐50, 52‐55, 57‐58, 60‐62, 65‐66, 82‐83, 85, 87, 105, 108, 114, 119, 144‐45, 151‐56, 159‐60, 165‐69, 179‐81, 183, 190‐ 92, 194‐95, 216, 219, 239 Second Vatican Council .................. 13, 16, 23, 24, 124, 176 sectarian pride .................. 174 selfing/othering ............ 55, 64 self‐centeredness ........ 20, 214 semina verba ...................... 183 solus Christus ..... 144, 184, 191 soteriological fixation ..... 153, 166, 167 soteriological openness / clos‐ edness ....................... 195 soteriological question ..................... 65, 162, 168 soteriology ............ 4, 7, 65, 96, 151‐53, 156, 166, 167, 239 stranger ................ 229, 262‐66, 300, 309, 311 structuralism ............. 240, 242 subject ............... 35, 42, 51, 54, 69, 107, 109, 113, 126, 127, 130, 131, 152, 180, 184, 186, 187, 200, 208, 227, 228, 236, 243, 248‐50, 260, 268, 281, 284, 292
suspicion ......... 8, 176, 240, 311 translation ......... 123, 137, 157, 158, 197, 198, 210, 220‐22, 224‐35, 237, 261, 272, 274, 277, 297 Trinity ................ 27, 32, 33, 81, 168, 169, 183, 185, 193, 274 truth ................. 1, 3, 12, 16, 20, 21, 24, 32, 34, 36, 41‐44, 49‐51, 53‐55, 61, 63‐72, 74‐80, 83, 85‐87, 90, 91, 95‐97, 102, 108, 110, 129, 134, 137‐42, 146, 156, 165, 172, 173, 190, 194, 199, 204, 238, 241, 267, 271, 278, 293, 294, 296 de‐absolutization of ......................... 67, 76, 80, 84, 91, 104, 107 intrasystemic ............ 138, 140, 141 ontological ............ 23, 30, 96, 138‐41, 156 Western concept of ... 68, 76 unrest .................. 283, 290, 296 unsurpassability .......... 30, 145 untranslatability (of religions) ......... 7, 157, 158, 195, 197, 228, 230 verbum externum ......... 133, 179 verbum internum ......... 183, 189 work of mourning ..... 229, 277
Index of Names De Boer, T. .................... 248‐50 De Dijn, H. .......................... 222 De Lubac, H. ...................... 285 Deile, L. ............................... 301 Demarest, B.A. ..................... 49 Dickens, W.T. ..................... 266 Dillen, A. ............................. 182 DiNoia, J.A. .... 92, 163‐65, 167 Doyle, D.M. ........................ 127 Droogers, A. ................... 17, 49 Duffy, S.J. ................ 95, 96, 167 Dulles, A. ............................ 124 Dupuis, J. ................. 14, 22‐34, 57‐63, 65, 81, 82, 87, 149‐ 52, 183 Duriez, B. .............................. 56
Allik, T. ...................... 134, 179 Amherdt, F.X. ........... 240, 242 Ariarajah, W. ..................... 271 Barnes, M. .............. 5, 98, 103, 184, 298, 299 Basset, J.C. .. 67, 70‐81, 96, 106 Baumann, G. .... 54, 55, 64, 65, 101 Berges, U. ... 202, 208, 214, 216 Berling, J. ........... 234, 245, 261 Berman, A. ................. 229, 231 Bernhardt, R. ............. 4, 47, 64 Boeve, L. ............................ 167 Bost, H. ............................... 204 Braaten, C.E. ........................ 21 Brawley, R.J. .............. 311, 312 Bringeus, N.A. .................. 307 Brueggemann, W. ..... 207, 209 Burggraeve, R. .................. 184 Burms, A. ................... 222, 295 Byrne, P. ............................... 36
Ebach, J. .............. 204, 214, 215 Eckerstorfer, A. ......... 176, 177, 181, 225 Edmondson, R. .................. 235 Facelina, R. ......................... 181 Feldmeier, R. ...................... 271 Feldtkeller, A. ...................... 67 Finkielkraut, A. .................. 265 Ford, J. ................................. 305 Fredericks, J.L. ... 5, 93‐95, 110
