Encyclopedia of Music in The 20th Century (PDFDrive) [PDF]

Zitiervorschau

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

NTHE

MUSIC 20th CENTURY edited by Lee Stacy and Lol Henderson

CONTENTS Fitzroy Dearborn M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1999

©

All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole Or in part in

any form.

First published in 1999 by Fitzroy Dearborn This edition published 2013 by Roudedge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routkdge is an imprint of the Taylar & Francis Group, an infarma business

British library Cataloguing in Publication Data Encyclopedia of music in the 20th century 1.

Music - 20th century - Encyclopedia

I.

Stacy, Lee II. Henderson, Lol

780.9'04'03 ISBN 1-57958-079-3

Developed by Brown Partworks Limited London Cover designed by Philip Lewis

Introduction Abba Abbado, Claudio Abshire, Nathan Acuff, Roy Adderley, Cannonball Africa Aleatory Music Alpert, Herb Amplification Andean Music Anderson, Marian Andrews Sisters, The Ansermet, Ernest Arlen, Harold Armstrong, Louis Arrangers Arrau, Claudio Arroyo, Joe Ashkenazy, Vladimir Atkins, Chet Authentic Performance Aznavour, Charles Bacharach, Burt Baez,Joan Baker,Chet Ballet and Modem Dance Music Barber, Samuel Barenboim, Daniel Ban,lionel Bartok, Bela Basie, Count Bauza, Mario Beach Boys, The Beatles, The Bebop Beecham, SirThomas Beiderbecke, Bix Bellamy Brothers, The Bennett,Tony Berg,Alban Berlin, Irving Bernstein, Elmer Bernstein, Leonard Berry, Chuck Bhangra Beat Big Band Jazz Blades, Ruben Blakey,An Blues Bock & Harnick BOhm,KarI Boogie-woogie Boulanger, Nadia Boulez, Pierre Bowie, David Brazil BreI,Jacques

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 35 36 37 38 39 42 43 44 45 48 49 50 51 54 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 66

67 68 70 71 72

77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

Brendel,Alfred British Beat Music Britpop Britten, Benjamin Broonzy, Big Bill Brown, Clifford Brown, James Brubeck, Dave Burton, Gary Cabaret Music Cage,John Cajun Callas, Maria Cantor, Eddie Caribbean, The Carmichael, Hoagy Carter Family, The Carter, Benny Carter, Elliott Caruso, Enrico Casals, Pablo Cash, Johnny Chaliapin, Fyodor Chamber Music Charles, Ray Charts,The Chenier, Clifton Chevalier, Maurice Children's Songs Christian, Charlie Cleveland, James Cline, Patsy Cohan, George M. Cole, Nat King Coleman,Cy Coleman, Ornette Colombian Cumbia Colon, Willie Coltrane,John Cooder,Ry Cooke,Sam CoolJazz Copland,Aaron Corea, Chick Country Coward, Noel Cowell, Henry Cray,Roben Cream Crosby, Bing Cruz, Celia Cuba D'Leon, Oscar D'Rivera, Paquito Damrosch, Walter Dance Music Darmstadt School, The Davis, Miles

85

86 88

89 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 99 102 103 104 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 120 121 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 137 138 139 141 143 144 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 156 157 158 159 163 164

Day, Doris Debussy, Claude Delius, Frederick Dibango, Manu Diddley,Bo Dire Straits Disco Dixon, Willie Dolphy, Eric Domingo, Placido Domino, Fats Doo-wop Dorsey, Thomas A. Dorsey, Tommy Dukas,Paul Dylan,Bob Eagles,The Eldridge, Roy Electronic Music Elgar, Sir Edward Ellington, Duke Estefan, Gloria European Jazz Eurythmics, Evans, Bill Everly Brothers, The Expressionism in MUSic Falla, Manuel de Faure, Gabriel Festivals and Events Fiedler,Arthur Film Music Film Musicals Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich Fitzgerald, Ella Flagstad, Kirsten Flamenco Folk Music Folk Rock Four Seasons, The Franklin,Aretha Free Jazz Freed,Alan Friml, Rudolf Funk Furtwiingler, Wilhelm Galway,James Gamelan Garland,Judy Garner, Erroll Gaye, Marvin Gayle, Crystal Genesis GershWin, George Getz,Stan Gigli, Beniamino Gillespie, Dizzy Glass, Philip Gobbi,Tito Goldsmith,Jerry Gonzales, Celina Goodman, Benny Gordon, Dexter Gospel Gould, Glenn Grainger, Percy Granados, Enrique Granz, Norman Grunge Gubaidulina, Sofia Guthrie, Woody

166 167 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 185 186 187 193 194 196 197 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 207 208 211 213 214 215 216 217 223 224 225 226 228 229 230 232 233 234 236 237 238 239 240 245 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 259 260 261 262 263 264 265

Guy, Buddy Gypsy Music Haggard, Merle Haley, Bill Hamlisch, Marvin Hammerstein, Oscar Hancock, Herbie Hard Bop Harris, Emmylou Harris,Roy Harrison, Lou Hawkins, Coleman Haymes, Dick Heavy Metal Heifetz,Jascha Henderson, Fletcher Henderson, Joe Hendrix,Jimi Henze, Hans Werner Herbert, Victor Herman,Jerry Herrmann, Bernard Highlife Hillbilly Music Hindemith, Paul Hodges,Johnny Holiday, Billie Holly,Buddy Holst, Gustav Hooker,John Lee Hopkins, Sam Lightnin' Horne,Lena Horowitz, Vladimir House,Son Houston, Whitney Hubbard, Freddie Impressionism in Music Indian Film Music Indie Bands Ink Spots, The lrakere Ives, Charles Jackson, Mahalia Jackson, Michael James, Harry Janacek,Leos Jarre, Maurice Jarrett, Keith Jazz Jazz Rock Jefferson, Blind Lemon Jennings, Way Ion Jobim,Antonio Carlos John, Elton Johnson, Lonnie Johnson, Robert Jolson,Al Jones, Elvin Jones, Quincy Jones,Tom Joplin, Scott Jungle Kahn,Gus Kander& Ebb Karajan, Herbert von Kenton, Stan Kern,Jerome Khachaturian,Aram Kidjo,Angelique King,Alben King,B.B.

