English Writing [PDF]

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ENGLISH WRITING A HANDBOOK FOR UNIVERSITY STUDIES

НАВЧАЛЬНИЙ ПОСІБНИК З ОСНОВ АНГЛОМОВНОГО НАУКОВОГО ПИСЬМА ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТІВ ВИЩИХ НАВЧАЛЬНИХ ЗАКЛАДІВ

[] NATALIYA PUK

.]Ірпінь 2010

Contents Part I Unit 1. The Writing Process Unit 2. Generating Ideas 1. Free writing 2. Brainstorming 3. Clustering 4. Making a chart 5. Arranging Ideas into a Plan or Outlook Unit 3. Developing Effective Paragraphs 1. Defining the Paragraph and the Topic Sentence 2. Developing Sentence Variety Unit 4. Writing Essays 1. English Essay Structure 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Body 1.3. Conclusion 2. Outlining 3. Useful Words and Phrases for Essay (Linking Words) Unit 5. Types of Essay 1. Comparison Essay 2. Opinion Essay

3. Problem-Solution Essay Unit 6. Revision 1. Individual Revision 2. Peer Review Part II Unit 7. Special Techniques in Writing 1. Summarizing 2. Paraphrasing 3. Quoting 4. Citing References Unit 8. Writing Conference Abstract Unit 9. Writing Titles Unit 10. Transliteration Grammar Troublespots Appendix 1 Confused Words Appendix 2 Latin expressions Appendix 3 Irregular verbs References

PART I UNIT 1

THE WRITING PROCESS

… it is a fallacy to confuse the teaching of grammar with the teaching of writing. Robert Kaplan People have many different experience with writing. Everyone who has gone to school has had experience writing in the language they learned as children (their first language). In their first language, people use writing not only to improve their ability to use the language but also to gain knowledge and skills in other subjects. If they study another language (their second language), they usually use writing to help them learn it. They may use writing to learn new vocabulary or grammar rules. They may also use writing in a test to show how well they can use the new language. During their studies, people have many experiences writing in both their first and additional languages, and each person has experiences different from another's. Outside school, people also have different experiences writing. In their first language, some write many personal letters. Some keep journals or diaries. Some may write a lot in their work. Others may write very little. Some people enjoy writing, while others strongly dislike writing and avoid situations that require them to write. Writing is not an easy activity to describe. It is a very complicated process that involves thinking and language in which we try to put our ideas on paper, or on a computer screen, or on some other medium. Although writing is complicated, all writing involves certain basic operations. [Writing usually consists of five steps: 1. Getting ideas

2. Organizing your ideas 3. Writing your first draft 4. Revising to improve content and organization 5. Editing for language errors] First, a writer must get ideas. Then these ideas must be organized into language-words, phrases, and sentences. This is often called inscribing or drafting. Usually a writer decides to make changes to the written text, sometimes after a lot of drafting, or sometimes during the drafting. This is because once an idea is written down, it may cause the writer to think in a new way. Sometimes a new idea causes the writer to change something that is already written. The process of changing is called revising. Such changes often change the meaning or the effect of the text. Another important operation in the writing process is making sure that the forms of language are used correctly. This operation of checking spelling, grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary is called editing. This activity does not greatly change the effect or the meaning (Hall and Jung, 2000). Additionally, according to research (Grabe and Kaplan, 1996), Russian, Japanese, Czech writing is considered to be more reader-oriented, meaning that readers need to work harder to get the meaning of the text than in writer-oriented writing such as English where the writer will help and guide the reader by saying in advance how the argument will be developed, and by alluding to what has been discussed. As Mauranen, (1993) noted, “… in a cultural context which is relatively homogeneous it is natural for writing conventions to remain relatively implicit, whereas in contexts which are culturally much more heterogeneous, like those in dominant English-speaking countries, it becomes imperative to develop writing habits which are more explicit and leave less room for personal interpretation.”

If we analyze Ukrainian writing we can assume that it is also a readeroriented, tends to be more indirect and has different coherence conventions than English (e.g., it is possible for writers to leave unsaid things which are considered to be obvious, whereas English writers expect them as clarification). FOUR IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF WRITING Before beginning to write, a good writer must consider several elements. TOPIC The topic is the what of a piece of writing. What is the writing about? PURPOSE Purpose refers to the why. Why are you writing this text? Perhaps you want to describe two places, to compare two things, to argue for a particular opinion. AUDIENCE The audience is the who, the reader. The intended audience can be the teacher (if you are in a class), workers, senior executives, staff managers etc. FORMAT Finally, the how of a piece of writing refers to its format, or how the information is presented. It could be a letter, a summary, an essay etc. These four elements, the what, why, who, and how of writing, are necessary for all writing activities. Even before you begin to write, you need to consider these four elements because they will shape and guide your writing. (Hall and Jung, 2000).

Note: English writing is reader-oriented while Ukrainian writing is more writeroriented. Consider your reader!

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 1) 1. What is writing? 2. When do people use writing in their first language? 3. Why do people use writing in their second language? 4. What does writing involve? 5. Which basic steps does writing usually involve? 6. Are some of these operations more important than others? 7. Do some of them happen before others? 8. Do some of these happen at the same time? 9. Are some of this operations more difficult for you than others? 10.What are the four important elements of writing? 11. What is reader-oriented/writer-oriented writing?

UNIT 2

GENERATING IDEAS There are no stupid ideas. No idea is stupid.

What do you need to begin your writing? Ideas! There are several ways to get ideas for writing: 1. Freewriting 2. Brainstorming 3. Clustering 4. Making a chart 1. FREEWRITING means writing whatever comes into your mind about a topic in order to get ideas. When you freewrite, you write without stopping. You don’t stop to correct your grammar or spelling; you let your ideas flow onto your page. Freewriting is a wonderful way to let ideas pour onto paper without getting stuck by worrying about correctness or “good writing”. Sometimes freewriting produces nonsense, but often it provides interesting ideas for further thinking and writing. Note: Don’t worry about whether the idea or word is good or not. You will decide this later.

Exercise 1. Freewrite for five or ten minutes about ways that a student can be successful. Think about the ways that a student can organize time, study, do homework, prepare for tests and so on. Use your own experience to develop your ideas. When you finish: - read what you have written; -

underline any words or lines you like – anything that strikes you as powerful, funny or important. If nothing strikes you, that’s okay;

-

cross out the ideas that don’t fit your writing topic.

Example: I have a hard time studying, but I think a good student needs find time to study. Sometimes my boss calls me and asks me to work until midnight. Then I have to go to school the next morning. I usually arrive early before class. That gives me time to study. I can’t study at home. I can’t concentrate. There’s always some housework to do. So I have to go to school. I study at a desk in the study lounge, the library, or a quite hallway. I try to study every morning. I should study about an hour or two every day for each class. It’s also important to go to class. I try to go to class every day…

Exercise 2. Try more freewritings at home, each one ten minutes long. Later, read your freewritings, underline any striking lines or ideas and cross out all unnecessary information. 2. BRAINSTORMING or listing means discussing a topic with a group of people or thinking by yourself to get as many ideas as possible onto your paper. When you brainstorm your ideas, just write down everything that comes to mind about a topic – words and phrases, ideas, details, examples, little stories. Afterwards, read over your list, underlining any ideas you might want to develop. Note: This technique, brainstorming to make an Idea Bank, is like putting money that you don’t need now in a bank so that you can use it later when you need it.

Once you have brainstormed, think about the criteria for making the choice. A good way to brainstorm ideas about a choice is to make a list of “pros” (reasons in favor of something) and “cons” (reasons against something).

Example: Here’s a student’s brainstorming list (Idea Bank) on the topic Tennis: Pros

Cons

Easy to learn

Must have a partner

Good exercise

Must find a tennis court

Doesn’t take much time

Expensive

Exercise 3. 1. Choose one of the following topics that interests you, and write it at the top of the paper. Then brainstorm! Write anything that comes into your head about the topic. Make your Idea Bank! 1. Having several careers 2. Capital punishment 3. Launching a new business 5. Computers in our life 2. After you fill a page with your list, read it over, underlining the most interesting ideas. Draw arrows to connect related ideas. Group work Exercise 4. 1. Choose one of the topics from the exercise 1 and brainstorm topic ideas with a group of your classmates. 2. Now make your own lists of pros and cons that you should consider in making your choice. 3. Compare your ideas with your classmates’ ones. Discuss your choices.

3. CLUSTERING or mapping is a graphic organizer in which you write ideas about a topic in circles or boxes. To begin clustering, write one idea or topic –

usually one word – in the center of your paper. Then let your mind make associations, and write these ideas down, branching out from the center, like this: Exercise 5. Read over the clustering map. If you were giving advice to the writer, which cluster do you think would make the most interesting paper?

Delivery options Save time and money

Return policy

Selling online

Using the Internet

Good website Good images and informatio n

Exercise 6. From the lists of topics choose one that interests you. Make a cluster map about it. In the center circle, write the topic. Write supporting ideas in the surrounding circles. 1. Foreign languages 2. Sports 3. The city/village where I live 4. Economy of Ukraine 5. E-commerce Group work Exercise 7. Find a group of your classmates who chose the same topic. Share your cluster maps. Write down ideas on your own map that seem useful for your topic, as in the example below. If necessary, cross out ideas on your map that are not useful. Exercise 8. Share your cluster map with your entire class. Present and explain your cluster topics.

4. MAKING A CHART is another effective technique to generate ideas. Exercise 9. 1. Make a chart of situations in which you use the following English skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The chart below is an example:

LISTENING

SPEAKING

READING

WRITING

News on radio

In English class

Journals

E-mail to a friend

TV programs

With speakers

native Instructions

Resume

2. Put an E next to the situations in which using English is easy. Put D next to the situations in which using English is difficult.

3. Think about two situations (one easy and one difficult) in which you use an English skill, for example, writing. Make a chart of similarities and differences between the two situations, like this: Example:

WRITING

DIFFERENCES

SIMILARITIES

1. E-mail to a friend (easy) Don’t worry about Use new vocabulary spelling, grammar Type on the computer Informal style

2. Resume (difficult)

Spelling and grammar must be correct Formal and polite style

Exercise 10. Choose a different English skill. Think about two situations (one easy and one difficult) in which you use that skill. Make another chart, like you have before, comparing the similarities and differences between the two situations.

5. ARRANGING IDEAS INTO A PLAN OR OUTLOOK Choose an order in which to arrange your ideas. You may arrange them by - time order (chronologically), by major points, logically (starting from the most important) or just grouping together ideas that have something in common, that are related or unlike in some way. Then decide which ideas should come first, which second, and so on. You may also do it by numbering the ideas on the list. Here is an example of Selling Online topic (Unit 2, Clustering) arranged logically: 1. Saves consumers time and money (to understand what the consumer’s wants is a key to selling online, that’s why this idea goes first).

2. Good website is needed (bright images and clear information are necessary to attract people’s attention). 3. Provides delivery options (being clear about what the delivery options are). Another way to organize a paragraph is to explain the major points that support the idea. State all the points in the topic sentence. Then develop each point into a sentence. Example: Topic sentence: Being a successful student Topic sentence

takes motivation, organization, and discipline. +

controlling idea

Major points: a. First, you must be motivated to learn and do well in your studies. b. Secondly, you have to organize your time. c. Finally, you must be disciplined to work hard. These sentences show the outlook of ideas for a paragraph. Exercise 11. For each topic sentence write two supporting points to logically develop the main idea: Example: Students should develop the following habits that will help them succeed at university. a). First, students should set priorities. b). Second, they should schedule their time carefully. c). Finally, they should attend all lectures. 1. There are two main reasons that I want a university degree. 2. Passing a test is easy if students use these strategies.

3. Before choosing a university, student should consider two major factors. 4. Studying in a group has two important benefits. Exercise 12. Now look back at your brainstorming notes and organize them.

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 2) 1. Which techniques are used to generate ideas? 2. What is freewriting? 3. What is brainstorming? 4. What is clustering? 5. How to make a chart? 6. Which technique do you prefer? Why? 7. How to arrange ideas into a plan or outlook?

UNIT 3

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS

1. DEFINING THE PARAGRAPH AND THE TOPIC SENTENCE Most writing in English is organized into paragraphs. A paragraph is a small unit of writing that contains information about one idea and may be short or long (usually from four to twelve sentences) according to the simplicity or complexity of the subject. A good paragraph follows this pattern:

TOPIC SENTENCE

SUPPORTING SENTENCES

CONCLUDING SENTENCE

 Topic sentence or controlling idea introduces the topic and gives your opinion or idea about it. The topic sentence is often the first sentence of the paragraph.  Supporting sentences develop the topic and contain facts, details, or examples.  Concluding sentence repeats key words from the topic sentence.

Example 1. Read the following paragraph and discuss the questions with the class. Global advertisers must also consider differences in laws and customs. For instance, certain countries will not allow TV advertisements on Sunday, and others will not allow TV advertisements for children’s products on any day of the week. In some parts of the world, it is forbidden to show dogs on television or certain types of clothing, such as jeans. The global advertiser who do not understand such laws and customs will have problems. 1. Where is the main idea? Circle it. 2. Where are the examples? Underline them. 3. How many examples are there? 4. What is the concluding sentence? Topic sentence: Global advertisers must also consider differences in laws and customs. Example 2: Certain countries will not allow TV advertisements on Sunday. Example 3: Other countries never allow TV advertisements for children’s products. Example 4: In some parts of the world, dogs and jeans cannot be shown on television. Concluding sentence: The global advertiser who do not understand such laws and customs will have problems. Exercise 1. 1. Identify each sentence below as follows: TS = Topic Sentence D1 = Detail 1 D3 = Detail 3

CS = Concluding Sentence D2 = Detail 2

------- 1. The advertisements give the same message in different languages: “Time with family is priceless”. ------- 2. It is trying to appeal to a new market: the everyday person who values family. ------- 3. MasterCard knows that family values have an international appeal because it has done market research and proved it. ------- 4. MasterCard is changing its advertising campaign for the global market. ------- 5. As a result, this campaign is working successfully around the world. 2. Now write the paragraph by putting the sentences in the correct order. Exercise 2. Read the following sentences. Decide if each is an effective topic sentence for a paragraph. For each effective topic sentence underline the topic and circle the controlling idea. Rewrite the ineffective sentences to make them good topic sentences, adding or changing words as necessary. Example 5: Effective topic sentence: Many students attend university

+

to prepare for a career

topic

controlling idea

Ineffective topic sentence: Many students attend university. (A simple fact, no controlling idea) Example 6: Ineffective topic sentence: Two-year colleges give associate’s degrees. (No controlling idea) Effective topic sentence: Two-year colleges have topic

several advantages controlling idea

1. My life is very busy because of family, work, and school obligations. 2. Being a responsible student requires time, effort, and confidence. 3. Grants, loans, and scholarships are the three best ways to cut the cost of a university education. 4. Computer networking is a degree program at my university. 5. My friend is majoring in accounting. 6. Students have greater chances to succeed if they form study groups and use teachers and computers as resources. 7. The college computer lab has many computers with Internet access. 8. There are several advantages to having a job and taking classes at the same time. Exercise 3. Each group of sentences below can be arranged and written as a paragraph. Circle the letter of the sentence that would be the best topic sentence. Example 7: a. Speed-walking three times a week is part of my routine. b. Staying healthy and fit is important for me. b .

c. Every night, I get at least seven hours of sleep. d. I eat as many fresh fruits and vegetables as possible. (Sentence b is more general than the other sentences; it would be the best topic sentence.) 1. a. My father looks handsome in his old-fashioned top hat and tails. b. My mother is seating before him wearing a lacy gown. c. I will always treasure this wedding picture of my parents. d. In the background is the old arched gate of my grandparents’ garden. 2. a. In 1988, three students at a Philadelphia high school for the arts were singing in the men’s room.

b. Singing dates in Philadelphia clubs led to their first recording contracts. c. A fourth student came by, added a bass note, and was asked to join the group, then called Unique Attraction. d. The group Boyz II Men rose quickly from lunch-hour vocalizing to international fame. e. Their first album, Coolie High Harmony, earned platinum. f. Today the Boyz’ silky mix of doo-wop and gospel is loved all over the world. 3. a. Physical courage allows soldiers and athletes to endure bodily pain or danger. b. Those with social courage dare to expose their deep feelings in order to build close relationships. c. Those rare people who stand up for their beliefs despite public pressure possess moral courage. d. Inventors and artists show creative courage when they break out of old ways of seeing and doing things. e. Psychologist Rollo May believed that four different types of courage exist. 4. a. Many old toys and household objects are now collectors’ items. b. A Barbie or Madame Alexander doll from the 1950s can bring more than $1,000. c. Old baseball cards are worth money to collectors. d. Fiesta china, made in the 1930s, has become popular again. 5. a. Horses are available for day trip. b. There are many scenic hiking trails. c. The Sierra Nevada mountains are a challenge to rock climbers. d. Yosemite National Park offers a variety of activities to the visitors.

e. Those who like to fish can cast for trout in Yosemite’s lakes and rivers. Exercise 4. The paragraph in the exercise does not have a concluding sentence. Read the following concluding sentences and choose the best one. Make sure the sentence restates the main idea. a. Newspaper ads are the most effective way to advertise an Internet service like abuzz.com. b. The ad for abuzz.com makes me want to visit the Website to find out more about it. c. The new Internet service abuzz.com is very useful. The newspaper ad for abuzz.com, a new Internet service, is very effective. It is a big ad with interesting photographs. The ad fills two full pages in the newspaper. Because of its size, the ad catches your attention. It is impossible to miss it when you look through the paper. The photograph takes up the left page. It shows the group of teenage boys standing together. The boys are wearing the latest teen fashions and carrying skateboards. One of the boys is looking directly at the viewer. The other two boys are looking at the first boy with respect, as if he were the leader of the group. On the opposite page, in big letters, you read the caption “Jared Knows”. The caption is rather mysterious. It makes you want to read the ad to find out what Jared knows. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………. Exercise 5. Read the paragraph about a radio advertisement for Benton’s furniture, a furniture store. Write a topic sentence and a concluding sentence that give the writer’s opinion about the ad. In the topic sentence, include the name of the product, the type of ad (for example, newspaper), and the writer’s opinion of the ad. In the concluding sentence, restate the writer’s opinion. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… The ad is very annoying for three reasons. First, it is too loud. When the ad comes on the radio, I have to turn the volume down because it hurts my ears. In addition,

the announcer talks extremely fast. I can hardly understand what he says. I can understand a few words, but I really have no idea what the ad is about. Finally, the ad plays on the radio all the time. It seems as if I hear it about every ten minutes. I am so tired of hearing the ad that I started listening to a different radio station. I also decided that I will never stop at Benton’s Furniture because they have such annoying ads. In conclusion, ……………………………………………………….. Exercise 6. Read the paragraph. Underline the topic sentence. Five sentences do not support the main idea in the topic sentence. Cross out those sentences. I recently saw very effective advertisement for Pepsi-Cola on television. First, the ad is surprising. You see an elderly women with gray hair. She looks like someone’s grandmother. In fact, mi friend’s grandmother looks just like the women in the ad. But the women is running down the street as if she were exercising. Then she jumps over a fence. She flips into the air and swings from a fire escape. It is amazing to see an elderly person doing these things. Second, the ad is mysterious. During most of the ad, you don’t know what the product is being advertised. Mysterious ads are not common on TV. The first time I saw the ad, I couldn’t understand what product is advertised. However, at the very end of the ad, the women stops running and takes a drink of Pepsi. Then you understand the message of the ad. Finally, the ad is not respectful for elderly people. Older people can’t move very well, so we think it is funny to watch the elderly person flip in the air. It is disrespectful. In conclusion, the add is effective because you keep watching it until the end and you remember it afterwards. Exercise 7. The sentences in the following paragraphs have been purposely placed in the wrong order. Rearrange the sentences and do the following tasks: 1. Find the controlling idea for this paragraph. 2. Find the tree supporting points.

3. Find the details for each supporting points. 4. Put letters A-P next to the sentences to show how to reorder them into a unified, coherent paragraph. ____ 1. For many gardeners, this activity also serves a very practical purpose. ____ 2. Since gardening is usually an outdoor activity, people can enjoy this hobby because it gives them exercise, fresh air, and sunshine. ____ 3. Most importantly, gardening is an activity that provides a highly variable and creative challenge. ____ 4. Even in a small apartment, fresh herbs and salad greens can be grown all year in a window box or under a special light. ____ 5. From the first bright flowers and new leaf buds of spring to the last brilliant red and golds of the falling autumn leaves, the beauty of the garden evolves. _____ 6. Obviously, people who enjoy gardening take great pleasure in the work involved in surrounding themselves with beautiful plants and flowers. ____ 7. At the same time it beautifies their home. ____ 8.Gardening is a wonderful leisure activity. ____ 9. Window boxes and special lights take up very little space. ____ 10. In addition, growing your own food is more satisfying. ____ 11. It allows them to produce their own fruits and vegetables. ____ 12. Although indoor gardening doesn't provide the fresh air and exercise of a large outdoor garden, indoor gardeners can still enjoy the beauty that plants and flowers add to their lives. ____ 13. A large outdoor garden provides a never-ending sequence of change. ____ 14. As they develop, they take their place in the ever-evolving landscape. ____ 15. These are much fresher than those bought in the grocery store. ____ 16. In addition, over the years, a gardener takes pleasure in being part of the

changing garden as young trees and shrubs mature. Exercise 8. Rearrange the sentences so that each paragraph moves smoothly and logically from one sentence to the next. 1. (a). Nearly one third of Internet users from Ukraine use online stores or auction portals as a place for purchasing various goods. (b). As the popularity of different e-services continues to grow, it seems natural that more and more Internet users decide to do the shopping online. (c). Taking into account the attitudes towards ecommerce, this number will, most likely, increase in the nearest future. 2. (a). The State Tax Administration of Ukraine has proposed that certain amendments be made to the Draft Tax Code, which is being considered by the Parliament of Ukraine. (b). Existing Ukrainian legislation does not provide any special rules for the taxation of goods and services purchased over the Internet. (c). However, it is difficult to predict what kind of tax regime with respect to electronic transactions might be introduced in Ukraine with the adoption of a new Tax Code. (d). The Tax Administration maintains that a chapter dealing with electronic transactions, including the sale of goods and provision of services over the Internet, should be added to the code. 3. (a). As those products are generally rather expensive, it is essential for eshoppers that they can buy cheaper via the Internet. (b). 35% of Internet users admitted that it takes less time than buying in traditional shops. (c). The most popular products bought in online shops are phones and accessories (49%) and among other things brown and white goods (27%) and computer hardware (26%). (d). All in all, the on-line shopping is associated with saving money and time.