Camps, A. ............................ 99 Cassuto, U. ........................ 208 Chauvet, L.M. ...... 112, 115‐17 Cheetham, D. .......... 35, 88, 94 Ching, J. ............................. 111 Clooney, F.X. ......................... 5 Cobb, J.B. ................ 92, 96, 97, 99,100 Cornille, C. ................ 109, 110 Courtois, P. ................ 222, 224 Coward, H. .................... 5, 106 Cunningham, P.A. ............ 168
Gadamer, H.G. ........... 220, 238 Gay, C.M. ........................ 52‐53 Geffré, C. ........................... 1, 14 Goh, J.C.K. ......... 126, 141, 158, 176, 178, 182‐84, 187, 189, 190, 194 Goulder, M. .......................... 36 Gowan, D.E. ............... 202, 207 Graham, B. ...................... 18, 19 Green, G. ....................... 163‐65
Danneels, G. .............. 190, 295 D’Costa, G. ..... 6, 14, 23‐24,36, 63, 88, 91, 174, 188, 191 349
350
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
Green, M. ............................. 36 Greene, M. ......................... 245 Greisch, J. .................. 283, 260, 281, 284 Greschat, H.J. .................... 305 Griffiths, P.J. .............. 5, 95‐96, 163‐66, 199 Groot, G. ............ 253, 256, 257 Grünschloss, A. . 63, 100, 101, 269 Gustafson, J.M. ................. 178 Haas, P. ................................ 15 Haers, J. .................................. 5 Hall, G. ......................... 25, 312 Heim, M.S. ........ 83, 90‐94, 97, 100, 102, 105, 121, 164, 171 Heller, C. .............................. 33 Henaff, M. ......................... 219 Heyer, K.E. ............... 176, 184, 225 Hiebert, T. .......................... 208 Hill Fletcher, J. .......... 201, 205 Hintersteiner, N. ............... 171 Houtepen, A. .... 275, 286, 287, 289 Janowski, B. ....................... 290 Jansen, M.M. ............ 264, 281, 283, 292 Jantzen, G. ......................... 167 Jeanrond, W.G. ................. 236 Jervolino, D. ...................... 217 John Paul II .......... 29, 168, 299 Jonkers, P. ............................ 98 Kärkkaïnen, V.‐M. .............. 19 Kearney, R. ........ 232, 234, 236 Kendall, D. .......................... 25 Kessler, E. .................... 168, 69 Knitter, P.F. ........ 6, 12, 16, 17,
19, 34, 51, 66, 69, 70, 83, 91, 97, 100, 121, 162, 163, 170, 172 Koenig, J. ...................... 310‐12 Küng, H. ............... 1, 3, 12, 278 Le Blanc, G. ................ 281, 282 Lefebvre, M. ......................... 15 Lindbeck, G. .......... 5, 7, 12, 49, 153‐60, 161‐63, 166, 171‐ 86, 191‐92, 195, 198‐200, 205, 222, 224, 231, 301 Logister, W. ........................ 300 Lonergan, B. ....................... 130 Loughlin, G. ......................... 90 Marquard, O. ..................... 301 Marshall. B.D. .............. 138‐41 Marty, E.M. .................. 18, 206 McCarthy, K. ........... 11, 23, 49, 50, 54, 63, 68, 69, 83 Merrigan, T. ...... 13, 14, 23, 24, 36, 40, 63, 69, 90, 97, 103, 163, 187 Michalson. D. ..................... 174 Moltmann, J. ......................... 91 Mortensen, V. ......................... 4 Moyaert, M. ........... 8, 121, 161, 166, 205 Moyaert, P. ......................... 218 Muck, T.C. .................. 5, 49, 51 Nauta, R. .................... 302, 304, 306‐08 Neckebrouck, V. .......... 89, 209 Neher, A. ...................... 210‐15 Newbigin, L. ........................ 98 Newman, J.H. .................... 287 Nissen, J. ............................. 270 Neff, D. ................................. 19 Netland, H.A. ........... 19, 49, 52