266 267 269 270 271 272 273 274 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 309 310 311 313 314 315 316 318 319 320 322 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344

King, Carole King, Freddie Kinks,The Klemperer, Otto Kodaly, Zoltan Konitz,Lee Koussevitzky, Sergey Kreisler, Fritz Kristofferson, Kris Kuti,Fela Laine, Frankie Lanza, Mario Late Romanticism Latin America Latin Jazz Leadbelly Led Zeppelin Lee, Peggy Legrand, Michel Leiber & Stoller Levine,James Lewis,Jerry Lee Ligeti, Gyorgy Little Richard Little Walter lloyd Webber,Andrew Loesser, Frank Loewe, Frederick Lomax,Alan Lombardo, Guy Los Angeles, Victoria de Los Van Van Lutoslawski, Witold Lynn, Loretta Maazel, Lorin Machito Madonna Mahler, Gustav Mancini, Henry Manilow, Barry Marley, Bob Marsalis, Wynton Martinu, Bohuslav McCormack,John McLaughlin,John Mehta, Zubin Melba, Dame Nellie Melchior, Lauritz Memphis Minnie Memphis Slim Menotti, Gian Carlo Menuhin, Yehudi Mercer,Johnny Messiaen, Olivier Mexico Michael, George Michelangeli, Arturo Benedetti Middle East, The Mighty Clouds of Joy Milhaud, Darius Miller, Glenn Mingus, Charles Minimalism Mitchell, Guy Mitchell,Joni Modal Jazz Modern Jazz Quartet Monk, Thelonious Monroe, Bill Monteux, Pierre More,Beny

345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 406 407 408 409 413 414 415 416 417 419 420 421 423 424 425 426 427

Morgan, Lee Morricone, Ennio Morrison, Van Morton,Jelly Roll Motown Mulligan, Gerry Musicals Nashville Sound/New Country Nelson, Willie New Orleans Jazz/Dixieland New Wave Newman,Alfred Nielsen, carl Nirvana Nono,Luigi Norman, Jessye Oasis Opera Operetta Orchestral MUSic Orff,Carl Page, Patti Parker, Charlie Parton, Dolly Patton, Charley Pavarotti, Luciano Penderecki, Krzysztof Philadelphia Sound Piaf, Edith Pink Floyd Pollini, Maurizio Pop Music Popular Music Porter, Cole Poulenc, Francis Powell,Bud Pozo,Chano Prado, Perez Presley, Elvis Previn,Andre Price, Leontyne Pride, Charley Prince Producers Progressive Rock Prokofiev, Sergey Puccini, Giacomo Puente,Tito Punk Rock Queen Rachmaninov, Sergey Radio Ragga Rainey,Ma Rap Ravel, Maurice Record Companies Record Production Recording Studios Redding, Otis Reed,Jimmy Reeves,Jim Reggae Reich, Steve Reinhardt, Django R.E.M. Respighi, Ottorino Roach,Max Robeson, Paul Rock Festivals Rock Music

428 429 430 431 432 435 436 440 441 442 444 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 456 458 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 477 485 486 487 488 489 490 492 493 494 495 496 498 502 504 505 506 508 509 510 514 515 516 517 519 521 523 525 526 527 528 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 538

Rock'n'roll Rodgers,Jimmie Rodgers, Richard Rodrigo,Joaquin Rogers, Kenny Rolling Stones, The Rollins, Sonny Ross,Diana Rostropovich, Mstislav Roussel,Albert Rubinstein,Artur Salsa Sandoval,Arturo Santana Satie, Erik Schnabel,Artur Schninke,Alfred Schoenberg,Amold Schwartz, Arthur Schwarzkopf, Elisabeth Scriabin,Alexander Scruggs, Earl Segovia,Andres Serialism Sex Pistols, The Shankar, Ravi Shorter, Wayne Shostakovich, Dmitry Sibelius, Jean Silver, Horace Simone, Nina Sinatra, Frank Singer-songwriters Six,Les Smith, Bessie Solti, Sir Georg Sondheim, Stephen Sosa, Mercedes Soul Sousa,John Philip South African Jazz South Asia South East Asia Spann, Otis Spector, Phil Springsteen, Bruce Steiner, Max Stem,Isaac Sting Stockhausen, Karlheinz Stokowski, Leopold Strauss, Richard StraVinsky, Igor Streisand, Barbra Strouse, Charles Styne,Jule Surf Music Sutherland, Dame Joan Swing Szymanowski, Karol Take 6 Takemitsu, Toru Tampa Red Tango Tatum,Art Terry, Sonny & Brownie McGhee Tharpe, Sister Rosetta Thomson, Virgil Tin Pan Alley Tippett, Sir Michael Torme,Mei

540 544 545 546 547 548 550 551 552 553 554 555 557 558 559 560 561 562 564 565 566 567 568 569 571 572 573 574 576 578 579 580 581 584 585 586 587 588 589 592 593 595 599 603 604 605

Toscanini,Arturo Travis, Merle Thbb,Emest Thcker, Richard Tucker, Sophie Thmer,Tina Tyner, McCoy U2 Vallee, Rudy Varese, Edgard Vaughan, Sarah Vaughan Williams, Ralph Veloso, Caetano Velvet Underground, The Venezuela Villa-Lobos, Heitor Vocal and Choral Music Walker, T-Bone Waller,Fats Walter, Bruno Walton, Sir William Washington, Dinah Waters, Muddy Waxman, Franz Weavers, The Webem, Anton Webster, Ben Weill,Kurt Whiteman, Paul Who,The Williams, Hank Williams,John (composer) Williams,John (guitarist) WIlliams, Tony Williamson, Sonny Boy Wills,Bob Wonder, Stevie Wynette,Tammy Xenakis, Iannis Yes Young, Lester Zappa, Frank