Exercise 9. Read this paragraph and complete the following tasks.

Students at some American colleges are learning a lot from trash by studying "garbology." (2) Wearing rubber gloves, they might sift through the local dump, counting and collecting treasures that they examine back at the laboratory. (3) First, they learn to look closely and to interpret what they see, thus reading the stories that trash tells. (4) More important, they learn the truth about what Americans buy, what they eat, and how they live. (5) Students at the University of Arizona, for instance, were surprised to find that low-income families in certain areas buy more educational toys for their children than nearby middle-income families. (6) Most important, students say that garbology courses can motivate them to be better citizens of planet Earth. (7) One young woman, for example, after seeing from hard evidence in her town's landfill how many people really recycled their glass, cans, and newspapers and how many cheated, organized an annual recycling awareness day.

1. Write the number of the topic sentence in the paragraph. 2. What kind of order does this writer use? 3. Students learn three things in garbology courses. (a) Write the numbers of the sentences stating these. (b) Which two ideas are supported by examples?

2. DEVELOPING SENTENCE VARIETY No two sentences start with the same word! Exercise 10. Create a successful and interesting five-sentence paragraph with varied sentence beginnings. List three material things you wish for, three happenings that would make you happy, and three places you would like to visit. Example:

THINGS Ferrari Diamonds Lottery

HAPPENINGS PLACES Peace on Earth Australia Energy consciousness Jamaica More recycling Italy

Circle one favorite item from each list. The following five sentence patterns are used. 1.) This is the opening or topic sentence. Example: Three things that would make me happy are a Ferrari, an energy conscious society, and a trip to Australia. a). If I had three wishes they would include....... b). _______, _________, and ________ are three things that would make me happy. c). Three sure ways to make me happy would be.... 2.) The second sentence begins with an -ing word and used the thing wished for. Example: Racing down the freeway in my Ferrari, I would be the envy of everyone I met. Owning a red Ferrari would probably net me many speeding tickets. Driving my zippy Ferrari would be sheer pleasure. 3.) The third sentence begins with "To" plus an action word and uses the happening wished for. Examples: To live in an energy conscious society would make our lives healthier. To know that everyone was energy conscious would make me feel satisfied. To be aware of energy conservation should be of importance to all.

4.) The fourth sentence begins with a prepositional phrase and uses the place desired to visit. Examples: During a visit to Australia, I would certainly see kangaroos. For visiting Australia, I would need a new camera. From a visit to Australia, I would learn about many different animals and plants. 5.) The last sentence is a concluding sentence beginning with a word such as finally, certainly, surely, etc. Examples: Certainly my wishes are attainable. Surely I deserve all I wish for. Hopefully my wishes will come true before I'm 50. Rewrite you sentences in paragraph form. Remember: Do not begin the topic sentence with This paragraph will be about… or I am going to write about… These extra words contribute nothing. Instead, make your point directly. Make every word in the topic sentence count.

Exercise 11. Study the following examples. Using simple and compound sentences makes writing more interesting to read. There are several types of simple sentences: 1. Simple sentences with one subject (S) and one verb (V): S V I support capital punishment. 2. Simple sentences with a compound verb (two verbs joined with and, but, or or):

S V V I oppose capital punishment but support life sentences. 3. Simple sentences with a compound subject (two nouns or noun phrases joined with and, but, or or): S S V Murderers and other violent criminals should get the death penalty. 4. Compound sentences are formed by joining two simple sentences with and, but, so, or or: S V S V I support capital punishment, but it should be used only for serious crimes. Exercise 12. Read the following paragraph. Underline the subjects (S) and the verbs (V). Identify each sentence as a simple or compound sentence. Write S for simple and C for compound at the beginning of each sentence. 1. ( _____ ) Death is not the worst punishment. 2. ( ____ ) Being in prison is worse. 3. ( ____ ) Prison is not a fun place. 4. ( ____ ) Life is hard, and criminals can’t do what they want. 5. ( ____ ) They have to think about their crimes and remember all the people they hurt. 6. ( ____ ) Their family and friends cannot come to see them very much. 7. ( ____ ) For these reasons, life in prison is an effective punishment. Pair work Exercise 13. The following paragraphs contain only simple sentences. In pairs, rewrite the sentences using a variety of simple and compound sentences. Criminals should have psychological counseling in prison. Many criminals have psychological problems. Many criminals have drug addictions. They will not get better alone. They will get out of prison someday. They will commit more crimes. Criminals need help to become better people. The prison system must help them. Counseling is the only way to help criminals get better.

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 3) 1. What is a paragraph? 2. What is a structure of English paragraph? 3. What is a topic sentence? 4. What do supporting sentences contain? 5. What is the difference between a topic sentence and a concluding sentence? 6. Which techniques are used to develop sentence variety? Which one do you prefer? Why? 7. Which types of simple/compound sentences do you know?

UNIT 4

WRITING ESSAYS 1. ENGLISH ESSAY STRUCTURE

An essay is a group of paragraphs about one subject. In many ways, an essay is like a paragraph in longer, fuller form. Both have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Both explain one main idea with details, facts, and examples. However, an essay is not just a padded paragraph. An essay is longer because it contains more ideas. Each paragraph in an essay has a special purpose. The structure of English essay is very strict, usually consists of several paragraphs (introduction, body, conclusion) that are typically presented in the following way (Figure 1):

ESSAY STRUCTURE INTRODUCTION

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

BODY

Paragraph 4

CONCLUSION

Figure 1. The structure of English essays.

The American applied linguist Robert Kaplan analyzed the organization of paragraphs in foreign student essays and came to the following conclusions: . . . people may use the thinking patterns of their first language when they were writing in a second language. He suggested this because he noticed that essays written in English by college students with other first languages were often not organized like essays written by students who had English as a first language. After analyzing hundreds of such essays, Kaplan concluded that people from different cultures have different “thought patterns.” (Figure 2) Based on his evidence, Kaplan described English thought patterns as organized in a very “direct” way, represented in his diagram as a straight line progressing in one direction. Kaplan believed thought patterns of Semitic people who use languages such as Arabic and Hebrew are organized in “parallel’ patterns in which grammar structures are repeated. From his analysis of English essays by East Asian students, Kaplan claimed “Orientals” thought very indirectly, without necessarily coming to the point, something that is considered important in many types of English writing. Essays in English by students from Romance languages such as French and Spanish led Kaplan to believe that people with Romance languages think in ways that digress more often than the thinking patterns of people who have English as a native language. Kaplan claimed that their special thought patterns caused writers in Russian to pay a lot of attention to unimportant detail in their writing – something that native speakers of English are taught to avoid. This evidence from English essays written by foreign students led Kaplan to conclude that people from these different language groups have different patterns of thinking (Hall and Jung, 2000).

Thus, according to Robert Kaplan’s theory, an English essay has “linear” or direct, straight structure. English

Semitic

Oriental

Romance

Russian

Figure 2. Diagram on cross-cultural differences in paragraph organization in Kaplan’s study.

1.1 INTRODUCTION is the beginning of the essay, which introduces the topic and presents the viewpoints of the writer.  Usually consists of one paragraph that introduces the topic, presents the writer’s viewpoint  Try to catch the reader’s interest, use a hook.  Introduction contains thesis statement - one sentence that states the main idea of whole text. The THESIS STATEMENT communicates the main idea of an essay and tells the reader what the author is going to show or prove. The thesis statement tells the topic of each paragraph in the body of the essay. Example: "Three passions, simple but overwhe1mingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.” Compare these thesis statements:

Examples: Too General The creation of the European Higher Education Area by 2010 sets challenging tasks

On Target The creation of the European Higher Education Area by 2010 sets challenging tasks in terms of greater mobility for students, more effective international communication and better access to information

Too General “The Economist” is an interesting journal

On Target “The Economist” is an interesting journal because it is focusing on international politics and business news and opinion

Too General A flat tax helps tax accountants

On Target A flat tax would benefit the government, business, and consumers

Note: It is not necessary to start writing the essay with the introduction because this is the beginning of the text. Sometimes you may be confused about what to write next. One way to avoid this problem is to write the body first. Then, the body of the essay has been developed, the introduction is easier to write. 1.2 BODY Consists of a number of paragraphs that develop the viewpoint presented in the introduction. Each paragraph is about only one aspect of the topic. The body may be many paragraphs long, depending on the writer’s purposes and the complexity of the topic. Most essays usually involve two, three or four body paragraphs.  Support the writer’s viewpoint  Contains one, two, three or more paragraphs  Each paragraph presents one and ONLY ONE aspect of the topic

There are various ways in which the body of the paragraph might develop the main idea which is expressed in the key sentence. Some of these are: 1) By giving examples: The whirlwind destroyed everything in its path. Large trees were uprooted and hurled into the river. Shop windows were smashed. Houses toppled and fell like children's toys. The bridge across the river was ripped up and waved in the wind like a huge tarmac ribbon. No one had foreseen such devastation. 2) By making an analogy - an extended comparison: The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its gigs. Inviting outsiders to a college gig is like inviting outsiders to a family dinner. 3) By using an anecdote: The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its parties. Last year, a gang of students from the estate began a large brawl at the Halloween party. Several people were hurt and there was some property damage to the gym. 4) By stating reasons/suggesting possible consequences: The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its gigs. Having students from other colleges at the gigs might encourage fighting among students, especially if they are from rival colleges. 5) By quoting statistics: The college should not allow students from other colleges to attend its parties and gigs. Popular magazines state that 45% of gigs which admit outsiders end in some form of violent conflict. 6). By using a rhetorical question: Is that true …. Have you ever had an opinion that was different from everybody else’s opinion? 7). By addressing the reader directly: If you …

8). By including a quotation - a sentence or phrase taken from a book, play etc. When we use a quotation, it is necessary to mention the name of the person who said /write it: As Paul Coelho wrote, “It is the possibility of having a dream come true that makes life interesting“. Of course, you may use more than one technique in a paragraph. 1.3 CONCLUSION pulls the elements of the essay together and intensifies the writer’s viewpoint.  Brings the elements of the essay together  Includes summary of points, restatements of thesis, final comments  Might be a sentence or a paragraph long 2. OUTLINING An outline is a plan for how you will write an essay. Use outlines to organize your thesis, main ideas, and supporting details. I. Introductory Paragraph Thesis statement II. Body Paragraph 1 Main idea 1. Supporting detail 2. Supporting detail III. Body Paragraph 2 Main idea 1. Supporting detail 2. Supporting detail IV. Body Paragraph 3 Main idea 1. Supporting detail 2. Supporting detail V. Concluding Paragraph Conclusion

Here is an essay example:

What I Have Lived For Introductory Paragraph

Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly Thesis strong, have governed my life: the longing for Statement love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.

Body Paragraph 1

I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy - ecstasy so great that I would often have

Topic Sentence

sacrificed all the rest of life for a few hours of this (Love)

joy. I have sought it, next, because it relieves loneliness. I have sought it, finally, because in the union of love, I have seen the vision of the heaven that saints and poets have imagined. That is what I have sought, and though it may seem too good for

Concluding Sentence

human life, this is what at last I have found.

Body Paragraph 2

With equal passion, I have sought knowledge. I have wished to understand the hearts of men. I have wished to know why the stars shine. And I

Topic Sentence

(Knowledge) have tried to understand the Pythagorean power by which numbers hold sway above the flux. A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.

Concluding Sentence

Body Paragraph 3 (Pity)

Love and knowledge, so far as they were possible, led upward toward the heavens. But always pity brought me back to earth. Echoes

Topic Sentence

of cries of pain reverberate in my heart. Children in famine, victims tortured by oppressors, helpless old people a hated burden to their sons, and the whole world of loneliness, poverty, and pain make a mockery of what human life should be. I long to alleviate the evil, but I cannot, and I too suffer. Concluding Paragraph

This has been my life. I have found it worth

Concluding Sentence

living, and would gladly live it again if the chance were offered me.

This is an outlining plan of the essay “What I Have Lived For” I. Introductory Paragraph Thesis statement Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind. II. Body Paragraph Main idea

Love

Topic sentence I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy

1. Supporting detail

it brings ecstasy

2. Supporting detail

relieves loneliness

3. Supporting detail

the vision of the heaven

Concluding sentence

That is what I have sought, and though it may

seem too good for human life, this is what at last I have found.

III. Body Paragraph Main idea

Knowledge

Topic sentence With equal passion, I have sought knowledge 1. Supporting detail

to understand the hearts of men

2. Supporting detail

to know why the stars shine

3. Supporting detail

to understand the Pythagorean power

Concluding sentence

A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.

IV. Body Paragraph Main idea

Pity

Topic sentence

But always pity brought me back to earth.

1. Supporting detail

cries of pain

2. Supporting detail

children in famine

3. Supporting detail helpless old people Concluding sentence too suffer. IV. Concluding Paragraph

I long to alleviate the evil, but I cannot, and I

Conclusion Exercise 1. Answer the following questions: 1. How does the first paragraph show that the three topics of the body of this essay will be love, knowledge, and pity? 2. Why does this essay have five paragraphs? 3. How can you define the organizational structure of the essay? 3. What did you like best about the essay? What would you change? Exercise 2. Read the following thesis statements. What should the topics of the body paragraphs be? How many paragraphs should each essay have? Example: Without a doubt, his key to a happy life was having a challenging job and good friends to enjoy his leisure time with. Number of paragraphs in the essay: 4(introduction, 2 body paragraphs, conclusion) Topic(s) of the body paragraph(s): job, friends 1. His father’s philosophy focused on the joys of family life, the importance of being self-confident, and the benefits of a good education. Number of paragraphs in the essay: Topic(s) of the body paragraph(s): 2. Parents should teach their children to respect the elders, be honest, and work hard. Number of paragraphs in the essay: Topic(s) of the body paragraph(s): 3. Learning another language is an enjoyable and challenging experience. Number of paragraphs in the essay: Topic(s) of the body paragraph(s): Exercise 3. Choose one essay topic from exercise 6 (Unit 2) and write an

outlining plan for it. Exercise 4. Define which of the following thesis statements are appropriate and which of them should be improved: 1. The highest mountain in the world is Everest. 2. Mountain climbing is an exciting but dangerous sport. 3. Canada became a country approximately one century after the United States was formed. 4. The beaver is one of the symbols of Canada. 5. Political science is an interesting field of study. 6. The United Nations should be less involved in the political affairs of individual countries. 7. Capital punishment is an effective deterrent to serious crimes such as murder. 8. Capital punishment exists in some states in the United States. Exercise 5. Read the four topic sentences below and match each with the corresponding paragraph. a). Furthermore, people who move to a foreign country may be regarded with suspicion and treated unfairly. b). In the other hand, living abroad can be a way to escape a variety of problems presented in one's country of birth. c). One argument in favour of staying in one’s native country is that the problems of adapting to a new way of life cannot always be overcome. d). Finally, it may be said that by living in a foreign country, people are able to establish a greater understanding between nations.

1. The fact of the matter is that, even in cases where the language is the same, there

are other changes, such as cultural differences, which an outsider might find difficult to adjust to. Even the weather can force some people to return to their country of origin. For example, take an Inuit And Amazonian Indian. They would almost certainly find it impossible to adapt to the extreme climates of each other's native homes. 2. In countries with a large number of immigrants there are often social problems, and immigrants stand out as being "different" and even inferior. As a consequence, the host country may react in a variety of ways, from open hostility and racism to depriving the immigrants of the right to equal pay. 3. For example, war, political or religious intolerance, and natural catastrophes are among the reasons for people seeking a new home in a foreign land. In such cases, people are often able to start a new life abroad with greater freedom and a higher standard of living. 4. That is to say, by working and living among foreigners, some of the barriers between countries can be broken down, helping to create a more peaceful world. Needless to say, better diplomatic relations would be of benefit to all. Exercise 6. Match the following beginnings and endings. BEGINNINGS 1. You may live in a comfortable house in a clean neighbourhood with all the amenities. You would probably not be so lucky in one of the cities where urban growth has been allowed to get completely out of control. This problem is virtually destroying a number of large cities, particularly in developing countries, and a solution must be found before it is too late. 2. "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" is the biblical phrase we use to refer to capital punishment, the killing of criminals in order to punish them for their crimes. But whether the neat balance suggested by the phrase is reflected by the

actual practice is a moot point, and whether one human has the right to kill another in any circumstances remains a much-debated question. 3. While most people agree that a woman has the right to work as a heavy-machine operator and a man to become a midwife, is this supposed open-mindedness being put into practice? There is plenty of evidence to suggest that workers are still being judged by their gender and not by their skills, and this is a situation which needs to be dealt with. ENDINGS A. On the whole, I believe that those cities suffering as a result of urban growth could solve their problems, given financial support. Sadly, however, the chances of this happening are slight, especially in developing countries. Should we not, therefore, be thinking about encouraging people to return to rural areas in order to shift the balance populations? B. To sum up, gender should not be an issue in any workplace, since a powerfully built female is just as capable of hard manual labour as a kind and gentle male is of childcare. The only obstacles are those which exist in our own minds; as the American therapist Dr F.S. Perls once said, “We have to lose our minds to come to our sense.” C. All in all, it is easy to understand the reasons behind the continued existence of capital punishment in a number of countries. In spite of this, however, I cannot personally condone it, since to my mind the act itself is simply legalized murder, the ultimate crime. Exercise 7. Read the essay and answer the questions.

Public Transportation or Private Car

Many people own private cars for their transportation, convenience, or as a status symbol. However, in our daily lives, it's much better to take public transportation because it's cheaper, more convenient, and safer. Taking public transportation is much cheaper than owning a private car. The fare for public transportation, which is officially approved, is reasonable. Therefore, the passengers don't have to worry about unexpected expenses. Instead, the fare includes the passengers' rights to ask for compensation for any damage or loss which is caused by the company. On the other hand, owning a private car is very costly. At first, the owner has to buy a car which is one of the consumer durables, and has to pay for insurance, fuel, parking, and so on. Moreover, maintaining a car costs a lot unless the owner spends time and energy to do them, such maintenance, washing, cleaning, and so on. Taking public transportation is also more convenient because it's simple. A passenger can get on and off at anytime and any place at the stops. By the way, it's obvious that the passenger doesn't need to drive it. Instead, the passengers can do anything they wish as long as a passenger is not bothering anybody. It doesn't even matter if one is drunk. On the other hand, owning a private car and driving it oneself can be a lot of trouble, because the driver has to drive it, look for parking, take care of the car, and so on. Moreover, it involves strict and complex traffic laws. Unfortunately, a driver who is involved in a traffic accident can face big trouble with unexpected responsibility which could last the driver's whole life. Taking public transportation is much cheaper and more convenient. Furthermore, it's much safer than a private car. First of all, commercial drivers must satisfy strict commercial driving tests, and they have a lot of safety information and experience. In addition, they are very serious about safety, because once a commercial driver has a traffic accident, one might lose the job.

Moreover, commercial vehicles are usually much larger and well designed for safety. Furthermore, they are controlled by strict rules for their maintenance to keep safe. On the other hand many private car drivers have less driving experience and have passed less strict driving tests than commercial drivers. Furthermore, the vehicles are much smaller, and some old cars don't even have seat belts. In addition, the cars are taken care of by the owners mostly, so they might be unsafe. Therefore, it's obvious that taking public transportation is much cheaper, more convenient, and safer. Taking public transportation really saves money, time, and energy. 1. How many parts does the essay consist of? 2. What is its purpose? 3. Can you define introduction, body, conclusion? 4. Is introduction catchy? Which technique is used to grab the audience’s attention? 5. What is the thesis statement? 6. How many paragraphs does the body contain? Underline the topic sentence of each body paragraph of the essay. 7. Does the conclusion restate the topic or express the writer’s opinion? 8. Complete an outline plan for the essay. Exercise 8. Compare the following essays and answer the questions: 1. Which essay is a good example of the formal English essay? 2. Which essay should be improved? 3. How can you define the organizational structure of the essays? Essay 1

On a more practical level, the computer features may be very useful for those who do literary research or some other productive work. Computers can replace “old-fashioned” printed books. In the past decade, hundreds of reference books have appeared in electronic form. A computer brings a great many benefits not offered by ordinary reference books; the option of enlarging the type to reduce eyestrain or the ability to copy passages onto a “notebook” page and so on. But when it comes to literature, the electronicpublishing movement has run into resistance from both readers and publishers. It is hard to imagine sitting down to read Dostoyevsky or Dickens on a computer. Nothing can compare to the glossy sheen, smooth feel, and smell of a new book. The physical qualities of a book pull you into its pages. Essay 2 It goes without saying that cigarette smoke is harmful to one’s health. Many smokers are aware of this fact and yet continue smoking. That is their own problem. It is not fair, however, that non-smokers should be forced to breath second-hand smoke. In fact, there are several strong arguments to support the position that smoking should be banned in all public places. Smokers might claim that on the one hand, they have a right to smoke if they so wish, and nobody has right to stop them. The argument does not hold water. The right to freedom of action is forfeited is the activity brings harm to others. The ban on smoking in public places might also be supported by the fact that the inconvenience it causes smokers is very small. Those who feel the argue to light up can always step outside for a few minutes or smoke in a special area designated for smoking. In the end, restricting the place where smoking is permitted is only have positive results. The air in public places will always be clean fresh. When smokers

find that they are forbidden to smoke in many places, they might begin smoking less and less and may even be encouraged to quit for good. Perhaps one day, the entire world will even be smoke free.