INDEX OF NAMES O’Collins, G. .................. 25, 61 O’Collins, F. ...................... 311 O’Neill, C. .......................... 138 Okholm, D.L. ............ 125, 191 Orth, S. ............................... 291 Pareydt, L. ......................... 186 Pellauer, D. ........................ 234 Peters, T. .................... 100, 312 Peterson, S. ........................ 164 Philipsen, B. ...................... 245 Phillips, T.R. .............. 125, 191 Pieper, J. ............................. 303 Pinnock, C. .......................... 17 Placher, W.C. ..... 92, 124, 125, 128, 163, 170, 171, 174 Plata, P. ................................ 25 Pollefeyt, D. ................... 21, 56 Pratt, D. .................. 50, 68, 162 Prize, N. ............................... 50 Putti, J. ................................ 242 Quebedeaux, R. .................. 18 Race, A. .............. 4, 83, 91, 110 Ricoeur, P. ............ 8, 198, 199, 217‐18, 220, 226‐32, 234‐ 54, 256, 258‐59, 261‐63, 264, 266, 272, 273, 280‐84, 292‐95, 297 Root, M. ............. 131, 134, 138 Rorty, R. ............................. 199 Ruparell, S.T. ..................... 199 Sacks, J. .............................. 264 Scheuer, J. ............................ 24 Schillebeeckx, E. ............... 118 Schmidt, P. ................ 262, 263 Schreiter, R.J. ....................... 48 Scott, W. ................... 19, 20, 50 Slacka, Z. .............................. 24 Slater, P. ..................... 148, 173 Smith, W.C. ............. 35, 40, 72
351
Sonnemans, H.M. ...... 105, 106 Speelman, G.E. ........... 182, 185 Steiner, G. ........... 204, 224, 228 Stell, S.L. ............. 189, 191, 194 Stiver, D.R. ......................... 184 Stone, J.A. ................... 174, 202 Stott, J. ............................. 18, 19 Sullivan, F.A. ........................ 12 Sundermeier, T. ............ 50, 52, 267, 294, 302, 305, 313 Surin, K. ...................... 160, 192 Swidler, L. .................... 34, 204 Tambour, H.J. .................... 122 Tanner, K. ................... 176, 179 Thele, N. ............................. 262 Thiel, J.E. ............................. 186 Thomasset, A. ........... 172, 178, 180, 240 Thompson, J.B. ................... 215 Tilley, T.W. ................. 185, 186 Tillich, P. ............................... 48 Tracy, D. ............................. 178 Tromp, N. ........................... 290 Turner, V. ........................... 305 Uelinger, C. ........................ 207 Valkenberg, P. .................... 263 Van Bortel, P. ............. 108, 233 Van Brakel, J. .............. 164, 198 Van Herck, W. ............. 103‐06 Vergote, A. ......... 286, 288, 293 Van Leeuwen, B. .......... 99, 110 198, 200, 223, 233, 261, 273 Van Wolde, E. .... 201, 203, 207 Visker, R. ..................... 70, 175, 223, 246, 274, 294 Volf, M. ............................... 185 Vroom, H. ........... 163, 173, 235 Waaijman, K. ...................... 290
352
FRAGILE IDENTITIES
Wallace, M.I. ............ 199, 240, 242, 261 Walravens, E. ...................... 47 Weitman, S. ....................... 307 Wijsen, F. ........................... 198 Wilhelm, J.E. ..................... 231
Won‐Bae, K. ......................... 35 Yong, A. ................................ 17 Yürümez‐Kroon, T. ............. 49 Zipperer, J. ............................ 51