636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 654 655 656 657 658 659

660 661 662

664

665 667

668

Zouk

669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681

Biographical digest

682

606

Glossary

754

607 608

Contributors

761

Bibliography

762

Index

777

Acknowledgements

800

609

6u 612 613 616 617 618 619 620 621 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 634 635

INTRODUCTION

I

n the 20th century, music began to realise its potential as the most universal medium of communication. Music is a way of transmitting and reflecting emotion. Of all the art forms, music may be the most difficult to describe in words, but perhaps because of this, it is also the one that most easily transcends barriers of nationality and language. This encyclopedia looks at how music, in all its rich variety, has become part of the daily life of most of humankind, and how the international and mass appeal of music has changed its form forever. In the process, it helps us understand this unique feature of modem life. At the dawn of the 20th century, many different types of music, from Andean folk songs to Wagnerian opera, had little or no effect on each other, and were often unknown outside of their immediate audiences. By the end of the 20th century, however, a global network had developed in which new, hybrid forms of music appeared. Boundaries that once seemed impenetrable are now crossed regularly: for example, the Indonesian gamelan influences Western concert music, Arabic instruments influence salsa, and classical composers write for rock bands without apology. Technology is the prime reason for this important change. As soon as music could be sent over the air waves, then barriers began to be broken down. This process was carried even further as recording technology allowed individuals to listen to a performance in their own homes. Before the advent of radio and the phonograph, the only way of learning about music was by studying at the feet of a master musician, or by reading complex scores that in themselves took years of study to decipher. Listening was always a social experience, as music could only be heard when played live by musicians. The radio and sound recording have changed all that. Now an individual sitting alone in a

room can listen over and over to the most profound orchestral masterpiece. In the world of rock, the Beatles reached a global audience and paved the way for the world domination of rock music with less than half a dozen three-minute tracks. The Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century provides a guide to the most important musical developments of the past 100 years, and encompasses this broad field of musical invention without intimidating the non-specialist user. Each entry has been written by a mUSicologist or journalist expert in the field, but in a style that can be understood by students of music at all levels and by anyone interested in this multifaceted subject. The entries cover all the major genres, styles, techniques, composers, and performers who make up this rich, varied world of artistic expression. They look at how musical styles have developed, both within their own context and within the context of a changing world, from Electronic Music to Zouk; from Abba to Anton Webern; from Joan Baez to Arturo Toscanini. The main part of the encyclopedia is arranged alphabetically, with entries on important genres, forms, technical developments, and national styles of music, and on individuals who have made the most significant contributions to music in this period. Words that appear in small capitals (e.g., MADoNNA) in the article text or at the end of the article under SEE ALSO refer to articles found elsewhere in the encyclopedia. Each article also ends with further readings and a list of suggested listening that highlights the most relevant musical pieces. Following the main A-Z section, the reader will find a biographical digest of over 1,000 entries. This special section provides concise biographies of the individuals or groups who have made major contributions to music in the 20th century, but have not been allotted a main entry.

6

ABBA

ABBA

I

n the 1970s, S w e d i s h p o p g r o u p A b b a r e p l a c e d the

as the w o r l d ' s most p o p u l a r entertain-

BEATLES

ers. T h e y h a d extraordinary chart success, a n d their d e c e p t i v e l y s i m p l e , slick (some w o u l d say b l a n d )

m u s i c , conceals

their quite e x c e p t i o n a l s o n g w r i t i n g

a n d p r o d u c t i o n skills. F o r m e d i n 1972, A b b a i n c l u d e d B e n n y A n d e r s s o n (b.

December

Bjorn

1946),

Ulvaeus

keyboards

(b. A p r i l

a n d synthesizer;

1945),

guitar;

Agnetha

F a l t s k o g (b. A p r i l 1950), vocals; a n d F r i d a — a single stage

name—(b.

Anni-Frid

Lyngstad,

November

1945), v o c a l s . " A b b a " w a s a n a c r o n y m f o r m e d f r o m the first-name initial o f e a c h m e m b e r . In 1974, A b b a m a d e a n instant international i m p a c t with

"Waterloo,"

Sweden's

winning

entry

i n the

The Abba line-up (left to right): Benny, Frida, Agnetha, and

E u r o v i s i o n s o n g contest. T h e s o n g w a s a N o . 1 hit i n Bjorn. Their well-constructed songs and unique fashion the

U . K . singles

charts

a n d , surprisingly for a

sense dominated the world's pop scene in the late 1970s.

E u r o v i s i o n entry, also r e a c h e d N o . 6 i n the U.S. T h u s b e g a n the band's brilliant r u n t h r o u g h the w o r l d ' s

of the d e s o l a t i o n o f f a i l e d relationships ( B j o r n a n d

pop

Agnetha, and Benny and Frida were married couples

charts

Money,

with

songs

Money,"

s u c h as "S.O.S.,"

"Super

Trooper,"

and "Dancing

Q u e e n . " I n B r i t a i n , the g r o u p e n j o y e d success, w i t h eight successive

"Money,

w h o d i v o r c e d d u r i n g their days as A b b a ) .

spectacular

A b b a d i s b a n d e d i n 1982 a n d A g n e t h a a n d Frida

N o . 1 albums from

attempted solo careers, but failed. B j o r n a n d Benny's

i n A m e r i c a w a s far less

songwriting talents p r o v e d m o r e enduring, notably i n

d r a m a t i c — i n a d d i t i o n to "Waterloo" o n l y " D a n c i n g

their collaboration w i t h lyricist T i m Rice o n the musical

1976

to 1982. Success

Q u e e n " r e a c h e d the T o p 10. Nevertheless, b y 1979

Chess (1986). T h e group's afterlife, however, began i n

A b b a h a d s o l d m o r e records than a n y other g r o u p ,

the early 1990s w h e n disco g l a m o u r w a s i n v o g u e , a n d

i n c l u d i n g the Beatles, w o r l d w i d e .

the Abba Gold a l b u m (1992) s o l d millions o f copies.