3. USEFUL WORDS AND PHRASES FOR AN ESSAY (LINKING WORDS) Using the right linking words helps you to organize what you have to say about a text. It also helps you introduce and develop the essential ideas that will form the basis of your essay in a tightly connected structure and as short a space as possible. Linking words and other connecting devices help you carry over from one sentence to another, from one paragraph to another, in a way that allows the reader to better understand your ideas. Since your reader does not see the world exactly as you see it and does not necessarily make the same mental connections you make, linking words also help you to articulate your ideas and communicate them to other people in a way that supports a clear and persuasive argument. Linking words and phrases can be divided into the following categories: 1. To organize points chronologically (to introduce a series of reasons, ideas, remarks etc.): First(ly)/first of all; second(ly); third(ly); lastly/last of all/finally. In the first/second/third place; to start/to begin with. 2. To indicate the addition of a new point or introduce a related topic: In addition; what is more; furthermore (formal); moreover (formal); another thing is that…; above all; as well as; alongside; besides/apart from; similarly/equally/likewise; a word must be said about…; it is important to know…. 3. To compare things, make them clear or explain a given point in greater detail: In other words; that is (Latin – i.e.); indeed; particularly/especially; the main point here is that…; on a (more) personal/practical level; for example/for instance (Latin – e.g.).r

4. To contrast things: Although; and yet; but; despite; different from; however; in contrast with; in spite of; nevertheless; on the contrary; on the one hand/on the other hand; though; unlike; whereas; while. 5. To indicate a logical conclusion: Therefore/consequently; thus/so; as a result; it appears that…; evidently/it is evident that…; clearly/undoubtedly/unquestionably/beyond any doubt. Exercise 9. Match linking words with the type of information they introduce. Linking Words

Type of Information

1. For example

a) another idea

2. In addition

b) the same idea stated differently

3. As a result

c) negative idea

4. Unfortunately

d) example

5. In other words

e) contrasting idea

6. However

f)conclusion

Exercise 10. Fill in the gaps using words/phrases from the list. Some words/phrases can be used more than once. Up to a point, especially, indeed, this means, needless to say, in general, in fact, the fact that, obviously, example. 1. ……….. , people have mixed feelings about the effects tourism has on a country. 2. Most people believe that computers always make life easier, but ……….. , the opposite is sometimes true since they often cause problems when they break down . 3. ................. testing products on animals is cruel, but it is difficult to find a suitable alternative.

4. A typical ................. of the benefits of country life is the fact that there is very little pollution from traffic. 5. ................... more and more zoos are closing down shows that fewer people agree with keeping animals in captivity and, therefore, do not want to visit them any longer. 6. Using public transport can be a nuisance, ……….. when buses and trains are late during rush hour periods. 7. Advances in medical science mean that cures have been found for many diseases. ………. people live longer nowadays. 8. .................... , most people agree that more effort should be made where the recycling of materials is concerned. 9. More and more women are going back to work after the birth of children and ……….. they have to find someone to look after the children during the day. Exercise 11. Join the sentences using the linking words in the list below. Due to, in addition to, on the grounds that, therefore, with the intention of 1. The government has launched a campaign to promote new businesses in rural areas. They hope to draw people away from the large urban centres. 2. Television is a highly entertaining medium. It can also be an excellent educational tool. 3. Freedom of expression is one of man' basic, inalienable rights. People should be allowed to publish books containing all their beliefs and ideas. 4. Consumerism is becoming more and more a part of modern societies. This is because of advertising and the mass media. 5. Many people object to smoking. This is because passive smoking can be extremely harmful to one’s health.

Exercise 12. Fill in the gaps with appropriate linking words. Remember that the topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph.

How pottery is made After Leave The whole process The next stage Finally

Start Next

................ by preparing the clay to remove any air bubbles. Clay needs preparing before you use it to make sure its texture is even and that it is free from air bubbles. Air trapped in clay expands when heated in the kiln, causing it to explode. ................ make the thing you want. There are four basic methods to use. Firstly, pinch pots, made by squeezing clay with your fingers. Secondly, slab pots, made by joining flat sheets of clay, thirdly coil pots, made with sausages of clay and finally, pots made on the wheel ( thrown pots). ................ the clay to dry for about a day until it becomes ”leather hard”, like firm cheese. At this stage, you can finis fine details or decorate the clay. ………….. a week or so, when the clay is complete dry, you bake, or fire, the pot to about 80C to make it hard. This is called “biscuit firing”. It also makes the clay porous for the next stage. ………… is to cover the pot with a special kind of powdered glass called glaze. The powder is mixed with water, and applied to the pot by dipping, pouring, brushing or spraying . ............... the pot is fired again: to a higher temperature this time (between l000C and 1400C depending on the clay). This is called glaze or “ghost” firing. It makes the glaze melt and gives the pot an even, glass-like coating. …………. from start to finish, takes about two weeks.

Exercise 13. Using a variety of linking words and the following sentences, write a coherent paragraph. Do not change the order of the sentences.

1. Operating a small manufacturing business can be successful. 2. Often a small business is operated by a family. 3. Expenses can be reduced. 4. Less money is paid out in salaries. 5. Money can be saved. 6. Money saved can be reinvested in the business. 7. The business can expand. 8. Family members usually care more about the business than other employees do. 9. They may work harder. 10. If the company uses high-quality materials, the quality of the product will be good. 11. The company will develop a good reputation. 12. A good reputation will make the company’s products more attractive. 13. A company should produce on time. 14. The product should be delivered quickly, efficiently, and in good condition. 15. A small business can enjoy rapid success. Exercise 14. Choose a newspaper or magazine article, underline all linking words there and analyze them. Would you suggest any improvements?

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 4) 1. What is an essay? 2. How many parts does an essay usually consist of? 3. How many ideas might an essay contain? 4. How long is an essay? 5. What is its purpose? 3. What is a purpose of introduction?

4. What is the role of thesis statement? 5. Is it necessary to start writing essay with introduction? Why? 6. What do body paragraphs involve? 7. Which techniques are used in body paragraphs to get reader’s attention? 8. How long is a concluding sentence of an essay? 9. What is a purpose of outlining? 10. Why do we use linking words in essays? 8. Are English essays different from Ukrainian ones? In which way?

UNIT 5

TYPES OF ESSAY

There are many different types of English essays. The most common are comparison/contrast (for and against) essays, opinion essays and essays suggesting solutions to problems. Look at the essay plans below and say what features the plans have in common and how each plan differs from the others. Comparison/Contrast Essays Introduction

Opinion Essays Introduction

Problem-Solution Essays Introduction

Paragraph 1 State topic (without stating your opinion) Main Body

Paragraph 1 State the topic and your opinion Main Body

Paragraph 1 State the problem and its cause(s)/effect(s) Main Body

Paragraphs 2-3 Arguments for and examples or reasons

Paragraphs 2-4 Viewpoints and examples or reasons

Paragraphs 2-5 Suggestions and results

Paragraphs 4-5 Arguments against and examples or reasons Conclusion

Paragraphs 5 Opposing viewpoints and examples or reasons Conclusion

Final Paragraph Balanced consideration or opinion

Final Paragraph Summarize/restate your opinion

Conclusion Final Paragraph Summarize opinion

1. THE COMPARISON/CONTRAST ESSAY A comparison or contrast essay is an essay in which you either compare something or contrast something. A comparison essay is an essay in which you emphasize the similarities, and a contrast essay is an essay in which you emphasize the differences. We use comparison and contrast thinking when deciding which

university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or an airplane to a vacation site. Writing a comparison/contrast paper involves comparing and contrasting two subjects. A comparison shows how two things are alike. A contrast shows how two things are different. When you choose a topic, be sure not to choose two totally unrelated subjects. You must start with subjects that have some basic similarities. For instance, you could choose to compare/contrast two movies, two authors, two modes of transportation, or two sports figures, but you would not want to try to compare train travel and Babe Ruth! The first thing you want to do is brainstorm everything you know about each subject and then go back and look for connections that show similarities and differences (Berven, 1997). While comparing and contrasting two ideas, most writers structure their essays one of four ways: 1. First compare, then contrast (or vice versa). 2. First do one idea, then do the other. 3. Write only about the comparable and contrastable elements of each idea. 4. Only compare or only contrast. The examples will be provided for the first two ways: 1. First compare, then contrast (or vice versa) Writers using a comparison/contrast structure might begin by discussing the ways in which things are similar, then they move to a description of the ways in which the two ideas are different. This method is probably the one used most commonly. I.

Introduction

II.

Ideas are similar.

III. Ideas are different. IV. Conclusion Clearly, the sequence is important. If you begin with the comparison, then the contrast will get emphasis - the logical movement is from thinking about similarities to thinking about differences. If you begin by contrasting the ideas (and then move toward a comparison), the similarities get emphasis. Below are two paragraphs (the same paragraph written twice with slightly different comparison patterns development) about car ownership. The first is organized by listing the pros first and the cons second. The second paragraph presents the pros and cons side by side in succession. Both work. Example 1. To be able to drive is undoubtedly a useful accomplishment, and the ownership of a car is for many a fact of life that reaches beyond convenience to sheer necessity. Furthermore, the owner has the privilege of travelling in door-todoor comfort, the freedom of deciding when he will travel, the value of time saved, and (if he cares for such things) the pride and joy of property. On the other hand, all possessions are a burden, and a car may rank among the heaviest. It is expensive to maintain; it makes the owner a prey to vandals, thieves, and friends who need rides. Finally, cars expose their owners to the risk of accident. 2. First do one idea, then do the other Writers might compare and contrast ideas by treating one idea thoroughly before taking up the second one. Introduction Similarities (or differences) Differences (or similarities)

Conclusion A structure like this one seems more focused on the ideas being compared and contrasted than on the comparison and contrast itself. The similarities and differences between the ideas do not begin to emerge until the writer gets to the second idea. Example 2. To be able to drive is undoubtedly a useful accomplishment, and the ownership of a car is for many a fact of life that reaches beyond convenience to sheer necessity. On the other hand, all possessions are a burden, and a car may rank among the heaviest. It is expensive to maintain; it makes the owner a prey to vandals, thieves, and friends who need rides. Cars expose their owners to the risk of accident. Against these considerations, the owner has to weigh the privilege of travelling in door-to-door comfort, the freedom of deciding when he will travel, the value of time saved, and (if he cares for such things) the pride and joy of property (Cogdill, 1997). Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1. What is a comparison/contrast essay? 2. What should you consider while choosing a topic for comparison/contrast essays? 3. Which four ways are used for comparing and contrasting two ideas? 4. What are the differences between the first and the second ways? 5. Which way do you prefer? Why? THE STRUCTURE OF COMPARISON ESSAY INTRODUCTION Paragraph 1 present topic (without stating your opinion) MAIN BODY Paragraph 2 arguments for, with examples

Paragraph 3 arguments against, with examples CONCLUSION Final paragraph your opinion/balanced summary LINKING WORDS/PHRASES FOR COMPARISON ESSAY  To introduce points/arguments for or against: One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of …/ against … It could be argued that … It is (often/ widely/ generally) claimed/ suggested/ argued/ believed that … Some/ many/ most people/ experts/ scientists/ critics  To list points: First(ly)/ First of all; Second(ly); Third(ly); Last(ly)/Last of all/Finally First and foremost In the first/second/third place; To start/to begin with; For one thing… for another thing Note: firstly, secondly … is more formal than first, second…  To list advantages: One/Another/An additional advantage of …is … The main/greatest/first advantage of … is …  To list disadvantages: One/Another/An additional disadvantage of … is … The main/greatest/most serious disadvantage of … is … Another negative aspect of …

 To add a new point or introduce a related topic: In addition, what is more, moreover, another thing is that…, besides/apart from, alongside, as well as, also, not only … but also, similarly/equally/likewise A word must be said about … It is important to note that …  To make contrasting points: While, although, though, even though, however, but, nonetheless, in contrast/by contrast/on the contrary, despite/in spite of (the fact that), regardless of the fact that …, on the one hand … on the other hand, contrary to popular belief The most common argument against this is that … Opponents of … argue/believe/claim that … While/Although …, it cannot be denied that … While it is true to say that …, in fact …  To introduce examples: For example, for instance, such as, like, especially This is illustrated/shown by the fact that … One/A clear/typical example of … The fact that … shows/illustrates that …  To show cause: Due to (the fact that), owing to, because, as, since  To show effect: As a result, consequently, therefore, thus, so, for this reason, the effect/result would be …

 To conclude/summarize opinion: In conclusion, to conclude, to bring/jump to (a) conclusion, to come to the conclusion To sum up, in sum, all in all, finally/lastly, by all indications, in the end, ultimately Taking everything into account/consideration, I therefore conclude/feel/believe (that) … There is no absolute answer to the question of …, In the light of this evidence, it is clear/obvious that … Exercise 1. Match each of the following viewpoints with the corresponding opposing argument. VIEWPOINTS 1. From a political point of view, space exploration enables superpowers to demonstrate their level of technical advancement. 2. From a scientific standpoint, space exploration has been responsible for rapid developments in materials and processes which have also been of benefit to people on earth. 3. From an economic standpoint, the investment of time and money in space exploration could, in future, repay humanity many times over. The discovery of resources in outer space could be of great benefit to our planet. 4. Regarding the social implications of space exploration, there are those who argue that the potential that other planets hold for colonization could prove to be the salvation of the human race. OPPOSING ARGUMENTS A. However, it can be argued that the money would be better spent on alleviating the problems of developing countries. B. Nevertheless, many sociologists argue that colonies in space would create

more social problems than they would solve. C. On the other hand, some political analysts claim that the Space Race has led to unnecessary competition between nations and a consequent failure to cooperate and collaborate on international issues. D. Opponents argue that space technology is of limited use to society and that the research could be used more profitably to try to solve some of the more pressing problems which we face.

Exercise 2. Which of the following are arguments in favour and which are arguments against the topic: “School plays a more important role than the family in shaping one’s personality”. Suggest examples for each argument. Finally, write the essay in about 350 words. 1. Moreover, so much of the school days is devoted to competition and preparation for examinations that there is little time left for personality development. 2. On the other hand, most children have a closer relationship with their parents than with their teacher. 3. An additional argument in support of school is that young people are exposed to a wide variety of subjects. 4. One point in favour of the role of schools is that it is at school where children first learn to socialize. 5. Furthermore, children usually spend five years of their lives at home before they even go to school. 6. What is more, the average child spends as many as eight hours a day in school. Exercise 3. a). Read the article and label the paragraphs with the correct headings.  Arguments against  Arguments for

 Opinion  Present topic Introduction Paragraph 1 _______________________________________________________ Did you know the boat was one of the first forms of transport? A hundred years ago, the only way to make a journey across the sea was by boat. Nowadays, however, when it is possible to fly from one continent to another in the space of a few hours, is there any reason to travel by boat? Main Body Paragraph 2 _______________________________________________________ Although the boat is a rather old-fashioned way of travelling, it has certain advantages. To begin with, boats are usually more comfortable than planes or cars. Instead of staying in your seat for the whole journey, you can go for a walk on the deck, eat in a restaurant or even go shopping having more space to move around makes a long journey much more pleasant. Furthermore, boats are often are often cheaper than other forms of travel. For example, a boat ticket usually costs less than a plane ticket. Finally, boats are a safe alternative to cars and planes. There are fewer accidents at sea than in the air or on the roads. Paragraph 3 _______________________________________________________ However, travelling by boat does have its disadvantages. It usually takes much longer than other forms of travel. As a result, it can be more tiring. In addition, boat trips can be very unpleasant when the weather is bad or the sea ir rough, making journeys uncomfortable or even frightening. Conclusion Paragraph 4 _______________________________________________________

All things considered, although there are some disadvantages to travelling by boat, I believe it is a very enjoyable experience. Journeys may take longer, but if you have time to spare, you can take advantage of many facilities which boats have to offer and enjoy a pleasant voyage. b). Read the essay again and fill in the blanks below. FOR Arguments

Examples

1). More comfortable than other forms

1).Go for a walk, eat in a restaurant, go

of travel

shopping, have more space to move around

2)……………………………………

2)………………………………………….

3). …………………………………..

3). …………………………………………

AGAINST Arguments

Examples

1). ……………………………………

1). ……………………………………

2). ……………………………………

2). ……………………………………

Exercise 4. a). Underline the correct linking word/phrase. 1. Besides/Despite, television affects the way we think. 2. Many people are against/argue that we need advertisement in order to keep up to date with the latest products on the market. 3. One point of view against/in favour of travelling is that it allows you to meet people from different countries. 4. Even though/Nevertheless most people nowadays use a computer at work, it will be a while before we stop putting our ideas down on paper.

5. For instance/Still, people who know how to play a musical instrument are usually popular and make friends more easily than others. b). Read the paragraph below and underline the correct linking word/phrase. There are many advantages to having children at an early age. 1) To begin with/In addition to this, when you are young, you have a lot of energy. This means you can cope quite easily with children’s demands for constant care and attention. 2) To conclude/Secondly, young parents can relate to their children and 3) therefore/nevertheless understand them better. 4) Yet/Finally, when you become a parent at an early age, you are still young enough to enjoy life when your child becomes independent. Exercise 5. Read the extract below and choose the correct topic sentence. 1. There are many advantages to using the Internet. 2. However, there are many arguments against using the Internet. 3. Computers have become the most important means of communication. First of all, you spend hours and hours sitting in front of a computer screen. This can lead to severe backache and problems with your eyesight. Moreover, using the Internet can be very expensive, because the membership fees and phone bills are often high. Finally, using the Internet requires a lot of patience. Getting onto the Internet is not always easy this means you sometimes have to wait a long time to get access. Exercise 6. Read the topic sentences and write appropriate supporting ones. Join the sentences with appropriate linking words/phrases in order to write a complete paragraph. 1. There are many arguments against the command type of economy.

a). Lack of incentives that encourage people to work hard b). Requires a large decision-making bureaucracy c). 2. Watching television has certainly got its advantages. a). Keep up to date with current news b). c). 3. There is no doubt that joining Ukraine the EU has its advantages. a). b). c). 4. There are certain disadvantages to owning a car. a). b). c). Exercise 7. Choose any topic you like and write your own comparison/contrast essay. 1. Pacifism or violence: the best way to resolve the world problems. 2. The best and the worst inventions of the 20th century. 3. Should wealthy nations be required to share their wealth among poorer nations by providing such things as food and education? Or it is the responsibility of the governments of poorer nations to look after their citizens themselves? 4.The political system of UK and the US. 5. Dependence on computers: is it a good thing or should we be more suspicious of their benefits?

Note: Proofreading questions for your essay: - Are my main idea and thesis statement clear? - Have I supported my idea in a rich and convincing way? - Does each paragraph in the body clearly explain the main idea? - Does my essay cohere? - Are there any parts that don’t belong or don’t make sense?

2. OPINION ESSAY An opinion essay is a composition that presents the writer's individual ideas about a certain subject and then attempts to explain or defend those ideas against those who have differing opinions. Opinion essays therefore have two purposes: to inform the reader about the writer's opinion, and to persuade the reader of the validity or even the superiority of that opinion. Though much of an opinion essay will be focused on informing the reader, the real purpose of presenting an opinion in an essay is to persuade the reader of why that opinion is a good one, or even why that opinion is a better one than another opinion. Because opinions are personal and subjective, one of the primary tasks of an opinion essay writer is to make the writer's opinion seem grounded in more than just subjectivity. This will lend both the writer and the opinion credibility. For instance, if the opinion essay is on the writer's belief that home schooling is inferior to regular schooling, the writer would need to give reasons for his opinion other than his personal beliefs or anecdotal experience. Perhaps the writer was home schooled, and had a negative experience. This personal information would be good to include, because it would suggest the writer's intimate knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of home schooling, but it would not be enough to persuade readers who believe home schooling is better than regular schooling.

Those readers have their own strong opinions. The writer would need to persuade those readers by including authoritative information from outside sources, such as education researchers. This way, the opinion essay would be more than a personal rant, and would engage with the outside world. Opinion essays should always indicate why the writer of the essay has the opinion he or she does. This is part of the credibility process. If the reader does not know why the writer of the home schooling essay has such a strong opinion about home schooling, the reader may assume that the writer owns a school and is trying to persuade parents that would have home schooled their children that instead they should enroll their children in a school like the one the writer owns. Therefore, though the opinion essay should never focus exclusively on the writer's own experiences and ideas without incorporating the ideas of others, the opinion must always be contextualized in the writer's life so that the reader understands the reasons for the writer's opinion. Opinion essays should also always strive to address opinions that are contrary to the ones they express. This should be done in a gracious but firm manner. Acknowledging the reasons why others hold their own opinions demonstrates that the writer understands the broader picture and is aware that others disagree with him and, more importantly, is aware why. (From www.essaytown.com.)

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1. What is an opinion essay? 2. What are the purposes of opinion essays? 3. What is a primary task of an opinion essay writer? 4. What does credibility mean? 5. In which ways opinion essays are different from comparison/contrast ones?

THE STRUCTURE OF OPINION ESSAY INTRODUCTION Paragraph 1 introduce the topic and your opinion MAIN BODY Paragraph 2 First viewpoint and reasons/examples Paragraph 3 Second viewpoint and reasons/examples CONCLUSION Final paragraph Restate your opinion, using different words LINKING WORDS/PHRASES FOR OPINION ESSAY  To present opinions To my mind/To my way of thinking/For my part It is my belief/opinion/view/conviction that … I believe … I definitely/completely (do not) agree that/with … I am not convinced that … My opinion is that … It seems/appears to me … As far as I am concerned, … Exercise 1. Read the essay and complete the outline plan below. Identify the topic of each paragraph. Has the opposing viewpoint been included, and if so, in which paragraph? Then, replace the linking words or phrases in bold type with other synonymous ones. Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and the majority of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work

than ever before, and it is accepted in Western culture that many women now have careers. Nonetheless, in my opinion there is still a great deal of sexual discrimination against women within society, and the belief that sexual equality has been achieved is not altogether accurate. To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after having children. The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions made for childcare in the workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find someone to look after the children while they are at work. Obviously, this can prove to be a time-consuming and expensive process, yet it must be done if mothers are to be able to resume their careers. Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are so deeply ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the view that women should stay at home and look after their family still widely held, but it is reinforced through images seen on television programmes and advertisements. An example of this is that few men are ever seen doing housework on television, since this is traditionally thought of as "a woman's job". Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good standard of living, a woman find herself doing jobs: one at home and one at the office. So, it could be said that a woman’s position has, in fact, deteriorated rather than improved, with the result that women carry the burdens of equality but get none of the benefits. In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual discrimination no longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal rights intended to protect them from discrimination. In addition, a few women are now beginning to reach top positions as judges, business leaders and politicians, while a number of other previously all-male professions are opening their ranks to

women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm and discrimination is still very much with us. Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of women has improved only slightly. While rules and laws have changed, it is the deep-rooted opinions of people within society which are taking a longer time to evolve. Needless to say, until these attitudes have changed, sexual discrimination will remain a problem which we all need to face and fight against.

1. Introduction Paragraph 1 (stating the topic and expressing the opinion) ………………….. 2. Main Body Paragraph 2 (viewpoint and example) ……………………………………….. Paragraph 3 …………………………………………………………………... Paragraph 4 …………………………………………………………………... Paragraph 5 …………………………………………………………………... 3. Conclusion Paragraph 6 (summarizing opinion) ………………………………………….

Exercise 2. Look at the following beginnings and endings for the essay “Traditional values are irrelevant to modern society”, and say which have been taken from an opinion essay and which from a comparison essay. In what ways do they differ? Beginnings … 1. Has modern society changed so much that the values of the past no longer have any place? In my view, society will always need values, and the society we live in today would function better if traditional values were retained. 2. Imagine you were given the chance to step back in time. You would probably be

struck by the difference in values between then and now. On the one hand it could be said that those values belong to a bygone age. There are those, however, who feel that society today would benefit from the application of some of those values. Endings … a).To conclude, traditional values are clearly necessary for the proper functioning of society. However, It cannot be denied that society is evolving, and values should also change with the times. If this were to happen, perhaps people would no longer look back nostalgically to the past and talk about the “Good old days”. b).To sum up, I strongly believe that, whatever changes may occur in society, we must fight to maintain our tradition sense of right and wrong. As Pope Paul VI said: "We must see to it that enthusiasm for the future does not give rise to contempt for the past.

Exercise 3. Match the following viewpoints with the reasons. Give your own opinion with reasons. Cars enslave us rather than liberate us Viewpoints… 1. In the first place, you must work much harder in order to afford a car. 2. Also, people who own cars are always worried about their cars being stolen or damaged. 3. I’m also of the opinion that the quality of life in our cities is made worse because of cars. 4. Cars enable you to go to places and do things that you couldn’t otherwise. Reasons … a). For example, there are traffic jams all the time which cause a lot of inconvenience, and the pollution gets worse every day, so the city is becoming a worse and worse place to live.

b). To be exact, you can take off for the coast, or any other place, at a moment’s notice and if there is no public transport to a place it doesn’t matter. c). That is to say cars are not only expensive to buy but cost a lot to run, too. So, you have to work more hours if you want to have a car and still be able to live a decent life. d). In order to cope with this worry they have to install expensive alarm systems and, to make matters worse, car-owners have to avoid areas of the city where cars get broken into or stolen.

Exercise 4. Read the essay about tourism. Then answer the questions below. 1. Last summer, my family and I took a wonderful vacation to cape Cape Cod. We had fun, and saw many ways that tourism helps the area. From this experience, I believe that tourism is good for Cape Cod. 2. Tourism helps the economy and environment of Cape Cod in many ways. First, the people of Cape Cod earn a lot of money from tourists. There are many rental houses, hotels, restaurants, and souvenir shops. Tourism is the biggest business in the area. Without tourists, the economy would be hurt. In addition, money from tourists helps protect the environment. There are many rules about where you can go on the beach and what you can do there. You have to pay to go onto some beaches. The money helps keep the beaches clean and protected. 3. I hope we can go back to Cape Cod next year. It is a fun place to visit. I also know that the money I spend will help the people and environment of Cape Cod.

1. Introductory Paragraph a. Underline the thesis statement that gives the main idea of the essay (the writer's opinion). b. What place is the writer discussing?

c. What is the writer's opinion about tourism in that place? 2. Body Paragraph a. Underline the topic sentence of the paragraph. b. What reasons does the writer give to support the main idea of the essay? 3. Concluding Paragraph a. Underline the sentence that restate the thesis statement.

Exercise 5. Underline the correct word/phrase in the following sentences. 1. It is argued/One reason that testing new drugs on animals is necessary before giving them to humans. 2. In my view, we can all do something to protect the environment. For example/In addition, we can recycle newspapers and magazines. 3. Taking holidays abroad is usually no more expensive than taking them in your own country. What is more/However, it gives you the opportunity to experience other countries. 4. Secondly/Especially, regular exercise helps you to stay in good health. 5. On the other hand, it can be argued that what individuals do to protect the environment makes very little difference, in particular/since it is factories and power stations which create the most pollution.

Exercise 6. Read the sentences below. Then, use appropriate words/expressions to give your opinion, as in the example. 1.Governments should spend more money on improving public transportation. I completely agree that governments should spend more money on improving public transportation. 2. The system of having students evaluate their teachers is an effective means of ensuring that a high standard of education is maintained.

3. Boxing is an extremely violent sport and should be banned. 4. Computers can replace “old-fashioned” printed books. 5. People have to pay a price for the benefits of their industrial society. 6. Professional sports affects health in a negative way.

Exercise 7. Read the extract below and say which are beginnings and which are endings. Which writing techniques have been used in each? A. addressing the reader B. asking a rhetorical question C. using direct speech/ a quotation ____ 1. Every day we hear more and more violence at sports events because fans become enraged when their team losses. Don’t you think that the most effective way to control such incidents would be to teach people how to handle defeat? ____ 2. To sum up, competition has a negative effect on children, as the only thing that really matters is winning. Imagine how you would feel if you were always expected to be the best. ____ 3. In conclusion, I strongly believe that taking part in sports is more important than victory itself. After all, as our coach always says, winning is just “ the icing on the cake”. ____ 4. Has the importance placed on winning increased in recent years? For many people, this seems to be the main aim of sport. However, I believe that simply taking part is far more important than winning.

Exercise 8. Complete the parts of the essay below. Some people need to earn a very large sum of money in order to feel satisfied with themselves, while others require less. However, I personally believe……………......................................................................................................

To begin with, ………………………………………………………………………. In addition, ………………………………………………………………………….. On the other hand, ………………………………………………………………….. To conclude, ……………………………………………………………………… Exercise 9. Choose any topic you like and write your own opinion essay. 1. Shall we integrate from Marketing to E-Marketing? 2. English is an important international language. 3. How to be successful in the career? 4. Does the United Nations have any influence in the world nowadays? 5. Advertising: Information or Manipulation?

3. PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAYS Problem-Solution essays (or, as they may also be referred to, Proposing Solutions or Proposal essays) serve an important role. These essays inform readers about problems and suggest actions that could be taken to remedy these problems. People write proposals every day in business, government, education, and other professions. Proposals are a basic ingredient of the world's work. Problem-solution essays analyze a subject and take a definite stand on it; seek to convince readers to share the position by giving reasons and evidence and by acknowledging readers' likely objections or questions. Proposals urge readers to support a particular policy or take specific action. They argue for a proposed solution to a problem, succeeding or failing by how well they argue for the solution. To most disciplines and professions, problem solving is a basic way of thinking. For example, scientists use the scientific method, a systematic form of

problem solving; political scientists and sociologists propose solutions to troubling political and social problems; engineers regularly employ problem-solving techniques to build bridges, automobiles, or computers; attorneys find legal precedents to solve their clients' problems; teachers continually make decisions about how to help students with specific learning problems; counselors devote themselves to helping clients solve personal problems; business owners or managers define themselves as problem-solvers. Problem solving depends on a questioning attitude, what is called critical thinking. In addition, it demands imagination and creativity. To solve a problem, you need to see it anew, to look at it from new angles and in new contexts. Since a proposal tries to convince readers that its way of defining and solving the problem makes sense, proposal writers must be sensitive to readers' needs and expectations. As you plan and draft a proposal, you will want to determine whether your readers are aware of the problem and whether they recognize its seriousness. In addition, you will want to consider what they might think of any other solutions. Knowing what your readers know, what their assumptions and biases are, what kinds of arguments will be appealing to them is a central part of proposal writing, indeed of all good argumentative writing. A Well-Defined Problem A proposal is written to offer a solution to a problem. Before presenting the solution, a proposal writer must be sure that readers know what the problem is. The writer may also have to establish that the problem indeed exists and is serious enough to need solving. Sometimes a writer can assume that readers will recognize the problem. At other times readers may not be aware of the problem. A Proposed Solution Once the problem is established, the writer must present and argue for a particular solution. Be sure that your topic is narrow and that your solutions are reasonable.

A Convincing Argument The main purpose of a proposal is to convince readers that the writer's solution is the best way of solving the problem. Proposals argue for their solutions by trying to demonstrate:  that the proposed solution will solve the problem  that it is a feasible way of solving the problem  that it stands up against anticipated objections or reservations  that it is better than other ways of solving the problem A Reasonable Tone Regardless of the proposal or the argument made on its behalf, problem-solution writers must adopt a reasonable tone. The objective is to advance an argument without "having" an argument. The aim is to bridge any gap that may exist between writer and readers, not widen it. Writers can build such a bridge of shared concerns by showing respect for their readers and treating their concerns seriously. They discuss anticipated objections and reservations as an attempt to lay to rest any doubts readers may have. They consider alternative solutions as a way of showing they have explored every possibility in order to find the best possible solution. Most important, they do not attack those raising objections or offering other solutions by questioning their intelligence or goodwill (Axelrod and Cooper, 1993). Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1. What is the main aim of problem-solution essays? 2. Which professional fields require writing proposals? 3. What is a central part of proposal writing? 4. Which important features should proposals demonstrate? 5. What does a reasonable tone mean?

6. In which ways problem-solution essays are different from comparison/contrast and opinion ones?

THE STRUCTURE OF PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAY INTRODUCTION Paragraph 1 State the problem and its consequences MAIN BODY Paragraph 2 Suggestion 1 and result Paragraph 3 Suggestion 2 and result Paragraph 4 Suggestion 3 and result CONCLUSION Final paragraph Summarize your opinion LINKING WORDS/PHRASES FOR PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAY  To show effect: Therefore, thus, so, as a result, consequently, for this reason  To show cause: Because of, due to the fact that …, since, as  To show purpose: So that …, in order to …, with the purpose of/intention of (-ing)  To show possibility/probability: It can/could/may/might …, it is possible/probable/(un)likely/certain that … The likelihood/possibility/probability of (-ing/noun) is … The situation could be improved if …/It would be a good idea if …  To show suggestion:

Measures should/must/could be taken in order to solve/overcome/combat/deal with/ eradicate… Serious attempts/steps to halt/prevent/solve … must be made. One (possible)/alternative/another way to solve/overcome/deal with this problem would be/is … People/governments should focus their attention on ways to solve the problem of …/to improve the situation of …/to reduce the impact of …on society … Exercise 2. Read the essay and complete the outline plan below. Then, replace the linking words or phrases with other synonymous ones. Answer the questions after the essay. Green Building 1.The world’s energy needs are increasing while the supply of natural resources is diminishing. Governments, businesses, and individuals have made some effort to reduce their energy usage, but we must do more. Since buildings have a tremendous impact on energy and the environment, one solution to the energy crisis is to use green building. Green building means designing, constructing, and using homes and buildings in energy-efficient ways. The principles of green building call for a safer environment, intelligent use of materials, and energy conservation. 2. First, buildings and homes should create a safe environment for people and nature. Surprisingly, many homes and buildings today use synthetics materials that may cause illness. Green building requires the use of safe materials, For example, green builders use cellulose insulation in place of fiberglass insulation because fiberglass may create toxic dust. Green building also demands that paints and carpets contain no lead or dangerous dyes, Green building construction seeks to minimize damage to the environment. For example, in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,

the state Department of Environmental Protection built its headquarters on top of a former landfill. This site was chosen because it would not harm plants or animals. 3. Next, green buildings should use recycled and recyclable materials. The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection offices have interior walls made of agricultural waste and recycled paper and floor tiles made of recycled glass. The partitions, walls that separate office spaces inside the building, are made from recycled soda bottles. Similarly, steel is a recommended product in green building because it contains 70 percent recycled material and can be reused. Considering that 90 percent of the products consumed by Americans becomes waste in less than a year, reusing materials is essential in building construction, according to U.S. government studies. 4. Most important, buildings must conserve energy and water. Green building practices help builders conserve nonrenewable energy and use more renewable energy. For example, in Alameda County, California, officials instruct homeowners on how to install solar panels on roofs to collect the sun’s energy. The energy is stored in batteries to meet nighttime energy needs or collected by the public utility, which gives homeowners reduced utility bills. Alameda County’s Green Building Guidelines also urge new residents to use solar water-heating systems. Using south-facing windows alone can store enough solar heat to reduce heating requirements by 30 to 50 percent. Green building guidelines also require builders to seal leaks, increase insulation, and utilize energy-saving lighting, appliances, and furnaces. “Gray water,” or reused water, is recycled for watering gardens. Low-flush toilets and low-flow showers and faucets are also used. All these practices are designed to conserve energy and water. 5. In sum, green building seeks to make the construction of homes and buildings part of the solution to energy shortages and environmental issues, rather than part of the problem. If we use green building, our environment will be safer

and natural resources will last longer, giving scientists and engineers time to develop alternative energy sources such as wind power, water power, and solar energy. 1. Introduction Paragraph 1 (stating the problem, reasons and consequences) …………….. 2. Main Body Paragraph 2 (suggestion 1 and result) ……………………………………….. Paragraph 3 …………………………………………………………………... Paragraph 4 …………………………………………………………………... 3. Conclusion Paragraph 5 (summarizing opinion) ………………………………………….

1. What is the thesis statement? 2. What problem or problems are presented in the first paragraph? 3. What is the topic of each paragraph? 4. What are the solutions to the problems? 5. Does green building seem like an effective strategy for solving the energy shortage problem? Why? 6. Does green building seem like an effective way to protect the environment? Why? 7. What other ideas do you have for making a home or building more energy efficient and environmentally safe? Explain. Exercise 3. Look at the topic below. Read the suggested solutions (1-4) and match each with its corresponding result (a-d). 1. One way to combat crime would be to provide more job opportunities for the poor and unemployed. The result …………………………………………………...

2. Furthermore, if the prison sentences received foe certain crimes were made longer, the outcome ………………………………………………………………… 3. It would certainly be a good idea if police patrols were increased in high crime areas, especially at night. This would improve …………………………………….. 4. One final suggestion which would help to solve the problem of increased crime might be to establish recreational facilities, such as sports centers. If this ………… a). keep idle youths off streets and away from crime b). eradication of poverty which is a major cause of crime c). discouraging criminals with immediate police presence d). make criminals afraid of consequences of being caught Exercise 4. Read the following essay and fill the gaps with the appropriate topic phrases. Smoking is on the increase among young people. Discuss the problem and suggest what might be done about it. While smoking is on the decline among adults, the latest US SurgeonGeneral’s report indicated that increasing numbers of youngsters are taking up the habit. Perhaps the main reason for this alarming fact is the seductive advertising campaigns aimed ad young people by the tobacco companies. Other contributing factors include the lack of awareness on the part of school children of the danger of smoking, and the widespread availability of cigarettes. Furthermore, smoking retains an image of sophisticated maturity among young people, making the habit a magnet for those still in the process of moulding themselves into what they want to be. Firstly, one way to combat this problem would be for the government to (1)…………………………………………………………………………………….

This ban could also prohibit smoking on television and in films. As a result, young people would no longer be constantly exposed to seductive images of cigarettes. Secondly, by introducing a “negative image” advertising campaign, governments could (2) ……………………………………………………………… Not only would such a campaign deter young people from wanting to start smoking, but others might also be encouraged to give up. Another way to overcome this problem would be to (3) …………………….. Consequently, smoking would become far too costly a habit for most young people to take up or maintain. If measures were taken at school to (4) ……………………………………… Teachers could tell their students what will happen to them if they smoke and teach them about the wide variety of ailments that smoking produces. In this way, children will never want to start smoking, thanks to their knowledge of what it could do to their bodies. One final suggestion which would help, would be to (5) ……………………. If it is were possible for young people to buy cigarettes before they are eighteen, it would, therefore, be impossible for them to smoke. All in all, I think that it would be quite easy to reduce the number of young people that smoke or even to eliminate smoking altogether, were it not for the lackadaisical attitudes to those who have the power to do something about it. Until they find the motivation to act, however, it seems likely that the problem will simply get worse. Topic phrases A. … expose the truth – that smoking is a dangerous habit which kills thousands of people every year. B. … warn children more effectively about the dangerous of smoking, the situation might improve.

C. … ban all cigarette advertising in order to reverse this disturbing trend. D. … place a ban on the sale of cigarettes to under-eighteens, and ensure that this ban is strictly enforced. E. … impose heavier taxes on cigarettes, thus making them even more expensive than they already are.

Exercise 5. a). Study the two paragraphs that follow. In each paragraph underline the topic sentence, major points, and concluding sentences. Saving Paper One solution to the shortage of paper is to reuse it. First, newspapers have many uses after they are read. They can be used to line the floor when painting or cleaning. In addition, leftover computer paper also many uses. Scraps of pages make good notepaper or shopping lists. Paper bags from the grocery store can also be reused. For example, they can be used for groceries again, and they can also carry lunches or line wastebaskets. Reusing paper before it's thrown away is a simple way to conserve paper. Saving Paper One solution to the shortage of paper is to reuse it. First, newspapers have many uses after they are read. Old newspaper sheets can be used to pack dishes or fill a box when mailing things. They can also be used to line the floor when painting or cleaning a room. In addition, leftover computer paper has many uses. The most obvious use is to print things out on both sides of the paper. Scraps of pages also make good notepaper or shopping lists. Paper bags can also be reused. Many grocery stores will give you a credit for reusing the bags. Students can cut the bags up and use them to cover books. They can also carry lunches or line wastebaskets. Reusing

paper before it's thrown away is a simple way to conserve paper. Group work b). Discuss these questions in a group. 1. How are the two paragraphs different? 2. Which one do you prefer? Why?

Exercise 6. a). Read and analyze the paragraph. Identify the following elements: the topic sentence, major points, supporting ideas for each major point, and the concluding sentences. Conserving Electricity at Home Using electricity wisely in the home can help conserve energy. First of all, people should not leave lights on when they are not needed. In addition, appliances and machines should be turned off throughout the house when they are not in use. It's not good to leave the television or radio playing while you are sleeping. People should pay attention to how much electricity they use in their homes. Pair work b). With a partner, revise the paragraph. As you revise, think about these questions: 1. Is the paragraph fully developed? 2. Does it need more supporting facts, details, or examples? 3. Add more supporting sentences where they are needed.

Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with appropriate linking word/words. Hybrid Automobiles "Hybrid" cars are getting attention from carmakers and some consumers. (1) ……., a growing number of automobile manufacturers are showing interest in

selling these half-electric, half-gasoline powered automobiles. Toyota and Honda produced hybrid cars in 2002. (2) ……, General Motors and Ford Motor Corporation planned to introduce hybrids. (3) ……, celebrities drive them. (4) …..., actor Leonardo di Caprio has two hybrids, and actress Cameron Diaz has one. Recently di Caprio bought three more hybrid cars for family members. Several U.S. congressional representatives have also purchased hybrids. The increase in availability and popularity may, (5) ……, mean that drivers will be seeing more hybrid automobiles on the road in coming years. Exercise 8. Choose any topic you like and write your own problem-solution essay. 1. The quality of education. 2. Increasing use of motor vehicles. 3. Environmental problems in Ukraine. 4. Violence in our society. 5. Alternative energy sources. CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNITS 5) 1. What is an essay? 2. How is an essay different from other kinds of writing? 3. Are there different kinds of essay? What are the differences between them? 4. What is the purpose of comparison/contrast, opinion, and problem-solution essays? 5. Which linking words are used for each type of essays?

UNIT 6

REVISION Writers are readers as they read their own texts. Readers are writers as they make their responses on a written text. Raimes

Revision is a vital part of the writing process. Many people revise sections as they write, but finishing a complete draft is particularly useful because it gives you, the author, a chance to step back and look at your essay as a whole. With a finished draft it is clearer whether or not the thesis is successful or the organization is logical. You may revise your paper individually or as part of a peer review team. 1. INDIVIDUAL REVIEW Below is an example of a checklist for individual revision as well as for peer review: Organization  

   



Is there a clear introduction, body, and conclusion? Does the introduction provide sufficient background for the reader? Are the "who," "where," "why," "what," and "how" questions addressed? Is there a thesis sentence? Is the purpose of the essay clear? Does the essay move from general to specific? Are there sufficient transitions between related ideas? Is the overall organization murky or clean? In other words, does the writer avoid introducing new material in the conclusion or switching subjects in the middle of a paragraph in the body? Does every paragraph address the subject matter of the thesis in some way?

Content and Style  Does the essay show that the writer has a knowledge of the audience?  Is the length appropriate and adequate?  Has the writer used sufficient examples and detail to make his or her points clearly?  Has the assignment been addressed?

    

Is the tone of the essay appropriate? Has the writer avoided insulting the reader? Is the tone of the essay professional and appropriate? Is the language convincing, clear, and concise? Has the writer used fresh language and a creative approach?