T h e c o m m o n ingredients f o r the perfect A b b a s o n g were

a n infectious,

immaculate

sometimes

haunting,

counter-harmonies,

melody,

a n d , above all,

Graham McColl SEE

ALSO:

Disco;

P O P MUSIC; P O P U L A R

MUSIC

s u p r e m e attention to p r o d u c t i o n details. T h e i r n a t i o n ality w a s also part o f A b b a ' s a p p e a l . A B r i t i s h o r A m e r i c a n act m a y have b e e n t o o self-conscious to m o u t h s o m e o f their u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d , e v e n m a w k i s h , lyrics.

Their

background

i n Swedish

folk

music

e n s u r e d that A b b a never forgot the i m p o r t a n c e o f melody

at a time

exploring

complex

when

many

electronic

rock

bands

were

effects a n d o b s c u r e

lyrics. T h e g r o u p w a s at its most

creative

when

d e a l i n g i n e v e r y d a y g l o o m . S a d a n d graceful songs such

as " K n o w i n g M e , K n o w i n g Y o u , " a n d " T h e

W i n n e r Takes It A l l " s a w t h e m create hit singles o u t

FURTHER

READING

Edgington, H . , and P. Himmelstrand. Abba (London: Magnum Books, 1978); Tobler, John. ABBA Gold: The Complete Story (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993). SUGGESTED

LISTENING

Abba Gold; More Abba Gold; Thank You for the Music,

Waterloo.

7

ABBADO

as m u s i c a l director of the celebrated La Scala O p e r a

CLAUDIO

in

ABBADO

M i l a n . W h i l e b r o a d e n i n g its repertoire,

also of

traditional Italian favourites to n e w heights. A m o n g his a c c l a i m e d p r o d u c t i o n s of V e r d i w a s the original, uncut v e r s i o n of Don

T

he

raised the l e v e l of the orchestra's performances

Carlos (staged i n 1977), a n

u n w i e l d y w o r k to w h i c h he b r o u g h t ( a c c o r d i n g he Italian c o n d u c t o r C l a u d i o A b b a d o is o n e the

of

superstars

late

20th-century

of

concert

m u s i c — r e n o w n e d for his w o r k i n b o t h the concert

nation, a n d m o m e n t u m . " In a d d i t i o n to p e r f o r m i n g the Italian favourites at La

h a l l a n d the o p e r a h o u s e . H e is a n outstanding inter-

Scala—Verdi's Simon Boccanegra a n d

preter

also

of operatic

and modern music and

works

A b b a d o w a s b o r n o n J u n e 26, 1933, into a h i g h l y musical

Milanese

family—his

promoted

many

i n c l u d i n g a celebrated

extensively w i t h y o u n g musicians. brother,

BEYOND LA SCALA

Between

his

father,

Aida—Abbado

non-Italian

works

p r o d u c t i o n of A l b a n

BERG'S

20th-century classic, Wozzeck.

musical

from

modern

Marcello,

b e c a m e a c o m p o s e r a n d pianist. H e r e c e i v e d his first training

to

the Washington Post m u s i c a l critic) " d i s c i p l i n e , i m a g i -

the

violinist

M i c h e l a n g e l o A b b a d o , a n d , after s t u d y i n g p i a n o at

figure

the M i l a n Conservatory, he w e n t o n to study at the

position

1979

on

and

the of

1986,

A b b a d o was

B r i t i s h m u s i c a l scene,

principal

conductor

a

familiar

holding

of

the

the

London

V i e n n a A c a d e m y of M u s i c (1956-58). In these years,

S y m p h o n y Orchestra. H e also often a p p e a r e d

A b b a d o a c q u i r e d a d e e p u n d e r s t a n d i n g of A u s t r i a n

the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y Y o u t h Orchestra, w h i c h he

a n d G e r m a n m u s i c , especially that of Late Romantics

h a d h e l p e d to f o u n d i n 1978,

s u c h as G u s t a v M A H L E R .

v a r y i n g b e t w e e n the ages of 14 a n d 20, are d r a w n

and whose

with

players,

f r o m the nations of the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y . ON

F r o m 1990, A b b a d o b e c a m e p e r m a n e n t

THE PODIUM

In 1958,

A b b a d o attended

the

summer

T a n g l e w o o d , i n Massachusetts, Koussevitzky conductor

Competition

of that year.

school

w h e r e he w o n

for

the

best

R e t u r n i n g to

young

Europe,

l a u n c h e d his career as a s y m p h o n i c a n d

at the he

operatic

conductor

of the B e r l i n P h i l h a r m o n i c . D u r i n g his tenure there, the orchestra b e g a n to p l a y m o r e 20th-century m u s i c . A b b a d o c h a m p i o n e d the w o r k of m a n y rary c o m p o s e r s ,

contempo-

particularly that of f e l l o w

Italian

L u i g i N O N O (1924-90). T h e b r e a d t h of A b b a d o ' s artis-

c o n d u c t o r i n Trieste, Italy, a n d as a n instructor i n

tic

c h a m b e r m u s i c at P a r m a University. A s o n e of three

Austria's W i e n M o d e r n festival, w h i c h he f o u n d e d i n

interests

is

reflected

in

yet

another

project,

w i n n e r s of the 1963 M e t r o p o l i s Prize, he spent five

1988, a n d w h i c h i n c l u d e s literary a n d v i s u a l c o n t e m -

months

p o r a r y arts as w e l l as m u s i c .

as

assistant c o n d u c t o r

o f the

N e w York

Eleanor Van Zandt

P h i l h a r m o n i c , w h i l e also m a k i n g guest appearances w i t h other orchestras. T h e n , i n 1965, KARAJAN

engaged

Philharmonic

A b b a d o to

in

a

Herbert v o n

conduct

performance

the of

Vienna

SEE

ALSO:

L A T E R O M A N T I C I S M ; O P E R A ; O R C H E S T R A L MUSIC.