Research and Sources  Are all sources credible?  Is the research accurate, unbiased, and complete?  Has the writer fully interpreted the findings?  Has the writer commented on each source used?  Is the analysis based on hard evidence?  Is the analysis free of faulty reasoning?  Is the documentation in the Works Cited page and body of the essay correct?  Have all quotations been checked against the original?  Are all quotations introduced? Is the flow of the essay seamless?  If material was paraphrased, are the sources still mentioned?  If necessary, are limitations clearly spelled out?  If included, are recommendations based on accurate interpretations?  Have all facts been checked for accuracy?  Have any potentially libelous statements been eliminated? Proofreading  Has the writer checked grammar and punctuation?  Has the writer spell checked the essay?  Has the writer checked for his or her particular pattern of error?  Are the page numbers correct?  Is the title capitalized correctly?  Has the writer used the correct margin and font? ( Jordan-Henley, 1998) 2. PEER REVIEW Peer review is the evaluation of creative work or performance by other people in the same field in order to maintain or enhance the quality of the work or

performance in that field. The word peer is often define as a person of equal standing. However, in the context of peer review it is generally used in a border sense to refer to people in the same profession who are of the same or higher ranking. Peer review is used extensively in a variety of professional fields, including academic and scientific research, medicine, law, accounting and computer software development. Even trial by jury is a form of peer review. Peer review is legislatively mandated in some situations, particularly in law and medicine. In others it is required by traditions and/or by administrative rules, such as in academia. In some fields, such as software development, it occurs naturally without any formal structure or requirements (From www.linfo.org). The goals of peer review are 1) to help improve your classmate's paper by pointing out strengths and weaknesses that may not be apparent to the author, and 2) to help improve editing skills. When you give feedback, try to be as honest and specific as possible; saying a paper is “good”, “nice”, or “bad” doesn’t really help the writer. When you receive feedback, think over your classmate’s responses; do they sound true? In order to give effective commentary in peer review, the following points may be used: GUIDELINES FOR PEER REVIEW  Before you even make your first comment, read the document all the way through.  If you are provided with a feedback form to fill out and something is unclear, do not ignore the item but ask the instructor for clarification.  Point out the strengths as well as the weaknesses of the document.  Offer suggestions, not commands.

 Editorial comments should be appropriate and constructive. There is no need to be rude. Be respectful and considerate of the writer's feelings.  Be sure that your comments are clear and text-specific so that your peer will know what you are referring to (for example, terms such as "unclear" or "vague" are too general to be helpful).  As a reader, raise questions that cross your mind, points that may have not occurred to your peer author.  Try not to overwhelm your peer with too much commentary. Follow the feedback form and the issues you are supposed to address.  Be careful not to let your own opinions bias your review (for example, don't suggest that your peer completely rewrite the paper just because you don't agree with his/her point of view).  Reread your comments before passing them on to your peer. Make sure all your comments make sense and are easy to follow.  Avoid turning your peer's paper into your paper. (From www.serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/peerreview/what.html) PEER-REVIEW FEEDBACK FORMS Example 1. Hall and Jung (2000) suggest the following feedback form for evaluating an essay:

In the space to the left of each question, write a 1 if your answer is strong No. Write a 5 if the answer is strong Yes. Write 2,3,or 4if your answer is between. Part A: Evaluating Content and Development/Organization In the introduction ____ 1. Is there a general statement that “locates” the topic for the reader? ____ 2. Is there background information that interests the reader? ____ 3. Is there a thesis statement that interprets the topic and controls the entire essay?

____ 4. Is there an organizer that gives the plan of the essay body? (Remember, this feature is not always necessary.) In each body paragraph If the essay has more that three body paragraphs, make additional columns at left. P1 ____

P2

P3

____ ____ 5.

Is there an opening transitions that shows the ordering system (e.g., time, degree of importance, familiarity)?

_____ ____ ____ 6.

Is there a controlling idea that controls the paragraph and support the thesis?

_____ ____ ____ 7.

Are there enough supporting points?

_____ ____ ____ 8.

Is there sufficient detail?

_____ ____ ____ 9.

Are the supporting points ordered (e.g., by time, degree of importance, familiarity)?

_____ ____ ____ 10. Are signals used between various points within paragraph? In the conclusion ____ 11. Is it connected to the final body paragraph (by a key word or idea or by a transition)? ____ 12. Does it refer to the thesis statement? ____ 13. Is there a summary related to the various body paragraphs? ____ 14. Is there statement of belief that advises, suggests, recommends, predicts, or offers a solution? Remember: Not all English essays demonstrate all of the features listed above. (Indeed many good English essays do not satisfy such a formula.) As a writer, you may decide when features such as those listed are important and when your message might be improved by being less direct. This list is provided to help you as a learning writer.

Part B: Evaluating Language Use _____ 15. Are the sentence forms generally correct? Does each subject noun have a verb, and are clauses joined by connecting words? _____ 16. Do parallel structures use the same grammar forms for their content units? ____ 17. Do sentence topics (subject nouns) relate to topics or comments of earlier sentences? ____ 18. Are prepositions followed by nouns or noun phrases? ____ 19. Is a comma used when an adverb phrase comes before the sentence base? ____ 20. Is a comma used to separate a relative clause that describes from the sentence base? ____ 21. Are verbs in the correct forms? ____ 22. Do nouns agree in number with their verbs? Do singular third-person present tense verbs end in S? ____ 23. Do nouns that require articles have them? ____ 24. Is spelling generally correct? Example 2. “Response questions” (Raimes, 1992) format is also used as a feedback form. The reader should answer the following questions: 1. What is the main idea that the writer is trying to express in his daft? 2. Can you find any part that do not relate to the main idea? Underline them. 3. Which part of the piece of writing do you like best? Find two or three places where you would like more explanations, examples, or details. Write questions about them. 4. Did you at any point lose the flow of the writing or find places where the writer

seemed to jump too suddenly from one idea to another? Were there any places that seemed unclear to you as a reader? 5. Did the beginning capture your attention and make you want to read on? Why or why not? 6. Can you summarize in one sentence the main idea of each paragraph? For each paragraph, complete the following statement: Paragraph 1 says that … Paragraph 2 says that … Proceed in the same way for the remaining paragraphs.

Exercise 1. Evaluate the following text using the feedback form (example 1 or 2). Love is a rare phenomenon in our society. There are all kinds of relationships which are called love. There are the dominating themes that appear in the romantic songs and in the movies of sentimental impulses. No word is used with more meanings than this term, most of the meanings being dishonest in that they cover up the real motives in the relationship. But there are many other sound and honest relationships called love such as parental care for children, sexual passion, or the sharing of loneliness. The reality often discovered in when one looks underneath the surface of the individual in our lonely and conformist society, is how little love is actually involved in these relationships. Our society is, as we have seen, thriving with competitive individualism, with power over others as a dominant motivation. Our particular generation is full of isolation and personal emptiness, which is not a good preparation for learning how to love. The capacity to love presupposes self-awareness, because love requires the ability to appreciate the potentialities of the other person. Love also presupposes freedom; because love which is not freely giver is not love. To love

someone because you are not free to love someone else is not love. The error so common in our society is resorting to hypocrisy in trying to persuade himself that all of the emotions he feels are love. Learning to love will procede if we stop trying to persuade ourselves that to love is easy. And if we give up the disguises for love in a society which is always talking about love but has so little of it. Exercise 2. Using the feedback form as your guide, evaluate your classmate’s writing. Pair work Exercise 3. With a classmate, use the feedback forms to evaluate the essay of a third classmate. You and your partner should agree on the grade you give. Explain to the writer why you gave the grades that you did.

PART II UNIT 7

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN WRITING

There are different ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing which differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source writing. Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to:  Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing  Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing  Give examples of several points of view on a subject  Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with  Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original  Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are not your own  Expand the breadth or depth of your writing

1. Summarizing A summary, also called a synopsis, is an abridgement or condensation of its original. A summary is not an explanation or a substitute for the original. Rather, its purpose is to refresh the writer’s memory about what the original said or to give others enough information about the original to let them decide whether they want to read the original (Millward, 1980). The goal of summarizing The goal of summarizing material is to pass along the ideas belonging to another. You should do this with fewer words than the original. You are also expected to

maintain the integrity of the original document: not distorting the original views, ideas, attitudes, or their importance in the original as well as not adding your own. The summary, therefore, becomes a tool for understanding what you read; it forces you to read critically, differentiating between main and minor points. Summary writing also forces you to write clearly because you cannot waste any words. Characteristics of a summary Since summary is a shortening of a text of written work, you are to describe as accurately and briefly as possible main ideas contained in a text. Summary  begins by citing the author of a summarized text, its title and the main idea.  does not change the meaning of the original text (objectivity).  should be quite short: six to eight sentences or one third/one fourth of the original (brevity). The length of a summary depends on 1. The assignment 2. The length and complexity of the article  presents all the main ideas and major points – not all the details – in the original text (completeness).  does or does not use concrete examples, or details, or quotes from the original; if does not use quotes, then everything is put into your own words.  does not make any conclusions about the original, its audience, or anything relating to the text. The process of summary writing Step 1. Reading and underlining 1. Read the article carefully, making no notes or marks and looking only for what the writer is saying. Answer the following questions: a). What is the topic of the passage? b). What is the author's purpose in writing? Does the author describe something,

analyze a problem, give information, review a book or movie, try to persuade the reader to adopt his point of view or take some action, state a personal opinion etc? 2. After you're finished reading, look for the writer's thesis and underline it . 3. Highlight or circle the major points supporting the thesis; these could be key sentences, phrases, or words. In addition, underline key transitional elements which show how parts are connected. Omit unnecessary details, examples, description, and explanations. Step 2: Summary organizing Introduction The introduction should contain the title of the source (essay or article) and the name of the author of the source. It also includes thesis statement which is not your main point; it is the main point of the source. You have to write this onesentence statement rather than quote it from the source text. The introduction should not offer your own opinions or evaluation of the text you are summarizing. Body The body should build on and directly support the thesis. Present the main ideas as they occur in the essay and demonstrate how that material supports the argument of the thesis. Include one or more of the author’s examples or illustrations (these will bring your summary to life) but do not include your own ideas, illustrations, metaphors, or interpretations. Omit nothing important and strive for overall coherence through appropriate transitions. Conclusion There is customarily no conclusion to a summary essay. When you have summarized the source text, your summary essay is finished. Before you begin your own summary, you may make a concept map, or graphic organizer of the summarized text that shows the main ideas. You can write

a summary just by looking at a concept map. Exercise 1. Study the concept map of the text “Prying Eyes” that follows. Prying Eyes In the effort to make schools safe and drug-free, are authorities ignoring students’ rights? Thirty-two years ago, in a famous opinion defending the rights of students to protest the Vietnam War, United States Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas wrote that young people do not leave “their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gate”. That’s still true. But these days, depending on where you go to school, before you can enjoy those rights you may well have to make your way through a metal detector at the gate, encounter drug-sniffing German shepherds in the hallways, let school officials search your locker, smile for the security cameras, and be ready to urinate into a cup on demand to be tested for drugs. As to free speech, say what you want, but if you mention acts of violence you may be in trouble. In most schools, of course, the picture is not that bad. But according to civil liberties groups the rights of students are under attack as never before. Across the country, many school districts have adopted harsh “zero-tolerance” policies in which even thinking about violating the rules can be reason for punishment. And in the process, civil liberties groups say, basic constitutional rights sometimes get ignored. School officials are in a tough position. They are directed not only to educate their students but also to ensure their safety and maintain an atmosphere where learning can take place. Incidents like the 1999 Columbine shootings have reminded them all too well that the failure to act against that rare student who gives

warning signs and then actually does commit an act of serious violence could be deadly. When the rights of students collide with the will of school officials, it’s up to the courts to decide where to draw the line. Their decisions in these cases could help determine where the line is drawn in your school. Eric Nagourney, The New York Times

Title and

“Prying Eyes” by Eric Nogourney

author

Main idea

Schools may be ignoring students’ rights. Background information: 32 years ago, the Supreme Court said students do not “leave their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gate”.

Major point

Many types of security measures are used in schools now.

Supporting details

Major point

Major point

Metal detectors, drug-sniffing dogs, drug tests, security cameras, locker searchers, less freedom of speech

Student rights “are under siege”. Many schools adopt “zerotolerance” policies.

School officials are directed to educate students and ensure their safety.

Major point Courts decide when student rights collide with the will of school officials.

Exercise 2. Choose the best one-sentence summary statement for “Prying Eyes”. Discuss your answers with the rest of the class. 1. The essay “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney states that the US Supreme Court protects students’ rights at school. 2. The essay “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney states that student rights may be under attack because of security measures used at schools. 3. The essay “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney states that school officials sometimes search students and their lockers for drugs. Exercise 3. Read the two sample summaries of the text “Prying Eyes”. Choose which summary you think best represents the main ideas of the reading. Why? Evaluate the summaries according to the “Characteristics of a summary” (Exercise 1). Summary 1 The article "Prying Eyes" by Eric Nagourney states that student rights may be under attack because of security measures used at schools. The article in The New York Times describes many security methods currently being used metal detectors, drug-sniffing dogs, locker searches, security cameras, and drug tests. However, according to the writer, a U.S. Supreme Court decision during the Vietnam War era gave students constitutional rights even at school. Civil liberties groups fear that the strict security policies now in force may violate students' rights, Nagourney says. Many schools have "zero-tolerance" policies that call for strict punishment of security violations. The problem is

that school officials face a challenge because they must not only educate students but also keep schools safe, he writes. The article suggests that in the future, courts must decide when student rights conflict with school rules. Summary 2 The newspaper article “Prying Eyes” by Eric Nagourney tells us about the types of security devices that are being used in schools today. Nowadays, students must enter schools through metal detectors, have their lockers searched, and undergo drug tests, among other things. These policies take away student rights. Students have rights under the U.S. Constitution, even while they are in school. Even though schools need to keep their buildings safe, they should not make the schools feel like prisons. Courts will need to help students keep their rights, or schools will continue to create more rules and policies that will trample on people's rights. Nobody wants violence in schools, but we also do not want students to be treated like criminals. Pair work Exercise 4. Read the text “Inflation and the Transition to a Market Economy”. Work with a partner to mark the main idea in the reading. Make a concept map of the reading. Inflation and the Transition to a Market Economy One of the most intractable problems confronting societies in transition from centralized to free market economies is that of inflation. It is, however, a challenge that such societies must meet if they are to enjoy the material benefits that a market economy can provide. What exactly is inflation? It is an increase in the average price level of the goods and services produced and sold in an economy. Inflation typically occurs in

a market economy for one of two reasons: either people increase their spending faster than producers are able to increase the supply of the goods and services; or there is a decrease in the supply of goods and services to consumers and/ or producers, which drives up prices. Inflation has sometimes been described as an increasing amount of money chasing a shrinking number of goods. Inflation hits economies in transition hard because price liberalization - the removal of government price controls - is an essential step toward a market economy. The initial result of such price liberalization is predictable - a wave of price increases for goods that were in chronic short supply. Why? Because the government held their prices artificially low, so demand perennially outstripped supply, or because of other economic distortions and inefficiencies created by government decision-makers. In addition, if people are holding large amounts of money at the time of this transition (since there was little of value to buy), the pressure of inflation can be even greater. Nevertheless, the rewards of enduring the inevitable bout of inflation during this transitional period are substantial. Unfettered by government, the market mechanisms of supply and demand can begin to function. High prices signal strong demand and the market, albeit slowly and haltingly at first, responds with increased production. Peoples' money may have lost value, but what money they have is now real and consumers can buy the goods that are beginning to appear in stores. With supplies increasing, prices stabilize and queues begin to disappear as consumers realize that more and varied products will continue to be available for sale. Entrepreneurs and investors respond to the new economic freedom by starting new businesses and competing to provide goods and services, thereby creating jobs, expanding supply and causing prices to moderate further.

The key element in this transition is for the government to relinquish its role in setting prices and permit the market forces of supply and demand to establish prices for virtually all goods and services. When such a free market is established, inflation may persist. but it is a far more manageable and less threatening problem than in the early, hard days of economic transition. Michael Watts, What is a Market Economy? Group work Exercise 5. Read the text “Living with Cell Phones” and discuss the questions in a group. Living with Cell Phones In today’s technology-driven world, the cell phone has emerged as a great success. If you have any doubt about the popularity of “cells”, just look around you. In buildings, parking lots, stores, vehicles, and on the streets, nearly everyone is carrying a cell. However, the popularity of cell phones is also the problem with cell phones. Of course, no one can deny that cell phones are very useful. Parents and children carry them around so that they can keep track of each other. Friends use cell phones to chat with each other on the spur of the moment. In emergencies, people use cell phones to call tow trucks, taxis, or ambulances or notify others that they are running late. Users soon discover that their cell phones are so useful that they cannot go anywhere without them. The fact that cell phones are in everyone’s pocket, purse, and hand means that the noise of ringing phones and conversation has invaded public spaces. Cell phones ring in restaurants, cinemas, and libraries. In stores, shoppers talk long and loudly, asking their family members what size or color clothing they want. People even carry on long conversations about personal topics with friends and lovers where everyone around them can hear. Recently I was sitting in chemistry class,

listening closely to the professor's lecture, and "ring" went my classmate's cell phone. All this noise is disrupting the peace. However, the most significant disadvantage of cell phones is that so many people drive and talk simultaneously. Increasingly, drivers take to the roads and pull out their phones - on highways and on busy streets. It stands to reason that drivers are distracted when they drive and talk. In fact, in 1997, the New England Journal of Medicine reported that motorists who use cell phones are four times more likely to crash. A three-year study in Oklahoma found that accidents connected with cell phone use were nine times more likely to result in deaths. Japan, Australia, and numerous other countries have banned the use of handheld cell phones while driving. Clearly, cell phones are helpful devices. Still, as long as people use them irresponsibly, they will cause problems, particularly when their users don't think about others around them. In public, cell phone users often disturb other people with the noise they make; on the road, they put pedestrians and other drivers in danger. People shouldn't throw away their cell phones, but they should get into the habit of using them more considerately and carefully.

1. What is the writer's opinion about cell phones? Underline the thesis statement. 2. What advantage of cell phones does the writer present? Underline the sentence that introduces this major point. 3. What disadvantages of cell phones does the writer present? Underline the sentences that introduce these major points. 4. What examples, facts, or details does the writer include to tell more about each major point? 5. What kind of information does the writer include in the conclusion?

Pair work Exercise 6. Read the following brief summaries of the text “Living with Cell Phones”. Work with your partner. Discuss which is the best summary. 1. The essay “Living with Cell Phones” says that there are many benefits to using cell phones. People can call others anytime or any place. They can talk to them when there is an emergency. People even use cell phones in libraries. However, cell phones make noise.

2. The essay "Living with Cell Phones" says that cell phones are useful, but they can cause some problems. One problem is the noise. People talk on the phones and disturb others. Another problem is using cell phones while driving. The writer believes it may be dangerous. According to the writer, people should use cell phones responsibly.

3. The essay "Living with Cell Phones" says that using cell phones while driving can distract drivers. They may have accidents. I agree with the author. I believe people should pull over and stop driving if they want to talk on their cell phones. SUMMARY PHRASES Exercise 7. Study the following useful summary phrases. 1. The First Sentence in a Summary. Most summaries begin with a sentence containing two elements: the source and the main idea. For example:

In Wieslawa Kaczaj’s article “My Career Dilemma”, (main idea). According to Wieslawa Kaczaj in her article “My Career Dilemma”, (main idea). Smith and Shelton’s 2003 paper on investment activity discusses (main topic). Marcia Barinaga, in her article “Is there a Female Style in Science?” states (argues, maintains, suggests, claims) that (main idea). 2. Reporting Verbs: objective or evaluative. Although, in theory, summaries are supposed to be objective, this is not entirely true. A wide range of reporting verbs can be used in summary writing, many of which reveal the summary writer’s personal attitude toward the source material. For example: Marcia Barinaga in her article “Is there a Female Style in Science?” alleges that men and women exhibit differences in the way they pursue science. Marcia Barinaga in her article “Is there a Female Style in Science?” assumes that men and women exhibit differences in the way they pursue science. Exercise 8. Some reporting verbs are less objective than others. Can you identify which verbs in the table seem to be objective and which verbs tend to be evaluative? Translate them. Objectivity of Reporting Verbs Objective Describe Discuss State Present

X

Evaluative

Explain Maintain Examine Affirm Argue Reveal Presume Assume Assert Contend Allege Claim Imply

3. Summary Reminder Phrases. a). In a longer summary, you may want to remind that you are summarizing. For example: The author goes on to say that …. The article further states that ….. (Author’s surname here) also states /maintains/argues that …. (Author’s surname here) also believes that…. (Author’s surname here) concludes that …. In the second half of the paper, (Author’s surname here) presents …

b). In a longer summary, you may mention the source author’s name at three points – the beginning, the middle, and the end. When you mention the author in the middle or end of the summary, be sure to use the surname only. For example: Goodman goes on to say … Suzuki also believes that … c). Some of the following linking words and phrases may be useful in introducing additional information. Additionally Also Further

In addition to Furthermore Moreover

For example: The author further argues that …. Exercise 9. Write a summary of the following passages. Follow all steps in the summarizing process. 1. Every marketer’s dream is to launch a new brand that will some day rank alongside the Coca-Colas and Marlboros of the world. But established brands wouldn’t be so highly valued if creating them were easy. Every year manufacturers try, and fail, to win consumer acceptance for new products. The biggest marketers typically spend at least $20 million to introduce a new branded product. With the odds saying that only one in ten new brands will survive, manufacturers are understandably cautious when embarking on the long, tortuous road to the marketplace.

Michael Hiestand, Marketing Made Easy

2. If you could magically transport a finance minister from, say, Sweden in 1890 to Sweden in 1990 and introduce him to the tax system found in his country today, he would be lost. The major taxes he knew and understood have either been totally abolished or are insignificant part of the modern tax system. New taxes that the centenarian finance minister could not have imagined when he was the head of the national budget – including progressive income taxes, social security taxes, corporate profits taxes, and VATs – now make up approximately 80 percent of total government revenue. Government revenue would also far exceed our finance minister’s wildest imaginings. In 1900, total government revenue constituted only 10 percent of a much smaller GNP [Gross National Product] in Sweden; totally it is over 50 percent of GNP. Sven Stienmo, Taxation and Democracy 3. Most companies are looking for people with senior management potential. In their view, MBA graduates have an above-average chance of fulfilling this need, but they are careful not to raise expectations too high. They also want people who can be effective quite rapidly. Employers’ recruitment operations are becoming much more short term in response to fast-changing markets and technologies. Companies frequently look for specific mixes of skills, and the mix can change rapidly. In the mid-1990s, for example, there was a strong demand for Germanspeaking MBA graduates because companies wanted to introduce a more international culture and to expand into east European countries, where German is widely spoken.

Irene Barrall, Intelligent Business

4. Tesco’s unusually low-profile US expansion strategy is about to take it to Las Vegas, one of the fastest growing cities in the US, in addition to its plans

to open stores in the Los Angeles and Phoenix areas next year. The company would invest £250m ($476m) a year to fund its US expansion, a budget that should enable it to open as many as 200 stores a year. Las Vegas, with 1.7m people, is in Nevada, the fastest-growing state in the US. There is intense competition there for new customers between its existing traditional supermarkets - dominated by Kroger and Safeway - and Wal-Mart, the largest US retailer, which now has about 20 per cent of the overall US grocery market. Irene Barrall, Intelligent Business

Important Notes for Summary Writing 

Find important facts, statements and ideas.



Leave all statistics, dates and names, quotations, details and comparisons, examples, opinions, and decorating expressions unless they are important for the understanding of the text.



Cut the original text to one third.



Identify the source being summarized.



Write a summary in your own words. Do not include your opinion!



The summary is usually written in the present tense.



But past events may be reported in the past, future events may be reported in the future.



Statements or questions which were made in the past may be reported in the past tense or the past perfect.



Statements and questions which were made in the past but concern the future may be reported in the conditional.

2. PARAPHRASING

Another important technique in summary writing is paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is an important technique in summary writing. Paraphrasing is restating or rewriting in your own words the essential ideas of another writer. Because the paraphrase does not quote the source word by word, quotation marks are not necessary. Furthermore, it is not enough just to change a few words. Neither it is not enough to rearrange a few sentences. Both practices can result in plagiarism (Rozakis, 2007). Study the following examples: Example 1 Original Source William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was the most important literary figure in his time. In addition to championing many American writers such as Edith Wharton and Emily Dickinson, Howells promoted Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Emile Zola, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. (Goldsmith 98) Plagiarism William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was the top literary person in his time. In addition to advancing the career of American writers like Edith Wharton and Emily Dickinson, Howells championed the writing of non-Americans such as Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Emile Zola, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. Paraphrase William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was the single most significant editor of his day. Howells helped the careers of Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Emile Zola, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy as well as those of Edith Wharton and Emily Dickinson. (Goldsmith 98)

Example 2

(1) Original text When the rights of students collide with the will of school officials, it’s up to the courts to decide where to draw the line. Paraphrased version Courts must decide cases where students rights conflict with school policies. (2) Original text The problem, he says, has been 98 percent solved by the cameras, all placed on the outside of the school and facing outwards. Paraphrased version Outside cameras almost completely fixed the problem, he says.

RULES FOR PARAPHRASING:  Simplify vocabulary. Use synonyms whenever possible. Don't change technological or scientific words, names of geographical places, parts of government, fields of study, or other types of specific or technical words.  Change the grammar or sentence structure to make sentences easier to understand. Change word forms such as a noun form to an adjective form. Make verbs simpler, for example, is done to do. Change transition words and sentence connectors such as on the other hand to but. Change voice: Active –Passive, Passive - Active  Use appropriate punctuation and source identification. Do not overuse quotation marks. Enclose the exact words of a source in quotes only if the words are special or memorable.

Instead, put the author's ideas into your own words. Add phrases that identify the source, such as the author said, each time you present a new idea from the text. Exercise 1. Paraphrase the following sentences from the text “Prying Eyes”. 1. … according to civil liberties groups the rights of students are under attack as never before. 2. School officials are in a tough position. They are directed not only to educate their students but also to ensure their safety and maintain an atmosphere where learning can take place. Exercise 2. Evaluate the summarized passages according to the described above rules. What would you improve? 1. Original Passage: “They desire, for example, virtue and the absence of vice, no less really than pleasure and the absence of pain.” Source: Mill, John Stuart. “Utilitarianism.” On Liberty and Other Essays. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Quote is from page 169. Paraphrase: People want morality just as much as they want happiness. 2. Original Passage: “To the young American architects who made the pilgrimage, the most dazzling figure of all was Walter Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus School. Gropius opened the Bauhaus in Weimar, the German capital, in 1919. It was more than a school; it was a commune, a spiritual movement, a radical approach to art in all its forms, a philosophical center comparable to the Garden of Epicurus.” Source: Wolfe, Tom. From Bauhaus to Our House. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1981. Quote is from page 10.

Paraphrase: As Tom Wolfe notes, to young American architects who went to Germany, the most dazzling figure was Walter Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus School (10). Gropius opened the Bauhaus in the German capital of Weimar in 1919. It was, however, more than a school; it was a commune, a spiritual movement, a philosophical center like the Garden of Epicurus. 3. Original Passage: “The Republican Convention of 1860, which adopted planks calling for a tariff, internal improvements, a Pacific railroad and a homestead law, is sometimes seen as a symbol of Whig triumph within the party. A closer look, however, indicates that the Whig’s triumph within the party was of a very tentative nature.” Source: Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Quote is from page 175. Paraphrase: Contrary to many historians, Eric Foner argues that the Republican platform of 1860 should not be understood as an indication of Whig dominance of the party (175). (From http://www.utexas.edu/depts/dos/sjs/academicintegrity.html)

Exercise 3. Paraphrase the sentences using the Rules for Paraphrasing techniques. 1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990).

2. "The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad joke because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past." From Kathleen Yancey, English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989). 3. "Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head." From "Bike Helmets: Unused Lifesavers," Consumer Reports (May 1990). 4. "Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most realistic of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate." From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26 March 1990). 5. "While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the

quest for the world's tallest building. The question is: Just how high can a building go? Structural engineer William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could produce a 500-story building." From Ron Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990). (From http://owl.english.purdue.edu)

Important Notes for Paraphrasing How does a Paraphrase Differ from a Summary? 

A summary is an abridged version of the original text.



A paraphrase can be shorter or longer than the original text.



A summary eliminates details, examples, and supporting points.



A paraphrase describes the original text in different words. It does not omit details.

3. QUOTING Citing sources is very important in academic writing

because it helps

readers by telling them where to find additional information about the topic. It is also important because using the ideas of other writers without acknowledging them is a crime known as plagiarism. Acknowledging other authors whose words or ideas were used is required by law. The work of other authors is used in two ways: these may be in the form of a paraphrase or a direct quotation. Whenever possible, you should paraphrase rather than directly quote from your sources. The number of quotations in you essay should be limited so that the writing has your voice and not the many voices of the authors whom you quote.

A writer presents the words or sentences exactly as they originally appeared in the published source. You quote other authors directly for several reasons: 1. If the other author’s words would add emphasis to your own writing, you may decide to quote the words or phrases directly rather than paraphrase them. 2. If you feel that paraphrasing another author’s words would greatly change the effect of the words, then you may choose to quote. 3. You quote directly if the word of phrase is a special term or one that you adopt as a special term in your text (Hall and Jung, 2000).

There are several ways of using direct quotations: 1. An author’s words are enclosed in quotation marks and separate from the rest of the sentence by a comma or colon. This is usually common for short quotations, e.g.: The lawyer assumed, “The numbers of persons seeking asylum in Ukraine are still relatively small, but on the rise”. “The numbers of persons seeking asylum in Ukraine are still relatively small, but on the rise”, the lawyer assumed. 2. When a quotation is longer, it can be divided into two parts, and quotation marks are used around each part of the quotation, e.g.: “On international level”, he stated, “local know-how will become more important for attracting international clients”. 3. Sometimes it is not necessary to quote full sentences from a source. You can integrate a phrase from a source into your own sentence structure, e.g.: As the general manager points out, attracting young legal talent is a “key competitive element for law firms”.

4. In order to keep quoted material to a minimum, you may delete or omit a part of quotation by using the ellipsis mark (three periods, with spaces between), e.g.: Michael Watts, a director of the Center for Economic Education, explains that “market economies have been periodically afflicted by periods of rapidly rising price levels [. . . ] or by periods with both high rates of inflation and unemployment”. 5. When it is necessary to insert a comment within quoted material, use brackets, e.g.: “ The industry is an integrated system that serves an extensive [geographic] area, with divisions existing as islands within the larger system’s sphere of influence”. 6. Quotations which consist of more than four lines is usually set off from the body of the text (block quotation). Quotation marks are often omitted, e.g.: Having analyzed the tendency in the food market, analysts came to the conclusion that companies which meet consumer needs in healthy foods are getting profit. Growing demand for healthier kinds of foods and drinks is not a fashion, but a long-term trend that increasingly affects corporate profits. Companies which benefit are those that already produce the kinds of products consumers want, or companies that are taking steps to adapt existing products. VERBS AND PHRASES USED TO INTRODUCE THE QUOTATIONS Familiarize yourself with the various verbs commonly used to introduce quotations. Here is a partial list:

argues

writes

points out

concludes

comments

notes

maintains

suggests

insists

observes

counters

asserts

states

claims

demonstrates

says

explains

reveals

Each verb has its own nuance. Make sure that the nuance matches your specific aims in introducing the quotation. There are other ways to begin quotations. Here are three common phrasings: In the words of X, . . . According to X, . . . In X's view, . . . As X noted, . . . Vary the way you introduce quotations to avoid sounding monotonous. But never sacrifice precision of phrasing for the sake of variety.

Note: Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author. Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly. Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material.

4. CITING REFERENCES While it is important for a writer to cite sources in the text, it is also important to list the references cited at the end of an essay or larger paper that has

referred to other writers [usually entitled “References” or “Works cited”]. A list of references is necessary so that a reader who may be interested in further information about the subject can look up the citations at the end of the paper. (Hall and Jung, 2000) There are several common styles used to list references. 1. Reference is made to a book: Last name, First name. Year. The Title of the Journal or Books in Italics or Underlined. The City of Publication: Publisher’s Name. Hall, E., Jung, C. 2000. Reflecting on Writing. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 2. Reference is made to a journal article or a chapter in an edited book: Last name, Initials. Year. The title of the article or chapter. Name of the journal. Volume number (issue number), page numbers. Peleg, I. 1993. “Trends of Censorship and Freedom of Expression.” In Patterns of Censorship Around the World. 8(2), 205-14. 3. Reference is made to Internet sources: Author. “Document Title”. Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access. Rosenberg, Owen. “Selling Organs for Transplant”. Health Issues Update. Winter 2005. 10 March 2007 THE VERBS USED TO SIGNAL QUOTATIONS       

argues agrees asserts claims comments compares declares

         

demonstrates disputes disagrees emphasizes illustrates implies notes observes responds states

Exercise 1. Rewrite these quotations, punctuating them correctly. 1. Life sentences are an effective punishment he said. 2. He yelled answer the phone! 3. My spouse should have a sense of humor she added. 4. Examining the inside cover Bob said this book was printed in 1879. 5. Don’t drive so fast he begged I get nervous. 6. Although my new phone looks terrific he said it has a funny ring. 7. Do you know the difference between direct and indirect taxes she asked. 8. Benjamin Franklin said there never was a good war or a bad peace. 9. According to Hall and Jung citing references is necessary so that a reader who may be interested in further information about the subject can look up the citations at the end of the paper. 10. As the manager noted 40 per cent of work-related ill health is due to stress and mental illness. Exercise 2. Proofread the text “Secrets of the Maverick Cobbler” for direct and indirect quotations. Punctuate the quotations correctly, and make other necessary changes.

Secrets of the Maverick Cobbler Fifteen years ago, Mr Timpson bought out his partners in the shoe-repair business that bears his family name. In 1995, he bought Automagic, the shoerepair and key-cutting chain. Since then. Timpson has turned to key cutting, watch and jewellery repairs and engraving, acquired two big high-street rivals and broken through £100m in annual sales. Still only Mr Timpson owns shares. We are committed to being independent. I'm not interested in a deal that involves equity being given to anybody says Mr Timpson, who is company chairman, while his son James is managing director. To some, the company style might seem rather old-fashioned Mr Timpson smiles with holiday homes for staff and training schemes. Tight control of the business ensures the company's commitment to what Mr Timpson calls upside-down management: giving power to those a long way from head office in Manchester. Mr Timpson believes that the most important staff are those who cut customers' keys and reheel their shoes. He affirms everyone else, from area managers to the boardroom, is there to serve the shop staff, who are given plenty of freedom as long as they prioritize customers' needs. It would be difficult for some professional manager to come in and do it our way. I don't expect other people to come up with the ideas. That is my job or James's job he admits. But I can't then tell them what is going to happen. I have got to persuade them. My form of management is a lot of communication says Mr Timpson and it won't work unless they approve of it.

Exercise 3. Write the reference citation for the following texts.

1. The bestseller “Talking God” written by the famous American writer Tony Hillerman was published in New York in 2001. It was the eighteenth Hillerman’s book with the famous New York publishing company An Imprint Of HarperCollinsPublisher. 2. An article titled “Legal Business: Trends and Insights” was written by the Ukrainian attorney-at-law Denys Sytnyk. It was published in 2009 on pages 16 to 18 of a journal called The Ukrainian Journal of Business Law, which is published by Yuridicheskaya Practika Publishing, based in Kyiv, Ukraine. 3. An article “Stop Saying Innovation” written by Scott Berkun was posted on the official site of The Economist (http://ideas.economist.com) on 3 March 2010 under the rubric Innovation. Exercise 4. Complete the following steps using the text “Bonds That Keep Workers Happy”. Step 1. Paraphrase a section of the text that shows diverging points of view. Step 2. Choose a quotation from the article and note it. Step 3. Summarize the article, incorporating your quotation and paraphrase. Pair Work Step 4. Exchange your summary with a partner and compare: - How are your summarize different? Alike? - Does your partner compare ideas effectively? - Do you have any suggestions for your partner? - Did you learn anything from reading your partner’s summary? - Look at your partner’s quotation. Do you think your partner’s quotation is a good one? Why?

Bonds That Keep Workers Happy Many people would laugh at the idea that the workplace can be a

relaxing place. With their mobiles, laptops and BlackBerries, they would be more likely to complain about the way their work takes over their private lives. The employees of Europe's best workplaces take a very different view, however. One noticeable theme to emerge from this year’s survey is the strong attraction that many employees feel to their work and the personal bonds they have with their colleagues and managers. At Confinimmo, a small Belgian property investment company in this year's European top 10, employees go on a paid team-building trip each time a new person joins their department. Celebrations and informal lunches are another way of bringing employees and managers together. “Although the company has seen strong growth, it keeps its feeling of a small, familiar team,'” says one employee. At Boehringer Ingelheim, a family-owned Danish drug company that has been in the top 100 since the survey began four years ago, there are social events and celebrations all year, often attended by employees' children. Champagne and chocolate are brought out to mark achievements. “Our managing director knows everyone by his first name,” says one member of the 132-strong workforce. It is, of course, easier to create a family feeling in a small business. But bonding is also a feature of the smaller European offices of Microsoft, which is in this year's top 10. The employees of the software giant in Norway, for example, go mountain-hiking together and recently climbed seven of the highest mountains in southern Norway to symbolize their seven business goals. Bill Mascull, Market Leader

Exercise 5. Practice inserting citations into the text.

Step 1. Imagine that you are writing a paper that includes a discussion about the importance of organizing space. Here is an excerpt from that paper: Organizing your home and work space can be one of life’s greatest problems for some people. Having your spaces organized can make the difference between a peaceful existence and misery! To conquer this problem, you must first analyze your own organizational level. We each have a different way of organizing and also a different concept of what organized means in terms of our own homes and work spaces. Do you consider yourself “organized”? Are your drawers and closets as neat as you would like them? Or, are your rooms a mess, but you know exactly where to find any item that is missing? The first step to becoming organized is to define what the term means to you and to decide what degree of organization would bring peace to your life.

Step 2. Incorporate into the above paragraph three direct quotations or three sentences of paraphrased content from the following excerpts from a book titled A New Way of Looking at Organizing, by Judy Morgenstern. The material is all from page 1 of the text, published in 1999 by Anchor Books in New York. You may insert the three sentences (quotations or paraphrased text) anywhere you wish in the paragraph. Following is the text from Judy Morgenstern’s book to be incorporated into and cited in your paper: If I asked you to describe an organized space, what would you say? From most people, I hear things like “neat and tidy”, “spare”, “minimalist”, and “boring”. But an organized space has nothing to do with these traits. There are people whose homes and offices appear neat as a pin on the surface. Yet, inside their desk drawers and kitchen cabinets, there is no real system, and things are terribly out of control. By contrast, there are many people who live or work in a

physical mess, yet feel very comfortable in this environment and can always put their hands on whatever they need in a second. Could they be considered organized? Absolutely. Being organized has less to do with the way an environment looks than how effectively it functions. If a person can find what she needs when she needs it, feels unencumbered in achieving her goals, and is happy in her space, then that person is well organized. I’d like to propose a new definition of organization: Organizing is the process by which we create environments that enable us to live, work, and relax exactly as we want to. When we are organized, our homes, offices, and schedules reflect and encourage who we are, what we want, and where we are going. Misconceptions affect the way you think about any process, poisoning your attitude toward it and eroding even your best efforts to succeed by convincing you before you start that you're bound to fail. Following is one of the most common beliefs about organizing, and the debunking facts that will change your thinking. Misconception: Organizing is a mysterious talent. Some lucky people are born with it, while others, like you, are left to suffer. Fact: Organizing is a skill. In fact, it’s a remarkably simple skill that enyone can learn. Step 3. Create a reference citation for this text.

Important Notes For Citing Sources need to be cited for several types of information:  Information that has been paraphrased  Information that has been quoted

 Information such as statistical data, including charts, tables, etc.  Information that the writer did not have or know before researching the topic

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 7) 1. What is a summary? 2. What is the purpose of a summary? 3. What is the length of a summary? 4. Should any statements unsupported by the text appear in the summary? 5. Which information should the introduction/body/conclusion include? 6. What is a paraphrase? What is the difference between a paraphrase and a summary? 7. What is a direct quotation? 8.Which ways of using direct quotations do you know? 9. How to cite references?

UNIT 8

WRITING CONFERENCE ABSTRACT

A conference abstract is a short account of an oral presentation proposed to the organizers of a conference. It is a widespread and important genre that plays a significant role in promoting new knowledge within scientific communities, both national and international. Nowadays, Ukrainian scholars often try to submit abstracts to international conferences. For many of our academics, the conference abstract is a kind of a “pass” to the world research communities that provides, if accepted, various opportunities for professional contacts and communication. The abstracts submitted for international and major national conferences are usually reviewed (sometimes blind-reviewed, i.e. considered without seeing the names of the authors) by conference committees. A certain number of abstracts are, as a rule, rejected. Conference abstracts, therefore, participate in the competition for acceptance and need to impress reviewing committees; that is why they may be written in a somewhat promotional, self-advertising manner. As Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995) indicate, a dominant rhetorical feature of conference abstracts is "interestingness" created by the novelty of a topic and its presentation in an interesting for the potential audience way. As conferences in Western countries are usually planned considerably in advance (abstract deadlines may sometimes be one year before the actual conference), abstracts may propose uncompleted research , which is planned to be finalized before the beginning of the conference. Due to such circumstances,

English conference abstracts may provide only some outlines of the investigation rather than fully report it. Conference abstracts have certain textual characteristics. They are usually onepage length (200-300 words) and consist of three paragraphs on average. Some conferences require in addition a shorter version of an abstract for inclusion in the conference program. Such versions do not normally exceed 50 words. As one study of conference abstracts has shown (Yakhontova, 2002), the conference abstract tends to have five basic rhetorical moves [parts] (although certain deviations from this structure are quite possible). These moves, which may be realized by certain rhetorical strategies, are as follows: 1. Outlining the research field (by reference to established knowledge/ importance claim/previous research). 2. Justifying a particular research/study (by indicating a gap in the previous research/by counter-claiming/by question-posing/by continuing a tradition). 3. Introducing the paper to be presented at the conference. 4. Summarizing the paper (by giving its brief overview). 5. Highlighting its outcome/results (by indicating the most important results or their possible applications and/or implications). Most typically, the first and the second moves are realized in the initial paragraph of a text, while the following paragraph introduces and summarizes the paper, and the concluding one highlights the outcome. Conference abstracts from various research areas may be somewhat different due to the influence of disciplinary factors. For example, abstracts in hard sciences tend to be more specific about their findings. They may also provide a brief description of the research framework in the summarizing the paper move. Furthermore, the abstracts in this fields generally favour the use of the personal pronoun we for representing a single author, in contrast to their counterparts in

humanities. Notwithstanding these possible discrepancies, conference abstracts in many fields seem to have more similarities than differences insofar as they share generally the same rhetorical organization and textual format (Yakhontova, 2002).

Study the following example in the field of international law: Truly Humanitarian Intervention (1. Outlining the research field) In the standard, just war theory, use of this term, "humanitarian intervention" refers to the use of military force by one nation or group of nations to stop genocide or other gross human rights violations in another sovereign nation. (2. Justifying a particular study) Discussions have always been raised about the following two problems. First, such purportedly humanitarian intervention, often ends up killing innocent civilians, violating the principles of just war theory, and making matters worse. In this sense the word "humanitarian" hardly seems justified by the outcome, and the conditions that just war offers for such intervention appear too lenient. Second, only the most horrible, massive, and violent violations of human rights can justify the use of military force against a sovereign nation, and therefore many serious evils go uncounted, unnoticed, and unmitigated. Thus, the term as bounded by just war theory seems too constricted. (3. Introducing the paper) To find a solution to these problems I begin with the very basic questions: When are violations of human rights sufficient to require an international response? What should that response be? These questions quite plainly raise the danger of ethnocentric and nationalistic bias. Although less noticed, they also risk androcentric or sexist bias. For example, does mass rape rise to the level that would license international intervention? What about massive civil rights violations aimed specifically at women? (4. Summarizing the paper) The gendered nature of a part of this emerging

political philosophy, namely that portion that concerns intervention for humanitarian ends was investigated. I argue that massive women's rights violations can license intervention, but military intervention is often counter-productive to the aim of achieving women's human rights. (5. Highlighting conclusions) Thus, a range of responses to human rights violations that includes military intervention as only one end of the continuum, and to combine this with a greater understanding of the scope of human rights violations that require international response should be suggested. The research has shown a new conception of truly humanitarian treatment within and beyond international borders, applicable to all kinds of human rights violations, not only those of women, or of men, but of any or all human beings. (minor editing)

Useful Phrases for Conference Abstract Establishing the Importance of the Topic: One of the most significant current discussions in (field) is ... It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the … X is the leading cause of … X is an important component in … , and plays a key role in Y. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ... In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in . In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ... Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ... Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ... The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ...