Mahler's

S y m p h o n y N o . 2 at the Salzburg Festival. T h u s b e g a n A b b a d o ' s l o n g association w i t h V i e n n a : he b e c a m e the

Philharmonic's

principal

conductor

in

FURTHER

READING

1971,

Chesterman, Robert, ed. Conductors in

m u s i c a l director of the State O p e r a i n 1986, a n d , i n

(London: Robson, 1990);

the f o l l o w i n g year, the city's general m u s i c a l director. In the Orchestra

meantime,

Abbado conducted

in Manchester

in

1965,

and

C o v e n t G a r d e n d e b u t i n 1968 w i t h Don

the made

Hallé

Hart, P. Conductors: A New (New

Conversation

Generation

York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1983).

his

Carlos—his

first time c o n d u c t i n g V e r d i . T h e s e appearances w e r e the first of m a n y i n a l o n g string of successes he enjoyed i n Britain. H e also served, f r o m 1968 to 1986,

SUGGESTED

LISTENING

Mahler: Symphony No. 5; Stravinsky: Pulcinella;

The Rite of Spring; Verdi: Aida.

8

ABSHIRE

NATHAN

ABSHIRE

N

athan Abshire was a Cajun accordion player whose talent as a musician, vocalist, and songwriter, together with his amiable personality, made him a favourite with Cajun and non-Cajun audiences alike. His postwar recordings helped bring the accordion back to a position of prominence in Cajun music, and his songs captured the joys and sorrows that typify the Cajun sound. Abshire was born on June 27, 1915, near Gueydan in the French-speaking area of southern Louisiana known as Acadiana or "Cajun Country." The Cajun music that was an essential part of his heritage was generally played on the fiddle or button accordion, and was a mix of French folk dance music, blues, and Celtic fiddle music. Both his parents and an uncle were accordion players, though Abshire was largely self-taught. He gave his first public performances as a player at house dances and local dance halls at the age of eight. He soon became quite popular in the Acadian prairie country, and as a young man was playing seven nights a week in a club in Basile, where he eventually settled. An important influence on him was accordionist Amade Ardoin, with whom Abshire sometimes played. RISE AND FAll OF THE ACCORDION

Abshire's career had its share of ups and downs, following the rise and fall of interest in Cajun accordion music. The accordion had only been introduced in the 1870s, but its popularity was already in decline by the late 1930s, when Cajun bands began to be influenced by Western swing music. Abshire made his first recordings for the Bluebird label with the Rayne-Bo Ramblers in the mid-1930s, but he recorded little in the next decade. He was drafted and served in World War II, despite being illiterate and speaking English only with difficulty. In the years immediately following World War II, Abshire and Iry Lejeune were the musicians most responsible for reviving interest in the accordion. Lejeune's tragic early death at age 26 in 1955 left

Abshire to carry the torch. Abshire composed many of the songs he recorded, including his biggest hit, "Pine Grove Blues." He first recorded the song with the Pine Grove Boys in 1949, and re-recorded it several times over the ensuing decades. The song epitomises Abshire's bluesy and soulful style, with the "swampy" sound of his accordion backed by a hypnotic blues beat. OVERTAKEN BY ROCK'N'ROll

Abshire's career waned again in the 1950s, as rock'n'roll took over the regional airwaves. However, the folk craze of the late 1950s and early 1960s introduced music fans to the Cajun sound, and Cajun musicians began to perform at folk festivals throughout the U.S. Abshire had several regional hits, including "The La La Blues," "Sur la Courtableau," and a French version of Southern singer Joe South's "Games People Play." Many of the recordings featured accompaniment by the Balfa Brothers, Dewey and Will on fiddle, and Rodney on guitar. Abshire also performed with the Balfa Brothers at the 1967 Newport Folk Festival. In the early 1970s, Abshire toured extensively and became a favourite of college and festival audiences alike. His motto, "The Good Times Are Killing Me," was emblazoned on his accordion case, and was the title given to a 1975 public broadcasting documentary in which he starred. However, his career declined once more in the late 1970s, and Abshire earned a living by working at the Basile town dump, while at home he welcomed admirers to his front porch. He died on May 13, 1981. Daria Labinsky SEE AlSO: CAJUN; CHENIER, CLIFTON.

FURTHER READ ING

Ancelet, Barry J. The Makers of Cajun Music (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1984); Broven , John. Sowh to Louisiana: The Music of the Cajun Bayous (Gretna, LA : Pelican Publishing, 1983). SUGGESTED LISTENING

The Best of Nathan Abshire; Cajun Social Music; Nathan Abshire: The Great Cajun Accordionist.

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During the late 1930s and 1940s, Acuff recorded the songs that established him as a major figure in country music. His version of the CARTER FAMILY song "The Wabash Cannonball" was one of the most popular hits of 1938, winning :him a gold record. The songs that followed-"Wreck on the Highway," "The Precious Jewel," "The Prodigal Son," and "I'll FOIgive You, But I Oy Acuff was a pioneer in the development of Can't Forget"-were country and national hits, making country music-as a singer, fiddler, songwriter, Acuff the dominant artist of country music's wartime and music publisher, and as the spiritual figurehead of surge in popularity. He also scored a hit with his patrithe Grand Ole Opry. One of the best-loved figures in otic song "Cowards Over Pearl Harbor": legend has it the genre, he was the first living person to be elected that he became so identified with the American spirit during World War II that Japanese soldiers charging in as a member of the Country Music Hall of Fame. Born September 15, 1903, in Maynardville, to battle would yell "To hell with Roosevelt; to hell with Tennessee, Roy Claxton Acuff spent the better part of Babe Ruth; to hell with Roy Acuff." his youth playing baseball and bOxing, though he In 1942, veteran songwriter Fred Rose joined forces also found the time to learn the harmonica and Jew's with Acuff to form the Acuff-Rose Publication harp. His athletic skills landed him a trial with the Company, the first music publishing house to New York Yankees, but he was prevented from capitalise on the growing country phenomenon. joining when he fell gravely ill from sunstroke in Acuff and Rose would eventually sign Hank WILUAMS, 1929. After this setback, Acuff suffered from deep ensuring their company's status with the finest and depression and remained bedridden for much of the most lucrative catalogue in the genre. Acuff was a public figure for the remainder of his following year. During this time, he taught himself to play his father'S fiddle and listened to recordings of life, dabbling in politics, playing the Opry, scoring such early country artists as Gid Tanner and the occasional hits, and acting as country music's elder Skillet Lickers. It was a turning-point in his life, of statesman. His participation in the Nitty Gritty Dirt which he later wrote: "Everything was dark, until I Band's 1972 album Will the Circle Be Unbroken? found the fiddle . If it hadn't come along I don't know presented Acuff as a living legend to another generation of fans. In his final years, he lived only a few what I would have become." yards from the Opry's front door, greeting and THE SMOKY MOUNTAIN BOY reminiscing with fans. He died on November 23, 1992, In 1932, Acuff joined Dr. Hauer's Medicine Show, and was mourned as the "King of Country Music." Greg Bower playing the fiddle and generally acting the fool to sell Mocoton Tonic, "the cure for everything." Into his SEE ALSO : musical act, he incorporated a yo-yo and an aptitude COUNTRY; RADIO. for balancing objects on his nose. In 1934, Acuff formed a band, the Tennessee Crackerjacks (later renamed the Crazy Tennesseeans), which worked on FURTHER READING radio stations in Knoxville, Tennessee. In 1936, a Acuff, Roy, and William Neely. Roy ACUff's NashVille: gospel tune from his repertoire, "The Great Speckled The Life and Good Times of country Music Bird," attracted a contract offer from the Chicago(New York: Putnam, 1983); based ARC records. A Grand Ole Opry performance Schlappi, Elizaberh. Roy Acuff The Smoky Mountain in 1938 so endeared Acuff to the show's listeners that Boy (Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing Co., 1993). WSM offered him radio spots and concert appearances with the Delmore Brothers. It was around this SUGGESTED LISTENING time that Acuff changed his band's name to the The Essential Roy ACUff, 1936-49; Smoky Mountain Boys, after the "Great Smokies," The Great Speckled Bird: Once More; that part of the Appalachian Mountains bordering Songs of the Smoky Mountains. Tennessee and North Carolina.

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ADDERLEY

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s a bandleader and as an alto and soprano saxophone stylist, Julian Edwin Cannonball Adderley was an originator of the intense, rhythmically driving style of jazz that became known as hard bop. Adderley was born in Florida on September 15, 1928. In his youth, he played the saxophone in local bands until he was drafted into the army in 1950. By the time he left the military in 1953, he had formed his own band while studying music at the U.S. Naval Academy, and fronted another army band during a posting at Fort Knox. His high-school nickname "Cannibal"coined because of his voracious appetite-had 6 ~ mutated into and remained "Cannonball." In 1955, he travelled to New York with his brother Cannonball Adderley was a brilliant hard bop alto stylist Nat, a cornetist. While there he sat in on a club date wbo never forgot tbe blues roots ofjazz. with bassist Oscar Pettiford-a performance that led to a recording contract. Adderley formed his own band in Joe ZawinuD, that reached a wide audience. Adderley 1956 featuring his brother Nat, pianist Junior Mance, recorded on the Riverside Records label from and bassist Sam Jones. However, the group broke up a 1959-63, on Capitol thereafter until 1973, and then on year later when Adderley was invited to join the Miles Fantasy. Sadly, however, on August 8, 1975, Adderley DAVIS Quintet. Soon after he joined, Davis expanded his suffered a fatal stroke while on tour. group to a sextet by hiring tenor saxophonist John During an era when the development of COLTRANE. "I felt that Cannonball's blues-rooted alto sax polyrhythms and polytonality threatened to make up against Trane's harmonic, chordal way of playing, jazz difficult for non-musicians to appreCiate, the his more free-form approach, would create a new kind Cannonball Adderley bands played a brand of of feeling," Davis later explained. modem jazz using the more accessible vocabulary of From 1957 to 1959, Adderley recorded some of his gospel and blues. Chris Slawecki best work on the Davis albums Milestones and Kind oj Blue. Davis reciprocated with a guest appearance SEE ALSo: on Adderley's 1958 solo album Somethin' Else, which BEBOP; HARD BOP; JAZZ. also included bassist Jones, pianist Hank Jones, and drummer Art BLAKEY.

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FURTHER READING

GOING IT ALONE

In 1959, Adderley left the Davis band to form his own quintet again, which this time featured Nat, Sam Jones, pianist Bobby Timmons, and drummer Louis Hayes. The multitalented Yusef Lateef made it a sextet when he joined in 1962; pianist Joe Zawinul replaced Timmons in 1963. The group played soulful, gutsy music, and simple, memorable tunes, such as "Work Song" (by Nat Adderly) and "Mercy Mercy Mercy" (by

Rosenthal, David H. Hard Bop: Jazz and Black MusiC J95~65

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992). SUGGESTED LISTENING

Cannonball Adder/~Ljve! ; The Cannonball Adderley Quintet in San Francisco ; Mercy Mercy Mercy; Some/bin ' Else; Miles Davis: Kind of Blue; Miles/ones.

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cymbals. Little is known about the region's music preceding the arrival of the Arabs, who went on to introduce their musical idioms and instruments (including the guitar) to Europe via Spain. But, in addition to the ancient Egyptian melodies of the Copts, there was the music of the Berbers, who took their own flutes frican music is as varied and rich as American or and drums for their religiOUS and secular music when European music. Africa is a huge continent- they retreated from the Arabs into the mountains of home to millions of people, with a multitude of what is now Morocco. One of their contemporary environmental, social, economic, religious, and histori- performing groups, the Master Musicians of Jajouka, cal influences. Many of these factors must be taken into has recorded several albums. account when looking at the varieties of African Many of the Moors who settled in Andalucia in Spain musical genres. Some of these influences travelled developed a formalised music based on set rhythms overland or arrived onshore in ancient migrations; strung together in a suite. When the Arabs were others were imposed forcibly by colonising Europeans, expelled from the Iberian Peninsula one of their or were exported by African slaves to the "New World." musical styles, called andalous, spread throughout In turn, some of the music spawned in foreign lands northern Africa, where it is still heard. It sounds similar came back to Africa, a process facilitated by the easier to Spain's flamenco style. Milhun is also a particular travel and electronic recording and communication of Arab-Andalucian form of vocalised poetry which the 20th century. African nations likewise borrowed sometimes deals with some subjects taboo in Islam, musical ideas from each other. including sexual love and sensual pleasures. Along with the Berbers, there are other mUSically The resulting music continues to evolve. The listener must be prepared to forget national bound- active minorities in Morocco. The Gnaoua believe aries and historical periods because music, like some themselves to be descended from an ancient Islamic of the African peoples themselves, has a way of leader from Ethiopia, but use instruments resembling crossing boundaries and periods. some found in west Africa. Like another religiOUS Moroccan brotherhood, the Jilala, the Gnaoua's music is thought to have curative powers. Recently, young NORTHERN AFRICA North Africa's proximity to the Mediterranean, to the Moroccans have fused their own amalgamation of lands of the Near and Middle East, and to Europe, influences to create a chaahi (popular) music suitable made it a centre for trade and settlement for the for the cafes and other nightspots they frequent in the ancient ships of Phoenician and Greek merchants. cities. Rai is also fashionable (see below). Algeria, east of Morocco and larger, is another former The melodies and rhythms now associated with the Coptic Christian sects of Egypt, drawn from the colony of Spain. Algerians developed a fondness for people of the Nile Delta, may date back even farther andalous, which they retained when their country became a French colony. In the early decades of the to those river dwellers' ancestors in ancient Egypt. During the eighth century, Arab invaders crossed 20th century, the modes of andalous were adopted northern Africa, bringing with them their Islamic into a very different form of cabaret music that is called religion and its music. Their vocal and instrumental rai (translated as "opinion" or "advice," either because music sounded markedly different from what eventu- the lyrics often took a blunt approach to social and ally prevailed in Europe and in other parts of Africa, personal issues or because "Ya rail" was a frequent partly because of the use of modes (sequences of audience response). Rai singers were among those tones), which seemed to slide from minor to major and agitating for freedom from France in the 1950s, which back, and used intervals smaller than the half-steps in led to a prolonged, bloody, but ultimately successful which European instruments are tuned. Accompanying war of independence. After gaining their indepenthe Arab singers, or performing solo or in ensembles, dence, young Algerians with an affection for rock and were instrumentalists plucking, picking, and bowing dancing began updating rai, spawning a generation of strings, blOWing into reeds and flutes, and "sharking"- artists who preceded their names with the honourific pounding out rhythms on drums, tambourines, and Cheh or Chaha, meaning "young" and "attractive."

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Their instrumental ensembles became increasingly eclectic and electronic, although they retained the modes, rhythms, and timbres of the Arab musical past. Egypt, located on the strategically powerful northeastern shoulder of Africa, has been strongly influential on its African neighbours and beyond, with musical traditions dating back thousands of years. After liberation from Turkish rule, Egypt became a centre of Arabic culture in the early 20th century, and recordings of several celebrated performers spread their fame across northern Africa and into the Near and Middle East. Music has remained essential not only to Islamic rituals in Egypt, including the ecstatic festivals of the mystic Sufis, but also as the soundtrack to urban life, accompanying weddings and the delights of cafes with the sounds of the indigenous nay (flute), mazhar or reque (tambourine), tabla or darabucka (drum), and sagat (cymbals), as well as the violin and brass instruments brought in by the English and other colonists. As elsewhere, Egyptian young people have sought a musical expression of their obsessions and criticisms of the establishment, which is called shaabi (people's) because of its working-class roots. Outside the large cities, folk traditions persist with the Coptic adaptation of felahin (farming) music; saiyidi music of the Upper Nile (played on large drums and indigenous trumpets); the Mediterranean coastal sawahili, which is accompanied by the stringed simsimaya or accordion; Bedouin desert music, which makes use of a twin-stemmed clarinet called a mismar; and the music of Nubia, sometimes played on the duff (tambourine) or oud (lute). The country of Sudan, situated along the White Nile south of Egypt, manifests a fascinating variety of musical influences: Arabic in the north but echOing the rhythms and percussion of Kenya and Uganda in the south, as would be expected from its geographical positioning. Some Sudanese dances associated with wedding ceremonies have their own unique form of vocal and drum accompaniment, and may seem wilder and more erotic than anything found further north. The oud virtuoso Harnza el-Din, a native of the northern Nubian region (shared with Egypt) and now a resident of the U.S. and Japan, has brought world attention to his adaptations of Sudanese folk music. (For greater detail on the music of Northeast Africa, and Israel, see MIDDLE EAsT.) Ethiopia, the source of the Blue Nile to the east of Sudan, shares an indigenous pentatonic scale (based on five notes) with its neighbour. However, vocal

performances of its amharic music boast their own individual beauty, using widely spaced intervals, slithering rhythms, and subtle inflections of the language. Meanwhile, the folk sounds of the kebero (drums), washint(flute), and krar(a harp thought to resemble an ancient Greek instrument) and the sexy wiggles of the "Tchik-tchik-ka" dance continue to be heard and seen in the clubs of the capital city, Addis Ababa. Mauritania is something of a musical bridge between northern Africa and the western coast, much as the Sudan relates to the sounds of the east. Southwest of Algeria, Mauritania draws its name from the Moors, who were and still are a sort of racial bridge between black and white, with skin colours varying across the vast desert country. Musicians called iggawin were inferior caste vassals of the warrior nobles and sang their leaders' praises and their family histories, as did the griots or jali of neighbOUring Mali (to the east) and west Africa. Their stringed instruments, the lute-like tidinitand the kora-like ardin, also have close relatives in Mali and west Africa, and are still in use by modernday iggawin, who now sing in praise of political and spiritual leaders. Moorish music is based on Arabic but with its own strictly ordered modes, whose parameters differ depending on the gender of the performer. WESTERN, CENTRAL, AND EASTERN AFRICA

It is possible that interest among Europeans and

Americans in the magnificent kingdoms of west Africa that predated colonisation, has only really become widespread since the broadcast of the television adaptation of Alex Haley's book Roots. That series dramatised, among many other things, the importance, within those kingdoms, of musicians called griots, who are said to have originated as Islamic hymnists (under Arab influence from the north) and who served west Africa's Mandingo kings as courtiers, family historians, messengers, and more. Many griots accompany themselves with a large, beautifully decorated instrument called the kora, whose 21 strings are arranged along a long neck without frets (like a cello or double bass). The strings are plucked over a gourd resonator covered with animal skin, and the soothing, crystalline sound resembles a harp. Griots also play the lute-like ngoni and the balafon, a form of xylophone (the type of instruments made of tuned bars of wood, struck with mallets). West African musicians such as Guinea's Mory Kante, Senegal's Baaba Maal and Youssou N'Dour (a hereditary griot), and Mali's Salif Keita (a descendant of

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Soundiata Keita, founder of the Mandinka Empire) Aside from what was borrowed from Sierra Leone, have brought ancient melodies into arrangements for Ghana added its own tribal elements to the highlife electric instruments with influences from the Caribbean mix, which retained its imitation of indigenous instruand the U.S., thereby getting themselves and their ments such as the kora and talking drum but added albums in festivals and dance DJ's charts in Europe and Euro-American dance band instrumentation to the America. Ali Farka Toure, a native of northern Mali guitar foundation after World War II. whose ancestors (like those of the neighbouring Centuries before the advent of highlife, Ghana, Mauritanians) were Moors, made the guitar his instru- Nigeria, and several other west African countries had ment of choice, and his virtuosic plaintive melodies a great impact on the music of the Western have attracted collaborations with American bluesmen. Hemisphere via the slave trade, which was particuThe music of Wassoulou, south of the Malian larly active in that part of the continent. Present-day capital of Bamako, lies outside the griotljali tradition, instruments probably derive from that time. Since with its own pentatonic (that is, five-note) modes and Ghana's independence from the British in 1957, there unique instruments, induding the donsongoni and have been attempts to promulgate indigenous music kamalengoni (harp-like but much smaller than the more or less free of Western influence, induding the kora) and the fie, a gourd strung with shells. While booming drum ensembles of the coastal Ga tribe and women are the minority among west Africa's stars, the xylophones of the northern Lobi. they predominate in this lesser known musical genre. Nigeria's tribes have individual musical forms: the Even more distinct from the rest of west Africa is Mandinka Empire, centred in Mali, also extended to the the tiny nation of Cape Verde, 400 miles off the coast land of the Hausa in present day northern Nigeria, of Senegal. Remembering that this collection of where praise songs and ensembles of xylophone, islands was a colony of Portugal until 1975, it is not percussion, and goje (a one-stringed fiddle) sound surprising to hear gorgeous songs called mornas and rather like the music of the griots, described earlier. a variety of dance forms which resemble either The Yoruba of the southwest use indigenous percusPortuguese fado ballads or the Similarly mournful sion, but their music has also absorbed influences choros and peppy forros of Brazil, Portugal's from north Africa and Brazil and Europe. Brazil stepchild on the other side of the Atlantic. contributed the tambourine, which led to a genre of palm-wine music called juju, of whose stars guitarist A MUSICAL HIGHLIFE King Sunny Ade now possesses perhaps the largest Moving south and east down the coast, "highlife" is electrified ensemble and the widest global appeal. the region's dominant modem musical form and its Yoruban Fela KUTI coined the term "Afro-Beat" for his chief cultural export to the rest of Africa and the form of insistent African soul. His political lyrics have world. The name derives from highlife's association resulted in his persecution and imprisonment. Cameroon, where the African continent makes a tum with partying, and the music is characterised by strong, simple rhythms as well as a mixture of ethnic to the south next to Nigeria, uses the talking drum and rhythm instruments and European melodic instru- balafon found among its northern neighbours, as well ments. Based in the former British colonies of Ghana as the thumb piano (tuned metal strips with a gourd and Nigeria, it began early in the 20th century in resonator) found to the south in Zimbabwe, along with Sierra Leone, Guinea's neighbour to the south, which instruments that were imported when it was a colony came under the influence of guitar-playing escaped of Germany, Britain, and France. Cameroonians dance Jamaican slaves a century earlier. In fact, the present- to the moderate tempo of makossa, as well as to the day palm-Wine music of Sierra Leone is said to share sweatier summons of bikutsi, the source of which lies with Caribbean calypso a relaxed, breezy origin in with the balafons of the Beti, in the interior rainforest. the songs of sailors from Liberia, the next nation Equatorial Guinea, south of Cameroon, and Sao south along the African coast. The Ivory Coast has Tome and Principe off its west coast, have contributed served as a recording site for much of the rest of west nothing in the way of recordings or tours abroad. But Africa. The tiny nation of Benin, between Ghana and Equatorial Guinea has its own variety of palm-wine Nigeria, has also spawned a global favourite, the music and choral groups that have been the subject of popular singer Angelique KIDJO. comparisons with the better-known choirs of Bulgaria.

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M a n y of the 20th-century Congolese musicians have adapted the sounds a n d techniques o f b o w , zither, a n d folk v i o l i n o r t h u m b p i a n o to the acoustic o r electric guitar, along w i t h traditional rhythms, a n d have recast the r u m b a as a h a p p y dance style called soukous. After visits f r o m A m e r i c a n "Godfather o f S o u l " James B R O W N in the late 1960s a n d early 1970s, horns

(trumpets,

trombones, a n d saxophones) b e c a m e m o r e p r o m i n e n t 1fIlIIon-DeuL.