Highlighting a Problem or Controversy in the Field of Study:

However, a major problem is ... There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ... This concept has recently been challenged by recent studies demonstrating ... One of the most significant current discussions in (field) is ... Questions have been raised about ... The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ... The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ... One major issue in early X research concerned ... Highlighting a Knowledge Gap in the Field of Study: So far, however, there has been little discussion about ... However, far too little attention has been paid to ... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. In addition, no research has been found that . So far this method has only been applied to … The issue is rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ... Focus and Aim: This paper will focus on/examine/give an account of ... This paper seeks to address the following questions: This essay/abstract critically examines/discusses/traces ... The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into ... This paper will review the research conducted on ... In this paper I argue that ... The aim of this paper is to determine/examine ... The aim of this study was to evaluate and validate …

Outline of Structure: The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c). This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with … This paper begins by .... It will then go on to ... The first section of this paper will examine ... Finally, ...

Describing Methods: A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks. Data were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during the 2007– 2008 academic year. Case study approach was chosen to allow a ... The X method is one of the more practical ways of ...

Highlighting the Outcome: The paper has explained the central importance of ... The paper has investigated ... The paper will conclude by …. The following conclusions can be drawn. This study/research has shown that ... An implication of this is the possibility that ... Further research might explore/investigate ... A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to ...

Exercise 1. Study the following conference abstracts in the field of law and analyze them according to Yakhontova’s “ moves” or parts. Abstract 1

Prevention of Organized Crime in Europe

The goal of this project is to present the phenomena of "organized crime" and to suggest some answers to related questions often raised by the public. A significant element of combating organized crime is prevention, therefore a special section of this project is intended to finding out how to prevent organized crime and corruption, its most dangerous aspects in the countries in transition, in particular. Organized crime is a major problem in most European countries. It is essential to systematically collect and analyze information and experiences of organized crime. For this purpose we need to devise an appropriate policy to fight it and arrive at its internationally recognized definition. What is common so far is the understanding of the features that characterize the way in which organized criminal groups operate. Criminal activities in organized criminal organizations (e.g., drug trafficking, illicit trafficking in firearms, money laundering, etc.) will be discussed, offering a description of some of the most notorious criminal organizations ranging from the "traditional" Mafia to new groups with growing influence in the world of organized crime. Due to the danger which organized crime represents to a democratic society, special emphasis is given to the issues of national and public security. We stress the importance of an effective criminal policy and law enforcement operations in response to organized crime. Establishment of preventive measures is the most important part of any criminal policy. Nowadays, organized crime is crossing national borders and becoming an international problem, so international cooperation in suppressing it within INTERPOL, EUROPOL, Schengen Accord, and other international bilateral and multilateral agreements will be discussed. Generally speaking, the real victim of corruption and organized crime is society at large. Therefore, preventive measures are the first step in combating this evil, particularly in the countries in transition.

(minor editing)

Abstract 2

Judicial Enforcement of Social and Economic Rights:

Why does the American Constitution Lack Social and Economic Rights? It is well-known that civil and political rights and social and economic rights are interdependent. The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights has been ratified by majority of countries in the world. Some constitutions of these countries recognize social and economic rights. The Bill of Rights proposed by Madison was the first ten amendments to the American Constitution. The second Bill of Rights first proposed by FDR in 1944 includes some social and economic rights, such as the right to a job, the right to a decent home, and the right to a good education. But the second Bill of Rights has not been recognized by the American Constitution. Why does the American Constitution lack Social and Economic Rights? Professor Cass Sunstein explored this question and considered four possible answers in a new book. I am trying to resolve this question by assessing Sunstein's four possible answers. I will contend that the answer lies in the judicial interpretation to the Constitution. The first explanation is chronologica1. The American Constitution is too old to create social and economic rights. Sunstein questions this explanation: it faces a problem that the American Constitution is not frozen. The key question is why the exciting document has not been interpreted to include social and economic guarantees. In my opinion, a constitution's meaning changes through textual amendments and judicial interpretations. It is possible for the American Constitution to be amended or interpreted to include social and economic rights. But it didn't happen. So there is no direct relationship between a constitution and

its age. The second explanation pays attention to the absence of a strong socialist movement. Sunstein points the fact that nations that have a socialist movement lack social and economic rights. And nations that lack a strong socialist movement may include in their constitutions. It is true. FDR argued for social and economic rights, but he was not a socialist. The third explanation emphasizes the enforcement of rights. Judges cannot enforce these rights. Then they are not a set of rights but goals. Sunstein argues that courts can in fact enforce social and economic rights. I think there is no sharp difference between economic rights and political rights. Both of them can be enforced by courts. The fourth is Sunstein’s own realistic explanation. He says the answer lies in the 1968 election, as Nixson narrowly defeated Humphrey. Nixon appointed four justices who insisted that the Constitution did not include social and economic guarantees. Sunstein is willing to believe if Humphrey has won, he would have appointed justices who would protect the social and economic rights. It can be concluded that in Sunstein’s opinion the president is most important to constitutional change. I contend the meaning of American Constitution depends on the justices. It changes because of new interpretations. For example, when the bill of rights was first ratified, it was not applicable to the States. It is in a long process for the court to make new interpretations to hold that the bill of rights is binding on the American states. The second bill did not become part of the American Constitution through amendment but through interpretation. In the 1960s, the Supreme Court came very close to ruling that the Constitution protects important parts of the second bill of rights by interpreting the existing constitution. The court in some cases protected the poor through interpreting fourteenth amendment. But this trend was reversed by later justices. I insist that it

is not presidents but justices who play an important role in constitutional change. Justices can enforce social and economic rights by interpreting the existing constitution. Exercise 2. Consider the abstract in the field of taxation and rewrite it using useful phrases for conference abstract. Taxes and Growth in Europe The effect of taxes on aggregate economic activity is one of the least contested areas in theoretical macroeconomics. Both neoclassical and Keynesian theoretical models, for example, predict that higher taxes reduce economic activity, even though there is less agreement on the exact mechanisms that generate this result. The issue has not been pursued empirically with anything like the dedication that has characterized the much more vigorously debated effects of monetary policy. A recent important exception has been the study by Romer and Romer (2007) who construct a novel measure of "exogenous" tax shocks and estimate its short-run and long-run economic effects. The present paper contributes to the empirical side of the question using a panel methodology that analyzes annual data from the 1965 to 2003 period for 26 OECD economies. Our empirical findings show that higher taxes do indeed result in a reduction of GDP per capita that is sizable and persistent. While the exact size of the effect depends on how the "tax shock" is measured, our estimates suggest that an increase in the total tax rate by 1 % of GDP will have a long-run effect on GDP per capita of -0.5% to -1%. This is smaller than Romer and Romer's (2007) rather large estimated effect (approximately -3%), but much closer to the effects obtained by Karras (1999) for a smaller OECD sample, and by Blanchard and Perotti (2002) and Romer and Bernstein (2009) for the U.S. We also look at the effects of four of the largest types of taxes: taxes on income, profits, and capital gains; taxes on property; social security contributions;

and taxes on goods and services. They all have negative effects on GDP per capita, and that an increase in social security contributions or taxes on goods and services has a larger negative effect on per capita output than an increase in income tax. Section 2 discusses the sources of the data and defines the variables to be used in the estimation. Section 3 outlines the estimation methodology, derives the main empirical results, and implements a number of robustness checks. Section 4 discusses the findings and some possible extensions, and offers a conclusion. (minor editing) Exercise 3. Compare your Ukrainian abstracts with the English ones. Are there any similarities/differences in the rhetorical and textual organization of the texts? Exercise 4. Write your own conference abstract of 200-300 words based on your field of research.

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 8) 1. What is a conference abstract? 2. What is the length of a conference paper? 3. How is a conference abstract organized? 4. Are there any differences between English conference abstracts and the Ukrainian ones.

UNIT 9

WRITING TITLES

Titles are important components of academic and research writing “responsible” for gaining readers’ attention and facilitating positive perceptions of any kind of written research. John M. Swales and Christine B. Feak, linguists and authors on academic writing textbooks, suggest the following requirements for good academic titles: 1. The title should indicate the topic of the study. 2. The title should indicate the scope of the study (i.e., neither overstating nor understating its significance). 2. The title should be self-explanatory to readers in the chosen area. In English research writing, there is a tendency now to compose eye-catching titles [. . . ], which aim at gaining readers’ attention (usually such titles appear before conference abstracts and journal papers in certain fields). Writing such titles requires, however, some experience and is not generally advised for beginning writers. Titles may have quite different syntactic structures. The main structural types of English titles are as follows. 1. Nominative constructions, that is titles with one or more nouns as principal elements. [Inflation and Transition to a Market Economy] 2. “Colon”-titles consisting of two parts separated by a colon. One of the colon’s typical functions is to separate ideas in such combinations as the following: Before the Colon: After the Colon Problem: Solution

General: Specific Topic: Method Major: Minor [Legal Regulation of E-Commerce: World Trends and Ukrainian Reality] 3. Titles consisting of two parts (of different syntactic types) separated by a punctuation mark other than the colon. These constructions are close in their rhetorical features to “colon”- titles. [Corruption – Transnational Aspects] 4. Verbal constructions, that is titles containing a non-finite form of a verb as a principal element. [Combating Economic Crimes in Developing Countries] 5. Titles in the form of complete sentences. Language is not a Physical Object There are also some other types of titles, which are, however, less widespread in English academic discourse. 1. Titles beginning with the prepositions on, to, toward(s). [On Some Legal Aspect of Alcohol and Tobacco Advertizing on TV] 2. Nominative titles with the conjunction as. Writing as Language The types and length of titles vary across fields. Hard and natural sciences usually use long, detailed nominative titles. Postoperative Chemotherapy and Delayed Radiation in Children Less than Three Years of Age with Malignant Brain Tumors Social sciences and humanities tend to use shorter but more diverse types of titles, often with the preference for “colon” -titles. Such titles separate ideas in the relation of “general-specific” with the first part indicating a research area and the second one naming an object/aspect of the investigation. “Colon” -titles may

consist of the parts with quite different syntactic structures. For example, in the title “The Stress Axis at Work: How the Body Copes with Life's Challenges” the first part is a nominative construction, while the second one is a clause (Yakhontova, 2002). Although the title comes first in an RP [research paper], it may sometimes be written last. Its final form may be long delayed and much thought about and argued over. Authors know that titles are important, they know that the RP will be known by its title, and they know that a successful title will attract readers while an unsuccessful one will discourage readers (Swales and Feak, 1994). Rules for Capitalizing and Lowercasing Words in Titles and Subtitles Titles and subtitles require certain words to be capitalized and others lowercased. Below is a reference for the different situations of writing titles. Basic Rules (According to The Chicago Manual Style)  Always capitalize the first and last word.  Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions (as, because, although).  Lowercase of all articles, coordinate conjunctions (and, or, nor), and prepositions regardless of length, when they are other than the first or last word.  Lowercase the “to” in an infinitive.  Capitalize hyphenated and open compounds. Capitalize the second word attached by a hyphen to prefixes only if they are proper nouns or proper adjectives.  Never use periods.

Exercise 1. Characterize the following titles in terms of their syntactic structures. 1. Tax “Worries” Regarding Investment 2. Bankruptcy Regulation in Ukraine 3. Technology as a Source of Economic Change 4. Pro-activity, Partnership and Prevention: the UK Contribution to Policing Organized Crime in Europe 5. Cash is Dead: Think Again! 6. Cyber Viruses – How Business Can Win in a Battle that is not yet Won 7. Declaring Contracts Void: Tomorrow’s Possibilities and Problem Areas 8. Real and Potential Opportunities of Printed Mass Media

Exercise 2. Expand the following titles by adding the second part. 1. Legal Business: 2. Navigating Tax Audits in Ukraine: 3. What Women Do in Wartime: 4. Corruption in Ukraine: 5. Ukrainian Tax Police Management Education and Research: 6. The Changing Face of Digital CCTV:

Exercise 3. Choose the best title for the given text. Virgin Mobile is a phone operator that provides a wide range of mobile communication services to its customers in the UK. Competition between mobile phone operators is strong and winning a large market share in the student market is vital. Students use their mobile phones a lot – to call friends and family, and also to get the information and play games. There are 2.5

million students in the UK, and 96% of them own a mobile phone. But it is difficult to market to students because they are hard to reach and are cynical about sales pitch. Virgin Mobile has decided that the best way to promote the brand to students is to find insiders: student marketers who will work on promotional campaigns in their own universities. 1. Marketing to Students. 2. Guerilla Marketing. 3. Students Like Mobile Phones. Exercise 4. Read the texts and write the most appropriate titles for them. 1. The right of the entrepreneur to have a value added tax (VAT) credit is very important as it allows the considerable amount of money to be saved. The order for recording tax sums paid as a tax credit is clarified in clause 4 of the Article 7 of the VAT Act of Ukraine. However, some provisions of this Act allow the time of the beginning of a right to record sums as a tax credit to be interpreted differently. This is why the courts usually consider a lot of claims with regard to the mentioned issue. 2. Fifty years ago, when products were more individual, manufacturers had the upper hand. They could charge a lot for successful items because they were made in small quantities. As competition increased and became more global, there were more products to choose from and they increasingly resembled each other. This gave retailers the advantage because they could pick and choose which products to sell, and demand the best prices from suppliers. Now the consumer is taking command. The arrival of the internet is one of the things responsible for the big shift in power. The web makes it easy for people to discover who offers the best deal. This could still be a retailer, but it could also be a manufacturer selling directly to

consumers, or a trader on eBay. 3. Working out where great ideas come from is one of the big puzzles of modern management. Corporate research laboratories and in-house product development groups are only part of the answer. Innovative products and processes can come from start-ups, competitors, university campuses and ordinary employees. Eric von Hippel, a professor of management of innovation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has spent three decades studying the role played by customers in shaping new products. The results are nicely summarised in Democratizing Innovation, a useful book on what he calls “user-centered innovation.” 4. Step aside, Apple and Microsoft. If MIT’s little Sixth Sense gadget sees the commercial light of day, we can toss our multitouch devices out the window. Who needs a Surface or an iPhone when the very idea of being able to access information by turning any flat surface into a touch-screen display sounds far more appealing? No surface available? Simply project a screen onto your hand, and voila. The folks at MIT have christened their wearable prototype Wear Ur World (WUW), a device cobbled together using everyday gizmos like a mobile projector, Webcam, and mobile phone. In the near future, WUW could become an indispensible digital wrist companion to enhance your lifestyle. It could provide product and price comparison information when shopping, retrieve flight information to let the wearer know about delays, automatically pull up related information from the Web when requested, and even snap pictures when you frame a subject with your fingers.

CONTROLLING QUESTIONS (UNIT 9) 1. Which requirements are suggested for writing good academic titles? 2. What are the main structural types of English titles? 3. What do the types and lengths of titles depend on? 4. Is it always necessary to write the title first? 5. When do we capitalize words in titles and subtitles?

UNIT 10

TRANSLITERATION

Transliteration is the practice of converting a text from one writing system into another in a systematic way. From an information-theoretical point of view, transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, word by word, or ideally letter by letter. Transliteration attempts to use a one-to-one correspondence and be exact, so that an informed reader should be able to reconstruct the original spelling of unknown transliterated words. To achieve this objective, transliteration may define complex conventions for dealing with letters in a source script which do not correspond with letters in a goal script (Wikipedia).

On 19 April 1996, an official Ukrainian-English transliteration system was adopted by the Ukrainian Legal Terminology Commission (Decision N 9) 

Use of the approved system is not mandatory for the transliteration of foreign names into Ukrainian.



Transliteration should be made directly between Ukrainian and English without the use of any intermediary languages.



Decision 9, in accordance with the Legal Terminology Commission’s express authority, is binding only for the transliteration of Ukrainian names in English in legislative and official acts.



For brevity’s sake, the system routinely allows for names such as the city of “Zaporizhzhia” to be given as “Zaporizhia,” “L’viv” as “Lviv,” etc. Also included is a short list of official spellings for miscellaneous terms: “Ukraine” (no use of the article ”the”), “Crimea” (as opposed to “Krym”),

“Black Sea,” and “Sea of Azov”. In certain cases, “traditional” forms may be shown in parentheses after the official form: “Dnipro (Dnieper).” 

In addition, apostrophe marks and softening marks may be omitted upon transliteration into English.

Ukrainian letter

English letter

Note

Example

A

A

-

Алушта - Alushta

Б

B

-

Борщагівка - Borschahivka

В

V

-

Вижгород - Vyshhorod

Г

H, gh

-

Гадяч - Hadiach

Г´

G

-

Г´алаган - Galagan

Д

D

-

Дон - Don

Е

E

-

Рівне - Rivne

Є

Ye, ie

Ye - at the beginning of words, ia - in other positions

Єнакієве - Yenakiieve

Ж

Zh

-

Житомир - Zhytomyr

З

Z

-

Закарпаття - Zakarpattia

И

Y

-

Медвин - Medvyn

І

I

-

Іршава - Irshava

Ї

I

Yi - at the beginning of words, ii - in other positions

Їжакевич - Yizhakevych; Кадіївка - Kadiivka

Й

Y, i

Y - at the beginning of words, ³ - in other Йосипівка - Yosypivka; Стрийpositions Stryi

К

K

-

Київ - Kyiv

Л

L

-

Лебедин - Lebedyn

М

M

-

Миколаїв - Mykolaiv

Н

N

-

Ніжин - Nizhin

О

O

-

Одеса - Odesa

П

P

-

Полтава - Poltava

Р

R

-

Ромни - Romny

С

S

-

Суми - Sumy

Т

T

-

Тетерів - Teteriv

У

U

-

Ужгород - Uzhhorod

Ф

F

-

Фастів - Fastiv

Х

Kh

-

Харків - Kharkiv

Ц

Ts

-

Біла Церква - Bila Tserkva

Ч

Ch

-

Чернівці - Chernivtsi

Ш

Sh

-

Шостка - Shostka

Щ

Sch

-

Гоща -Hoscha

Ь

‘

(see commentary)

Русь - Rus’; Львів - L’viv

Ю

Yu, iu

Yu - at the beginning of words, iu - in other positions

Юрій – Yurii; Людмила Liudmyla

Я

Ya, ia

Ya - at the beginning of words, ia - in other positions

Яготин - Yahotyn; Ічня - Ichnia

(see commentary)

Знам’янка - Znamianka

‘ (apostrophe) “

According to Karaban (2003), the following spellings are used to transliterate some proper names: 1. ks: Ksenia, Oleksander 2. iya, ia: Nataliya, Lydia 3. At the end of the name - iy, i: Valeri, Yuriy, Anatoliy 4. ai: Maiboroda 5. At the end of the name - yi, y: Zadorozhny, Kaminsky, but also Khmelnytskyi, Lisovyi.

Exercise 1. Transliterate the following proper names: Богдан, Вінниця, Ірпінь,

Житомир, Київ, Львів, Ярослав, В’ячеслав,

Ірина, Щербань, Ніжин, Алчевськ, Стрий, Шелест; Олесь Гончар, Марко Вовчок, Панас Мирний, Григорій Сковорода, Іван Котляревський, Михайло Коцюбинський, Леся Українка.

Exercise 2. Write in English the names of your classmates. Compare and discuss your versions with a partner.

CRAMMAR TROUBLESPOTS ARTICLES Incorrect use of articles is probably the most common error made by non-native speakers of English, no matter what their native language, because the usage rules are quite complex. Incorrect use of these words can interfere with communication, especially if the errors are pervasive, or at the very least, can mark your writing as non-native. Ukrainian does not have anything like English definite/indefinite articles. This fact can cause a language problem that students have with English articles. Using articles. The indefinite article (a/an) a) the object is mentioned for the first time: e.g.: A book is on the table. b) the object is mentioned in the meaning of “any member of the class: e.g.: A dog is an animal. c) in situations of classification or definition: e.g.: Ann is a student. d) the noun is used in “the meaning of one”: e.g.: We have two English classes a week. The definite article (the) a) the object has already been mentioned: e.g.: This is a book. The book is interesting. b) the object is seen and pointed to at the moment of speech: e.g.: Look at the blackboard. c) the object is part of another object, which has already been mentioned: e.g.: My flat is nice, but the kitchen is small. d) the object has a specific, unique identity (the moon, the sun, the earth, the sky; the University of London; the White House; the best advice; the first situation): e.g.: Take me to the moon. e) the whole class of people described by an adjective:

e.g.: The rich don’t understand the poor. f) with any noun that is followed by an of phrase: e.g.: The results of our study was impressive. The zero article a) non- count or plural nouns: e.g.: Cats catch mice. They were good musicians. b) before noun+number (Platform 5, Room 12, page 51, Section A) : e.g.: Have you got these shoes in size 42? Articles with proper nouns In general, don’t use an article... a) with the name of a city, state, country or continent: e.g.: Paris, California, Ukraine, Asia b) with singular islands, lakes, and mountains: e.g.: Bermuda, Baikal, Everest c) with the names of languages: e.g.: English, Russian Use the… a) with names of countries containing a plural noun like “States” or/and “of”: e.g.: the United States of America, the People’s Republic of China b) names in abbreviations: e.g.: the USA, the FRG c) with geographical locations (canals, deserts, forests, islands, oceans, rivers, seas): e.g.: the Panama Canal, the Amazon River, the Black Sea, the Pacific Ocean Problems with articles 1. To use a/an correctly, know which nouns are non-count or count. Never use a/an with non-count nouns.

e.g.: A recent research found an important information concerning...(WRONG). Recent research found important information concerning...(CORRECT). Non-count nouns are grammatically singular. They include:  food and drink: bread, beef, butter, candy, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, fish, fruit, ice cream, meat, milk, oil, rice salt, sugar, tea, water  nonfood substances: air, coal, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool  abstract concepts: advice, anger, evidence, fun, happiness, health, information, knowledge, love, news, truth, work  areas of study: architecture, literature, physics, science  other: clothing, equipment, furniture, jewelry, luggage, mail, money, news, pollution, research, traffic, transportation, weather, work To express an approximate amount, use one of the following quantifiers with a non-count noun: a great deal of, little (a little), any, more, much (a lot of), plenty of some. e.g.: any sugar, enough money, little time, more coffee, plenty of paper, some tea To express a more specific amount, use the following combinations: e.g.: a bottle of water, a loaf of bread, a piece of meat, a slice of bread In Ukrainian many non-count nouns like advice, news, fruit, jewelry are viewed as countable. This feature can be transferred to equivalent English nouns, and this results in two types of errors: a) Plural ending are added to these non-count nouns: e.g.: They provided him with useful advices. b) Indefinite and definite articles are placed before the singular form of the noun: e.g.: It was easy to him to develop and incorporate a prior information into his research. 2. Don't forget to use a/an with singular count nouns, even when they are preceded by an adjective: e.g.: Cat is independent creature (WRONG). A cat is an independent creature (CORRECT).

3. Avoid the need for articles altogether by using plural count nouns, which are usually preferred for general statements and do not require the use of a/an. Make sure the nouns, verbs, and pronouns in the whole sentence are in numerical agreement: e.g.: Cats are independent creatures who retain much of the fierceness of their wild cousins —lions, tigers, etc. 4. Omitting articles. Students whose native language does not have anything like English articles (Ukrainian, Russian, Korean) often simply do not insert them before count nouns when this is obligatory. Both indefinite and definite articles are dropped, as examples show. e.g.: The average debt rate of (the) 30 largest countries at the end of ’96 was 386.5 percentages. Many countries in the world do not recognize the serious effect of destroying (the) environment. Exercise 1. Complete the following sentences by adding a, an, the, or ᴓ (no article) when appropriate. The Amistad In 1997, ___ film was made about ___ true story of ___ group of ___Africans who were kidnapped in ___ Africa. ___ Africans were captured and transported across ___ Atlantic Ocean to ___ Cuba on ___ ship named ___ Tecoro. On ___ journey to ___ Cuba, about onethird of ___ Africans died. They had shortages of ___ food and ___ water, so ___ sailors put about 50 Africans in ___ net weighted down with ___ heavy balls and threw ___ Africans into ___ sea. When ___ remaining Africans arrived in ___ Havana, they were sold as ___ slaves to two Spanish landowners. On ___ trip from ___ Havana to ___ owner’s sugar fields, ___ slaves got free and killed ___ sailors. They forced ___ two

owners to sail ___ ship, called ___ Amistad, back to ___ Africa. However, ___ owners tricked ___ Africans. At night, they sailed back toward ___ Cuba. Eventually, ___ Amistad ran aground near New York. ___ U.S. ship captured ___ Africans and put them in ___ prison in ___ Connecticut. When ___ court case started, ___ few Americans who opposed ___ slavery spoke in favour of ___ Africans. ___ lawyer defended ___ Africans. ___ Africans won their first court battle; however, ___ case was appealed to ___ U.S. Supreme Court. In ___ end, ___ Africans won, and they were allowed to return home to ___ Africa. Exercise 2. Insert the articles a, an, and the where English require them. Moon Cannot Be Stolen Ryokan, who was Zen master, lived simple life in little hut at foot of mountain. One evening thief visited hut only to discover there was nothing in it to steal. Ryokan returned and caught him. “You may have come long way to visit me,” he told prowler, “and you should not return empty-handed. Please take my clothes as gift.” Thief was bewildered. He took Roykan’s clothes and slunk away. Ryokan sat naked, watching moon. “Poor fellow,” he mused, “I wish I could give him this beautiful moon.”

PASSIVE SENTENCES Sentences in the Passive voice are an important part of English writing. Forming Passive voice: - Subject + Verb + Object – active voice. e.g.: The researchers compared the behavior of two groups of children. - Subject + Verb + Agent - passive voice.

e.g.: The behavior of two groups of children was compared by the researchers. - Passive voice without an agent phrase: e.g.: The house was built two years ago. The largest number of agentless passives is found in the academic writing. The reason for this is that writers of academic prose are concerned about generalizations, methods and results rather than individuals. e.g.: Our grapes are usually harvested in late August.///////////////////////// Passive sentences appear far more frequently in written than in spoken English. Converting a sentence in the active voice into one in the passive voice: a). Move the subject to the end of the sentence and place by in front of it. b). Move an object after the verb into subject position. c). Change the verb to a past participle, put an appropriate form of be in front of it. Problems with Passive voice 1. Incomplete passivization: omitted Past Participle and/or the verb be. e.g.: These ways can classify two types (WRONG). These ways can be classified into two types (CORRECT). 2. Overpassivization of active sentences. e.g.: According to the research survey by City University, 62% of the surveyed companies were worried about internal security problems (WRONG). According to the research survey by City University, 62% of the surveyed companies worried about internal security problems (CORRECT). 3. Only verbs that are followed by an object can be used in the passive. It is not possible to use verbs such as come, exist, happen, seem, and sleep (intransitive verbs) in the passive. e.g.: Something was happened (WRONG). Something happened (CORRECT). 4. Verbs such as be born, be rumored, be reputed, only appear in passive sentences; they do not have corresponding active sentences.

e.g.: He was born in 1993 (CORRECT). Someone bore him in 1993 (WRONG). 5. Verbs in the Present Perfect Continuous sound extremely awkward in the passive voice. Avoid passivizing active sentences with the Present Perfect Continuous Tense. e.g.: He has been winning this event for years(CORRECT). This event has been being won by him for years (WRONG). Exercise 1. Identify the errors in the sentences below. 1. Irrational emotions are bad but rational emotions must use for judging. 2. I am sure that my company can list in the biggest 100 companies in the world. 3. I was grown up in England, but now I live in Sweden. 4. The explosion at the factory was occurred on Thursday morning. 5. Corn is popped by Native Americans more than five hundred years ago. 6. The article has been being written by her for two days already. Exercise 2. Choose the appropriate verb forms to complete the following paragraph. Pay attention to the subject of the sentences to determine if the sentences are active voice or passive voice sentences. Many new measures (have established/have been established) in the United States since the September 11, 2001, attacks. Police (have been intensified/have intensified) their searches of people and their belongings as they (are entered/enter) government buildings and other places. For example, security guards at popular monuments like the Statue of Liberty (are being searched/are searching) visitors more carefully. Visitors’ bags (are scanned/are scanning) by electronic devices. Also, tours of the White House (have canceled/have been canceled) as a result of security fears. Even the streets in front of government buildings like the Independence Hall National Park in Philadelphia (have been closed/have closed) to drivers. Across the country, police (are setting up/are being setting up) checkpoints outside of airports. For instance, police (are inspected/inspect) vehicles at several key points on highways leading to Bush International Airport in Houston, Taxes.

The police (are stopped/stop) drivers and (ask/are asked) them to open their car trunks. Even visitors to Disneyland and Disney World (are stopped/stop) at the entrance gates. Police (open/are opened) their bags and (are looked/look) through them. All these security measures (are being taken/are taking) to prevent bombing and other acts of violence. However, they (make/are made) life less convenient for many Americans.

MULTI-WORD VERBS English has a large number of verbs that consist of combination of a verb and a preposition or an adverb. These multi-word verbs are called phrasal or prepositional verbs. In spite of the fact that phrasal and prepositional verbs are mostly used in speech, fiction, and news reports such verbs as refer to, live on, be related to, lead to, result in, contribute to, allow for etc. are used with greater frequency in academic English than in conversation. Problems with multi-word verbs 1) Omitting the appropriate English preposition. When Ukrainian equivalent of English verb has no preposition, the latter can be omitted. e.g.: Кожен день я слухаю ˟ радіо. Every day I listen the radio. (WRONG) Every day I listen to the radio. (CORRECT) Я закінчив університет у 2007. I graduated the University at 2007. (WRONG) I graduated from the University at 2007. (CORRECT) Дати список дієслів з прийменниками, які мають і не мають еквіваленти в укр. Мові. 2) Inserting the “unnecessary” preposition.

Ukrainian verb has a preposition but the appropriate English verb doesn’t. The Ukrainian equivalent of English enter takes a preposition to before the object. e.g..: Я вступив до університету у 2002 році. I entered to the University at 2002. (WRONG) I entered the University at 2002. (CORRECT) Всі студенти відповідають на запитання. All students are answering to the questions. (WRONG) All students are answering the questions. (CORRECT) 3) Incorrect verb+preposition sequence. In the example the verb look for (seek - шукати) has appeared instead of look after (care for, tend - доглядяти). e.g..: The women can accept changes like spending most of their time looking for babies happily and willingly. Exercise 1. Explain why the sentences below are ungrammatical. 1. When I look a work of art I can tell if it is good. 2. If students do not accept the culture of the country and persist their isolation from it, they may miss a chance at experiencing something new and exiting. 3. I don’t think that his opinions fit with the goals of education. 4. On the exam all of the students are answering to the questions at their own speed. 5. All the time I listen English and the teachers all talk in English. Exercise 2. Complete each sentence using only one word. 1. Our neighbors apologized for making so much noise. 2. I feel lazy. I don’t feel like …… any work. 3. I wanted to go out alone but Joe insisted on …… with me. 4. I’m fed up with my job. I’m thinking of …… something else. 5. We have decided against …… a new car because we can’t really afford it. 6. I hope you write to me soon. I’m looking forward to …… from you. 7. The weather was extremely bad and this prevented us from …… out.

8. The man who has been arrested is suspected of …… a false passport. 9. I think you should apologize to Sue for …… so rude to her. 10. Some parents don’t approve of their children …… a lot of television. 11. I’m sorry I can’t come to your party but thank you very much for …… me.

APPENDIX 1 CONFUSED WORDS English has many words with similar pronunciation and spelling. Be sure that the word you use is the word you mean. 1. accept: take except : leave out, to exclude 2. advise: give counsel advice: counsel 3. air: atmosphere err: make a mistake 4. affect: influence (verb) affect: a particular psychological state (noun) effect: impact and purpose (noun) effect: bring about (verb) 5. a lot: many allot: divide 6. altar: a platform upon which religious rites are perform alter: change 7. allowed: given permission aloud: out loud, verbally

8. all together: all at one time altogether: completely 9. allude: refer to elude: escape 10. already: previously all ready: completely prepared 11. allusion: a reference to a well-known place, event, person work of art, or other work of literature illusion: a misleading appearance or a deception 12. among: three or more people, places, or things between: two people, places, or things 13. amount: things that can’t be counted (example: amount of sunlight) number: things that can be counted (example: number: of bricks) 14. arc: part of the circumference of a circle; curved line ark: boat 15. are: plural verb our: belonging to us 16. ascent: move up assent: agree 17. bare: undressed bare: unadorned, plain bear: large wild animal bear: carry, hold 18. base: the bottom part of an object; the plate in baseball; morally low bass: the lowest male voice; a type of fish; a musical instrument 19. beau: sweetheart bow: bend from the waist; a device used to propel arrows; loops of ribbon; the forward end of a ship 20. berth: a sleeping area in a ship birth: being born 21. board: a thin piece of wood; a group of directors bored: not interested 22. born: native, brought forth by birth borne: endured (past participle of “to bear") 23. bore: tiresome person

boar: male pig 24. brake: a device for slowing a vehicle break: crack or destroy 25. bread: baked goods bred: cause to be born 26. breadth: the side-to-side dimension breath: inhalation and exhalation 27. bridal: pertaining to the bride or a wedding bridle: part of a horse’s harness 28. buy: purchase by: near or next to 29. capital: the city or town that is the official seat of government; highly important; net worth of a business Capitol: the building in Washington D.C. where the U.S. Congress meets 30. conscience: moral sense conscious: awake 31. cell: a small room, as in a convent or prison sell: trade 32. cent: a penny scent: aroma 33. cheep: what a bird says cheap: not expensive 34. deer: animal dear: beloved 35. do: act or make (verb) due: caused by (adjective) 36. draft: breeze draft: sketch 37. dye: change color died: ceased living 38. emigrate: move away from one's country immigrate: move to another country 39. eminent: distinguished imminent: expected momentarily immanent: inborn, inherent 40. fare: price charged for transporting a passenger

fair: not biased; moderately large; moderately good 41. faze: stun phase: a stage in someone's behavior 42. for: because four: the number 4 43. gorilla: ape guerrilla: soldier 44. grate: irritate, reduce to small pieces great: big, wonderful 45. hair: the stuff on your head heir: beneficiary of a deceased person’s estate hare: rabbit like animal 46. here: in this place hear: listen 47. hours: 60-minute period ours: belonging to us 48. it's: contraction for "it is" its: possessive pronoun 49. lay: to put down lie: be flat 50. lead: conduct lead: bluish-gray metal led: past tense of "to lead" 51. loose: not tight, not fastened (noun) loose: untighten or let go (verb) lose: misplace (verb) 52. meat: animal flesh meet: encounter; proper 53. peace: calm piece: section 54. plain: not beautiful; obvious; also, a flat stretch of land plane: airplane; in geometry, a two-dimensional surface 55. presence: company, closeness presents: gifts 56. principal: main; head of a school

principle: rule 57. reed: plants read: interpret the written word 58. right: correct write: form letters 59. than: comparison then: at that time 60. their: belonging to them they’re: contraction for “they are” there: place

APPENDIX 2 “FALSE FRIENDS OF A TRANSLATOR” "False friends of a translator" are words that sound or look similar to words in Ukrainian but have different meaning. 1. Accurate - правильний, точний Акуратний - neat, punctual 2. Actual – фактичний Актуальний – topical 3. Artist - художник Артист - actor 4. Balloon – повітряна кулька Балон - Bottle, bulb 5. Camera - фотоапарат Камера – cell 6. Clay - глина Клей - glue

7. Colon – двокрапка Колона - column 8. Complexion – колір обличчя Комплекція - physique 9. Compositor – складач, набирач Композитор - composer 10. Corpse - труп Військовий корпус - corps 11. Criminal - злочинець Крімінал - crime 12. Data - дані Дата – date 13. Direction - напрямок Дирекція - management 14. Dutch – голандський Датський – Danish 15. Extra – додатковий Екстра - super 16. Fable - байка Фабула – plot 17. Fabric- тканина Фабрика - factory 18. Focus - увага Фокус (трюк) – trick 19. Fraction - дріб Фракція - faction

20. Intelligence - розум Інтелігенція – clerisy 21. List- список Лист - piece of paper 22. Mark – знак, позначка Марка - stamp 23. Mayor - мер Майор - major 24. Magazine - журнал Магазин - store, shop 25. Novel - роман Новелла - short story 26. Obligation- зобов’язання Облігація – bond 27. Prospect - перспекитива Проспект - avenue 28. Production- виробництво Продукція - product 29. Physician – лікар-терапевт Фізик - physicist 30. Protection - захист Протекція - favour 31. Receipt – квитанція, чек Recite - рецепт 32. Troops - війська Трупи - corpses

APPENDIX 3 LATIN EXPRESSIONS Even though Latin is considered a dead language (no country officially speaks it), its influence upon other languages makes it still important. Latin words and expressions are present in virtually all the languages around the world, as well as on different scientific and academic fields. Below is a list of the most used and important Latin words and expressions. Daniel Scocco 1. A.D. (Anno Domini) - нашої ери (н.е.) 2. ad hoc – спеціальний, для даного випадку 3. ad infinitum – до безкінечності 4. Ad interim – тимчасовий 5. ad memorandum – для пам’яті 6. ad verbum – дослівно, буквально 7. a.m. (ante meridiem) – до полудня 8. appendix – додаток, доповнення

9. a priori - апріорі, до досвіду 10. B.C. (before Christ) – до нашої ери (до н.е.) 11. consensus – згода 12. consilium - нарада 13. coqito ergo sum – мислю, отже існую 14. corpus delicti – склад злочину 15. de facto – де факто, насправді, фактично 16. de jure – де юре, за правом, юридично 17. delictum - правопорушення 18. divide et impera – поділяй і володарюй 19. e.g. (exempli gratia) – наприклад 20. et al. (et alia) – і так далі і тому подібно 21. etc. (et cetera) – і так далі 22. ex lege – за законом 23. ex lex – поза законом 24. homo homini lupus est – людина людині – вовк 25. index – показчик, виписка 26. i. m. (in margine) – на полях 27. in persona – особисто 28. ius non scriptum – неписане право 29. l.s. (locus signi) – місце печатки 30. NB (nota bene) – нотабене, звернути особливу увагу (позначка) 31. non liquet (N.L.) – не зрозуміло 32. pax - мир 33. per capita – на душу населення 34. persona grata – особа бажана, дипломат 35. persona non grata – особа небажана

36. p.m. post meridiem – після полудня 37. post factum – після зробленого 38. P.S. post scriptum – постскриптум, приписка (до написаного) 39. P.P.S. post postscriptum – пост поскриптум, друга приписка 40. pro et contra – за і проти 41. status quo – статус-кво, існуючий стан (фактичний чи правовий) 42. terra incognita – невідома земля, щось невідоме, незрозуміле 43. veni vidi vici – прийшов, побачив, переміг 44. versus – проти, всупереч 45. via – через 46. vice versa - навпаки APPENDIX 4 Правила Утворення Англійських Неправильних Дієслів Всі три форми одинакові Infinitive Past Ind. Past Perfect

Translation

beat

beat

beat, beaten бити

cost

cost

cost

коштувати

cut

cut

cut

різати

hit

hit

hit

бити; ударяти(ся)

let

let

let

дозволяти

put

put

put

класти

set

set

set

ставити, установлювати

shut

shut

shut

закривати(ся)

split

split

split

розщеплювати(ся); розколювати(ся)

spread spread spread

простягати(ся)

Друга і третя форми одинакові ( закінчуються на ought/aught [o:t]) bring brought brought приносити

buy

bought bought купувати

catch caught

caught

ловити

fight fought

fought

битися

teach taught

taught

навчати

think thought thought думати D в першій формі змінюється на t build built built будувати send

sent

sent

посилати, надсилати

spend spent spent тратити (час; гроші) До першої форми додається t в кінці deal dealt dealt

мати справу

dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed снитися; мріяти learnt

learnt

вивчати

mean meant

meant

означати

smell smelled, smelt

smelled, smelt

пахнути; нюхати

spoil

spoiled, spoilt

псувати; балувати

learn

feel

spoiled, spoilt

felt

felt

відчувати

keep kept kept тримати, зберігати leave left

left

покидати; залишити

sleep slept slept спати Змінюється голосна в центрі dig dug dug

копати, рити

got

отримувати; ставати

hang hung

hung

вішати; висіти

hold held

held

тримати

get

got

shine shone, shined shone, shined світити(ся)

sat

сидіти

stink stank, stunk

stunk

смердіти

win

won

вигравати, перемагати

sit

sat won

Ee/ea в першій формі змінюється на e feed fed fed годувати lead led led вести (за собою), очолювати meet met met зустрічати(ся) Ay змінюється на aid lay laid laid класти pay paid paid платити say said said говорити, казати Ell змінюється на old sell sold sold продавати tell told told разповідати, говорити Дієслова від stand stand stood

stood

стояти

understand understood understood розуміти Інші дієслова, у яких друга і третя форми одинакові find found found знаходити hear

heard

heard

чути

light

lit, lighted

lit, lighted

освітлювати(ся), запалювати

lose

lost

lost

губити

make

made

made

робити; змушувати

read

read

read

читати

shoot

shot

shot

стріляти

show

showed

shown, showed показувати

strike

struck

stricken, struck ударяти(ся); бити

wake(n) woke, waked woke(n), waked прокидатися Перша і третя форми одинакові become became become ставати come

came

come

приходити

run

ran

run

бігти

Третя форма закінчується на en beat beat beat, beaten бити broke

broken

ламати

choose chose

chosen

вибирати

drive

drove

driven

вести (машину)

eat

ate

eaten

їсти

fall

fell

fallen

падати

forget

forgot

forgotten

забувати

break

forgive forgave forgiven

пробачати

freeze

froze

frozen

замерзати; заморожувати

give

gave

given

давати

hide

hid

hidden

ховати(ся)

mistake mistook mistaken

помилятися

shake

shook

shaken

трясти

speak

spoke

spoken

говорити

steal

stole

stolen

красти

strike

struck

stricken, struck ударяти(ся); бити

take

took

taken

брати

write

wrote

written

писати

Третя форма закінчується на n/ne bear bore borne нести; перевозити, переносити blow blew blown дути draw drew drawn малювати, креслити

fly

flew

літати

flown

grow grew grown вирощувати know knew known знати lie

lay

lain

лежати

rise

rose

risen

підніматися, вставати

see

saw

seen

бачити

tear

tore

torn

рвати(ся), разривати(ся)

throw threw thrown кидати(ся) wear

носити (одяг і т. п.)

wore worn

Форми, які відрізняються голосною в закритому складі begin began begun починати drink drank

drunk пити

ring

rang

rung

дзвонити

sing

sang

sung

співати

swum плавати

swim swam

stink stank, stunk stunk смердіти Третя форма закінчується на ed burn burnt burned горіти, палити освітлювати(ся), запалювати

light lit, lighted lit, lighted show showed

shown, showed показувати

Допоміжні та модальні дієслова, які мають особливі форми утворення be (is, are, am) was, were been бути --

могти, вміти

can

could

do

did

done робити

have

had

had

go

went

gone йти, ходити; їхати

may

might

--

мати дозвіл, можливість

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WRITING BASICS A HANDBOOK FOR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS