D3: Wines of The World: WSET® Level 4 Diploma [PDF]

Zitiervorschau



D3: Wines of the World AUGUST 2021 EDITION

An accompaniment to the

WSET® Level 4 Diploma in Wines

i

Wine & Spirit Education Trust 39–45 Bermondsey Street, London SE1 3XF [email protected] wsetglobal.com © Wine & Spirit Education Trust 2021 Version 1.2 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior permission in writing from the publishers. ISBN 978-1-913756-45-1 Designed by Paul Barrett PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS 7, 8, 9, 11, 13 (both), 14, 15, 17 (both), 18, 21, 24, 26 (both), 30, 35, 36, 39, 44 (both), 46, 55, 58, 60, 63, 65, 66 (both), 68, 74 (bottom), 75, 81, 82, 87, 88 (both), 93, 97, 100, 102 (both), 104, 105, 109, 110, 111, 112 (both), 127, 128, 129, 133, 134, 156, 157, 158, 163, 166, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 188, 192, 196, 230, 232, 234 (both), 235, 237, 238, 239, 241, 242, 245, 247, 248, 249 (both), 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 263 (both), 267, 268 (both), 269, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 280, 281, 282, 287, 291, 298, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 307 (both), 308, 309, 310 (both), 311, 312, 314, 315 (all), 316, 500 (both), 504, 508 (both), 509, 511, 512, 513, 515 (both), 517, 518, 522, 525, 526, 527, 532, 533, 534, 535, 538, 559, 560, 563, 565, 567, 569, 570, 571, 572, 574, 575 (David Way); 72, 73, 74 (top), 78, 80, 83, 84 (Jim Budd); 117, 118 (Matthew Stubbs MW); 122, 123, 124 (Céline et Gilles Deschamps / CIVL - Languedoc Wines); 130, 132 (all) (Rod Smith); 137, 138 (Vins du Bergerac Duras); 139 (top) (Jean-Luc Exposito, Vin de Cahors); 139 (bottom) (Jerome Morel, Vin de Cahors); 140 (Alain Auzanneau, Vin de Cahors); 141 (top) (Jean-Pierre Bessieres, Vin de Cahors); 141 (bottom) (Vin de Cahors); 144, 145, 146 (La Route des Vins du Jurançon); 148, 151, 153 (both) (Caroline Hermann MW); 169 (VDP. DIE PRÄDIKATSWEINGÜTER); 173 (Chris Martin); 51, 200, 202 (right), 336 (Antony Moss MW); 202 (left), 203, 205 (Royal Tokaji); 209, 211, 212 (Yiannis Karakasis MW); 213, 216, 217, 218, 220 (both) (WSPC Greece); 292, 293, 291 (both) (Litta Larsen); 323, 351 (Norrel Robertson MW); 326, 337 (Jaycee Chan); 330, 331, 332, 324 (Martin Burt); 338, 342, 343, 356, 364, 399 (both), 401, 408, 410, 414, 415, 421, 423, 424, 425, 426, 441, 442, 443, 447, 466, 477, 478, 482, 484, 485, 493, 495, 496, 523, 553, 555 (Victoria Burt MW); 345 (Karen Douglas); 350, 354 (both) (ICEX); 360, 362 (Hammeken Cellars); 372, 375, 376, 379, 381, 384, 386, 388 (Sarah Ahmed); 398 (George Rose); 430, 433 (Easton Richmond); 434 (Andrea Johnson); 435 (Travel Oregon); 448 (New York Wine & Grape Foundation); 454, 461, 462 (Wines of British Columbia); 457, 458, 459 (VQA Wines of Ontario); 465, 472 (Matt Wilson, Wines of Chile); 473, 474 (Wines of Chile); 539 (Michael Buriak); 541, 551 (Ewen Bell/Wine Australia Vineyards); 543, 549 (Parker Blain/Wine Australia); 548 (Kimberley Low/Wine Australia); 581, 584 (both), 585, 586, 587 (top) (Ch. Zhihui Yuanshi); 582, 583 (Ch. Changyu); 587 (bottom) (Ch. Changyu Baron Balboa). FRONT COVER IMAGE StevanZZ/Shutterstock.com MAPS Maps designed by Cosmographics Ltd

Contents

Contents Note 1.

vi

Introduction to France

2. Bordeaux

1 5

2.1. Key Developments in the History of Bordeaux 5 2.2. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 6 2.3. Winemaking 12 2.4. Key Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations 19 2.5. Classification Systems 24 2.6. Wine Business 25

7. The Rhône Valley 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. 7.6.

32

3.1. Chablis 33 3.2. Côte d’Or, Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais 37

4. Beaujolais

54

4.1.

The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 54 4.2. Winemaking 56 4.3. Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations 56 4.4. Wine Business 59

5. Alsace

60

5.1.

The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 61 5.2. Winemaking 65 5.3. Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations 67 5.4. Wine Business 68

6. The Loire Valley 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4

Pays Nantais Anjou-Saumur and Touraine Central Vineyards Wine Business

70 71 76 86 90

Grape Varieties 93 Winemaking 96 The Northern Rhône 98 The Southern Rhône 105 Wine Law and Regulations 114 Wine Business 114

8. South of France

115

8.1. Languedoc 115 8.2. Roussillon 125 8.3. Provence 129

9. South West France 9.1.

3. Burgundy

92

9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5.

136

The Dordogne – Bergerac and Monbazillac 136 Cahors 138 Madiran 142 Jurançon 143 IGP Wines 147

10. Jura

148

10.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 148 10.2. Winemaking and Appellations 150 10.3. Wine Law and Regulations 153 10.4. Wine Business 153

11. Germany 11.1.

11.2. 11.3. 11.4. 11.5.

155

The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 156 Winemaking 162 Wine Laws and Regulations 164 Principal Wine Regions 173 Wine Business 182

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D3: WINES OF THE WORLD

12. Austria

185

12.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 185 12.2. Winemaking 189 12.3. Wine Laws and Regulations 189 12.4. Regions 191 12.5. Wine Business 197

13. Tokaj

199

13.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 199 13.2. Winemaking and Wine Styles 202 13.3. Wine Law and Regulations 206 13.4. Wine Business 206

14. Greece

207

14.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 208 14.2. Winemaking 213 14.3. Wine Laws and Regulations 214 14.4. Principal Wine Regions 215 14.5. Wine Business 221

15. Introduction to Italy

223

16. North-East Italy

229

16.1. Trentino-Alto Adige 229 16.2. Friuli 238 16.3. Veneto 243

17. North-West Italy 17.1. Piemonte

18. Central Italy 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 18.4. 18.5.

254

265

Tuscany 265 Marche 281 Umbria 286 Lazio 289 Abruzzo 292

19. Southern Italy 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4. 19.5.

254

297

Campania 297 Basilicata 303 Puglia 306 Sicily 310 Sardinia 317

20. Spain

320

20.1. Galicia 329 20.2. Castilla y León 333 20.3. Rioja 341 20.4. Navarra 349 20.5. Aragon 351 20.6. Catalunya 352 20.7. Valencia and Murcia 359 20.8. Castilla-La Mancha 363 20.9. Other Spanish Regions 364

21. Portugal

368

21.1. Vinho Verde 374 21.2. Douro 377 21.3. Dão 381 21.4. Bairrada 383 21.5. Alentejo 385 21.6. Lisboa 388 21.7. Península de Setúbal 389 21.8. Tejo 390

22. Introduction to the United States of America

392

23. California

396

23.1. North Coast – Mendocino and Lake Counties 404 23.2. North Coast – Sonoma County 405 23.3. North Coast – Napa County 412 23.4. Central Coast 417 23.5. Central Valley 424 23.6. Sierra Foothills 426 23.7. South Coast 427

24. Oregon

429

24.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 429 24.2. Winemaking 430 24.3. Wine Regions 431 24.4. Wine Laws and Wine Business 437

25. Washington State

439

25.1. Wine Regions 25.2. Wine Business

440 444

Contents

26. New York State

445

26.1. Wine Regions 445 26.2. Wine Law and Wine Business 449

27. Canada

451

27.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 451 27.2. Winemaking 453 27.3. Wine Law and Regulations 455 27.4. Principal Wine Regions 455 27.5. Wine Business 462

28. Chile

464

28.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 464 28.2. Grape Varieties and Winemaking 467 28.3. Wine Law and Regulations 469 28.4. Principal Wine Regions 470 28.5. Wine Business 479

29. Argentina

481

29.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 481 29.2. Grape Varieties and Winemaking 485 29.3. Wine Law and Regulations 489 29.4. Wine Regions 489 29.5. Wine Business 497

30. South Africa

499

30.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 499 30.2. Winemaking 503 30.3. Wine Laws and Regulations 505 30.4. Wine Regions 506 30.5. Initiatives 516 30.6. Wine Business 517

31. Australia

520

31.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 521 31.2. Grape Varieties and Winemaking 524 31.3. Wine Laws and Regulations 529 31.4. South Eastern Australia Zone 531 31.5. South Australia 532 31.6. Victoria 540 31.7. New South Wales 547 31.8. Tasmania 550 31.9. Western Australia 552 31.10. Wine Business 555

32. New Zealand

558

32.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 558 32.2. Grape Varieties and Winemaking 561 32.3. Regions 563 32.4. Wine Law and Regulations 577 32.5. Wine Business 577

33. China

580

33.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing 581 33.2. Winemaking 586 33.3. Wine Laws and Regulations 588 33.4. Wine Business 588

34. Appendix

590

35. D3 Wines of the World: Recommended Further Reading List

594

v

Note Note on the appendix on the top ten countries for wine production, export and consumption In D3, Wines of the World, the focus is mainly on individual countries and regions. To complement this, an appendix at the end of this unit shows the top ten countries in the world for each of wine production, export and consumption. Thus the charts in the appendix show these countries within a global context. No exam questions will be set for the D3 examination that specifically test students on the data in the appendix.

Introduction to France

Introduction to France

1

France has a long history of wine with large-scale vine growing being practiced in the period of Roman Gaul, preceded by planting of wines in the Greek colony, today called Marseille, and by wines having been brought in from Italy. Initially, vines were only planted in the south of the country, e.g. in the first century CE in the Rhône valley and probably near to Bordeaux with its easy access to the sea for trading. The major expansion of vineyards came later under Charlemagne (crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE) and then the period of the monasteries after 1,000 CE. The Middle Ages saw the establishment of important export markets in England, Scotland, Flanders and Holland, with the key markets developing because major rivers and the sea facilitated the movement of wine. Because of the difficulty of transporting wine overland, the capital, Paris, was supplied by vineyard areas close to it or on major rivers. These included vineyards very close to Paris (now abandoned), Auxerre and Chablis, and the vineyards of the Loire River. The 17th to 19th centuries saw a huge expansion of exported wine, especially from Bordeaux, eventually leading to the classification of 1855 (see Key Developments in the History of Bordeaux). The key development was the draining of the marshes in the Médoc by Dutch engineers in the 17th century. This providing extensive land suitable for viticulture due to the fast-draining gravelly soils revealed by this work. Ports close to Bordeaux became the key trading channel for wine destined for the north of Europe and Paris. However, the development of the Bordeaux region was then followed by a series of new challenges in the vineyard in the second half of 19th century – powdery mildew, downy mildew, black rot and phylloxera. The industry only fully recovered in the early 20th century as solutions were first found and then implemented on an industry-wide scale. In common with other EU countries, France reduced its land under vine considerably through the impetus of the EU vine pull scheme. The total area under vine including for table grapes and brandy fell by one third between 1970 and the early 2010s.1

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D3: WINES OF THE WORLD

FRANCE FRANCE 0 0 0 0

50 50

100 100 50 50

150 Km 150 Km 100 Miles 100 Miles

N N

English Channel Channel English

Côtes de de Gascogne Gascogne IGP IGP Côtes Pays d’Oc IGP Pays d’Oc IGP

50˚N 50˚N

GE ER RM MA AN NY Y G

BELGIUM BELGIUM

Lille Lille

50˚N 50˚N

LUX. LUX. Reims Reims

Paris Paris

RA AN NC CE E FF R

48˚N 48˚N

CHAMPAGNE CHAMPAGNE

in e R . Sein e R . Se

Troyes Troyes

ALSACE ALSACE

R R. .LLoire oire

Tours Tours

Nantes Nantes

BURGUNDY BURGUNDY

Strasbourg Strasbourg

Dijon Dijon

ône Saône R.Sa R.

LOIRE VALLEY VALLEY LOIRE JURA JURA

SWITZERLAND SWITZERLAND

pp

ss

46˚N 46˚N

AA

ll

Lyon Lyon

Bay of of Biscay Biscay Bay

48˚N 48˚N

Mulhouse Mulhouse

BEAUJOLAIS BEAUJOLAIS

46˚N 46˚N

R.R R. hRihn ien e

arne R. Marne R. M

Bordeaux Bordeaux BORDEAUX BORDEAUX 44˚N 44˚N

MMaassssiiff CCeennttrraall R R. .GGaronn aron e ne

SOUTHWEST WEST SOUTH FRANCE FRANCE

Valence Valence

RHÔNE RHÔNE VALLEY VALLEY

R.RR. hô Rhnôene

2

Avignon Avignon Toulouse Toulouse

ITALY ITALY

44˚N 44˚N

Montpellier Montpellier

Marseille Marseille

SP PA A II N N S

42˚N 42˚N

4000m+ 4000m+

2000-4000m 2000-4000m

1000-2000m 1000-2000m

PP yy rr e n e n ee e e ss ANDORRA ANDORRA

Perpignan Perpignan

SOUTH OF OF SOUTH FRANCE FRANCE

MED DITE ITER RR RA AN NE EA AN NS SE EA A ME 500-1000m 500-1000m

200-500m 200-500m

42˚N 42˚N

0-200m 0-200m

GRAPE GROWING Climate Due to the size of France, the varying climate will be dealt with under the individual regions. The latitude of the grape growing regions ranges from 42–49° N and conditions vary markedly between, for example, northerly, Atlantic-influenced Muscadet, continental Burgundy and Mediterranean Provence. Vineyard Management With the exception of the continued use of bush vines in parts of the south of France, virtually all French vineyards are planted at high density with vines trained on trellises. The vines often trained with the cane-replacement pruned Guyot system with vertical shoot positioning (VSP). The number of hectares of certified organic grape growing increased nearly fourfold in the decade to 2017, 10 per cent of all vineyard area.2

Introduction to France

Grape Varieties France’s grape varieties are strongly associated with its individual wine regions and will therefore be dealt with under the regions. The top ten varieties are shown in the following chart. The popularity of Merlot reflects its dominance in Bordeaux and its planting for IGP wines in Languedoc. The high figure for Ugni Blanc is due to it being grown for Cognac and Armagnac in south west France. France top ten varieties, hectares planted 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0

ot

rl Me

Ug

ni

ir

c

n Bla

h

ac

en Gr

o eN

h

ra Sy

ay

n on

ard

Ch

Ca

be

t rne

u

Sa

on

n vig

C

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rn

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c

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ino

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Source: OIV3, Note: these figures include grapes grown for wine, brandy and table grapes WINEMAKING With many different wine regions, there are few generalisations to be made about winemaking in France. Winemaking will be mainly dealt with under the individual regions. Enrichment in the form of chaptalisation was invented in France and is much used in cooler regions, though less so in recent years due to a warmer climate and better canopy management. Maturation in barrels (small or large) has long been a standard part of French winemaking, supported by a large cooperage industry with a high reputation in France and around the world. French winemaking is supported by a large scientific sector devoted to viticulture and vinification, including major institutions based in Bordeaux and Montpellier. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS In the 20th century the French wine industry was been shaped by INAO (founded 1935; originally Institut national des appellations d’origine, now called Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité). It oversaw the creation of the Appellation d’origine contrôlée (AOC) system and, from 2009, also included oversight of Indication géographique protégée (IGP) wines. The AOCs embed a commitment to geographically defined appellations that also included detailed rules about methods of production (varieties allowed in an AOC, planting density, allowed training systems, maximum yields, minimum alcohol levels, required length of maturation of wine before release, earliest date the wine can be sold). This system is based on the idea of terroir.

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D3: WINES OF THE WORLD

However, due to the commercial success of varietally labelled wine from new world countries, in 2009 France, along with the rest of the EU, agreed to allow the name of the grape variety to appear on the label alongside the name of the appellation (e.g. Bourgogne AOC Chardonnay). In addition, wine without a geographical indication can now carry the name of the variety or varieties and the vintage of the wine. WINE BUSINESS The average size of vineyard holdings in France is much higher than Italy or Spain (10.5 ha).4 Co-operatives continue to be very important for smaller growers with over 40 per cent of wine production being processed by them.5 Wine consumption per capita has been in long term and fairly steep decline in France, with consumption now less than half the level of a century ago.6 Three quarters of volume sales by producers in France are through small and medium-sized local companies or private label, meaning that the sector is highly fragmented. The largest company is Castel Frères (12 per of total volume of sales), followed by Carrefour France and ITM Enterprises.7 France exports less wine than either Spain or Italy by volume but is by a significant margin the world leader in terms of value (50 per cent more exported by value than Italy and three times as much by value as Spain).8 France is also a large importer of wine, mainly at the inexpensive level. This continues to be a source of tension between French growers and those importing the wine, mainly from Spain. References 1. Walters, D. 2016, Imagine a world without Lafite …, BBR Blog (retrieved 19 March 2020) 2. Le secteur viticole bio français, Agence BIO 2018, p. 1 3. Distribution of the world’s grapevine varieties, Thematic focus 2017, OIV, p. 22 (retrieved 19 March 2020) 4. As above 5. French wine cooperatives, Vignerons de France coopérateurs (retrieved 8 April 2020 website no longer accessible) 6. Holmes, A. J., and Anderson, K. 2017, Convergence in national alcohol consumption patterns: New global indicators. Journal of Wine Economics, 12(2), 117-148 with data chart reproduced in Our World in Data (retrieved 8 April 2020) 7. Wine in France, Euromonitor report June 2018, subscription only 8. 2018 data. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market, April 2019, OIV, p. 14 (retrieved 8 April 2020)

Bordeaux

2

Bordeaux

The Bordeaux wine region lies in southwest France, close to the Atlantic Ocean. It is traversed by the River Garonne and the River Dordogne, which merge to form the Gironde estuary. The vineyards to the west of the Garonne and Gironde form what is collectively known as the Left Bank, while those to the east of the Dordogne and Gironde form what is collectively known as the Right Bank whilst the majority of the vineyards between the two rivers is called Entre-Deux-Mers, literally ‘between two seas’. As can be seen from the chart below, nearly 90 per cent of the plantings are black grapes. The production of AOC wine is 85 per cent red, 10 per cent dry white, 1 per cent sweet white and 4 per cent rosé. Bordeaux: top varieties, percentage of total hectares planted, 2017 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

lle ad e sc

Bl Sa uv ign on

Mu

an

c

n llo

he rr Ot

Sé mi

s ed

c Fr ne t be r Ca

Ca

be r

ne t

Sa u

vig

Me r

no

an

n

lot

0%

Source: CIVB1

2.1.  Key Developments in the History of Bordeaux

In the 17th and 18th centuries the large Médoc peninsula north of the city, which had been marshy and unsuitable for agriculture, was drained by Dutch residents in the city of Bordeaux and planted. By the mid-18th century, the wines from such properties as Lafite and Margaux were already widely appreciated across Europe and even in America. Their success was also because the city had long been a centre for wine exports from other regions such as Bergerac. This led to an entrepreneurial class of merchants whose origins lay in Britain, Ireland, Germany, Holland and elsewhere. These merchants and brokers distributed the wines of Bordeaux and established their international reputation. That system of distribution – undertaken by specialised merchants rather than proprietors – remains in place today.

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In 1855, a major commercial exhibition, the Exposition Universelle de Paris, was to take place. The Bordeaux chamber of commerce asked the region’s brokers to compile a classification of the wines. This was based on price, and the estates of the Médoc plus Haut Brion in Graves were classed into five bands, those of Sauternes into three. Although such classifications had been made before, they were informal assessments. The 1855 classification had official status and remains essentially unaltered to this day. It still influences prices today. Other classifications have followed – see below. The area under vine is enormous, with some 111,000 hectares planted.2 However, the great majority of wine produced is only entitled to the modest Bordeaux or Bordeaux Supérieur appellations and are inexpensive to mid-price. Around 70 per cent of all bottled wines are inexpensive or mid-priced and 30 per cent are premium or super-premium priced. By contrast, a prestigious appellation such as Pomerol occupies only 800 hectares.

2.2. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE The region has a moderate maritime climate. The cool Atlantic Ocean lies just west of the vineyards and is a cooling influence. In the best years, gentle heat throughout the growing season, sufficient rainfall to promote growth and ripening, and fine, relatively dry and warm early autumns allow for steady and complete ripening. Such a climate can result in an excellent balance of tannins, sugar, and acidity, which partly explains the remarkable longevity of great vintages here. The Left Bank is partially protected from Atlantic storms by extensive pine forest, the Landes. Estates that fringe those forests, such as Domaine de Chevalier in Léognan and many in Listrac in the Médoc are cooler and thus more marginal than neighbours to the east are. In the northern Médoc, the forest is less of a feature and the landscape is more open to maritime influence. As a result, its climate is cooler than the southern Médoc and Graves. Rainfall is variable, an average of 950 mm a year but with marked variation from year to year and the times within the year when it falls. Excessive rain at key moments is an important factor in vintage variation: • • • •

rain at flowering can result in poor fruit set rain throughout the growing season can result in increased disease pressure rain at and following véraison can lead to unripe fruit and fungal diseases rain at harvest can dilute flavours.

By contrast, here as elsewhere in Europe, climate change has led to hot dry summers with insufficient rainfall. The hardy grape varieties planted across Bordeaux can resist extremes of temperature, but hot dry years such as 2003 can lead to wines, both red and white, with low acidity that lack balance. They can also lead to wines being more alcoholic than in the past as growers wait for phenolic ripeness before picking. The maritime influence is less pronounced in the easterly, Right Bank regions of Bordeaux such as the Libournais (Saint-Émilion, Pomerol and appellations that surround them), but remains a factor. From time to time large areas of vineyards are affected by frost, as in 1956, 1991 and 2017 when the crop was decimated. In the Médoc, the most prestigious wines tend to be close to

Bordeaux

the Gironde estuary, which has a moderating influence on the climate and often protects those vines from frost, while those located a short distance to the west can be devastated. Hail, which is always sporadic, has been more widespread and destructive over the past decade. Vintage variation in terms of volume is marked. For example, in the frost-affected 2017, 33 per cent less wine was made than the 10-year average and 40 per cent less than in the large 2016 harvest.3 This level of variation of yield has significant financial implications for estates and for the wine business in the region as a whole. SOILS Soil too plays a major part in the quality of the wines of Bordeaux. The Left Bank – that is, the Médoc to the north of the city and Graves to its south – benefits from deposits of gravel and stony soils carried to the region by floodwaters from the Pyrenees and the Massif Central many thousands of years ago. Depending on their origin, the gravel is mixed with clay and sand. These gravel mounds are not especially high (highest in Margaux at 32 m) nor do they cover the whole region. All the top estates of the Left Bank are planted on gravel mounds known as croupes. Gravel, unlike clay, drains well, so even after the showers and storms, to which the Left Bank is prone, the roots of the vines soon dry out and the grapes can continue to ripen. In extremely hot years, such as 2003 and 2005, the excellent drainage can put some vines at risk of drought stress. This is particularly the case where soils are shallow. For example, in Pomerol, soils are rarely more than a metre deep and as a result, the vines can suffer, as was seen in the very dry summer of 2016. A second contribution made by gravel soils is heat retention. After a warm summer day, the pebbles and stones retain their warmth and continue gradually to release it upwards onto the vines, facilitating their slow ripening. There are also pockets of clay on the Left Bank, especially in Saint-Estèphe, but the wines from such soils, while robust and characterful, have not achieved the same acclaim as those grown on gravel.

Gravel soils in Bordeaux.

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D3: WINES OF THE WORLD

On the Right Bank there is far more clay in the soil, although there are significant patches of gravel in certain sectors of the Libournais. That is one reason why the dominant grape variety here is Merlot, which is ideally suited to such soils. It ripens fully in almost all vintages. It also accumulates more sugar and thus alcohol than Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc, which was seen a benefit in the past. The best wines come from grapes grown on the limestone plateau or the gravel section that borders Pomerol. GRAPE VARIETIES See the chart in the introduction for the breakdown of the overall plantings of the main varieties. Merlot This is an early budding variety, making it vulnerable to spring frosts, and mid ripening, giving the advantage that the grapes can be picked before early autumn rain. It is susceptible to coulure, drought andmost botrytis bunch rot, making sorting necessary to maintain quality. All these hazards can reduce yields. In Bordeaux, an important benefit is that it can ripen fully in cooler years, in comparison to the later ripening Cabernet Sauvignon. It is the dominant variety in the whole of the Right Bank and in the cooler northern Médoc, which has more fertile soils with a high clay content. It ripens on these cooler soils and the water-holding capacity of clay enables it to produce the large berry size typical of Merlot. It also reaches higher sugar levels and therefore higher potential alcohol levels than either of the Cabernets. This was an advantage in earlier decades but, with a warming climate, is less so today. As a variety, it contributes medium to pronounced intensity fruit (strawberry and red plum with herbaceous flavours in cooler years; cooked

Old vine Merlot growing in Saint-Émillion.

Bordeaux

blackberry, black plum in hot years), medium tannins and medium to high alcohol to the Bordeaux blend. Cabernet Sauvignon This is a late budding variety, giving it some protection from spring frosts. It is a small-berried thick-skinned variety with high tannin content, resulting in wines with high tannins. It is prone to fungal diseases, especially powdery mildew and the trunk diseases, Eutypa and Esca. It ripens late (and hence needs to be grown on warmer soils), making it vulnerable to early autumn rains. It produces the highest quality fruit on warm, well-drained soils, such as the gravel beds of the Médoc. In Bordeaux, Cabernet Sauvignon contributes pronounced violet, blackcurrant, black cherry and menthol or herbaceous flavours, medium alcohol, and high acidity and tannins to the Bordeaux blend.

Cabernet Sauvignon growing in Pauillac. In cooler seasons in Bordeaux, especially in the past with a cooler climate, growers could struggle to ripen Cabernet Sauvignon fully, resulting in wines with high acidity, unripe tannins and little fruit. As a result, and due to Cabernet Franc and Merlot’s earlier ripening, it was and still is regularly blended with these two varieties. Cabernet Franc For basic information, see Anjou-Saumur and Tourraine. In Bordeaux as a variety, it contributes red fruit, high acidity and medium tannins to the Bordeaux blend.

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Malbec For basic information, see Cahors, South West France. In Bordeaux, after the hard frosts of 1956, Malbec was mainly replaced with Merlot, which is easier to grow in Bordeaux. Petit Verdot This variety buds early and ripens even later than Cabernet Sauvignon, making it unpopular with growers in the past in Bordeaux. It is also prone to spring frosts, a failure to ripen in cool years and to rain around harvest. In Bordeaux, it does best in the warmer parts of the Médoc. When used, often as less than five per cent of the blend in Bordeaux, it contributes powerful, deeply coloured wines with spice notes and high tannins. While there are still very few plantings, it is increasingly valued, especially as a warmer climate means it is more likely to ripen in most years. Sémillon This is a mid-ripening variety, susceptible to botrytis bunch rot and to noble rot in the right conditions. It can carry high yields. Sémillon has low intensity apple, lemon and, if under ripe, grassy, flavours, a medium body, medium alcohol and medium to medium (+) acidity. (The variety is often spelled Semillon in English-speaking countries.) In high quality dry white Bordeaux blends, it contributes low to medium intensity aromas, weight and body, and medium acidity. As such, it softens Sauvignon Blanc’s more intense flavours and high acidity. It has a strong affinity with vanilla and sweet spice flavours from new French oak. In botrytis-affected sweet Bordeaux wines, it contributes pronounced honey and dried fruit (lemon, peach) character and a waxy texture. As it is more susceptible to botrytis than Sauvignon Blanc, top Sauternes wines tend to have a high proportion of Sémillon in the blend, for example as in Ch. Climens or Ch. d’Yquem. Sémillon is also prized for its ageability, developing toast and honeyed notes with age in contrast to Sauvignon Blanc that can hold but whose flavours do not evolve. Sauvignon Blanc For basic information, see the Central Vineyards, Loire. In Bordeaux, it contributes its grassy and gooseberry fruit and high acidity to dry white blends and to sweet botrytis-affected wines. Because of the worldwide popularity of the variety, increasing amounts of dominantly or single-variety dry Sauvignon Blanc white wines are being made. Muscadelle This white variety needs to be planted on a well-exposed site, as it is very prone to botrytis bunch rot. The vast majority is used in sweet white wines where it contributes flowery and grapey notes. It is not related to Muscat. VINEYARD MANAGEMENT The tradition in Bordeaux for top quality vineyards is closely spaced vines at 10,000 vines per hectare, vines being planted one metre apart with one metre between the rows. This is suitable for the relatively infertile soils of the region resulting in moderate vigour. Close planting adds to costs as more plants and more trellising have to be bought, specialist overthe-row tractors bought and more time is needed for vine training, ploughing and spraying.

Bordeaux

Close planting in Bordeaux. However, close planting makes the best use of expensive vineyard land. Vineyards in less prestigious appellations are often planted at lower density. For example, vines for basic Bordeaux AOC are typically planted at 3–4,000 vines per hectare.4 The most common system of managing the vine is head-trained, replacement canepruned, in which canes are trained along wires. On the Left Bank, two canes are trained, called Double Guyot. The single-cane Single Guyot is more common on the Right Bank. The second method is cordon-trained, spur-pruned, which is rare in Bordeaux, although some prestigious estates favour it, arguing that it reduces yields naturally and gives better aeration to the bunches. In Bordeaux’s moderate, damp climate, canopy management is important to reduce the incidence of downy mildew, powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot. Leaf removal takes place during the summer and is intended to improve aeration and deter rot. This also exposes grapes to ultraviolet light to aid ripening. (When an attack of mildew is followed by rain, tractors may have difficulty entering the vineyards to spray and the rain washes away the treatments, which can compound the problems.) In addition, Eutypa dieback and Esca have become major problems, rotting the vine from the inside. A relatively new treatment called ‘soft pruning’, increasingly popular across Europe, seems to be fairly successful. (Soft pruning includes making only small cuts if at all possible, leaving some extra wood at the cut site to allow the wood to dry out and maximising the opportunity for sap to flow around the plant.) Flavescence dorée can be contained by using insecticides, but such treatments make the growing band of organic and biodynamic producers uneasy because of the use of synthetic insecticides.

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Leaf removal can take place on either one or both sides of the row. However, leaves protect the bunches from sunburn and extreme heat. For example, vineyard managers who removed leaves in 2003 ended up with raisined grapes. It is less risky to remove leaves late in the season when extreme heat is less likely and the bunches can benefit from the better aeration. About 20 years ago it became approved practice to remove bunches (or bunch-thin), either by hand or by machine. This was a way to correct vines carrying a high yield, and to improve concentration of flavour. It now is less popular, as some viticulturalists argue that it can unbalance the vine and that pruning short in winter is a better way to control yields. The emphasis today is in allowing vines to find their natural balance, avoiding corrective measures unless there is no alternative. Yields have certainly decreased over the past two decades; they now average 50 hectolitres per hectare and the wines have benefited. However, there was a fashion for exaggeratedly low yields, especially on the Right Bank. This resulted in super-concentrated wines that could often be jammy or fatiguing. Moreover, the sense of place, which is a hallmark of fine Bordeaux, is obscured by excessive concentration that robs the wine of any nuance. However, this practice is in decline. Harvest used to be a random procedure. Teams were hired to arrive for a defined period, based on an informed guess as to when the grapes would be ripe. Thus, in most vintages some grapes would be picked under ripe, others overripe, and the remainder at the right moment. Today harvesting teams are hired for a longer period and expect some days of paid idleness should the harvest be interrupted by rain. Large teams of workers (above 100) are hired by the big estates. Many properties hire workers from other EU countries and board the workers throughout harvest, further adding to the cost. In some parts of the region, such as the northern Médoc, it is hard to find workers to harvest by hand, as the vineyards are a two-hour drive from Bordeaux. Because of this, many vineyards are picked by machine out of economic necessity. Some properties also use machines to collect grapes quickly if fungal disease pressure is high or if the weather forecasts is for rain or storms. Grapes intended for high volume inexpensive wines are typically picked by machine. Advocates of harvesting by machine argue that it allows them to pick the perfect moment to harvest, without dealing with the vagaries of harvesting teams’ schedules. Nonetheless, harvesting by hand undoubtedly gives greater quality control, which is why top estates routinely pick by hand.

2.3. Winemaking

Levels of sorting vary according to the value of the wine and the quality of the vintage. Grapes for inexpensive wines will not be routinely sorted, while grapes for high quality wines will be sorted first by those harvesting by hand as they pick, by hand on a moving or vibrating belt or, in very well-funded properties, by optical sorting. In the very best vintages, even top estates may decide not to sort in the winery because of the uniformly high quality of the fruit and because they have sorted in the vineyard. Many properties, especially those producing high quality wines, have moved to plot by plot winemaking, picking individual plots for optimum ripeness and then making separate small lots of wine with those grapes. In addition to the added care needed over harvesting

Bordeaux

Fruit being delivered to the Saint-Émilion co-operative.

Machine-harvested fruit.

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dates, this also requires more, smaller vessels to be available in the winery, adding to cost but producing higher quality. RED WINEMAKING Fermentation takes place in closed vats with pump-overs as the usual practice. Most properties used cultured yeast for its reliability. Fermentation vessels include wood, stainless steel and concrete. All are fitted with temperature control. Fermentation temperatures and the extent of post-fermentation maceration on the skins depends on the style of the wine to be made and the quality of the vintage. Mid-range fermentation temperatures and a short period on the skins after fermentation (5-7 days) is typically used for wines intended for early drinking to preserve primary fruit and to limit the extraction of tannins. Mid-range to warm fermentation temperatures and a total of 14–30 days on the skins may be employed for wines intended to be aged for many years in bottle. Maceration times are reduced in poor vintages if the fruit is not fully ripe. The wine is drained off, and the remaining skins are pressed, either in pneumatic presses or in modern vertical or hydraulic presses, which are believed to give the best results because of their gentle extraction. The press wine is, like the free-run, transferred into 225-litre barrels (barriques), and the winemaker will decide later what proportion of press wine the final blend will contain. That will depend on whether the free-run needs more structure and tannin. Malolactic conversion takes place either in tanks or in the barrels, arguing that there is a better integration of wine and wood. As top- quality wines will be tasted initially in the following spring by buyers and wine journalists, many estates will inoculate to ensure rapid completion of malolactic conversion. Cellars may be heated to encourage an efficient conversion.

New concrete fermentation tanks, Margaux.

Bordeaux

Finished new barriques ready for delivery to wineries. Simpler wines are typically aged in stainless steel, concrete vats or large vats for 4–6 months and oak chips may be added for an oak flavour effect. High quality wines are matured in French oak barriques. Most common is a mix of new, one-year old and two-year old barriques, though some very prestigious properties will use up to 100 per cent new oak. However, the percentage of new oak has been decreasing in recent years to more moderate levels for many estates. Winemakers choose the barrel makers, often opting for a range of cooperages for greater perceived complexity, and the level of toast, typically medium to medium plus. Wines will be matured for 18–24 months, depending on the quality of the wine (wines of greater concentration and higher tannins need longer) and the progress of maturation in any particular year. By tradition, wines are racked every three months, though some prefer to leave the wine undisturbed on the lees and may use micro-oxygenation to replace the oxygenation caused by racking, to prevent reduction and to help to soften tannins. There are two approaches to blending. Most estates, especially those that opt to present their wines in the spring for the en primeur tastings (see Wine Business), blend over the winter. The outcome is not just a near-final blend of the main wine, but a deselection of wines that will end up in the estate’s second or third label or that will be sold off in bulk to merchants. A minority of estates blend a few months before bottling, when the blending team can assess the evolution of each variety and each lot before making the final decisions. The majority of the top properties work with a winemaking consultant whose main role is to assist with the blending process.

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ROSĖ WINEMAKING Two styles of rosé are now made in Bordeaux, the deeper coloured, traditional Clairet and a lighter coloured rosé.5 The main varieties used are Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. In the past wines were made either from younger vines or by the short maceration and bleeding off method. Here the rosé is a by-product of red wine production in which the main aim is to produce deeper coloured red musts and wines. The newer style lighter coloured rosé is more likely to be made by direct pressing. WHITE WINEMAKING Once the grapes have been picked, they are either pressed directly on arrival at the winery or left on the skins for up to 24 hours before being pressed. The first method delivers maximum freshness, the second more aromatic and phenolic complexity, although the grapes need to be fully healthy, otherwise off-flavours could be extracted. Wines intended for early drinking are generally fermented at cool fermentation temperatures in stainless-steel tanks. Inexpensive wine may then remain in the tanks for a few months before being clarified and bottled. Mid-priced wines are often left on the fine lees for 6– 12 months, which will give them more weight and complexity. Higher quality wines are fermented and aged in barriques, with a varying proportion of new oak. Many producers block the malolactic conversion to retain freshness and acidity. It used to be common for the fine lees to be regularly stirred (bâtonnage) to enrich the wines further. However, today many winemakers are wary of the technique, which can, especially in hot years, give the wines excessive body in relation to their levels of acidity. The contemporary style of white Bordeaux owes a great deal to the work of Professor Denis Dubourdieu and André Lurton. They advocated an increased focus on Sauvignon Blanc, skin contact for the extraction of aromatics and a reduction in the proportion of new oak used in the fermentation and maturation stages. SWEET WINE: GRAPE GROWING AND WINEMAKING Bordeaux has a long tradition of producing sweet wines, often from botrytis-affected fruit. The production process is complex, as it begins in the vineyard. Yields must be kept low, often at levels one third of those acceptable for still wines, to ensure very high sugar levels in the grapes. This is achieved by pruning to a low number of buds and then the removal of any fruit that shows any signs of disease or damage as these would be highly prone to grey mould at the end of the season. Low yields and the reduction in juice created by botrytis mean that many estates do not achieve the low 25 hL/ha maximum allowed in the top appellations, Sauternes and Barsac. Below 10 hL/ha is common at the very top estates. These low yields alone increase production costs greatly. Harvesters must be well trained and capable of identifying noble rot in contrast to grey or black rot, which are entirely negative. For wines of high botrytis concentration, teams of pickers must go through the vineyards more than once (in some vintages 10–12 times at the properties paying the greatest attention to detail) to select properly botrytised and ripe bunches or berries. The harvest can last from September to November. Thus, vital decisions affecting quality are made in the vineyard.

Bordeaux

Cane pruning in Sauternes.

Botrytised fruit, Sauternes.

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Barrel ageing Sauternes.

The level of botrytis in the final wines depends on: • • •

whether the conditions are correct for the spread of noble rot, which varies from year to year. the position of estates (proximity to areas where mist forms most regularly versus other locations) the willingness of estates to wait for the best times to harvest and risk losing all or part of the crop due to adverse weather the willingness of estates to pay for multiple passes through the vineyard to select botrytis-affected fruit.

As a result, the wines may be made from varying proportions of botrytis-affected and lateharvested fruit. Once picked, the grapes are handled as for a dry white wine, being fermented in stainless steel, concrete tanks or barriques, and then aged for varying periods in any of those containers. Top-quality wines are typically barrel-fermented (for the best integration of oak and fruit flavours) with a high proportion of new oak and barrel-aged (for 18–36 months for top wines) to encourage a gentle oxidation that will add complexity. The amount of new oak ranges from 30 to 50 per cent but can be up to 100 per cent, for example at Ch. d’Yquem. This adds significantly to production costs. Wines from the less prestigious sweet wine appellations are often unoaked and released a year after the harvest.

Bordeaux

2.4.  Key Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations

With 65 appellations in Bordeaux, some key examples are given here.

45˚30´N 45˚30´N

FFRRAANNCCEE

R R.. Giro Gir nd on e de

MÉDOC MÉDOC SAINT-ESTÈPHE SAINT-ESTÈPHE PAUILLAC PAUILLAC

Golfe Golfe de de Gascogne Gascogne

BLAYE BLAYE CÔTESDE DE CÔTES BORDEAUX BORDEAUX

HAUT-MÉDOC HAUT-MÉDOC SAINT-JULIEN SAINT-JULIEN

CÔTESDE DE CÔTES BOURG BOURG

LISTRAC-MÉDOC LISTRAC-MÉDOC MOULIS MOULIS

45˚00´N 45˚00´N

MARGAUX MARGAUX

Bordeaux Bordeaux

LALANDE-DELALANDE-DEPOMEROL POMEROL POMEROL POMEROL

00

10 10

20 20 10 10

100-200m 100-200m

30 30 20 20

40 40

ENTRE-DEUX-MERS ENTRE-DEUX-MERS PREMIÈRESCÔTES CÔTESDE DEBORDEAUX BORDEAUX&& PREMIÈRES CADILLACCÔTES CÔTESDE DEBORDEAUX BORDEAUX CADILLAC LOUPIAC LOUPIAC SAINTE-CROIX-DU-MONT SAINTE-CROIX-DU-MONT BARSAC BARSAC SAUTERNES SAUTERNES

50 Km Km 50 30 Miles 30 Miles

45˚00´N

45˚00´N FRANCS FRANCS CÔTESDE DEBORDEAUX BORDEAUX CÔTES CASTILLON CASTILLON CÔTESDE DEBORDEAUX BORDEAUX CÔTES . D. D RR orodrodgongene

GRAVES && GRAVES GRAVES-SUPÉRIEURES GRAVES-SUPÉRIEURES

00

SAINTSAINTÉMILION ÉMILION

Libourne Libourne

PESSACPESSACLÉOGNAN LÉOGNAN

BORDEAUX

45˚30´N 45˚30´N

44˚30´N 44˚30´N R.RG. Ga aroron nnene

N

0-100m

Most appellation regulations simply list the permitted Bordeaux varieties and do not require any particular proportions of named varieties. Thus, for example, while both Pauillac AOC and Pomerol AOC allow the use of the same list of varieties, namely Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Carmenère, Malbec, Merlot and Petit Verdot, in practice, the great majority of wines in Pauillac are dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon and in Pomerol by Merlot, reflecting the traditional plantings on the Left and Right Banks. GENERIC APPELLATIONS Bordeaux AOC and Bordeaux Supérieur AOC Bordeaux AOC is the vast regional appellation for still red, rosé and white wines. Maximum yield is 67 hL/ha for whites, 62 hL/ha for rosés and 60 hL/ha for reds, resulting in some wines of low flavour concentration. In Bordeaux Supérieur AOC (also for the entire region) the maximum yield is 59 hL/ha for red wine. These two appellations together account for 50 per cent of all wine produced in Bordeaux.6 The red wines, which are mainly made from Merlot, typically have medium intensity red fruit, high acidity, medium (+) tannins, medium body and medium alcohol. The white wines are made with increasing amounts of Sauvignon Blanc and

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have medium intensity gooseberry and lemon fruit, medium body, high acidity and medium alcohol. Most of the wines are acceptable to good quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. LEFT BANK RED WINE APPELLATIONS Médoc AOC and Haut-Médoc AOC These appellations are situated on the left bank of the Gironde to the north of the city of Bordeaux. Both of these appellations are for red wine only and maximum yield is 55 hL/ha. Wines can only be sold for consumption from mid-June of the year after the harvest. Médoc AOC covers the northern end of the area and is mainly planted with nearly equal proportions of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. Haut-Médoc AOC covers the area closest to Bordeaux city and the area includes the famous Left Bank individual communes discussed immediately below. Here the soils include warm, gravelly sites for Cabernet Sauvignon (50 per cent of plantings) and Merlot (44 per cent). As these are large areas, wines labelled Médoc and Haut-Médoc come in a wide range of prices and quality levels. The Haut-Médoc sub-region is the location of four famous single commune appellations: Saint-Estèphe, Pauillac, Saint-Julien and Margaux. These appellations are adjacent to the Gironde estuary and its moderating influence and have a high proportion of warm gravelly soils enabling Cabernet Sauvignon to ripen. These four appellations are for red wines only, with a maximum yield of 57 hL/ha. The wines typically have pronounced intensity blackcurrant, green bell pepper (especially in cooler vintages) and red plum fruit, with vanilla and cedar oak notes. They have medium to high alcohol, high tannins and are medium (+) bodied. The wines in these four communal AOCs are typically very good to outstanding in quality and premium to super-premium in price. Saint-Estèphe AOC This is the most northerly and coolest of the four prestigious Left Bank Médoc communes, as it is closest to the Atlantic Ocean. At 40 per cent, it has more Merlot planted than the other three, as it can ripen successfully here and is well suited to the clay soils away from the estuary. Cabernet Sauvignon makes up 50 per cent of the plantings and performs best on the gravel banks close to the estuary. Due its cooler regional climate, Saint-Estèphe has a reputation for rustic wines that need many years in the bottle to soften the tannins. However, some wines are softer and more accessible, especially from the warmer gravel soils or where there is a significant proportion of Merlot in the blend. Furthermore, the water retaining capacity of the clay soils has proven to be advantageous in recent dry, hot summers. It has no First Growths but it does have second growths and a large number of Cru Bourgeois. Pauillac AOC This appellation has a high proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon planted (around 62 percent) often on the gravel banks close to the estuary, enabling the variety to ripen fully in most years. Many of the top estates have an even higher proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend (70-80 per cent), resulting in wines of high concentration and great longevity. Stylistically it is regarded as the most structured wine of the Left Bank, with high tannins and high acidity, giving it the capacity for long ageing. Pauillac has three of the five first growths. It also has the highest proportion of production of cru classé wine, around 85 per cent of production, followed closely by Saint-Julien.7

Bordeaux

Vines at Ch. Latour near the estuary. Saint-Julien AOC Like Pauillac, this appellation has a very high proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon planted and a high proportion of cru classé production. It has very homogenous gravel soils. Stylistically it is often regarded as a mid-way point between the powerful structure of Pauillac and the finesse of Margaux. It has no first growths but five second growths. Margaux AOC This appellation has a high proportion of cru classé production and one first growth. There is slightly less Cabernet Sauvignon planted and slightly more Merlot. It has stony, gravelly soils and being slightly further south, grapes ripen a few days earlier than for example in Pauillac and 7–10 days earlier than the more northern Medoc appellations.8 This can be an advantage in cool years or if rain threatens. However, clay seams mean that some soils can require supplementary drainage, adding to the investment required. Margaux has a reputation for perfumed wines with silky tannins. Listrac-Médoc AOC and Moulis AOC These two appellations for red wines are further from the river than the four single commune appellations just discussed. As a result, they benefit from less of the moderating influence of the estuary and have less gravel in the soils. Apart from being able to release the wine for consumption slightly earlier, the AOC requirements are the same as for the four single communal appellations. The wines are typically good to very good and mid-priced to premium priced.

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GRAVES APPELLATIONS Graves AOC This large appellation for white and red wines stretches from the city of Bordeaux southwards. Maximum yields are limited to 58 and 55 hL/ha respectively, with 85 per cent of wine being red. Most Graves AOC wine is acceptable to good quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Graves Supérieures AOC is restricted to late picked and/or botrytis-affected sweet wines which allows higher yields (40 hL/ha) than Sauternes. Pessac-Léognan AOC This compact appellation includes some of the southern suburbs of the city of Bordeaux and is a sub-region within Graves AOC. It has both the gravel soils and the moderating effect of the Garonne like the top communes of the Médoc. It is known for high quality, often barrelfermented and aged white wines and high-quality red wines, though the red/white split is 80/20 percent. It includes one First Growth from the 1855 classification and all of the cru classé properties of the Graves classification. It has the reputation for producing the best white wines of Bordeaux. Maximum yield is 54 hL/ha for both red and white wines. The white wines are typically a blend of Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon and have pronounced aromas of gooseberry, lemon and grapefruit with vanilla and clove oak notes, medium (+) body, medium (+) to high acidity and medium to high alcohol. They are typically very good to outstanding and premium to super-premium in price. The red wines are similar in style and price to the red wines of the four most prestigious Médoc communes. ENTRE-DEUX-MERS Entre-deux-Mers AOC This is the second largest appellation in terms of hectares, though much smaller than Bordeaux AOC, producing only white wines. (Red wine is produced within the appellation area but is bottled as Bordeaux or Bordeaux Supérieur.) The maximum yield is 65 hL/ha resulting in some wines of light flavour intensity. The wines are typically acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. RIGHT BANK RED WINE APPELLATIONS The Right Bank is characterised by many small estates (some as small as one hectare) and the dominance of Merlot in particular (which does well on the cool, clay soils), followed by Cabernet Franc and small plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon. Saint-Émilion and Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC These two appellations cover the same large area producing red wine only. Saint-Émilion Grand Cru has lower maximum yields (46 hL/ha, as opposed to 53 hL/ha) and longer minimum maturation time (20 months, as opposed to six months). Merlot is the dominant grape variety (60 per cent)9 and Cabernet Franc the next most grown variety. Saint-Émilion has its own classification system commented on further below in Classification Systems. There is a great range of quality from simple wines made for early drinking through to the top grand cru Classé wines of comparable quality to the First Growths of the 1855 classification. These top wines typically have pronounced red and black plum fruit with noticeable vanilla and clove new oak character, with a full body, high alcohol, medium (+)

Bordeaux

to high acidity and medium (+) to high tannins. Because of the intense fruit concentration, high acidity and tannins, the best wines can age for many years in bottle. Saint-Émilion satellites This is the name given to four AOCs that are close to Saint-Émilion but further away from the River Dordogne. Similar wines are made to the same rules as Saint-Émilion AOC. The two largest satellites are Montagne Saint-Émilion AOC and Lussac-Saint-Émilion AOC. Pomerol AOC This is a small but very prestigious appellation for red wines with Merlot as the dominant grape (around 80 per cent), Cabernet Franc being the next most grown variety. The maximum yield is 49 hL/ha. There is no classification system in Pomerol but many top-quality estates. The wines are typically very good to outstanding and premium to super-premium in price. The top wines are similar to the top wines of Saint-Émilion described above. Partly because of the small size of the estates in Pomerol and consequent small production (compare Petrus with less than 12 ha to the Left Bank First Growths with 80–100 ha each), the top properties command some of the highest prices in the world per bottle. Like the top wines of Saint-Émilion, the wines typically have pronounced red and black plum fruit with noticeable vanilla and clove new oak character, with a full body, high alcohol, medium (+) to high acidity and medium (+) to high tannins. Because of the high fruit concentration, high acidity and tannins, the best wines can age for many years in bottle. Lalande-de-Pomerol AOC This is a larger satellite appellation that allows slightly higher yields than in Pomerol AOC. CÔTES DE BORDEAUX Côtes de Bordeaux AOC is an appellation for red and white wine created in 2009 for a group of appellations on the Right Bank. A number of communes can append their name before the AOC name, for example, Blaye Côtes de Bordeaux. The same is the case for Cadillac, Castillon and Francs. For red wines, the maximum yield is 55 hL/ha and 52 hL/ha if a commune name is appended. CÔTES DE BOURG AOC This is a similar appellation to Côtes de Bordeaux that is not under the umbrella of Côtes de Bordeaux. The dominant grape variety is Merlot and the wines are similar in style and price to Médoc AOC. This appellation has a focus on Malbec with 10 per cent of its hectares being planted with this variety, the highest percentage of any Bordeaux appellation.10 SWEET WINE APPELLATIONS Sauternes AOC and Barsac AOC These two appellations in the southern part of the Graves are for sweet, typically botrytisaffected wines made from Sémillon (80 per cent of plantings), Sauvignon Blanc and tiny amounts of Muscadelle. They have the conditions to produce noble rot due to the meeting of the cold Ciron River with the warmer Garonne River, promoting morning mists. The ideal situation for noble rot is when these mists are burnt off by the middle of the day, with sunshine in the afternoon drying the grapes to avoid the development of grey rot.

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Sauternes is the largest sweet wine appellation in Bordeaux, accounting for 50 per cent of all production. Wines from the commune of Barsac may be labelled as either Barsac AOC or Sauternes AOC. Maximum yields are limited to just 25 hL/ha in both appellations but, in reality, much lower yields are often required to ensure grapes are fully ripened before noble rot develops. The wines have pronounced aromas of citrus peel, honey, tropical fruit (mango) with vanilla oak notes; they are full bodied, with high alcohol, medium to medium (+) acidity and a sweet finish. The wines are very good to outstanding and prices range from mid-priced to super-premium. Sauternes has been facing a crisis for the past 30 years due to a lack of demand for the wines. In response to this crisis, many properties have started producing dry wines as an important source of income. Other Sweet Wine Appellations Older Sauternes vintages. Sweet white wine is also produced in a number of appellations on both banks of the Garonne, such as Sainte-Croix-du-Mont AOC and Loupiac AOC (maximum yields, 40 hL/ ha) and Premières Côtes de Bordeaux AOC (maximum yield, 45 hL/ha). These wines may be botrytis-affected or simply late harvest. The wines are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced.

2.5.  Classification Systems

In addition to its appellations, Bordeaux has quality hierarchies for nearly all of its high-quality wine. The 1855 classification of grand cru classé (often referred to as cru classé) is based on prices then being achieved for the wines of the Médoc (plus Ch. Haut-Brion in the Graves) and Sauternes. The wines of the Médoc were ranked into First to Fifth growths, and Sauternes into first and second growths, with Ch. d’Yquem being awarded a special category of its own, Premier Cru Supérieur. There have been minor modifications to the 1855 classification, but it remains essentially unaltered today and continues to affect prices paid. Cru classé wine represents about a quarter of the wine produced in the Médoc. Classed growths must be bottled at the estate, though today many other wineries also bottle on their own estates. Following the 1855 classification, some other sub-regions classified their wines. The four official classifications are: The 1855 classification – As noted, this classification includes the 60 leading properties or châteaux from the Médoc and one from the Graves, ranked in five tiers, referred to as crus or growths, from first growths, or premiers crus, down to fifth growths, or cinquièmes crus.

Bordeaux

The Graves classification – In 1959, the Graves established a list based on pricing, fame and quality as judged by tasting. Altogether there are 16 classified châteaux, for their red, white or both, all located within the sub region of Pessac Léognan. The Graves classification is a simple list with no sub-divisions and can be for red and white wines.

First Growths (Premier Cru Classé) • Château Lafite Rothschild, Pauillac • Château Latour, Pauillac • Château Margaux, Margaux • Château Haut- Brion, Pessac, Graves • Château Mouton Rothschild, Pauillac (promoted in 1973)

The Saint-Émilion classification – This classification only applies to some wines within the Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC, the name of the appellation. (In other words, wines that are Saint-Émilion AOC or simply labelled as Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC are not within the classification.) The classification dates back to 1955 and has been revised at approximately 10-yearly intervals ever since. Châteaux are judged on their terroir, methods of production, reputation and commercial considerations and a blind tasting of at least 10 vintages. The classification includes three tiers: Premier Grand Cru A, Premier Grand Cru B and Grand Cru Classé. The most recent revision of 2012 still stands. The Crus Bourgeois du Médoc classification – Created in 1932, Cru Bourgeois is a level below Cru Classé, but still of superior quality. In 2010, it was revised with the Cru Bourgeois label awarded annually to individual wines rather than to châteaux as a mark of quality based on an assessment of both production methods and the finished product. Any property in the Médoc may apply. From the 2018 vintage on, châteaux will be classified as one of three tiers of quality (as was done in the past): Cru Bourgeois, Cru Bourgeois Supérieur and Cru Bourgeois Exceptionnel, and this classification will last for five years. Pomerol is the only top-quality appellation that does not have a classification system at all, though some estates have the highest reputation, e.g. Petrus. Some of the classifications have proved controversial. The Saint-Émilion classification has been challenged and lawsuits have dented its reputation and value. The use of the term ‘Grand Cru’ in the name of the Saint-Émilion appellation is regarded by many outside of the region as misleading. The Graves classification is due for revision with too many high quality estates not included in the current list, but that may not happen as the proprietors fear a repetition of the disputes that have discredited the Saint-Émilion classification.

2.6.  Wine Business

There are over 7,000 estates mostly called châteaux, even though a château can be a palatial country mansion or a dilapidated farmhouse. The number of estates is shrinking, as very small properties are being taken over by larger neighbours to create volumes of wine that are more viable commercially. The average estate size has been rising and is now over 19 hectares.11 The annual production fluctuates but is generally over 800 million bottles. Co-operatives continue to play an important role in Bordeaux. In 2018, they were responsible for a quarter of production from 40 per cent of grape growers.12 As noted previously, the vast majority of wines are inexpensive or mid-priced and this is reflected in the areas of vineyards planted in the appellations.

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Ch. Pichon Baron, Pauillac.

Ch. Fourcas Dupre, Listrac.

Bordeaux

Percentage planted by types of wine Rosé Dry whites 4% 9%

Sweet whites 1% Crémant 1%

St-Émilion, Pomerol, Fronsac 11% Bordeaux 44%

Côtes de Bordeaux 12%

Médoc and Graves 18% Note: ‘Bordeaux’ includes red Bordeaux AOC and Bordeaux Supérieur13 Production costs for Bordeaux AOC, a Médoc estate and a classed growth are significantly different: €0.57, €2.35 and €16 per bottle (estimated on 2017 figures).14 These figures do not include interest on bank loans or land costs, which would increase the costs significantly.15 The main additional production costs for a classed growth are increased vine density, harvest costs, hugely higher viticultural costs, lower yield, rigorous grape selection and barrel ageing (both the cost of a higher proportion of new barrels and extended time in barrel). While the classifications (see above) have been an important way of selling wine, the 100-point rating system associated with Robert Parker and adopted by many top critics has become a vital tool for selling wine, initially in the USA and then around the world. Scores have become an easy to understand way of communicating with potential purchasers. MARKETS The total value of Bordeaux wine sales in 2018 was more than €4 billion, split more or less evenly between France and exports. 56 per cent of Bordeaux wine by volume was sold within France, with 48 per cent of that being sold in supermarkets (2018, average price €5.80). Exports accounted for 44 per cent of Bordeaux wine by volume and 52 per cent by value. The top export markets by value were Hong Kong, China, USA and UK.16 LA PLACE DE BORDEAUX Bordeaux has a unique commercial system, known as la place de Bordeaux. Few producers sell wine directly. Rather, the wine is sold to a merchant (négociant, collectively known as la négoce that sells approximately 70 per cent of wine)17 who in turn sells it on to wholesalers and retailers. In addition, the relationship between the producers (estates, co-operatives and large winery businesses) and the merchants is handled by a broker, known as a courtier. Each of the parties charges a percentage for their services. The châteaux sell their wines to négociants, who then sell and ship the wines to distributors (importers, wholesalers and retailers) throughout the world, taking an average of 15 percent of the sale price that the

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Grape grower sells grapes to

Estate grown and vinified

Co-operative or large winery

Broker/Courtier (2%) = la place Merchant/Négociant (15%)

Wholesaler, supermarket, agent, importer etc Retailer Final customer châteaux receive. Courtiers act as brokers between the châteaux and the négociants, earning two percent.18 Bordeaux wines are distributed to more than 170 countries across the globe. In order for a château to ensure that its wines are in key markets, they will sell to a number of négociants, often as many as 40. The number of cases purchased by each négociant is determined by an allocation system, where each négociant is allotted a percentage of production every vintage. There are two very strongly contrasting markets in wine in Bordeaux. The great majority of wine (Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur) is inexpensive and has struggled to raise its price much above €1 per litre for wine in bulk over many years,19 due to lower demand in France and huge competition from wines from other countries, (e.g. Chile, Australia) on export markets. This wine is made in co-operatives and small producers or the grapes are sold directly to larger wine companies (for example, Castel). Most of the wine is sold in French supermarkets. EN PRIMEUR By contrast, classed growths and other high-quality wines Read more on en primeur campaigns are sold mainly by the en primeur system. They are sold as in one view on the apparent failure futures, i.e. a paper transaction where the wine is sold a year of the 2017 en primeur campaign: to 18 months before it is bottled. This system is used in other Have we learnt nothing? regions but is most commonly associated with Bordeaux. These wines are sold in the spring following the harvest, while the wines are still in barrel and not finished or bottled. The idea is that consumers can secure hard-to-buy wines and at a lower price than they will appear in fine wine shops once they are bottled and shipped. The estates benefit from early payment for wine. On the system in general, see the section on Merchants in D2: Wine Business. The contemporary en primeur system dates from the period after the Second World War when the chateaux were struggling financially. However, it was not until the late 1970s that

Bordeaux

consumers began to take an interest in Bordeaux en primeur sales and it was the great 1982 vintage which really caught their imagination. The en primeur campaign begins in April following vintage when barrel samples are provided by estates to be tasted by wine buyers and journalists. 5–6,000 wine professionals taste and assess the wines while they are still in barrel. The châteaux then release their prices throughout May and June. After the tasting, the châteaux – usually through their négociants – put up for sale a small amount of wine (the first tranche), the price of which will be heavily influenced by the individual château’s reputation and the experts’ reviews. This first tranche is intended to gauge what the market is prepared to pay for the wine. Depending on how it sells, the price will be adjusted for subsequent tranches. Usually, the price goes up for each tranche. Trade buyers make decisions about what wines they will buy and in what quantities and journalists publish their scores and reviews to guide consumers. The final customer of en primeur wine can put in orders through fine wine merchants. Wines in demand, especially the rarest and most sought-after wines, will be on allocation. Thus, the négociants and trade buyers may well have to buy wines in a less good vintage if they want to maintain their allocation of wines in top vintages. Wines that are less in demand may well remain on the books of a négociant for some years before they are sold, for example in a year when there is little wine to sell or when prices of the current vintages are too high. En primeur is a process that lasts for several months. The success or otherwise of the campaign depends on the quality of the wines (top vintages always attract the highest demand), the prices being asked and the state of the market. If the prices are set too high the estates, négociants and retailers will end up with stocks of wine that may have to be stored for many years before they can be sold, compromising profitability. The state of the market also matters. For example, if an averagely good vintage follows a number of successful ones, the estates may need to reduce prices to attract buyers. However, they may well be reluctant to do so and this can lead to unsold wine. The wines are bought for an en primeur price that includes the bottled wine being delivered to the storage of the retailer a year later. The price is ex cellar, i.e. it excludes any taxes that will be due in the final buyer’s home market. The wines are typically held in a secure storage unit at the correct temperature and humidity for the long-term storage of fine wine. The final buyer can then decide whether to have the wine delivered, stored until it is ready to drink (which may be up to a decade) or to sell on the wine, the idea being that the price will rise as it matures and as the wine is no longer easily available. Bordeaux (particularly First Growths and other top wines) accounts for the largest proportion of wine that is traded on the secondary market. Since 2010 there has been a continuing debate about whether the en primeur system still works. In the boom period of the 2000s, in particular due to increased interest from China, en primeur prices rose considerably. Châteaux became accustomed to offering their wines at ever-higher prices even in relatively poor vintages such as 2011. In the end, this led to Bordeaux prices starting to fall, meaning that some of those who had invested in en primeur lost money. Various leading critics have expressed concern at how much their reviews influence the price of the wine, especially given that the wines they taste are often not even the final wine, simply a representation of what the producer expects it to be like after blending etc. In 2012, Ch. Latour announced that it would no longer be selling its wines en primeur and several châteaux have reduced the volume of wine they sell in this way. The most prestigious châteaux can, of course, afford to keep their wine and only sell it when bottled, whereas smaller or less prestigious châteaux cannot and need the money en primeur sales generate.

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Advantages and disadvantages of the en primeur system

Advantages

Disadvantages

For the estates

•

Ability to test the market by releasing early lowerpriced tranches Early payment and return on investment, allowing the estates to finance the next vintage

•

Ability to secure sought- after wines and theoretically at the lowest price Option to keep or trade sought-after wines

•

•

For the final customer

•

•

•

•

La Cité du Vin, Bordeaux.

Potentially selling at a lower price than might be obtained for the bottled wine Potential for financial mismanagement or losses by négociants (that could lead them to go out of business) that could adversely affect an estate’s reputation Wines are bought on the basis of the opinions of trade buyers and journalists tasting unfinished barrel samples that may not truly reflect the final wine Intermediaries (négociants, shippers) may go out of business before the wine arrives Prices may fall before the wine arrives due to economic conditions or the quality of following vintages

Bordeaux

WINE TOURISM Historically, wine tourism has not been a major feature of the way that Bordeaux has promoted itself. However, the city of Bordeaux has become an important tourist destination that now includes La Cité du Vin, Bordeaux’s wine visitor centre. References 1. Vins de Bordeaux Press Kit 2019, Conseil Interprofessionnel du Vin de Bordeaux (CIVB), p. 5 2. As above, p. 5 3. Quinney, G. 2018, Bordeaux 2017 production figures by appellation–the haves and the have-nots (retrieved 20 March 2020) 4. Quinney, G. 2020, Ch. Bauduc, monthly review, February 2019 (retrieved 20 March 2020) 5. Gabay, E. 2018, Three serious Bordeaux rosés (retrieved 20 March 2020) 6. Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur, CIVB (retrieved 20 March 2020)  7. Pauillac (AOC Pauillac) appellation communale du Médoc (Bordeaux), Dico du Vin. Le dictionnaire du vin en ligne (retrieved 20 March 2020) 8. Clarke, O. 2000, Oz Clarke’s New Essential Wine Book, 3rd edition, Simon and Schuster, p. 45 9. Nos vins, Conseil des Vins de Saint-Émilion (retrieved 20 March 2020) 10. Côtes de Bourg: the appellation, Syndicat des Côtes de Bourg (retrieved 20 June 2020) 11. Vins de Bordeaux Press Kit 2019, CIVB, p 4 12. As above 13. Bordeaux 2020 Press Kit, Vin de Bordeaux, p. 3 14. Johnson, H. and Robinson, J. 2019, The World Atlas of Wine, 8th edition, p. 87 15. Schmitt, P. 2012 (summarising the study of Jean-Michel Valette MW), Pauillac More Costly to Produce Than Sauternes, The Drinks Business (retrieved 20 March 2020) 16. Vins de Bordeaux Press Kit 2019, CIVB, pp. 41 and 46. and Economic Profile, Bordeaux Wines, CIVB, report, May 2019, pp. 3-4 17. Economic Profile, Bordeaux Wines, CIVB, report, May 2019, p. 2 18. J. Anson, The Place de Bordeaux, (retrieved 12 May 2021) 19. Quinney, G. 2014, Bordeaux 2013 yields down 27%, bulk prices up 27% (retrieved 20 March 2020)

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3

Burgundy

e gn gne rgo go ou our eB B l d de na al C a C an

Burgundy is renowned for the quality of its single variety wines, made from Pinot Noir for red wines and Chardonnay for white wines. The wines are regarded as models for many producers and consumers around the world. It has a very long grape growing history going back to Roman times and then the period of the great monasteries (1,000 CE onwards), in which vineyards began to be divided into individually named plots, known as climats. The Burgundy wine region comprises a number of areas: Chablis, the Côte d’Or, the Côte 20 40 60 Km BURGUNDY 00 Chalonnaise and the Mâconnais BURGUNDY 0 10 20 20 40 30 Miles60 Km N 0 10 20 30 Miles N areas further to the south and finally Beaujolais (to which a separate CHABLIS CHABLIS section is devoted). All of these areas, except for Chablis, occupy Chablis a relatively narrow strip of land 47˚30´N Chablis 47˚30´N running approximately in a northR. S south direction between Dijon in the R. Serein Dijon ere in Dijon north and Mâcon, around 130 km to Scale twice main map Scale twice main map the south. The Côte d’Or is divided into the Côte de Nuits, which runs CÔTE DECÔTE NUITS HAUTES DE NUITS south from Dijon to just south of HAUTES CÔTES DE NUITS CÔTES DE NUITS Nuits-Saint-Georges and the Côte CÔTE D’OR CÔTE D’OR de Beaune, which runs south from Beaune HAUTES Beaune HAUTES CÔTES DE BEAUNE 47˚00´N 47˚00´N CÔTE DE CÔTES DE BEAUNE 47˚00´N 47˚00´N there to Santenay. CÔTE DE BEAUNE BEAUNE Plantings in Burgundy Chagny Chagny (excluding Beaujolais) are ChalonChalone dominated by Chardonnay and sur-Saône nttrre e sur-Saône C n duu Ce l Pinot Noir. The wines are produced na d Caanal C CÔTE CHALONNAISE CHALONNAISE at a range of quality levels but are CÔTE mainly good to outstanding and sell for a range of prices from mid-priced to super-premium. Limited supply 46˚30´N 46˚30´N 46˚30´N 46˚30´N and surging worldwide demand mean that average prices are high. MÂCONNAIS MÂCONNAIS FRANCE FRANCE The plantings in the subMâcon Mâcon regions vary markedly: the Yonne département (which includes Chablis) is 80 per cent Chardonnay, BEAUJOLAIS BEAUJOLAIS while the Côte d’Or is over 60 per 1000m+ 500-1000m 200-500m 0-200m 1000m+ 200-500m 0-200m cent Pinot Noir. R. R S.aSa ôn ôn e e

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Burgundy

Burgundy, excluding Beaujolais, percentage of plantings 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Chardonnay

Pinot Noir

Aligoté

Other

Source: BIVB (the ‘Other’ figure includes Gamay and Sauvignon Blanc)1

3.1. Chablis

Chablis is the name of a town and an appellation that lies in the valley of the River Serein in the northern-most part of Burgundy. 110 kilometres northwest of Dijon, it has a slightly cooler climate than the Côte d’Or. It is well-known for wines made with the Chardonnay variety. All the wines are dry, most are medium bodied, medium alcohol, with zesty high acidity, green apple and lemon fruit flavours. The general trend is for no or minimal oak flavour, though fermentation and ageing in oak can be used by some producers for premiers and grands crus. (For the range of styles see below.) There is a range of quality from good to outstanding wines that can be cellared and aged. The prices range from mid-price to premium, with a few superpremium examples, even if generally they do not reach the heights of the most expensive wines from the Côte d’Or. Chablis has experienced major swings in its popularity. In the early nineteenth century it enjoyed a boom due to its relative proximity to Paris. (The département of the Yonne as a whole had 40,000 ha in this period.)2 Plantings in Chablis shrank under the challenges of phylloxera and powdery mildew in the nineteenth century and above all the building of the Paris-Lyons-Marseille railway in the middle of the nineteenth century. After the coming of the railway Chablis could not complete with cheaper wines from the south of France. Rural depopulation after World War I and the devastating frost of 1945 reduced Chablis to a low point of just 500 ha. In more recent decades, demand has led to the land under vine growing back to 5,500ha.3 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate The climate in Chablis is continental with cold winters and warm summers. Because of the cool northern location there is uncertainty about ripening and considerable vintage variation

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from year to year. The early ripening characteristic of Chardonnay is an advantage. Average annual rainfall is 670mm4 but this is spread throughout the year making for a moist climate (high threat of fungal diseases) and difficulties in the period leading to harvest (threat of rot). The region is vulnerable to spring frosts and hail storms during the growing season, both of which have had a severe impact on the region’s yields in recent vintages. The appellation has limestone and clay soils, some of which has a considerable amount of fossilized seashells and is known as Kimmeridgian soil. See further below. The cool, northerly location means vineyards are susceptible to spring frosts. Options for managing this risk are: • •

•

smudge pots: smoky, causes air pollution, requires staff in the vineyard sprinklers (‘aspersion’): this is now the most popular option, though the installation and maintenance costs mean that it is only a realistic option for vineyards with a good return on investment (premiers crus, grand cru) or for well-funded companies pruning choices: later pruning promotes later bud-burst, reducing the chance of damage to the new buds from early spring frosts.

Vineyard Management 41B (vinifera x berlandieri) rootstock is widely used in Chablis as it is highly tolerant of limestone soils with a high pH. 420A (riparia x berlandieri) is popular for its low vigour and tolerance to high pH soils. The double Guyot replacement cane training system is typical: if one cane fails, the other may survive frost. (Taille Chablis, a multi- armed cordon system, is typical of Champagne, not Chablis.) As in other parts of Burgundy, Chablis can be badly hit by hail. For further details see Climate in the Côte d’Or, Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais. Yields are higher than in the Côte d’Or, though recent years have seen severely reduced yields due to frost and hail damage. Unlike in the Côte d’Or, much of Chablis today is machine picked, although the grand cru vineyards are mostly too steep for mechanisation and are generally picked by hand. Location and Soil Types of the Chablis Appellations Petit Chablis – These are typically higher, cooler vineyards, predominantly with Portlandian soils (hard limestone with less clay). Chablis – This is a large area of Kimmeridgian soil and mixed aspects. The vineyards of both Petit Chablis and Chablis are predominantly on flat land or on gentle slopes. The aspects vary with many north- facing sites. This leads to light bodied wines, notable for their high acidity, with light (Petit Chablis) to medium (Chablis) intensity, and green apple and lemon fruit. Chablis Premier Cru – 40 named vineyards have premier cru status and are predominantly on south-and south-east-facing facing slopes of Kimmeridgian soil. Some larger premier cru vineyards have specified named plots (lieux-dits) within them. Wines made from these can be labelled under their specific site (like Chablis Premier Cru Troêsmes) or under the larger climat they fall within (like Chablis Premier Cru Beauroy). (A climat is a named vineyard fixed in AOC

Burgundy

legislation, a lieu-dit is a named piece of land in the centralised land register.)

CHABLIS CHABLIS 0 0

0 0

5 5

2 2

47˚55´N 47˚55´N

10 10

4 4

6 6

15 Km 15 Km 8 8

10 Miles 10 Miles

N N

47˚55´N

nn rerei i SSee

47˚55´N Chablis Grand Cru – There is a single grand cru with seven named PETIT vineyards (known as climats, PETIT CHABLIS CHABLIS including Les Clos and Vaudesir). It is immediately next to the village itself, faces southwest, on the right GRAND GRAND CRU CRU bank of the River Serein, and is 47˚50´N 47˚50´N 47˚50´N 47˚50´N on Kimmeridgian soil. The southChablis Chablis facing slopes promote ripening and the wines have a greater weight and concentration than PREMIERS PREMIERS CRUS CRUS RR. either premier cru of village level . Chablis. The mixture of crumbly marl with good drainage and high 47˚45´N 47˚45´N 47˚45´N clay content for water retention contributes to higher quality. Chablis Grand Cru represents 200-500m 0-200m 200-500m just 1 per cent of the region’s total production.5 As noted, the vineyards of both premier cru and grand cru Chablis are predominantly on south-facing slopes and often sited mid-slope.The slope means that vineyards are better drained and better protected from frost, and the southerly aspect means better light interception and therefore riper fruit. The grand cru vineyards also benefit from shelter from winds coming from the north due to a belt of trees between it and the adjacent Petit Chablis vineyards. As a result, the wines have greater concentration, body and capacity to age.

Chablis Grand Cru.

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Chablis Grand Cru slope.

WINEMAKING The option for chaptalisation up to the legal limit is used regularly in all but the warmest years. Fermentation is typically in stainless steel vessels with storage in stainless steel or concrete for a few months for most wines. Malolactic conversion is common to soften the acidity and the wines may also spend some months on the lees to enhance texture. Oak aromas, flavours, and textures are not typically desirable nor commonly found in most generic Chablis, which is celebrated for its crisp, bright citrus and green apple fruit flavours and high acidity. However, some wines, especially the grands crus and more occasionally the premiers crus, may be fermented and aged in barrels. There is a range of styles from use of old oak (used by, for example, Dauvissat or Raveneau), some new oak (used by, for example, William Fèvre), and the use of stainless steel or concrete for grand cru wines as well (used by, for example, Jean-Marc Brocard). This issue has been controversial as some think that Chablis should not smell or taste of oak, unlike many Chardonnays from around the world. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Only Chardonnay is allowed within the appellation. Maximum yields are restricted to 60 hL/ha for Petit Chablis AOC and Chablis AOC, 58 hL/ha for Chablis Premier Cru AOC and 54 hL/ha for Chablis Grand Cru AOC.

Burgundy

WINE BUSINESS As in the rest of Burgundy, the traditional distinction between négociants (merchants) and domaines (estates) is breaking down as négociants have bought land and some domaines supplement their own production with additional négociant business. One third of all wine is vinified by the co-operative La Chablisienne, which operates at all levels of the appellation hierarchy. As elsewhere, more growers are making and marketing their own wines. There are several associations of wine Market position: How can Chablis succeed when producers in Chablis. William Fèvre founded Le it produces both inexpensive if recognised wine, Syndicat de Défense de l’Appellation de Chablis common in the supermarket and in the hospitality in 1993 with the aims of combating fraud and sector, and top premiers and grand cru? Some addressing environmental issues. L’Union des argue that if anything Chablis Grand Cru is too Grands Crus de Chablis is a voluntary association cheap. Read Tim Atkins MW: Chablis can have its cake and eat it too to promote the quality of Chablis Grand Cru and therefore limited to those who own grand cru sites. It has a quality charter: members must practice sustainable viticulture and harvest by hand. As with the wines of the Côte d’Or, both the name of the domaine and the level of the appellation, can be very important drivers of price. Petit Chablis and Chablis AOC tend to be mid-priced, sometimes premium. Premier cru and grand cru wines usually premium or super premium in price. Wines from certain highly regarded producers such as Francois Raveneau and Vincent Dauvissat sell at extremely high prices. In general prices for Chablis are lower than corresponding wines in the quality hierarchy in the Côte d’Or. Two-thirds of Chablis by volume is exported, with the UK being by far the biggest destination, followed by USA, Japan, Sweden, and Canada.6

3.2.  Côte d’Or, Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate The climate in these parts of Burgundy is moderate continental, Dijon, at the northern end of the Côte d’Or, being around 500 km from the Mediterranean, with cold winters and warm summers. The relatively short summers make early ripening Chardonnay and Pinot Noir suitable varieties. In the Côte d’Or the Morvan hills to the west provide protection from rainfall. The average annual rainfall is around 700 millimetres. Early autumn is typically dry, though rain can be a threat at harvest. The climate of the Mâconnais is typically slightly drier and warmer than the Côte d’Or. Many factors influence the potential quality of individual sites: aspect, altitude, degree of slope and soils. Even though the climate is warmer than it was in previous decades, ripening Pinot Noir is still a precarious business, and a cool vintage can result in under-ripe tannins in the finished wines. Therefore, promoting the ripeness of skins and seeds is a priority for growers in the region. Due to its northerly location, vineyard site and the particular weather of each vintage are incredibly important for both yield and quality. The variability of the weather from year to year leads to marked vintage variation. Frost can be a challenge this far north. Spring frosts, if severe, are a significant problem and may substantially reduce yields if they occur after budburst. The risk is particularly acute as both Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are early budding. For details on the measures that

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growers can take, see Chablis. This issue is further exacerbated by recent warmer than usual winters that encourage earlier growth, making the vines more vulnerable to frost. Hail can be a problem throughout the growing season. In April–May the damage to the early growth of the vine can lead to reduced yields, or even in extreme cases a total loss of the crop. Hail later in the season will lead to fruit damage, particularly to exposed grapes. Unless extra care is taken to eliminate damaged berries there is a risk of grey rot tainting the wine. The use of sorting tables has played a critical role in alleviating such problems. Hail netting was not permitted in the past as it was thought to cause too much shading and appear an inauthentic part of the landscape. However, the limited use of anti-hail netting has been permitted from June 2018. Beyond nets, the most common preventative action is to seed thunderclouds with silver iodide to induce precipitation some distance from the vineyards under threat. Hail tends to be highly localized, but for those impacted the problems that arise from hail damage can be substantial both in winemaking and commercial terms. Villages in the Côte de Beaune, most notably Volnay and Pommard, were particularly badly affected by hail between 2012 and 2015. Rain can be a problem if it falls at the wrong time. Early in the growing cycle it can disrupt flowering and fruit set, lowering yields and leading to uneven ripening. Extended periods of rain during the growing season increase the threat of fungal diseases. Too much rain just before harvest can lead to dilution because of uptake of water by the grapevine and increase the chance of rot. Conversely, drought-stress has also presented a problem in some recent vintages, where hot, dry summers have caused berries to shrivel and sometimes caused vines to shut down completely, causing a halt in ripening. Since irrigation is not permitted, water-stress is a concern for growers in a hot, dry vintage. Vineyards with high clay content cope better with water-stress due to their water-retaining properties. Topography The aspect and elevation of the various vineyards in Burgundy are among the most critical factors determining the style and quality of the wines. The Côte d’Or lies on a range of hills oriented north-south at elevations ranging from around 200 metres above sea level to around 400 metres. Side valleys are oriented in a more east–west direction at various points along the main slope. This means that although the main ridge of the Côte d’Or is basically eastfacing, there are in fact a range of aspects across its vineyards many of which are more southeast or even southerly in aspect. The best sites are mostly found on the mid-slope. They benefit from well-draining shallow soils, good sunlight interception, and comparative frost protection and better ripening potential due to their central position. Vineyards at the very top of the slope can have very poor, thin soil and are exposed to cooling winds, whilst vineyards at the bottom of the slope have deeper soils and are vulnerable to frost. The coolest sites may be planted with Aligoté or used for the production of Crémant de Bourgogne. Aspects are more varied in the Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais. Some of the best southeast facing slopes of the Côte Chalonnaise are found in Bouzeron and Rully. In the Mâconnais, there are a range of sites with the best sites of Pouilly-Fuissé typically on slopes with south-facing aspect.

Burgundy

Corton Grand Cru. Soils In general, the vineyard soils are composed of mixtures of various types of limestones and clay, though the proportions vary. The Côte de Nuits is more dominated by limestone in the mixture. The majority of the most highly regarded Pinot Noir wines is grown here. The Côte de Beaune has more clay and the soils are deeper. The majority of the most highly regarded Chardonnay wines come from this area.7 The soil in the Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais are mixed with a range of limestones and clay. The depth of soil above the bedrock varies significantly, due in part to the movement of soils down the slopes by erosion. This is a source of continuing problems, even in gently sloping vineyards such as the walled Clos de Vougeot. There are thinner soils at higher elevations and deeper ones at the bottom of the slopes. At the top of the slope there is too little soil for vines to thrive. At the bottom of the slope, drainage is poorer, and the soil is deeper with more clay, resulting in greater fertility. In turn this leads to more vigour with an increased danger of shading, a factor that contributes to grapes being less ripe in these areas. GRAPE VARIETIES As noted, the region has effectively only one grape variety of each colour used in the production of quality wines – Chardonnay for white wines and Pinot Noir for the reds. Historically there was a substantial proportion of Aligoté and Gamay grown here until the early part of the twentieth century. Some well-regarded Aligoté is grown in the village of Bouzeron in the Côte Chalonnaise.

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Chardonnay Chardonnay is a versatile variety suited to a range of climates. It buds early and so can be susceptible to spring frosts. It also ripens early making it suitable to grow in a cool region. It can produce relatively high yields without loss of quality. It is, however, prone to grey rot, powdery mildew, millerandage and grapevine yellows. It can be grown in a wide range of soils and climates, resulting in a range of styles. However, many top-quality examples are grown on limestone/clay soils, as in Burgundy. In cool climates, for example in Burgundy, the resulting wines have apple, pear, lemon and lime fruit with wet stone notes, light to medium body and high acidity (Chablis). In more moderate climates, the wines have ripe citrus, melon and stone fruit, medium to medium (+) body, with medium (+) to high acidity (Côte d’Or). In good growing seasons in Burgundy, the main challenge in making high quality wine can be vigour management to avoid excessive yield and shading, which would reduce the quality of the fruit. Pinot Noir Like Chardonnay, Pinot Noir is a variety that buds early, and can therefore be susceptible to spring frosts. It also ripens early making it suitable to grow in cool regions. However, unlike Chardonnay yields must be limited to produce quality wines. It is a delicate variety and prone to millerandage,downy and powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot, and fan leaf and leaf roll viruses. In warm climates, it tends to ripen too fast (reducing the intensity of aromas), and the berries can shrivel and suffer from sunburn. In Burgundy, the concerns are more typically whether the fruit will ripen sufficiently to achieve the desired ripeness (tannins, colour and flavour). Many of the clones used in both red and white Burgundy are drawn from the Dijon clone families developed at the University of Burgundy in Dijon. These clones are now widely used in many wine regions around the world growing Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. As different clones tend to vary in a number of aspects such as yield, disease tolerance, speed of ripening and fruit characteristics, producers must decide whether to plant vineyard plots with a single clone leading to a more uniform fruit profile or plant a mix leading to greater diversity in grape characteristics (whether good or bad) and potentially more resistance to disease. A number of producers choose to propagate their own vines via mass selection. In Burgundy, Pinot Noir typically has strawberry, raspberry and red cherry flavours with village wines and above having light, oak- derived flavours (smoke, clove), low to medium tannins (grand cru wines can have medium (+) tannins), medium alcohol and high acidity. The wines can develop earth, game and mushroom notes with time in bottle. VINEYARD MANAGEMENT Some vines are pruned using Cordon training systems, including Cordon de Royat. This limits vigour and thus yields although the high proportion of old wood can harbour disease. Traditionally vines throughout Burgundy were pruned, trained and trellised using the Guyot system (replacement-cane pruned with VSP). In recent years, many growers have returned to this method as well as an even softer method of cane pruning known as Poussard-Guyot. (This system maintains the same sap route from one year to the next with pruning wounds only on the upper part of the cordon. This reduces the number of pruning wounds and seeks to cut down the incidence of Esca and other trunk diseases.) This method requires skilled vineyard

Burgundy

workers, but it can be hugely helpful in combatting trunk disease, and also aids canopy management during the growing season. Planting densities are typically around 8–10,000 vines per hectare though there are growers who have much higher planting densities. Denser planting is thought to encourage root competition leading to better quality fruit, i.e. smaller berries with higher flavour intensity. As well as through winter pruning choices, growers can manage and reduce yields by debudding (usually before flowering) and green harvesting during the latter part of the growing season. Both de-budding and green harvesting have their advantages and disadvantages. Debudding can promote good balance in the vine, but by reducing the potential yield so early in the season, damage inflicted by hail, frost, or fungal disease can have a drastic effect on yield. Bud rubbing can lead to substantially reduced yields if the subsequent growing conditions are poor or later hailstorms reduce the crop. Green harvesting allows growers to assess the size, shape and position of bunches before they decide to sacrifice any. This decision made relatively late in the season allows growers to take into account unpredictable weather events (especially hail) before taking action. However, it can lead to changes in vine development through compensation via excessive growth in the remaining bunches and a resultant dilution in the grapes. In general, the maximum yields are moderate for regional appellations and reduce steadily through the pyramid of the quality hierarchy. Thus: • • •

regional appellations rise to a maximum of 69 hL/ha (red) and 75 hL/ha (white) village level wines are restricted to 40-45 hL/ha (red) and 45-47 hL/ha (white) some grands crus have maximum yields as low as 35 hL/ha (red) and 40 hL/ha (white).

However, there are wide ranges within the quality levels as the rules for individual appellations can reflect local conditions. Organic and biodynamic grape growing has become more popular,8 especially among leading growers. However, the climate makes this a challenge. Furthermore, many vineyards are shared in Burgundy and some organic practices require a minimum area to be successfully implemented. This can lead to friction between growers who adopt different approaches to grape growing. Grape moths are now typically controlled by the use of pheromone capsules. Common fungal diseases (powdery and downy mildew, botrytis in the form of grey rot) have to be managed through canopy management and spraying. Since a recent outbreak of grapevine yellows,the authorities have become very vigilant in monitoring and attempting to restrict the spread of the problem. Esca (and the other trunk diseases) are also significant problems today. The timing of the harvest in Burgundy is critical given the marginal climate, where storms can lead to dilution and to fruit damage. Judgements have to be made: harvesting early will preserve acidity but the fruit may not be fully ripe, harvesting late can lead to a softer wine style but there may be concerns about the weather. The majority of fruit is still picked by hand and therefore the availability of a workforce to harvest is a major consideration. WINEMAKING White Winemaking Acidification or de-acidification (rarely practised) is permitted within the EU limits. When musts have insufficient sugar to reach the minimum alcohol level required or, more likely, the style

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desired (more alcohol adds to the perceived body of the wine in the mouth), winemakers will chaptalise the must. While in the past chaptalisation was a regular occurrence, with recent warmer growing season temperatures and better canopy management it has become less necessary. The maximum enrichment is +1.5-2%. Almost all grapes in the Côte d’Or are hand harvested, and certainly so for better quality wines. They are sorted, typically on sorting tables, to remove diseased, damaged or underripe fruit, which is especially important for consistent quality in a cool climate. Grapes are typically whole bunch pressed as the inclusion of stems aids drainage of the must. The grapes are usually pressed immediately rather than undergoing a period of skin contact as Chardonnay is not a particularly aromatic grape and most producers try to avoid the risk of extracting tannins. The must for high quality wine is usually clarified by sedimentation. The level of solids remaining in the juice varying depending on the winemaker’s view of the desirability of the flavours they impart. Musts for less expensive wines may be clarified by other, quicker methods. Some producers practice hyperoxidation with the aim of producing a final wine that is less prone to oxidation. This may be in response to the criticism that protecting the must from oxygen during production has contributed to the problem of premature oxidation (see below). Fermentation by ambient yeasts is common practice, although some winemakers will inoculate with cultured yeast, particularly for high- volume regional wines. Ambient yeast usage is far more prevalent at higher classification levels as winemakers believe it encourages terroir expression and are prepared to monitor the fermentation more closely and intervene as necessary (e.g. warming up a sluggish ferment). Fermentation for inexpensive and some mid-priced wines will usually be in stainless steel or concrete vessels. Fermentation temperature for these wines is around 16–18ºC (61–64ºF), to preserve the primary fruit and avoid the banana flavours of cooler temperature fermentation. Wines are aged in the same or in older barrels. More expensive wines (including some of the more expensive Bourgogne Blanc wines from high quality producers) are typically fermented and aged in barrel for a creamier and more rounded style. Fermentation temperatures typically can rise to 20ºC (68ºF) in barrels. These wines are aged for 8–12 months in barrel in contact with the fine lees. If the oak is new, or more likely if a proportion of the barrels is new, then the wine will show oak flavours such as vanilla and clove spice. Wines often see little new oak at regional levels but 20-25 per cent is quite common at village level, 30-50 at premier cru level, and 50 per cent and above at grand cru level (though 100 per cent is not unheard of). The standard oak cask is the 228 litre Burgundy barrel (known as a pièce) but some producers are using larger (500–600 litre) barrels, where the surface-to-volume ratio is lower which results in a subtler impact both of oak flavours and oxidation. When the wine completes alcoholic fermentation, it will usually undergo malolactic conversion. If the desired style is for a fresher character, a proportion of the wine can have the malolactic conversion blocked. Malolactic conversion can be carried out in neutral vessels or in oak. During its maturation wine may be stirred once or several times to agitate the lees (bâtonnage), a process thought to reduce any reductive flavours and add some creamier texture. White wines are more often filtered in Burgundy than red wines as any cloudiness is easily visible to the consumer.

Burgundy

PREMATURE OXIDATION In the early 2000s, reports began to emerge that the wines (particularly those from 1996 and subsequent vintages) were showing very advanced flavours and colours after a relatively short period of time in bottle. This phenomenon was termed ‘premature oxidation’ or ‘premox’. Multiple causes of the problem have been suggested including changes in vineyard practices leading to higher yields and different chemical composition of the grapes, warmer vintages or later picking times, the use of over-clean musts resulting from the use of pneumatic presses, overzealous bâtonnage, lower levels of sulphur dioxide at bottling and both the quality of corks and changes in cork treatment before use. The problem remains though it appears from many reports to be at much lower levels than it was for wines produced in the late 1990s. Many producers have modified their practices to try to minimise the risk. This problem is not confined to the white Burgundy category and has been reported in other white wines.

Red Winemaking Due to its delicate character, aromatic nature and relatively light tannins, Pinot Noir has to be vinified carefully. Important aims are to maintain the primary fruit and not to overwhelm the delicate fruit with too much new oak flavour. Sorting of the fruit is common for all but the least expensive wines; needed especially when rot or hail has been an issue. The grapes may either be loaded into the fermentation vessel as whole bunches or destemmed beforehand. Pinot Noir is well suited to whole bunch fermentation, and many producers in Burgundy practice this. It had been the historical norm before the invention of the destemmer, but during the 1980s the influence of one winemaker, Henri Jayer, who favoured destemmed fruit, brought about a major change in attitude in Burgundy, and many quality-minded producers followed where Jayer lead. In recent years, however, the popularity of whole bunch fermentation has re-emerged. Proponents of the use of whole bunches say they aid aeration of the must and can add perfume, freshness, and fine tannins to the wine. If the stems are unripe, however, green astringent tannins can be extracted. The resulting lower acidity would not be welcome in warm vintages. Some producers use a proportion of whole bunches, depending on the vineyard and depending on the vintage. Pinot Noir is low in anthocyanins compared to many other black grape varieties and therefore cold soaking for a few hours to a few days is common to maximise the extraction of colour. Most producers rely on ambient yeast in the winery to ferment their Pinot Noir. Fermentation usually takes place in small open-top vessels. This design helps to facilitates the two most commonly used cap management techniques: pumping over (remontage) and punching down (pigéage). It is important for the cap to be regularly broken up during fermentation to introduce oxygen (essential for yeast metabolism), avoid reduction and the production of reductive sulfur compounds (Pinot Noir is prone to reduction), avoid the production of acetic acid, to extract colour, tannin and flavour from the skins, and to regulate

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Fermentation tanks for red wines. temperature in the must (which reaches around 30°C/86°F in a healthy ferment). Most producers will use a combination of the two methods of pumping over and punching down. The length of post-fermentation maceration depends on the ripeness of the fruit and the style of wine to be made, with longer periods (2–3 weeks) for wines of more concentration and structure.

Maturation in small barrels.

Burgundy

The wines are pressed off either in horizontal pneumatic presses or vertical basket presses. Free run wine and press wine are often kept separately but may be blended back together before bottling. The wine is typically racked into oak barrels (228 L) for maturation. Ageing periods of 12–20 months are common for premium and super-premium wines, whereas less expensive wines may be aged for less than one year. The proportion of new oak varies widely across the region and producer style, with a higher proportion used in grands and premiers crus than in village or generic-appellation wines. Attitudes to new oak are too diverse to generalise upon, and the two extremes of no new oak and 100 per cent new oak, as well as everything in between, can be found practiced amongst the region’s finest domaines. Malolactic conversion is usually spontaneous and takes place in the spring following harvest, as the cellars begin to warm up again after the cold winter. Mid-priced wines may be fined and lightly filtered before bottling, but many higher-level wines may not be. VINEYARD CLASSIFICATION As with many areas of France, the vineyards of Burgundy have been classified and delineated, but the degree of classification is on a far more detailed scale than in other parts of France. Although the medieval monks began the story of Burgundy’s delineation, much of the current classification was formalised in the 1930s, which categorised all the lieux-dits (named places) into a four-tier hierarchy. The classifications are based on such factors as soil, aspect and microclimate. In brief, they are a classification of terroir. There is a four-tier hierarchy in the Côte d’Or: •

• • •

regional or generic appellations (e.g. Bourgogne AOC, Bourgogne Hautes Côtes de Beaune AOC). An additional regional appellation, Bourgogne Côte d’Or, was introduced in 2017 communal or village appellations (e.g. Meursault AOC, Gevrey-Chambertin AOC) premier cru (e.g. Pommard Premier Cru Les Rugiens AOC, Vosne Romanée Premier Cru Aux Malconsorts AOC) grand cru (e.g. Richebourg Grand Cru AOC, Bâtard-Montrachet Grand Cru AOC. (Note, for grand cru wines in the Côte d’Or, the labelling term is the name of the grand cru; the related village name does not appear.)

In terms of volume of production, the percentages are: one per cent grand cru, 47 per cent village and premier cru, and 52 per cent regional appellations.9 In the Côte Chalonnaise, the classification stops at premier cru. The Mâconnais is in the final stages of formalising premier cru status for some of its vineyards. Across Burgundy, excluding Beaujolais, there are 84 appellations, including 33 grands crus, 44 village appellations and 7 regional appellations. Each grand cru of the Côte d’Or is an appellation in its own right (whereas in Chablis the climats are all part of one appellation, Chablis Grand Cru). However, the region’s 640 premiers crus are additional geographical denominations related to a village, not appellations in their own right. If the wine comes from more than one premier cru vineyard, it is labelled simply as Village + Premier Cru without a vineyard name.

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Le Montrachet Grand Cru. Many of the appellations can be followed by an additional geographical denomination. Examples include: • • • •

regional appellation plus additional geographical denomination that can be a general area (e.g. Bourgogne Hautes-Côtes de Beaune AOC) or a village (e.g. Bourgogne Chitry AOC) village appellation followed by the name of a premier cru vineyard, e.g. Meursault Perrières AOC Mâcon + village name, e.g. Mâcon Verzé AOC Grand cru vineyard plus additional geographical denomination referring to a climat, e.g. Chablis Grand Cru Valmur AOC or Corton-Les Bressandes Grand Cru AOC.

Some appellations, even at the grand cru level, are much larger than others. For example, Clos de Vougeot Grand Cru is slightly over 50 hectares whereas the nearby Musigny Grand Cru is 10 hectares and many other grands crus vineyards are much smaller, with the smallest, La Romanée Grand Cru, being just 0.84 hectares. The classification system itself is not a guarantee of quality. As a result of Napoleonic inheritance laws, the majority of vineyards in the Côte d’Or are owned by more than one domaine and hence the range of quality of the wines from even a small appellation depends as much upon the reputation and skill of the domaine as the reputation of the vineyard. As a result of its size, the wines of Clos de Vougeot are often said to show marked differences between those made from fruit of the middle or top sections of the vineyard (steeper slope, poorer soils) and those from the lowest section (flatter, richer soils). However, all such wines will only say Clos de Vougeot on their labels.

Burgundy

The Côte d’Or and the Hautes Côtes

CÔTE D’OR 00 00

10 10

20 20 Km Km

55

10 10 Miles Miles

e oggnne oouurrggo B e B d l CCaannaal de

Dijon Dijon

Marsannay Marsannay

N

Fixin Fixin

Gevrey-Chambertin Gevrey-Chambertin

Grands Grands Crus Crus CÔTE DE CÔTE DE NUITS NUITS

MoreyMoreySt-Denis St-Denis

Chambolle-Musigny Chambolle-Musigny

HAUTES HAUTES CÔTES CÔTES DE DE NUITS NUITS

Vougeot Vougeot VosneVosneRomanée Romanée

CÔTE CÔTE DE DE BEAUNE BEAUNE HAUTES HAUTES CÔTES CÔTES DE DE BEAUNE BEAUNE

NuitsNuitsSt-Georges St-Georges

BOURGOGNE BOURGOGNE

Aloxe-Corton Aloxe-Corton

47˚N 47˚N

Beaune Beaune

Auxey-Duresses Auxey-Duresses St-Romain St-Romain

Beaune Beaune Pommard Pommard Volnay Volnay

St-Aubin St-Aubin

Santenay Santenay

Meursault Meursault Puligny-Montrachet Puligny-Montrachet Chassagne-Montrachet Chassagne-Montrachet

Chagny Chagny CÔTE CÔTE CHALONNAISE CHALONNAISE

CCa anna alld duuC Ceen nttrre e

47˚N 47˚N

FRANCE aônnee RR..SSaô

500-1000m 500-1000m 200-500m 200-500m

In general, in the Côte d’Or, the classification reflects the location of vineyards, including their position on the slope. The flat land beyond the top of the slope of the Côte d’Or comes under generic appellations such as Hautes Côtes de Beaune and Hautes Côtes de Nuits. Here the slightly higher altitude, the lack of protection from prevailing weather, poorer sunlight interception and richer soils encouraging vine vigour mean these wines are less concentrated and structured than those in the Côte d’Or, and can struggle to ripen in cooler years. Grands crus are found in the mid-slope with premiers crus often surrounding them. Here, full ripeness can be achieved even in the cooler years.The mid-slope has poor but adequate, shallow soils, good drainage, protection from the prevailing weather systems and good sunlight interception, all of which, in capable winemaking hands, contribute to producing wines with concentration, balance and length. The lowest part of the slope is typically village level. Here the soils are richer and less well drained, and fruit does not reach the same level of ripeness, but can still produce wines of very good quality and character.

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The flat land at the bottom of the slope is typically classified as the generic appellation, Bourgogne. The D974 road, from Dijon through and beyond Beaune, generally divides the village level above it from the generic appellation below it. Principal Appellations in the Côtes de Nuits This area specialises in Pinot Noir, boasting some of the region’s most celebrated grands and premiers crus. A small amount of white wine is also made. The hyphenated names of the villages celebrate the grand cru vineyard connected to the village (e.g. the village of GevreyChambertin is the home of Chambertin Grand Cru). The most important villages (from north to south) are: Gevrey-Chambertin AOC – Red wine only. It is the largest village in the Côte de Nuits. Its grands crus also include Charmes Chambertin AOC and Chambertin Clos de Bèze AOC. Morey-Saint-Denis AOC – Almost exclusively red wine. Its grands crus include Clos de Tart AOC and Clos de la Roche AOC. Chambolle-Musigny AOC – Red wines only for the village wine. Its grands crus include Bonnes Mares and Musigny AOC. Vougeot AOC – This is a tiny village appellation for red and white wines. Its grands cru is called Clos de Vougeot AOC and is much larger than the village appellation. Vosne-Romanée AOC – Red wine only. Its grands crus include a number of the most famous grands crus, including La Tâche AOC and Romanée-Conti AOC. Nuits-Saint-Georges AOC – Almost exclusively red wines. There are no grands crus but there are important premiers crus such as Les Saint-Georges and Les Vaucrains. As demand and prices have risen and skill in grape growing and winemaking has increased, focus has also turned to the other villages for more accessibly priced wines: e.g. Marsannay (more red or rosé than white) and Fixin (mainly red). Principal Appellations in the Côte de Beaune The Côte de Beaune is the most important area for white wine, though red wine is made and there is one grand cru for red wine. The most important villages (from north to south) are as follows. Aloxe-Corton AOC, Pernand-Vergelesses AOC and Ladoix-Serrigny AOC – these three villages cluster round the hill of Corton. Whilst the villages and their premiers crus mostly produce red wines, the hill’s most famous vineyard, Corton Charlemagne Grand Cru AOC is exclusively white. The substantial Corton Grand Cru AOC has many lieux-dits within it. It is mostly planted with Pinot Noir, but can produce Chardonnay. The villages of Beaune, Pommard, Volnay, Meursault and Saint-Aubin have no grands crus but many important premiers crus.

Burgundy

Beaune AOC – Predominantly red wines but white wines are made too. Leading premiers crus include Le Clos des Mouches and Les Grèves. Pommard AOC – Red wines only, the most prestigious premiers crus include Les Rugiens and Clos des Épeneaux. Volnay AOC – Red wines only, sought-after premiers crus include Clos des Chênes and Les Caillerets. Meursault AOC – Mostly white wines with well-known premiers crus including Perrières and Genevrières. Puligny-Montrachet AOC and Chassagne-Montrachet AOC – Virtually all Puligny-Montrachet wines are white. Chassagne-Montrachet produces more white wine than red. Between them stretch the most celebrated white grands crus of Burgundy, including Le Montrachet AOC and Bâtard-Montrachet AOC. Saint-Aubin AOC – Mostly white wines. Leading premiers crus include Sur le Sentier du Clou and En Remilly. As in the Côtes de Nuits, the next tier of village appellations has also become sought after including St Romain AOC (mainly white), Auxey-Duresses AOC (mainly red), and Santenay AOC (mainly red). The Côte Chalonnaise The region produces more red than white wine. Its regional Bourgogne Côte Chalonnaise AOC wines can offer good value and are frequently labelled simply as Bourgogne AOC. Its village and premier cru wines have risen in quality in recent years and can offer excellent value for money when compared to their Côte d’Or neighbours. There is a substantial number of sites classified as premier cru, but no grand cru. The premiers crus tend to be on the warmest, south-, south-east and east-facing slopes (good sunlight interception) with welldrained limestone soils, producing riper fruit and wines of higher quality. Bouzeron AOC – Wines bearing this appellation must be 100 per cent Aligoté, and this village is respected as the finest region for Burgundy’s second white grape. Rully AOC – Rully produces more white wines than reds, with premiers crus for both. Just over a quarter of the appellation is premier cru. It is an important area for grapes destined for Crémant de Bourgogne. Mercurey AOC – The largest producer of the communal appellations in the Côte Chalonnaise, producing significantly more red wine than white wine. Around a quarter of the vineyard area is classified as premier cru. Givry AOC – Mostly red wines, over 40 per cent premier cru. Montagny AOC – White wines only. Two-thirds is classified as premier cru.

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CÔTE CÔTE BEAUNE DE DE BEAUNE BOUZERON BOUZERON

Chagny Chagny RULLY RULLY

re re nt nt

Ca n Ca al d na u C ld e uC e

50

MERCUREY MERCUREY

CÔTE CÔTE CHALONNAISE CHALONNAISE

CÔTE CÔTE CHALONNAISE CHALONNAISE MÂCONNAIS &&MÂCONNAIS 0

0

0

0

10 10

20 20

10 10

30 Km 30 Km

NN

20 Miles 20 Miles

GIVRY GIVRY

ChalonChalonsur-Saône sur-Saône aône R. S e aôn R. S

MONTAGNY MONTAGNY

Tournus Tournus

46˚30´N 46˚30´N

46˚30´N 46˚30´N VIRÉ-CLESSÉ VIRÉ-CLESSÉ

MÂCONNAIS MÂCONNAIS POUILLYPOUILLYFUISSÉ FUISSÉ SAINTSAINTVERAN VERAN

Mâcon Mâcon

FRANCE FRANCE

POUILLY-LOCHÉ POUILLY-LOCHÉ

500-1000m 500-1000m 200-500m 200-500m

POUILLY-VINZELLES POUILLY-VINZELLES

MÂCON MÂCON BEAUJOLAIS BEAUJOLAIS

MÂCON-VILLAGES MÂCON-VILLAGES

The Mâconnais This region produces mostly white wines. Inexpensive regional wines are often labelled simply as Bourgogne AOC. The appellations in the Mâcon region are, in approximate order of quality (rising in quality and decreasing in size going from first to last): Mâcon AOC – predominantly red (or rosé) wines, with a small amount of white Mâcon-Villages and Mâcon-plus named village (e.g. Mâcon-Lugny, Mâcon-Solutré) – white wines only Named village appellations – Pouilly-Fuissé AOC, Saint-Véran AOC and Viré-Clessé AOC (along with the much smaller Pouilly- Vinzelles AOC, Pouilly-Loché AOC) are currently the only separate appellations in the Mâconnais, though more may be added. Wines from these

Burgundy

Solutré-Pouilly, Mâconnais. appellations, especially Pouilly-Fuissé, may attain a higher quality than Macon-Villages. For example, grapes can ripen more fully in the amphitheatre of Fuissé due to better sunlight interception and good drainage. In 2020, Premier Cru status was awarded to 22 climats in Pouilly-Fuissé.10 Appellations, Vineyards and Wine Style Some of the characteristics of the wines from the individual villages or groups of villages are due to the natural factors already discussed. Thus, the village of Marsannay at the northern end of the Côte de Nuits is cooler than the rest of the Côte d’Or as the slope is gentler and there is less protection from cold winds coming from the south-west. This is reflected in the fact that it is the only village on the Côte d’Or that includes the option for a rosé within the appellation and that produces white, rosé and red wines. Similarly, the neighbouring village of Fixin typically produces red wines with very fresh red fruit and a light body. Protection from the west is at its highest from Gevrey-Chambertin to Nuits-Saint-Georges and slightly higher alcohols and greater ripeness are seen here. Most of the red grands crus are positioned here. The differences in appellations are subtle but consistent. For example in red wines, typically Volnay and Chambolle-Musigny are fruitier and more fragrant whereas Pommard and Gevrey-Chambertin are fuller bodied. Similarly, in white wines, Puligny-Montrachet is typically more floral and concentrated while Meursault is full bodied and powerful. However,

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the reasons for these subtle differences are not clear. In all the appellations, winemaking decisions can affect style markedly. For example, whether new oak is used or not or, in white winemaking, to what extent the wine is subject to bâtonnage, and in red wine making, the use of whole bunches. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS These have been covered in Winemaking and Vineyard Classification. WINE BUSINESS The Burgundy wine trade is complex. Historically much of the trade went through large négociants who would buy grapes, must, or finished wine from other growers. Since the 1980s there has been a move towards more domaine bottling. However, there are still a number of very well-known and well-regarded négociants many of whom date back to the nineteenth century, including Albert Bichot, Joseph Drouhin, Faiveley, Louis Jadot and Bouchard Père et Fils. The 2000s has also seen the rise of domaines who also act as négociants such Dujac. Like others, Dujac bottles wine made from their own vineyards as Domaine Dujac and wine from purchased fruit or bought in wine simply as Dujac Fils et Père. There are several different types of organisation: •

• • •

•

growers – businesses that have vineyard holdings and sell their grapes or unfinished wines to négociants. There are several thousand growers and typically their holdings are divided in parcels in different vineyards and villages. domaines – businesses that own vineyards and make wine from them, which they sell under their own domaine label négociants – typically large businesses that buy grapes and/or wines, finish them and bottle them for sale under their own name micro-négociants – smaller businesses that buy grapes from very good to top quality vineyards, make the wines and sell them under their own name, for example, Benjamin Leroux. co-operatives – these businesses are less important in the Côte d’Or but have a more predominant role in Chablis (La Chablisienne), the Mâconnais (e.g. the Cave de Lugny), and, to a lesser extent, in the Côte Chalonnaise.

Even at the level of the domaine there is the complexity of multiple producers with very similar names. Detailed knowledge is needed to identify the source of a particular wine. This is at least in part a consequence of the inheritance laws in France where all children have the status of equal inheritors of an estate. One factor that has led to a significant rise in quality is that there are now many young winemakers who are both better trained technically and who have often travelled and made wine more widely. These factors have led to a more adaptable and open-minded approach to winemaking. The route to market may thus be as simple as from a producer direct to an end consumer via cellar door sales or it could be via a négociant or a co-operative and thence on through the distribution chain until it reaches the end consumer. Direct to consumer sales are on the increase as are those direct from producers to final retailers. Around 50 per cent of all

Burgundy

Burgundy is sold in France, 25 per cent in the other EU states and 25 per cent outside the EU. The largest export markets by value are the USA, UK and Japan.11 Both the name of the domaine and of the appellation, including the single vineyard names, are very important drivers of price in Burgundy. Very well regarded domaines can fetch high prices for their village wines, for example, a super-premium price for Domaine Armand Rousseau Gevrey-Chambertin AOC, and can easily out-price premiers crus from the same village by different, lesser-known producers. Village names also act as indicators of subtle style differences in both red and white wines. Thus, both those who sell the wines and consumers will talk about the elegance and intensely perfumed nature of the red wines from Volnay or the more robust, tannic wines of Pommard. Similarly, premier and grand cru single-vineyard wines are sold on the reputation for a particular stylistic feature. For example, a comparison might be drawn between two of the premiers crus in Meursault, the steely concentration of Perrières and the full body and approachable style of Charmes. The wines may be sold en primeur (for more details see the section on Merchants in D2: Wine Business), in specialist wine shops and in fine dining and, at generic and village level, more generally in supermarkets and in the hospitality sector. Land prices in Burgundy have been increasing over recent years driven in part by the relative scarcity of supply, particularly of the more highly sought-after vineyard names. As in other regions, foreign buyers of wine businesses have added to pressure on land prices. High land prices, along with increasing worldwide demand for a relatively small production and the dramatic differences in volumes produced due to weather hazards has meant that prices have increased substantially since the mid-2000s. Total production is approximately one quarter of that in Bordeaux. Similarly, Domaine de la Romanée-Conti, the producer of Burgundy’s most sought-after red wines, produces roughly a quarter of the volume of Château Lafite Rothschild’s Grand Vin in Bordeaux. Increased interest in the most expensive Burgundy has led to steeply increased prices in wines being traded on the secondary market. The Liv-ex Burgundy 150 Index shows that prices rose by 200 per cent between 2003 and 2016.12 References 1. Key figures for the Bourgogne wine region (retrieved 14 April 2020) 2. Chablis, Oxford Companion to Wine, 4th edition 3. As above 4. Climate Chablis, Climate-Data.org (retrieved 20 March 2020) 5. 2018 data. Pure Chablis, press kit 2018/2019, BIVB (retrieved 20 March 2020) 6. As above 7. Fanet, J., 2004, Great Wine Terroirs, Berkeley, University of California Press, pp. 45, 48. 8. 2,626 ha in Burgundy are certified organic, 2016 data. Dossier de presse Millésime Bio 2018, p. 11 (retrieved 20 March 2020) 9. Press Pack March 2018 Grands Jours de Bourgogne, BIVB p. 39 (retrieved 8 April 2020) 10. Sanderson, B. 2018, Manifest Destiny, Wine Spectator (retrieved 20 March 2020) 11. Press Pack March 2018 Grands Jours de Bourgogne, BIVB p. 39 (retrieved 8 April 2020) 12. Baker, N. 2016, Liv-Ex Update: the Price of Rare Burgundy, The Drinks Business (retrieved 20 March 2019)

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4

Beaujolais

The Beaujolais region lies immediately south of the Mâconnais in eastern France and is considered part of greater Burgundy. It produces a large quantity of wine (similar in volume to the rest of Burgundy put together), virtually all of it from the Gamay variety, which accounts for 98 per cent of the grapes planted. A tiny amount of rosé is made from Gamay, as is white wine, mainly from Chardonnay.

4.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE AND SOILS Beaujolais has a continental climate, slightly warmer than the rest of Burgundy. There is normally adequate rainfall for grape growing (740 mm per year).1 The Saone River acts as a moderator of extreme temperatures. The region is subject to cold Mistral winds that can affect flowering in cold, damp early summer weather. It can also damage leaves and grapes towards the end of the ripening period when Gamay’s naturally thin skins are at their most vulnerable. Vine orientation and training low to the ground are very important to reduce these effects. The northern part of the region (where both Beaujolais Cru AOCs and Beaujolais-Villages AOC are found) is hilly (200–500 m) and has fast-draining granite, schist and sandy soils. Here the vineyards are situated on south and south-east facing slopes, for maximum exposure to the sun. As a result, the harvest is earlier than for Beaujolais AOC wines that typically come from the flatter southern part of the region where the soils are richer. GRAPE VARIETIES AND VINEYARD MANAGEMENT Gamay Noir Gamay Noir is early budding, making it susceptible to spring frost. As stated, it is vulnerable to millerandage in cold, damp and windy conditions, which can reduce yields. Its thin delicate skin is vulnerable to rot and, as stated, to wind. It is early ripening, and can usually be picked before autumn rains arrive. For the characteristics of wines made from Gamay, see Beaujolais-Villages. Gamay wines in Beaujolais express different nuances depending on the topography and soil of the site, giving wines of varying levels of tannins and fruitiness. The difference mainly relates to the ripeness of the grapes, including skins and seeds. Grapes grown on slopes with very good drainage, sites with very good sunlight interception and warm granite soils can create intense fruit character compared to the green leafy character often seen in less-ripe examples. Gamay is a productive grape and yields need to be controlled for it to produce concentrated, ripe grapes. Reducing the number of buds helps to restrain the high fertility of the Gamay variety. Traditionally vines were trained as bushes (giving some protection from the wind) and this is still the case on the steeper slopes. However, increasingly and where possible, vines are trained on trellises to aid mechanisation, especially where the aim is to make inexpensive wines.

Beaujolais

Gamay pre-véralson.

Bush-trained Gamay.

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Most Gamay grapes are picked by hand because whole bunches are required for the most common form of winemaking in the region. Chardonnay Chardonnay is usually found in the area in the north of Beaujolais bordering the Mâcon Villages appellation. It does best on cooler marl or limestone soils that slow down ripening, preserving acidity. There is a lively interest in sustainable and organic viticulture in the region and the association Terra Vitis®, now with associations in other French regions, was founded in Beaujolais.

4.2. Winemaking

The majority of Beaujolais is made by semi-carbonic maceration (see section on Whole Berry/ Bunch Fermentations in D1: Wine Production). Chaptalisation is common, particularly in the cooler years. Total maceration time on the skins is 4–5 days for Beaujolais and BeaujolaisVillages (on Beaujolais Nouveau, see below). The aim is to enhance the fruitiness of the wine and the depth of colour in order to make a wine for early consumption. Press wine is blended with free-run wine as it gives added colour and tannins. These wines are typically aged briefly in stainless steel and released for early sale, reducing production costs. In addition to red fruit, they have the characteristic kirsch, banana and blueberry aromas typical of the method. Very good quality Beaujolais-Villages may be macerated for 6–9 days for wines of greater concentration. Cru Beaujolais wines (see Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations below) may be made in this way with extended maceration time (10–20 days). Alternatively, grapes may be destemmed and crushed, followed by fermentation and maceration on the skins like most red wines. These wines may be aged in small or large barrels with a small percentage of new oak, raising production costs. Wines made in this way are sometimes referred to as Burgundian in style. The wines are becoming deeper in colour and more full bodied with higher levels of tannin than wines made by semi-carbonic maceration. As with the interest in sustainable and organic grape growing, the region has become a centre for low intervention winemaking. The pioneers of France’s natural wine movement, négociant Jules Chauvet and winemaker Marcel Lapierre, were from the region.

4.3.  Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations

BEAUJOLAIS NOUVEAU This is a category of red wine within AOC regulations and the wines can be labelled Beaujolais Nouveau AOC or Beaujolais-Villages Nouveau AOC depending on where the fruit is grown. (Primeur is an alternative designation, an authorised synonym, for Nouveau). According to French wine law, the earliest any AOC wines can normally be sold is 15th December, though most individual AOCs in France require longer ageing. By contrast, an exception was made for Nouveau styled wines that can be sold earlier from the third Thursday in November. The wines are made by carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration. They are bottled 3–5 days after fermentation has finished. Some wines go through malolactic conversion; others do not. Fining and sterile filtration are common as is a moderate to high use of SO2. This is particularly

Beaujolais

BEAUJOLAIS

MÂCONNAIS MÂCONNAIS Mâcon Mâcon

Juliénas Juliénas 10 10

20 20 Km Km 10 10 Miles Miles

N N

Chénas Chénas MoulinMoulinà-Vent à-Vent

Chiroubles Chiroubles

Beaujolais Beaujolais Crus Crus

FRANCE

Morgon Morgon Régnié Régnié Brouilly

AA66

00

SaintSaintAmour Amour

Fleurie Fleurie

RR. .S Saaô ônne e

00

Côte de de Brouilly Brouilly Côte

BEAUJOLAISBEAUJOLAIS VILLAGES 46˚N 46˚N

VillefrancheVillefranchesur-Saône

46˚N 46˚N

BEAUJOLAIS BEAUJOLAIS 1000m+ 1000m+ 500-1000m 500-1000m A6

200-500m 200-500m

Lyon Lyon

ee hhôônn RR..RR

important if malolactic conversion has not taken place to ensure that it is does not happen later in the bottle. BEAUJOLAIS AOC This is the regional appellation covering the whole area but, in practice, the vineyards are in the south of the region as those in the north of the region are in the Beaujolais-Villages area. The maximum yield for red wine is 60 hL/ha, resulting in some wines of low flavour intensity. Wines can be sold from mid-January of the year after harvest, as they are made in a fresh and fruity style. The wines are good quality and inexpensive in price. BEAUJOLAIS-VILLAGES AOC As described, these are typically better quality wines than Beaujolais AOC due to higher levels of ripeness achieved in the northern half of Beaujolais. The maximum yield for red wine is only marginally lower at 58 hL/ha. An individual village name may be put on the label if grapes are sourced from that village but usually the wine is labelled as Beaujolais-Villages. This appellation sits alongside the ten single cru AOCs.

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The wines are typically purple in colour with medium intensity fresh red cherry, raspberry, red plum fruit (often with the kirsch and banana aromas typical of semi-carbonic maceration), medium (+) to high acidity, light to medium (–) body, medium alcohol and light to medium tannins. They are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Some top producers, often working organically with old vines, make low intervention wines that also may be aged in oak. These wines are medium (+) to pronounced intensity in aromas and flavours with medium tannins. The wines are typically very good to outstanding in quality and are premium and (for Beaujolais Crus) super-premium priced. BEAUJOLAIS CRUS In total, there are ten individual crus with their own AOCs in the northern part of the region, for red wines only. They range in size from 250–1,300 ha. (Two of the crus, Brouilly and Morgon, are significantly larger than the other crus.) Some crus have reputations for particular styles of wine: Brouilly AOC – the most southern and marginally warmer area, producing wines in a lighter, more perfumed style Chiroubles AOC – This is the cru at the highest altitude that produces lighter and fragrant wines with marked acidity. Fleurie AOC – The southern part of this cru has sandy soils producing lighter and more fragrant wine (which is the reputation of the appellation), while towards the north, next to Moulin-à-Vent where the soils have more clay, the wines become heavier, have lower acidity and are more full-bodied.

Morgon, Côte de Py.

Beaujolais

Moulin-à-Vent AOC – This appellation produces the most powerful and long-lived wines, closer in style to Côte d’Or red wines than to most other Beaujolais. Morgon AOC – This includes wines from fruit grown on the south-facing Côte de Py vineyard, part of appellation, that tend to have pronounced intensity black cherry fruit alongside red fruit, and sufficient tannins to age for a decade in bottle. The other crus are Saint-Amour AOC, Juliénas AOC, Régnié AOC, Côte-de-Brouilly AOC and Chénas AOC. As noted, some vineyards within the crus have particularly high reputations for quality and ageability. As land prices are cheaper in Beaujolais than in the Côte d’Or the region has attracted investment from Burgundy growers looking to diversify. This has helped drive quality in the region and encouraged the trend away from carbonic maceration and the increased use of oak, especially in the Beaujolais Crus.

4.4.  Wine Business

Average size of holdings is 10 hectares with many growers selling to co-operatives (responsible for 25 per cent of sales)2 or négociants. 60 per cent of Beaujolais is sold in France and 40 per cent is exported. In France, the most important channels are direct sales and specialist wine shops, followed by supermarkets and the hospitality sector. The top three export markets make up more than 60 per cent of the export sales. They are Japan (with a huge preference for the Nouveau style), USA and UK (with a preference for Villages and Crus).3 As prices for Burgundian Pinot Noir have risen, buyers’ attention has turned to Beaujolais Cru wines as a lower priced alternative in a similar style. Important producers include the négociant George Duboeuf who, from 1964 on, promoted Beaujolais Nouveau, creating new markets in France and around the world. (Increases in sales of standard Beaujolais and the Crus then followed.) In the second half of the twentieth century, the release of Beaujolais Nouveau became a wine festival and media event and the wine became hugely popular in France, the UK and especially Japan. Around a quarter of all Beaujolais is made as Nouveau.4 More recently, Beaujolais and especially the Crus have gained a following among sommeliers and wine lovers, especially in the USA, with prices now reaching premium and super-premium levels. References 1. Beaujolais, Expressions of a vineyard, Press Kit 2018–19, InterBeaujolais, p. 11 (retrieved 8 April 2020 no longer publicly available) 2. As above, p. 38 3. The International Market for Beaujolais, InterBeaujolas (retrieved 23 March 2020 no longer publicly available) 4. Beaujolais, Expressions of a vineyard, Press Kit 2018–19, InterBeaujolais, p. 32 (retrieved 8 April 2020)

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5

Alsace

Alsace is located in north-eastern France. Despite its northerly location it has a warm, sunny and unusually dry climate due to the protection of the Vosges mountains to the west. The region produces mainly white wine (90 per cent),1 overwhelmingly from single grape varieties and unoaked. The wines of the region reflect the frequent changes in recent centuries in which control of Alsace has passed between Germany and France. The German influence can be seen in the importance of single variety wines made from aromatic varieties (Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Muscat), alongside less aromatic varieties such as Pinot Gris. In the twentieth century, up to the second world war, the region acted as a source of inexpensive wine made from grapes grown on the flatter land. Alsace finally returned to France in 1945 and at that point adopted the AOC system. The hillside slopes that had a reputation for high quality in the past, but had been neglected when the demand was for inexpensive wines, have been partially replanted since the 1960s. In the last decade, the area planted for still wines has reduced slightly while the amount planted for Crémant d’Alsace has grown.

Vineyards in the valley and on slopes.

Alsace

5.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE The northerly latitude results in a long, growing season and Alsace’s location inland gives a continental climate with cold winters and warm, sunny summers. Westerly winds carry rain clouds but much of the rain falls on the western side of the Vosges Mountains. As a result, Alsace on the eastern side has only around 600 mm of rain per year, less than half the rainfall in comparison to the other side of the mountains. Moderate rainfall means that summer drought can be an issue and currently irrigation is not permitted for AOC wines. However, the rain is spread throughout the year with wettest months in summer (August) and the driest normally during harvest (September and October). Therefore, there can be issues at key times

Strasbourg Strasbourg 48˚30´N 48˚30´N

48˚30´N 48˚30´N

R.RIl . lIll

VVoos g s geess

Sélestat Sélestat

Colmar Colmar

48˚00´N 48˚00´N

R.R R. hRi hniene

MMoou unnt a t ai ni ns s

FRANCE FRANCE

GERMANY GERMANY 48˚00´N 48˚00´N

Mulhouse Mulhouse 1000m+ 1000m+

ALSACE ALSACE 0 0 0 0

10 10

20 20 10 10

30 30 20 20

500-1000m 500-1000m 200-500m 200-500m 40 40

50 Km 50 Km 30 Miles 30 Miles

N N

47˚30´N 47˚30´N

SWITZERLAND SWITZERLAND

100-200m 100-200m 0-100m 0-100m

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such as flowering and fruit set and, more rarely, harvest. Alsace has high sunshine hours, important to ripen grapes at this northerly latitude. Another drying influence is the Föhn wind, a warm wind that both raises the temperature and reduces the incidence of fungal diseases. There is a marked diurnal temperature difference especially on higher sites, helping to retain acidity in the grapes. TOPOGRAPHY The foothills of the Vosges mountains provide many, diverse vineyard sites at a range of altitude, suited to growing different grape varieties. The best vineyards are often at 200– 250 m of altitude and some at higher altitudes, up to 450 m. They tend to be the ones that face south, south–east or south–west, for maximum sunlight interception. Lesser quality vineyards are typically on the plain between the foothills and the Rhine river. Similarly, soils are very varied leading growers to speak about a ‘mosaic of terroirs’. Broadly speaking, the vineyards on the plain are on deeper, more fertile soils, promoting more vegetative growth (and therefore more suited to higher yielding grape growing for high volume wine), while vineyards on the hillsides have lower fertility, better draining soils promoting slower growth and ultimately better fruit quality. GRAPE VARIETIES By vineyard planting, the main varieties grown are Riesling, Pinot Blanc/Auxerrois (either variety can be labelled as Pinot Blanc) Gewurztraminer and Pinot Gris. Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and Muscat are considered ‘noble’ grape varieties and are permitted varieties for grand cru wines and regulated wine styles such as Vendange tardive and Sélection de grains nobles (for further details see Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations). Alsace: top varieties, percentage of plantings 25 20 15 10 5 0

Riesling

Source: CIVA2

Pinot Blanc

Gewurztraminer

Pinot Gris

Pinot Noir

Sylvaner

Alsace

Riesling Riesling is a cold-hardy variety (making it suitable to grow in regions with cold winters) that buds late, providing some protection against spring frosts. It needs a good site (full exposure to the sun and good drainage) and a long growing season to ripen fully but if these are provided it can produce very good quality grapes at relatively high yields (for example, 70 hL/ha). It has good disease resistance (resistant to downy mildew, fairly resistant to powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot). The wines are typically medium to pronounced in aroma and flavour intensity, unoaked and high in acidity. The wines range in quality from good to outstanding and in price from mid- priced to premium, with a few super-premium examples. For an introduction to Riesling, see Germany: Riesling. The style in Alsace is typically dry (either with no residual sugar or a low amount that is not easily evident in tasting due to high acidity), medium to full body, medium alcohol, high acidity, with citrus (lemon, grapefruit) and stone fruit (peach) flavour with a prononounced stony/steely character. Gewurztraminer Gewurztraminer, sometimes spelled Gewürztraminer, is an early budding variety (making it prone to spring frosts) and early ripening (thus avoiding autumn rains). However, whilst it rapidly accumulates sugars, in Alsace it is picked late to achieve fully ripe skins to maximise the aromas and avoid unripe tannins. It is a vigorous variety (and therefore needs careful pruning and canopy management) but only moderately productive, due to coulure. It can suffer from chlorosis and from desiccation of the stems. In Alsace it is vulnerable to powdery mildew, grape vine moth and grey rot. Virus-free clones have been produced by research stations in Alsace to reduce this problem. Wines produced from this variety are typically medium lemon in colour (the ripe grapes themselves are a light pink), with pronounced

Gewurztraminer setting fruit.

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aromas of lychee, peach/apricot, rose and spice (the German word Gewürz means ‘spice’). They have medium to high alcohol, a medium to full body and low acidity. In Alsace the wines are made in a range of styles from dry through to sweet. The wines range in quality from good to outstanding and in price from mid-priced to premium. Pinot Blanc and Auxerrois See the chapter on Crémant d'Alsace in D4: Sparkling Wines for the characteristics of Pinot Blanc. The still wines in Alsace typically have low intensity aromas of apple and peach, and medium acidity and alcohol. They are mainly acceptable to good quality, with a few very good examples, and are inexpensive to mid-priced. Auxerrois, which can be labelled Pinot Blanc, is an early ripening, low aromatic variety producing wines with low acidity. The wines are most frequently used in blends or in Crémant d’Alsace. Pinot Gris Pinot Gris is an early budding variety (making it prone to spring frosts) and early ripening (thus avoiding autumn rains). It produces moderate yields and is susceptible to botrytis bunch rot and downy mildew. It can accumulate high sugar levels leading to medium to high alcohol levels. In Alsace, the wines have medium intensity aromas of peach and apple and are full bodied with medium acidity. The best examples have a rich oily texture and have the capacity to age and develop honeyed and smoky notes. In Alsace the wines are made in a full range of styles from dry to sweet. Pinot Gris can see a very rapid increase in sugar levels and a drop in acidity. For this reason, the picking dates for Pinot Gris have become a very important topic in Alsace in recent years, with earlier picking being enabled by the change to the climate (earlier start to the season, warmer seasons) and by better canopy management. There has been a shift towards drier styles of Pinot Gris. This has been led by market demand for dry Pinot Gris resulting in more wines that are dry with 12.5–13.5% abv, rather than off-dry 13.5% abv wines. The wines range from good to outstanding and are mid-priced to premium. Pinot Noir For further details on the characteristics of Pinot Noir, see Burgundy: Pinot Noir. This is the only black grape allowed for AOC wines. Historically, it produced rather thin and lean wines but a warming climate, learning from other regions (Burgundy, neighbouring Germany) and local demand have resulted in rising quality with both unoaked and oaked wines. Significant producers include Domaine Muré and Domaine Albert Mann. Sylvaner For further details on the characteristics of Sylvaner/Silvaner, see Germany: Silvaner. This variety is in decline in Alsace, partly because Pinot Gris and Pinot Blanc are easier to grow. As a consequence, the majority of Sylvaner wines come from older vines (40 years or more) and very little Sylvaner is located on the valley floor. As a result, it is a grape variety that is gaining a reputation as a source of good value wines of very good quality.

Alsace

Muscat Both Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains (for further details on its characteristics, see the chapter on Vins Doux Naturels in D5: Fortified Wines) and Muscat Ottonel are grown in Alsace, if in tiny amounts. The latter ripens earlier of the two, making it attractive to avoid autumn rains. VINEYARD MANAGEMENT The most common form of training is single or double Guyot, as required by AOC regulations. The fruit zone is typically trained higher than in other regions at 1–1.2 m above the ground to reduce the risk from frost, especially on the valley plain, and humidity (due to the regular if low absolute level of rain). Canopies are also higher, up to 1.9 m above the ground, to maximise exposure to the sun. In turn, this means that the spacing between rows of vines has to be wider to avoid shading. Typical planting density is 4,400–4,800 vines per hectare, with less dense planting on the valley floor and denser planting on slopes. On the steepest slopes, terracing can be necessary, as in some grand cru sites. The main pests and diseases are powdery and downy mildew, the grape vine moth and, latterly, esca. The warm, sunny climate with low rainfall reduces the incidence of the fungal diseases. Small scale production, often found in Alsace, helps Vine treated for Esca. with greater attention to detail in monitoring the health of vines in the vineyard. Alsace has nearly 15 per cent of its vineyards certified as organic, in comparison to the national average of just under 10 per cent. Alsace has a long harvest period, typically early September to late October, due to the range of styles being made and the diversity of sites (altitude, exposition). Styles range from sparkling through to late-picked and botrytis-affected wines. Vineyards on steep slopes have to be picked by hand, adding to cost. AOC regulations require that grand cru vineyards are picked by hand. Vineyards on gentle slopes or on the plain can be picked by machine, reducing the cost of production for inexpensive and mid-priced wines.

5.2. Winemaking

Most wines are made from single varieties and the aim of winemaking is to preserve primary fruit character. Pre-fermentation skin contact or simply keeping the pressed grapes for longer in the press is practiced by some producers to extract flavour molecules and add to the texture of the wine. Cool fermentation temperatures are used for Muscat, Riesling and Sylvaner, while mid-range temperatures are more likely to be used for Gewurztraminer.

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Traditional oak casks.

Stainless steel casks.

Alsace

(Gewurztraminer has pronounced aromas, not affected by slightly higher fermentation temperatures, and has high sugar levels. A slightly higher fermentation temperature is desirable to ensure that the yeast can ferment effectively to high alcohol levels.) Low fermentation temperatures are avoided as its characteristic banana aroma is not desired in Gewurztraminer. Many cellars are naturally cool enough to achieve these temperatures; however, temperature control is now typically installed. Inert fermentation vessels are used as no additional flavours are desired. These can be either traditional large old oak vessels or stainless- steel tanks. Smaller, high-quality producers will often prefer ambient yeasts, believing that they contribute to terroir-expressive wines. As a generalisation, malolactic conversion is typically avoided on the white grape varieties grown in Alsace, as the aim is to retain primary fruit. Very little new oak is used, reducing production costs. Wines are typically aged in the same large neutral containers on fine lees (for freshness) but without lees stirring, to retain primary flavours. Historically there has been little consistency about fermenting to full dryness versus leaving small or larger amounts of residual sugar. Buyers of the wines have had to know the style of individual producers. An increasing number of producers now indication of sweetness on the back label. The region is in the process of agreeing a standard approach to this issue. On the rules for Vendange tardive or Sélection de grains noble, see next section.

5.3.  Appellations, Wine Law and Regulations

Chaptalisation for Alsace AOC is allowed within EU rules, which as a northerly region is used, especially in cool years. The maximum yield for Alsace AOC white wines is ranges from 80 hL/ha for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer, 90 hL/ha for Riesling and 100 hL/ha for Pinot Blanc, which can lead to some wines with low flavour concentration. Within Alsace AOC it is possible to add the name of one of thirteen communes, e.g. Bergheim, or a lieu-dit. In these last two categories, maximum yields for white wines are reduced to 72 and 68 hL/ha respectively. The maximum yield for Alsace Pinot Noir AOC is 60 hL/ha. For grand cru wines, yields are limited to 55 hL/ha or in some cases to 50 hL/ha (e.g. Rangen). The category of grand cru was introduced in 1975 and is normally restricted to single variety wines from one of the so-called ‘noble’ varieties, Riesling, Muscat, Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer. Well known grands crus include Rangen, Geisberg and Schoenenbourg. Additionally, three vineyards are allowed to produce either blends (e.g. Altenberg de Bergheim) or Sylvaner as grand cru wines. There has been considerable debate about whether the delimitation of some grand cru vineyards was overly generous and whether permitted yields are too high, with some producers choosing not to use the category. However, more recently, key producers such as Trimbach or Hugel who initially rejected labelling as grand cru have started to use the category. Since 2011, each of the 51 grand cru vineyards has become an individual grand cru. This will allow individual grand crus to vary their own rules, e.g. lower the maximum yield or introduce a new variety, for example, Pinot Noir. A few grand cru syndicats have applied for the authorisation of Pinot Noir but it has not yet been granted by INAO. The region is currently discussing introducing a premier cru classification for single vineyards.

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Vineyard on hillside slope. VENDANGE TARDIVE AND SÉLECTION DE GRAINS NOBLES Both Alsace AOC and the grands crus can append Vendange tardive or Sélection de grains nobles on the label. These wines can only be made solely from the four ‘noble’ varieties. High minimum sugar levels at harvest are required – see table. There is no requirement for Vendange tardive to have botrytis-affected fruit or to be sweet. Minimum sugar levels at harvest give about 14–15% abv if fermented dry. By contrast, Sélection de grains nobles must be made from botrytis-affected grapes and be sweet. Minimum sugar levels required

Vendange Tardive

Sélection de Grains Nobles

Muscat or Riesling

235 g/L

276 g/L

Pinot Gris or Gewurztraminer

257 g/L

306 g/L

5.4.  Wine Business

The average vineyard holding is low at under 3.5 ha with the result that many growers sell grapes to co-operatives or larger wineries. Over 40 per cent of sales is by co-operatives that have a reputation for high quality wines.3 Alsace has a strong reputation in France for wines suitable for gastronomy and around 75 per cent of the wine is sold in France.4 The top export markets are the rest of the EU (especially Belgium, Germany, Netherlands), followed by North America.

Alsace

All AOC Alsace wine has to be sold in the typical tall thin ‘flute’ bottle and no bag-in-box is allowed. This can be said to give Alsace a clear brand identity, but at the same time, the shape of the bottle can lead to confusion with German wines. Alsace is notable for the number of domaines that produce many or even all available still styles – dry, off-dry, Vendange Tardive and Sélection de Grains Nobles – from four or more varieties and with up to four quality levels. This means that 20–35 bottlings for medium to larger size domaines is normal. Significant producers of this sort include Hugel, Trimbach and Zind-Humbrecht. Equally, the top co-operatives offer a large range of wines: Cave de Turckheim offers 50 bottlings from seven varieties. This number of bottlings means that the wines are sold on a general image about Alsace wine and the individual producer, rather than individual labels. References 1. Alsace Wines, Conseil Interprofessionnel des Vins d’Alsace (CIVA), 2018, PowerPoint, received April 2018 2. 2019 data. Typologie du vignoble, CIVA (retrieved 23 March 2020) 3. Jefford, A. 2017, For common cause, Decanter (retrieved 23 March 2020) 4. 2017 data. Volumes commercialisés par le vignoble alsacien – 2017, CIVA, (retrieved 26 March 2019)

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6

The Loire Valley

The Loire has a long history of winemaking and trading due its ready access to the Atlantic, being the home of French kings until Louis XIV and, before the coming of the railway, its proximity to Paris allowing wine to be transported by river.

48˚N

48˚N

Orléans

MUSCADET SÈVRE ET MAINE

COTEAUX DU LAYON PREMIER CRU CHAUME SAVENNIÈRES MUSCADET COTEAUX DE LA LOIRE Angers oire R. L

Nantes

COTEAUX DU LAYON

Tours MONTLOUISSUR-LOIRE CHINON TOURAINE

MUSCADET

ise

COTEAUX DE SAUMUR

SAUMURCHAMPIGNY SAUMUR

MENETOUSALON

R. Ch er

QUINCY REUILLY

POUILLY-FUMÉ SANCERRE Nevers

47˚N

R. Vienne

Sè vre Na nta

R.

MUSCADET CÔTES DE GRANDLIEU

VOUVRAY BOURGUEIL

BONNEZEAUX

ANJOU

e ain R. M

47˚N

QUARTS DE CHAUME

R. L oire

R. Loir

Saumur

R. La y on

ANJOUVILLAGES

ST-NICOLASDE-BOURGUEIL

Poitiers

ATLANTIC OCEAN

FRANCE

46˚N

46˚N

THE LOIRE VALLEY 0

0

20

10

40

20

1000m+

60

30

40

Pays Nantais Anjou-Saumur Touraine

80 Km

50 Miles

500-1000m

Central Vineyards

N 200-500m

100-200m

0-100m

The Loire River, France’s longest river, has many distinct wine regions, stretching from Sancerre (400 kilometres/250 miles from the Atlantic), moving downstream through Touraine and Anjou-Saumur and finally reaching the Atlantic Ocean in the Pays Nantais. As a result, it has a number of climatic zones and varieties typical of the various regions. For example, spring in the Pays Nantais arrives at least two weeks before it does in Sancerre. The key varieties are Melon in the Pays Nantais, Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc in middle Loire (Anjou-Saumur and Touraine, though the latter also grows Sauvignon Blanc), and Sauvignon Blanc (and to a lesser extent Pinot Noir) in the Central Vineyards, the area that includes Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé.

The Loire Valley

Loire Valley, percentage of total Loire hectares planted Central Vineyards 10% Pays Nantais 22%

Touraine 31%

Anjou-Saumur 37% Source: InterLoire and BIVC1

6.1.  Pays Nantais

This region takes its name from the city of Nantes and is situated close to the Atlantic Ocean. The principal grape variety is Melon (sometimes called Melon de Bourgogne or Muscadet). A significant volume of the Folle Blanche variety (known locally as Gros Plant) is also grown, making very acidic wines that are sold locally and nationally. Pays Nantais: top varieties, percentage of plantings 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Melon Source: Économie 20192

Chardonnay

Gamay

Folle Blanche

Cabernet Franc

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THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate and Soils The Pays Nantais has a cool maritime climate with cool springs, warm and humid summers and the threat of rain at any time through the growing season but especially in March/April (affecting flowering) and in September (affecting harvest). However, predominantly welldrained soils help to offset the regular rainfall. Despite the proximity of the Atlantic, spring frosts are a serious problem, setting back the whole region in 1991. This event led to the loss of what was a booming export market to the UK. Frost has been a serious problem in recent years. Producers are putting in more frost prevention measures, particularly wind machines as well as heaters and burning straw bales. Melon Melon has been the only allowed variety in the Muscadet appellations. It is quite a hardy variety, making it well suited to a cool region but buds early making it prone to spring frosts. It ripens relatively early, reducing the threat of rain at harvest and can produce high yields. It has good resistance to powdery mildew. It has tight bunches of fruit and is susceptible to downy mildew and botrytis bunch rot, both of which thrive in the humid climate. Timely and, as necessary, repeated spraying is required, adding some cost. Melon makes a wine with high acidity, a light body and low to the low end of medium alcohol. The wines typically have low aromatic intensity (green apple), which is often made sur lie (see below). The wines are acceptable to good in quality with some very good examples and inexpensive to mid-priced. From 2018, basic Muscadet AOC may include up to 10 per cent of Chardonnay.

Melon variety close to harvest time.

The Loire Valley

Melon being harvested. Vineyard Management As noted, humid cllmate means that growers must monitor vineyards closely and spray to prevent fungal diseases. With a marginal climate for ripeness, progress has been made in recent decades to improve canopy management. In order to facilitate ripeness, canopies are more open than they were and leaf removal is carried out to ensure maximum exposure of grapes to the sun and to reduce the risk of fungal disease. However, care has to be taken that fruit is not sunburnt on the side of the rows facing the sun in the afternoon. Similarly, attention is now paid to the ripeness of skins and seeds in determining the harvest date. However, in hot years, the danger is that sugar levels may reach unacceptably high levels before the skins and seeds are fully ripe. WINEMAKING Chaptalization is permitted up to 12% abv potential alcohol and is practiced in cooler years. Muscadet is typically fermented and aged in large, shallow underground glass-lined concrete vats, though stainless steel is also used. The idea is to keep the wine as neutral as possible and then to age the wine on the lees. Malolactic conversion is typically avoided, preserving the high acidity typical of the style. With efforts to raise the profile of Muscadet (see the cru communaux below), winemakers are also experimenting. Examples include skin contact and fermentation in barrel, amphora or concrete eggs, these vessels adding cost.

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Underground tank for Muscadet fermentation and lees ageing.

Alternative fermentation vessels.

The Loire Valley

Muscadet being aged sur lie.

Sur Lie This technique is highly typical in the Pays Nantais and is a way of filling out the body of what would otherwise be very light- bodied wines. After the alcoholic fermentation is completed, one racking is allowed to remove the gross lees. After this, the wine remains in contact with the fine lees through the following winter and until bottling. Ageing on the lees also retains the freshness of the wine and may retain a small amount of carbon dioxide, which is part of the style of these wines. APPELLATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS There are two larger appellations, Muscadet Sèvre et Maine AOC (at 6,400 ha the Loire’s largest appellation)3 and Muscadet AOC, and two much smaller ones, Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOC and Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOC. The maximum yield for Muscadet AOC is 65 hL/ha. It will rise to 70 hL/ha for the 2020 harvest. The other three AOCs and Muscadet sur lie is limited to 55 hL/ha. The wines are typically dry, with low intensity aroma of green apple and grassy notes, high acidity and a light body. The wines are typically acceptable to good quality (with some very good wines) and inexpensive in price. The labelling term sur lie may be added in any of the four appellations. Sur lie wines must be bottled between 1 March and 30 November of the year following harvest and in the winery in which they were made; this later bottling in comparison to many white wines adds cost. These regulations also mean that négociants can only buy grapes, must or bottled wine, and not wine to be aged sur lie.

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In addition, ten Muscadet cru communaux, have been launched, including Clisson, Gorges and Le Pallet. If the grapes are grown exclusively in one of the defined areas, the name can be added, for example, Muscadet Sèvre et Maine AOC Clisson. These wines have a lower maximum yield at 45 hL/ha. The wines have to be kept on the lees for 18 months (Le Pallet) or 24 months (Clisson, Gorges), adding cost. However, they cannot be labelled as sur lie as the requirement for long lees ageing means that they are bottled after the date required for sur lie. The wines are typically rounder and more complex with longer finishes. WINE BUSINESS Muscadet was a huge success in the UK market in the 1980s, and as a result, 13,000 ha were planted. However, the frost of 1991 saw production drop by two-thirds. This pushed prices up at a time when new world wines, especially Australian wines, were becoming popular. More recently, Muscadet has sought to reposition itself as a source of terroir-specific wines of high quality with good value for money. Exports of wines from the Pays Nantais are 15 per cent by volume.4 Négociants continue to play an important role, accounting for over half of sales, though this is less than in the past. Many smaller local négociants have been bought up by larger companies. Castel, Grand Chais de France and the Loire-based Ackerman now account for a large proportion of négociant sales. The Pays Nantais promotes its wines together with those Anjou-Saumur and Touraine via InterLoire (Interprofession des Vins du Val de Loire).

6.2.  Anjou-Saumur and Touraine

The principal grape varieties in the middle Loire are Chenin Blanc for dry, off-dry and sweet white wines and Cabernet Franc for red wines and as one contributor to rosé wines. However, Sauvignon Blanc is a key white variety in Touraine. Anjou-Saumur: top varieties, percentage of plantings 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Cabernet Franc Source: Économie 20195

Chenin Blanc

Grolleau Noir

Cabernet Sauvignon

Chardonnay

Other varieties

The Loire Valley

Touraine: top varieties, percentage of plantings 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Cabernet Franc

Chenin Blanc

Sauvignon Blanc

Gamay

Malbec

Chardonnay

Source: Économie 20195 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate and Soils The moderating influence of the Atlantic Ocean decreases progressively in Anjou-Saumur and then Touraine. In Anjou-Saumur, the maritime effect is more marked. Touraine has a continental climate with cold winters and warm summers, but this is not as extreme as in the Central Vineyards. Both Anjou-Saumur and Touraine have around 700 mm of rainfall, adequate for viticulture. However, the rains falls throughout the year: spring rain can affect flowering and fruit set, regular summer rain increases disease pressure and rain in late summer and early autumn can affect harvest. The best-exposed sites are generally used for still wines, as they need a greater level of ripeness than grapes for sparkling wines. In Anjou, the River Layon and its multiple tributaries help to create the misty conditions ideal for the spread of botrytis at the end of the growing season, enabling the production of botrytis-affected wines. There is a wide range of soils, including clay-limestone, flint-clay, sand, gravel and tuff. There is more schist and limestone in Anjou and more chalk in Touraine. Overall, key properties include the good drainage and water retention characteristics of limestone elements. Due to high lime content in the soils, rootstocks such as Fercal and Riparia Gloire de Montpellier are used to protect the vines from chlorosis. Grape Varieties Chenin Blanc – Chenin Blanc buds early making it prone to spring frosts. It is a vigorous variety and if allowed can carry high yields. It is prone to powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot (as well as to the positive effects of botrytis for making sweet wines) and trunk diseases. It ripens late making it vulnerable to the onset of autumn rains. As Chenin Blanc ripens unevenly, for the

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Layon vineyard. best quality it has to be picked on several passes through the vineyard. This limits the amount that mechanical picking can be employed. Where growers are seeking a wine with a high proportion of botrytis-affected grapes, multiple passes through the vineyard and picking by hand are necessary, adding to cost. In the middle Loire it produces a wide range of styles, sparkling wine, dry, off-dry and sweet wines. Here, the dry and off-dry wines have medium intensity aromas of green apple and lemon (sometimes with a steely, smoky character), medium alcohol, and noticeably high acidity, often balanced with some residual sugar for an off-dry style. They are typically good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-price, with some outstanding quality and premium priced options (e.g. Domaine Huet). Cabernet Franc – Cabernet Franc is an early budding variety, making it prone to spring frost. It is also prone to coulure and therefore to a reduction in yields. As a mid-ripening variety, it can often be picked before autumn rains begin. If it is not ripened fully, the wines can taste excessive leafy. Better canopy management (avoiding dense canopies, leaf removal) along with warmer summers has reduced the incidence of overly herbaceous Loire Cabernet Franc. It is winter hardy, which makes it a good variety for cool areas. In the middle Loire, the wines typically have medium to pronounced intensity red fruit (redcurrant, raspberry), floral (violet) aromas and, as noted, can have leafy aromas, a light to medium body, medium tannins and high acidity.

The Loire Valley

In the Loire Valley, Cabernet Franc tends to be used to make single varietal red wines or be part of a rosé blend. In eastern Touraine, the limit of the area where it will ripen fully, it is blended with Cot, the local name for Malbec. Grolleau Noir – This is an early budding and mid-ripening variety. It is prone to botrytis bunch rot. It is used mainly as a blending variety in rosés, especially Rosé d’Anjou and Rosé de Loire. Gamay Noir – For the characteristics of Gamay and the wine style, see Beaujolais: Gamay Noir. It is generally made by carbonic maceration, as in Beaujolais. Some Gamay is found in Anjou; however, it is principally grown in Touraine as well as in the Central Vineyards. Cabernet Sauvignon – Being a late ripening variety Cabernet Sauvignon performs best in the Loire in temperate Anjou and here only really in the warmest sites where early budding is possible. For red wines, it is frequently blended with Cabernet Franc. It is also used in rosé blends. WINEMAKING Chenin Blanc is fermented at cool to mid-range temperatures. As a result, fermentation can last several months. Large old oak or stainless steel containers are typically used as fermentation vessels. Typically, malolactic fermentation is avoided, and wines are aged in neutral containers, not new barriques. The aim is to retain primary fruit aromas and flavours. Cabernet Franc is typically crushed, fermented in concrete or old wood vats that allow punch downs and/or pump overs. Many producers prefer to use ambient yeasts and it is typical to age the wine in used oak barrels of a range of sizes. As with Chenin Blanc, the aim is to retain primary fruit aromas and flavours. Some more expensive wines may be aged in a proportion of new French oak barriques. Many Loire rosés are made by direct press. Short maceration is used on some rosés. Winemaking then proceeds as it would for white wine with short ageing (3–4 months) in neutral containers. APPELLATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS There is no regional generic appellation for the Loire such as Bordeaux AOC. However, there are three regional appellations in the middle Loire: Anjou AOC, Saumur AOC and Touraine AOC. Key Anjou Appellations Anjou AOC – This appellation allows a maximum yield of 60 hL/ha for red or white wines, resulting in some wines of low flavour intensity. Anjou Blanc must have a minimum of 80 per cent Chenin Blanc and Anjou Rouge a minimum of 70 per cent of Cabernet Franc and/ or Cabernet Sauvignon. Higher quality reds from specifically designated areas are made as Anjou Villages AOC. This is for still red wine only, made entirely from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon, either singly or blended; in practice, they are mostly Cabernet Franc. Maximum yield is 55 hL/ha and the wines can only be released in September the year after harvest. A significant number of good producers in Anjou prefer to forsake the appellation system and opt for Vin de France.

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Coteaux du Layon AOC – This is a large appellation located on the slopes on the right bank of the Layon River, which runs into the Loire. It specializes in wines made from botrytis-affected Chenin Blanc grapes. If botrytis fails to develop, the grapes may also be dried on the vine. The natural high acidity of Chenin Blanc allows lusciously sweet wines to be balanced. Maximum yields and minimum potential alcohol are given in the table below. Stricter regulations apply to Coteaux du Layon AOC + named village. The grapes need to be picked in several passes through the vineyard (tries) in order to pick only botrytis-affected grapes. The wines have pronounced aromas of cooked citrus and apple with honey notes. They are sweet, medium (+) bodied, medium alcohol with high acidity. Quality ranges typically from good to very good with from mid-priced to premium.

Chenin Blanc with some botrytis-affected berries.

Two areas within the geographical area of Coteaux de Layon have a high-quality reputation for sweet wine wines and are appellations in their own right, Bonnezeaux AOC and Quarts de Chaume AOC. The regulations for Bonnezeaux are stricter than for Coteaux du Layon but less strict than for Quarts de Chaume. The higher potential alcohol and the lower maximum yield results in wines of very high flavour intensity and a rich texture. Quality ranges from very good to outstanding and prices are typically premium, with a few super-premium examples. Quarts de Chaume became the Loire’s first grand cru in 2019 and Coteaux du Layon AOC Chaume became a premier cru. The following table is given as an indication of the stricter regulations across the appellations. Maximum yield, hL/ha

Minimum percentage potential alcohol

Coteaux du Layon AOC

35

14

Coteaux du Layon AOC + named village

30

15

Bonnezeaux AOC

25

15

Coteaux du Layon AOC Premier Cru Chaume

25

16.5

Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru AOC

20

18

All these sweet wines have proved to be difficult to sell due to a generally low demand for sweet wines. As a result, producers have switched to producing lower volumes of sweet wine and higher volumes of dry wine.

The Loire Valley

Old vines in Savennières with cover crop emerging. Savennières AOC – This is a small but prestigious appellation mainly specialising in fully dry wine made from Chenin Blanc. South-facing slopes, low-fertility, rocky schist soils and low yields all give concentration and ripeness. These wines have very high acidity and often reach high levels of alcohol. They can be very austere in youth and historically have required many years in bottle before they became approachable. As vineyard management has improved over the last few decades ago and with generally warmer weather, some producers now make the wines in a concentrated but slightly more fruity, approachable style. The maximum yield is 50 hL/ha. Some producers are creating premium cuvées using a proportion of new oak barrels. There are two smaller AOCs within the appellation area, Savennières La Roche aux Moines AOC and Coulée de Serrant AOC. They benefit from warm sites on slopes facing the Loire, resulting in riper fruit. They have lower maximum yield requirements (30 hL/ha for dry wines). Coulée de Serrant AOC is a monopole, owned exclusively and farmed biodynamically by Nicolas Joly, a figurehead of the biodynamic movement. Anjou-Saumur is an important centre for the production of rosé wines. Rosé de Loire AOC – This wine can be made from a range of varieties including Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Grolleau Noir. The maximum yield is 60 hL/ha and the wines are dry. The wine can also be produced outside Anjou-Saumur but rarely is. Rosé d’Anjou AOC – This is mainly made from Grolleau though other options include the two Cabernets, Cot and Gamay. The maximum yield is 65 hL/ha which can lead to wines of low

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Fermenting Chenin Blanc in barrels. flavour intensity. Typically, the wines are medium pink-orange in colour (some lighter examples are now being made), medium intensity red berry fruit, medium (+) acidity and medium alcohol; they are medium dry. The wines are inexpensive to mid-price and the quality acceptable to good, with some very good examples. This is a popular wine and the best-selling of the three AOCs. Cabernet d’Anjou AOC – This must be made from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. The maximum yield is 60 hL/ha. The wines are typically a deeper colour than most rosé (medium pink) and medium-dry. Key Saumur Appellations Saumur AOC – This appellation includes white, red and rosé still wines, as well as the sparkling wines dealt with in the unit on Sparkling Wine. The white wines are made from Chenin Blanc, the reds principally from Cabernet Franc and the rosés from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Maximum yields are the relatively high 60 hL/ha for whites and 57 hL/ha for reds and rosés, leading to some wines with low flavour intensity. Coteaux de Saumur AOC – Sweet Chenin Blanc wines are made as Coteaux de Saumur AOC with over-ripe grapes, with or without botrytis, picked in a number of passes through the vineyard. Maximum yields are limited to 35 hL/ha. The wines are lusciously sweet, balanced by high acidity.

The Loire Valley

Vineyards in Saumur-Champigny. Saumur-Champigny AOC – This is an appellation for red wines made principally from Cabernet Franc, minimum 85 per cent. Wines typically are pale ruby in colour and have medium to medium (+) intensity of redcurrant fruit, sometimes with leafy aromas, medium alcohol, high acidity and medium tannin. Soils with chalk, flint and clay offer a helpful combination of good drainage and waterholding potential, which is valuable in dry periods. Maximum yield is the relatively high 57 hL/ ha, leading to some wines with low flavour intensity. The wine may be released as early as December of the year of the harvest. Most wines are intended to be drunk young for their primary fruit. The wines of this appellation became very successful in the bars and bistros of Paris from the 1970s onwards with the Saint-Cyr-en-Bourg co-operative (now named after its founders, Cave Robert et Marcel) championing the Cabernet Franc grape in a light, accessible style. Most wines are good to very good quality and inexpensive to mid-price, with a few premium examples, such as Clos Rougeard. Key Touraine Appellations Touraine AOC – This appellation covers the same wide range of wines as Saumur AOC; white, red, rosé and sparkling. However, for white wines, the principal variety is Sauvignon Blanc and for red, the principal varieties are Cabernet Franc and Cot. Gamay is also grown, and the name

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of the variety may be attached, i.e. Touraine AOC Gamay. Rosé may be made from a wide range of varieties including the two Cabernets, Cot, Gamay and Grolleau. In addition to the basic Touraine AOC, there is the possibility of adding the name of one of six sub-zones, e.g. Touraine AOC Amboise. This allows differences between the varieties used, reflecting what is grown locally. Thus, Touraine AOC Amboise Blanc is made from Chenin Blanc, not Sauvignon Blanc. It can also affect the maximum yields set. For example, while Touraine AOC Blanc allows 65 hL/ha, Touraine AOC Amboise Blanc is limited to 55 hL/ha. Vouvray AOC – This is the most important white wine appellation in Touraine. The wines must be made from a minimum of 95 per cent Chenin Blanc and are typically 100 per cent. The maximum yield is 52 hL/ha. The best vineyards are the slopes that overlook the Loire, promoting ripening due to good sunlight interception with the river acting as a moderating influence on temperatures. The soils are flinty, clay and limestone over a tuff, enabling good drainage. Away from the Loire the percentage of clay increases making the soils colder, inhibiting ripening. Dry Vouvray is made in every vintage; some demi-sec in most years, while sweet is rarer. This contrasts with Anjou where sweet wines can be made in almost every vintage. Unless clearly marked on the label it can difficult to know whether a Vouvray is dry or sweet. Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC – This appellation faces the Vouvray appellation from across the south bank of the river making very similar wines from 100 per cent Chenin Blanc with a maximum yield of 52 hL/ha. The vineyards run from the Loire Valley across to the Cher. Due to an influx of newcomers over the past 30 years, in part due to vineyards being cheaper than in Vouvray, Montlouis, which used to be less well known, has become a very dynamic appellation with a significant proportion of estates run organically or biodynamically. Within Touraine, there are three important appellations for red wines. Bourgueil AOC – This appellation specializes in red wines, though rosé wines are also made. The principal variety is Cabernet Franc and only ten per cent of Cabernet Sauvignon is allowed. The maximum yield is 55 hL/ha. While this could result in wines of light flavour intensity, many wines are of high quality and lower yields. Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil AOC – This appellation generally makes Cabernet Franc in a lighter style than Bourgueil AOC. The wines are similar in style and price to Saumur-Champigny AOC. Chinon AOC – This appellation is best known and highly regarded for red wines.

Cabernet Franc.

The Loire Valley

White wines from Chenin Blanc and rosé wines are also made. The principal variety is Cabernet Franc and only ten per cent of Cabernet Sauvignon is allowed. As in Bourgueil AOC, the maximum yield is 55 hL/ha. While this could result in wines of low flavour intensity, many wines are of high quality and lower yields. The wines range from light fruity, early to drink examples from a short maceration on the skins (6–8 days) to much more structured and powerful wines with a longer maceration period (2–3 weeks) which are not released onto the market until up to two years following the vintage, adding cost. In general, the most structured and concentrated wines are made with grapes grown on clay and limestone soils, rather than those from vines on sandy or gravelly soils, which typically produce lighter styles. While most Cabernet Franc wines are made to be drunk young, the wines made with longer maceration periods (especially from good vintages) can age for 20 years and more, due to very good flavour intensity of fruit, high acidity and medium to medium (+) tannins. Most wines are good to very good quality and inexpensive to mid-price, with a few premium examples. All three appellations (Bourgueil, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Chinon) have three types of soil: sand, gravel and clay-limestone. Wines produced from grapes grown on sandy soils are said to produce the lightest wines, which are the earliest to be ready to drink, while those from clay-limestone are said to be the most structured and long lived. Wine production by category, Anjou-Saumur and Touraine, hL (2018 harvest) 1,200,000

White Red

1,000,000

Rose 186,000

Sparkling

800,000

600,000

116,000 486,000

400,000

200,000

0

34,000 347,000

196,000 107,000 Anjou-Saumur

184,000 Touraine

Source: Vins du Val de Loire6 Both Anjou-Saumur and Touraine export just under 20 per cent of their production.7

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WINE BUSINESS As can be seen from the chart above, Anjou-Saumur produces around twice as much wine as Touraine. The volumes of production by category are very different between the two: • • •

rosé production in Anjou is more than ten times rosé production in Touraine Anjou-Saumur makes significantly more more sparkling wine than Touraine Touraine makes significantly more white and red wine than Anjou-Saumur.

6.3.  Central Vineyards

The Central Vineyards is a name given to the eight AOCs that are the furthest east of the main grape growing areas of the Loire Valley, so called as they are situated roughly halfway between the river’s source and mouth. Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are the best-known AOCs with the most hectares under vine. They have a continental climate. The principal grape varieties are Sauvignon Blanc for white wines and Pinot Noir for reds and rosés. Central Vineyards: top varieties, percentage of plantings 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Sauvignon Blanc

Pinot Noir

Gamay

Source: Économie 20198 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate As noted, this region has a continental climate with cold winters and warm summers. Spring frosts are a threat as are summer hailstorms. Long growing-season day lengths (compared to Bordeaux and even more so to Marlborough, New Zealand) combined with low light intensity and low heat makes for restrained flavours in the final wines.9 Rainfall is surprisingly high for a continental region at around 750 mm per year. This reduces the chances of drought but increases the threat from fungal diseases.

The Loire Valley

Old Sauvignon Blanc vines, Sancerre. Grape Varieties Sauvignon Blanc – This is a late budding and relatively early ripening variety, making it suitable to be grown in cool climates and regions with a threat of early autumn rains. It grows vigorously and is therefore best grown on poor soils. The canopy has to be carefully managed to avoid shading (which would lead to under-ripe, overly green fruit flavours). It is prone to powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot and to trunk diseases (e.g. Esca) including, if cordontrained, to the fungal disease eutypa dieback. Wine made from Sauvignon Blanc typically have pronounced intensity aromas of grass, bell pepper and asparagus with gooseberry, grapefruit and wet stone flavours (cooler areas) to riper, passion fruit (warmer areas). They typically have medium body and alcohol and high acidity. In the vineyard, row orientation and canopy management can affect the flavour profile of the fruit. Fruit grown in shadier conditions will result in more green pepper and grassy notes, while fruit grown with more sunlight will have more tropical fruit flavour. Picking date is also important, with the growers having to judge optimum ripeness but before the acidity drops and the flavours become over-ripe. In the Loire’s Central Vineyards, 70 per cent of plantings are Sauvignon Blanc.10 Pinot Noir – For more details on Pinot Noir, see Burgundy. In the Loire’s Central Vineyards, 20 per cent of plantings are Pinot Noir.11 The wines are typically medium ruby in colour, light to medium intensity of raspberry and strawberry fruit, high acidity and medium alcohol. The wines are mid- price to premium.

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WINEMAKING In the winery typical fermentation temperatures in the Central Vineyards for white wines are slightly higher than in the new world (upper part of cool to lowest part of mid-range, rather than cool) for more restrained fruit expression than in the new world. Malolactic conversion will often be blocked but some producers choose to allow it depending on style and vintage. Higher quality wines may be aged in old oak casks to fill out the body of the wine, but typically without the addition of new oak flavours. Thus, in Sancerre, François Cotat, use old oak and extensive lees work to produce a wine for long ageing, while others, such as Henri Bourgeois, include a heavily oaked wine in their range. APPELLATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Oak options in Sancerre. Sancerre AOC – Sancerre produces white from Sauvignon Blanc only and red and rosé wines from Pinot Noir only. This is the largest of the Central Vineyards appellations and the most commercially successful. Historically, the area was planted with Pinot Noir but, post-phylloxera, the area was replanted with Sauvignon Blanc. From the 1950s and 1960s onwards, the wines were successfully promoted, initially in Paris and then in the rest of France and around the world.

Les Monts Damnés, Sancerre.

The Loire Valley

The steep hillside slopes (200–400m), the river and the nearby forests provide moderating influences against frosts in spring. Maximum yields are set at 65 hL/ha for white wines, 63 hL/ ha for rosés and 59 hL/ha for reds. While the maximum yields are high, Sauvignon Blanc can produce wines with sufficient flavour intensity at this level, but reduced yields are needed to produce wines with flavour intensity from Pinot Noir. In Sancerre, the white wines typically have medium intensity aromas of grapefruit and gooseberry, medium alcohol and high acidity. They rarely have new oak flavours. They are good to outstanding in quality and mid-price to premium price, with a few super-premium examples (e.g. Didier Dagueneau or François Cotat). There are three types of soil: •

•

•

Caillottes – very shallow soils (25–40 mm) over limestone: fruit grown on these soils are said to produce the most aromatic wines that are first to be ready to drink and to have less potential for ageing in the bottle Terre Blanches – the same limestone and marl that is to be found in Chablis. Slow ripening on these soils which include some of Sancerre’s most famous vineyards: Côte des Monts Damnés, Cul de Beaujeu. Fruit grown on these soils are said to produce the most structured wines that need long maturation before they are ready to drink and age well. Silex – flinty soils that accumulates heat and leads to early ripening, e.g. Les Romains, next to the Loire. Fruit grown on these soils are said to produce wines with stony or smoky aromas.

Pouilly-Fumé AOC – Sauvignon Blanc only, same maximum yield as Sancerre. Pouilly-Fumé and the other appellations listed below are on flatter land than Sancerre and hence are much more prone to frost damage in the spring. Some growers have installed wind machines as a means of protection. It has the same range of soils as Sancerre. The wines are of similar price and quality to Sancerre. Broadly, Pouilly-Fumé tends to be a little rounder and less aromatic than Sancerre and often needs a little more time – six months to a year in bottle – to really start to show. Reuilly AOC – White wines from Sauvignon Blanc only, red from Pinot Noir only, rosé from Pinot Gris and Pinot Noir, same maximum yields as Sancerre for the three categories of wine respectively. Quincy AOC – White wines only from Sauvignon Blanc (minimum 90 per cent) and Sauvignon Gris, same maximum yield as Sancerre. Menetou-Salon AOC – The same range of wines and maximum yields as Sancerre. The vines are planted on gentle south facing slopes, making them more vulnerable to frost than in neighbouring Sancerre. The wines of Reuilly, Quincy and Menetou-Salon are typically good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. There is recurrently no cru system in the appellations of the Central Vineyards. However, individual vineyard sites are growing in importance with more and more producers releasing wines from single vineyards. Famous sites include Les Monts Damnés (Chavignol) and Les Belles Dames (both in Sancerre).

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6.4.  Wine Business

The appellations of the Central Vineyards promote their wines together via the Bureau Interprofessionnel des Vins du Centre (BIVC). STRUCTURE OF THE INDUSTRY Family owned businesses continue to be very important in the Loire. Many estates trace with pride the number of generations in the family that have tended vines and made wine. There is also a steady flow of French people from outside the valley choosing to change from working in large cities like Paris and opting to set up as wine producers. For the Loire Valley as a whole, négociants are very important selling 50 per cent of all wine by volume. (The top 10 négociants account for 82 per cent of all sales within the négociant sector.) Estates sell 41 per cent and co-operatives under 10 per cent.12 The distinction between négociants and estates has become somewhat blurred over the last 20 years. Négociants have increasingly opted to vinify their wines themselves rather than relying mainly on buying finished wine. The large négociant companies have wineries spread across the Loire from the Pays Nantais to Sancerre. Some have also bought prestige estates. Examples include Grand Chais de France buying Château des Fesles (Bonnezeaux) and Château de Cléray (Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine) and Ackerman buying Château de Varière (Anjou) and Château de Sancerre. Equally, an increasing number of family estates has a négociant side to their business. This tendency has accelerated with the recent frosts and hail damage, which have severely reduced their crop, so buying in grapes, juice or wine can be a way of keeping their clients and avoiding severe financial problems. MARKETS For Loire AOC wines the largest channel in France is the specialist wine retail and hospitality sector (just under 44 per cent of all sales by volume) and then supermarkets (36 per cent). Exports were 20 per cent, with the top markets being US, UK and Germany.13 Exports by hL and € price ex-cellar pr litre 9

80,000

Hectolitres

70,000

€/hL

8 7

60,000

6

50,000

5

40,000

4

30,000

3

20,000

2

10,000

1

0

Sparkling

Sancerre

Muscadet

Note: Muscadet includes all the Muscadet appellations Source: Vin de Loire14

Rosé d’Anjou and Touraine Blanc Cabernet d’Anjou

Vouvray

0

€ price ex-cellar

90,000

Export by hL

90

The Loire Valley

In terms of exports, Sancerre outperforms all the other still wine appellations by both volume and value, achieving a price that is nearly half as much again as the average price of all white wines. In the table, the top six appellations or groups of appellations are aggregated (e.g. all the Muscadet AOCs) and compared with Sancerre AOC. ORGANIC, BIODYNAMIC AND NATURAL WINE The Loire Valley has a number of well-known proponents of organic and biodynamic vine growing. Nicolas Joly was the founder of the Renaissances des appellations/ Return to Terroir group, now a worldwide group of biodynamic producers but with more producers in the Loire than in any other region. The total production of certified organic wine is below the French average but this perhaps is not surprising given the cool and damp climate. The Loire Valley is also a centre of natural winemaking, with wines often being produced as Vin de France. References 1. 2018 data. Economie du vignoble du Val de Loire. Les chiffres clés, 2019, InterLoire and BIVC (retrieved 23 March 2020, no longer publicly available) 2. As above 3. Muscadet & Terroirs, Vin de Nantes (retrieved 23 March 2020) 4. Economie du vignoble du Val de Loire. Les chiffres clés, 2019, InterLoire and BIVC (retrieved 23 March 2020, no longer publicly available) 5. As above 6. The Loire Valley vineyards and their vines, 2019, Vins des Loire (retrieved 23 March 2020) 7. Economie du vignoble du Val de Loire. Les chiffres clés, 2019, InterLoire and BIVC (retrieved 23 March 2020) 8. As above 9. Jefford, A. 2018, The taste of spring, Decanter, (retrieved 23 March 2020) 10. Press Kit 2019, Les vins du Centre-Loire, BIVC, p. 3 (retrieved 23 March 2020) 11. As above 12. Economie du vignoble du Val de Loire. Les chiffres clés, 2019, InterLoire and BIVC, p. 15 (retrieved 23 March 2020, no longer publicly available) 13. As above 14. Statistiques, Exportations des vins du Val de Loire, InterLoire, August 2018, p. 4

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7

The Rhône Valley

The Rhône Valley is treated here as two regions, with the northern Rhône being continental in climate and predominantly planted with Syrah, while the southern Rhône has a Mediterranean climate and is planted with several significant varieties, especially Grenache Noir, Syrah, Cinsaut and Mourvèdre. These make mainly red and, in a few places, rosé wines. Some white wines are also made, with Viognier, Marsanne and Roussanne in the north and blends usually based around Grenache Blanc in the south. The two main regions are separated by a gap of 50 kilometres (30 miles) where relatively few grapes are grown. The River Rhône runs through both the northern and southern regions. In general, the northern appellations are close to the river, with vines planted on slopes above the river itself, creating a range of aspects depending on the course of the river. In the southern Rhône the area under vine is vastly greater than the north (66,000 ha in the south, less than 4,000 ha in the north) with many of the vineyards at considerable distances from the river. The north is mainly made up of several clearly defined AOCs (known as cru) while the south has both individual AOCs, for example, Châteauneuf-du-Pape, while also providing large volumes of basic Côtes du Rhône AOC and IGP wine. The appellations Côtes du Rhône AOC and Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC together produce around 60 per cent of all wine produced in the Rhône as a whole. In total in 2018, 74 per cent of the AOC wine produced in the Rhône Valley was red, 16 per cent rosé and 10 per cent white. Eight per cent of the total Rhône vineyard was certified organic.1 Production in the Rhône Valley hL, 2018

Other Rhône AOCs, 24%

IGP 1.1 m, 30% AOC 2.5 m, 70%

Source: InterRhône2

Percentage of production by volume of AOC wines, 2018

N Rhône crus, 6% S Rhône crus, Côtes 8% du Rhône Villages, 11%

Côtes du Rhône, 46%

The Rhône Valley

7.1.  Grape Varieties

BLACK GRAPE VARIETIES Syrah This vigorous variety needs careful training and tying in to protect it from the Mistral wind that blows through both the northern and southern Rhône. On the steep slopes of the top northern Rhône appellations individual plants are often tied to one or two poles as trellising is not possible, adding to cost. It is susceptible to mites and to botrytis bunch rot. In addition to common diseases, there is also a disease called Syrah decline or disorder in which the leaves turn red and the graft point breaks up and the vine dies. Syrah is the only black grape variety used in the northern Rhône crus, whose wines are typically deep ruby in colour, medium to pronounced intensity aromas and flavours of violet, plum (red plum in cooler years and sites, black plum in warmer years and sites), blackberry with black pepper and herbal notes. Acidity and tannins range from medium to high. Syrah adds structure, fruit and colour to Southern Rhône blends.

Syrah pre-veraison, Hermitage AOC.

Vines trained on poles.

Grenache Noir This high yielding variety needs a warm climate to ripen. It ripens late and therefore can be affected by early autumn rains. Its upright growth makes it very suitable to be trained as a bush vine, pruned short to contain its vigour, and it does well on dry, low fertility soils. It has good drought resistance but is prone to coulure (leading to reduced yields) and to the fungal diseases downy mildew, phomopsis and botrytis bunch rot. It is also prone to bacterial necrosis or bacterial blight, a disease that kills leaves and shoots and eventually the plant. The

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disease is combatted by planting only disease-free stock and avoiding contamination from pruning tools. The grapes can accumulate high sugar levels quickly, which can be an issue in dry wines but makes it very suitable for producing Vin Doux Naturel. It typically forms the major component in southern Rhône blends that may also include Syrah, Mourvèdre and other local varieties. It contributes pale ruby colour, ripe red fruit (strawberry, red plum, red cherry), spicy and herbal notes, high alcohol, low to medium tannins and low acidity. Mourvèdre This is a late budding and late ripening variety that only thrives in warm to hot climates. It needs high temperatures at the end of the season to ripen fully and therefore can be under ripe if the late summer is not hot. It is not drought resistant but requires small but regular amounts of water, for example from deep calcareous soils that stores water. It is best pruned short and can be grown either with a cordon system or on bush vines. It only produces low yields. It is prone to mites, leafhoppers and sour rot (a disease that affects ripening bunches due to insect or bird damage to grapes, which then become prone to bacteria and fungi). In the winery, it is strongly prone to reduction and therefore care has to be taken to make sure the must has adequate access to oxygen. It is typically aged in old oak, which adds a small amount of cost. The wines are almost always used as parts of a blend in the Rhône where Mourvèdre contributes deep ruby colour, intense aromas of blackberries, blueberries and violets, high alcohol and high, firm tannins. By contrast, it is the principal variety in the red and rosé wines of Bandol AOC in Provence. Cinsaut Also spelled Cinsault, this is a late-budding and high-yielding variety with good drought and heat resistance. To produce the highest quality wine, yields must be restricted. If grown on soils with excessive lime it is can suffer from chlorosis. It is prone to esca and eutypa, and to mites and grape moths. In the southern Rhône Cinsaut is typically used as a small part of the red blend. It is typically made in a way that preserves its fruit flavours (mid-range fermentation temperature, aged briefly in stainless steel). It contributes light ruby colour, medium to medium (+) intense aromas of fresh red fruit (raspberry, red cherry), high alcohol and low to medium tannins. The lifted aromas of the variety are most prominent in the first year after the wine is made, making it highly suitable for early drinking reds and rosés. Carignan For the characteristics of this variety, see South of France: Carignan. WHITE GRAPE VARIETIES Viognier This is an early budding white variety and therefore prone to spring frost. It is normally grown on a trellis or on poles to prevent wind damage. Yields tend to be low and unpredictable, due to poor flowering and fruit set (coulure) reducing returns. Picking must be judged very accurately as the fruit needs to be fully ripe to have its typical pronounced aromas. However,

The Rhône Valley

if the grapes are left too long, they lose flavour and acidity, and rapidly gain sugar, resulting in unbalanced wines that lack flavour. The wines are medium lemon in colour with pronounced aromas and flavours of honeysuckle, apricot and peach, with medium to high alcohol and low acidity. Up to 20 per cent of Viognier is allowed in some northern Rhône red wines that are otherwise made with Syrah. Marsanne This is a late-budding white variety (helping it to avoid spring frosts) that is vigorous and productive. To produce high quality wine yields must be kept low to reduce the amount of fruit being ripened. It performs best on stony and low fertility soils (low fertility keeps the yields low) and therefore does well on the slopes of the northern Rhône Valley. It is prone to powdery mildew, mites and botrytis bunch rot. The wines are medium lemon in colour, sometimes gold, with low intensity honeysuckle, lemon and apricot fruit, an oily texture, medium acidity, full bodied and medium to high alcohol. In the Northern Rhône, it is either made as a varietal wine or blended with Roussanne. In the southern Rhône, it is usually part of a blend. Roussanne This is a late budding white variety that grows best on low fertility, well-drained soils. It has poor resistance to wind and therefore sites must be chosen carefully. It is variable in the amount of fruit it produces (due to coulure) and is very susceptible to powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot and mites, lowering yields and requiring additional work in the vineyard, both of which add to cost. It is more difficult to grow successfully than Marsanne and therefore less commonly grown in the Rhône Valley. The wines are medium lemon in colour, sometimes gold, medium to medium (+) intensity aromatics of pear with herbal notes, medium to medium (+) acidity and medium to high alcohol. Roussanne is similar in colour and structure to Marsanne but the wines tend to age quicker. In the Rhône Valley, it is normally blended with other varieties, especially Marsanne in the northern Rhône and Clairette and Grenache Blanc in the southern Rhône, though single varietal wines are made in both. Grenache Blanc This white variety is relatively early budding, but this is only occasionally a problem with spring frost as it is mainly grown in the mild south of France and in Spain. It has good wind resistance. For other grape growing issues, see Grenache Noir. In the Rhône it is grown almost exclusively in the southern part, where it is mainly used to produce dry white blends and also a little Vins Doux Naturels (see D5: Fortified Wines) where its tendency to reach high potential alcohol levels is a benefit. It contributes low intensity ripe green fruit and some floral notes, high alcohol and low acidity. Clairette This vigorous white variety grows well in low fertility, dry soils and is therefore well suited to the southern Rhône and its low rainfall. To contain the vigour, it needs to be pruned short and excessive buds removed but grows very upright and has the advantage of being relatively wind resistant without staking. It ripens late and therefore can be prone to early autumn rains. It needs careful handling in the winery as it oxidises easily.

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This variety principally goes into white blends in the southern Rhône, adding freshness and fruit, with white flower, fennel, apple and grapefruit notes, has high alcohol and low to medium (–) acidity. Bourboulenc This late ripening variety has loose bunches and thick skins, giving it the resistance to botrytis bunch rot, giving it the disease resistance necessary for late ripening. It grows well in warm, dry locations, and hence is well suited to the conditions in the southern Rhône. The wine is typically used in white southern Rhône blends contributing lemon flavour, medium (+) acidity and medium alcohol.

7.2. Winemaking

In general, the winemaking in the Rhône Valley is traditional with a preference for concrete vats for fermentation (though stainless steel and large wooden vessels are also in use) and for small and large wooden vessels for maturation. Grenache Noir is prone to oxidation and premature loss of colour if it is exposed to too much oxygen and therefore is typically fermented and aged in concrete vats or stainless steel tanks. By contrast, Syrah is prone to reduction and therefore has to be pumped over more often and is often aged in oak to provide gentle oxidation, adding to cost. Some high-quality producers in the northern Rhône use a proportion of new French oak barrique, but this is less prevalent than in the 1990s. PRODUCTION OF RED CRU-LEVEL WINES Grapes are harvested by hand and transported in small crates, ensuring whole, unbroken bunches arrive at the winery. Grapes may be destemmed, chilled and cold soaked for 1–3 days to extract colour. Alternatively, grapes may be left as whole bunches (or partially destemmed) and vinified as such, to promote more intense aromatics. Producers carry out fermentation in stainless steel, large concrete tanks or open top wooden fermenters, and may choose either cultured or ambient yeasts. Fermentation is generally at warm temperatures to enhance extraction of colour, flavour and tannin and, for the same reason, maceration on the skins may last for 20–30 days with punch-downs, pump-overs or rack and return. A period of maturation before bottling, likely 12–24 months, is common with large oak vessels used for Grenache Noir and small barrels for Syrah and Mourvèdre, typically with a proportion of 20–30 per cent new. PRODUCTION OF INEXPENSIVE HIGH-VOLUME RED WINES For inexpensive wines, grapes will typically have been harvested by machine. Inevitably some of the grapes will be crushed in this process and therefore it is important to process the entire volume quickly to avoid bacterial infection. Hand picking and carbonic maceration is an option for some to enhance colour and fruit intensity and produce wines with low tannins, suitable for early drinking. Large producers may use flash détente or thermovinification to gain a low-tannin, fruity style quickly. Cultured yeasts will typically be used to ensure quick, reliable fermentation to dryness. Fermentation may occur at mid-range temperatures to retain fruit flavours and avoid the extraction of high levels of tannin. For the same reason, maceration times may be kept short. The wines may be stored in stainless steel for a few months before bottling.

The Rhône Valley

Stainless steel fermentation tanks.

Wooden fermentation tanks.

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ROSÉ WINEMAKING The wines, for example in Tavel (see Appellations in the Southern Rhône) are typically made through a short maceration, where the grapes are pressed after cold maceration on the skins for 12–48 hours. Fermentation is then completed as for a white wine. The period of maceration provides the required depth of colour, flavour intensity and light tannins. The wines are typically aged in oak or concrete large vats or stainless steel though some producers will age some top wines in old small oak barrels to add texture. This method is sometimes referred to as the saignée method but in this case the idea is to make only rosé wine from the grapes and all of the juice extracted from them. It is not the case that must is drawn off to make rosé as a by-product of concentrating what will become a red wine. WHITE WINEMAKING Most white wines are fermented at mid-range temperatures to retain fruit. Malolactic conversion is sometimes avoided to retain natural acidity. Most wines are aged in large old oak or stainless-steel vessels. The natural full body of the white Rhône varieties means that lees stirring is sometimes avoided, though some do stir the lees for a yet fuller-bodied style (e.g. M. Chapoutier’s Hermitage). Some wines are matured in oak, adding a layer of complexity and occasionally also fermented in oak for better fruit-oak integration. Both fermenting and maturing in small oak barrels adds cost.

7.3.  The Northern Rhône

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING This region has a moderate continental climate with cold winters, warm summers and adequate rainfall falling mainly in the autumn and the winter. The cold Mistral wind blows from the north. It reduces the incidence of fungal disease. It also decreases vine vigour and leads to lower yields and higher concentration in the wines, but lower production. The distance between the most northerly and southerly vineyards is over 65 kilometres (40 miles), a distance that can result in better ripening in the southern part of the region. Many of the better vineyards are on steep slopes that increase the interception of sunlight and promote better drainage. However, most work has to be done by hand, raising cost. APPELLATIONS The appellations are reviewed travelling from north to south. Côte Rôtie AOC This small AOC, the most northerly of the Rhône appellations, produces only red wines. The vineyards are on steep slopes, often terraced, that mostly face east and south-east, making for high sunlight interception and are sheltered from the winds from the north. The high levels of sunlight and heat, rapid drainage and poor, stony soils result in fully ripe grapes. The steepness of the slope makes it necessary to do much of the work by hand and erosion is a constant problem. Many vines are on terraces, which need to be repaired from time to time. Individual vines are single- or double-Guyot trained and are tied to one or two poles (known locally as échalas).

The Rhône Valley

NORTHERN RHÔNE 00

00

10 10

55

20 20

10 10

30 30 Km Km

N N

15 15 Miles Miles

Vienne Vienne 45˚30´N 45˚30´N

CÔTE CÔTE RÔTIE RÔTIE

45˚30´N 45˚30´N

Ampuis Ampuis

CONDRIEU CONDRIEU

Château-Grillet Château-Grillet

FRANCE RR. .RRh hôôn nee

SAINTSAINTJOSEPH JOSEPH

CROZESCROZESHERMITAGE HERMITAGE HERMITAGE HERMITAGE

TournonTournonsur-Rhône sur-Rhône

Tain Tain l’Hermitage l’Hermitage

CROZESCROZESHERMITAGE HERMITAGE

45˚00´N 45˚00´N

RR..IIssèèrree

45˚00´N 45˚00´N

CORNAS CORNAS SAINTSAINTPÉRAY PÉRAY

1500m+ 1500m+ 1000-1500m 1000-1500m 500-1000m 500-1000m 200-500m 200-500m

Valence Valence

100-200m 100-200m 0-100m 0-100m

Because of a lack of commercial interest and the hard work involved, the plantings in the appellation had shrunk to just 70 ha in the early 1970s. The appellation was revived by Etienne Guigal and his son Marcel, and their single-vineyard Côte-Rôties (initially La Mouline and La Landonne) and the high scores given to these wines by Robert Parker. Côte Rôtie now has 250 ha planted, and the wines are typically very good to outstanding in quality and are sold for premium and super-premium prices.

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Côte Rôtie. All wines are red and made from Syrah, with up to 20 per cent of Viognier permitted in blends, though in practice this is often zero and normally no more than 8 per cent. The Syrah vines are most commonly propagated by mass selection, with rootstock 3309 preferred by most growers. This is regarded as being relatively productive and the vines produce grapes with a good depth of colour. Typical planting densities are 10,000 vines per hectare, creating competition between the vines, reducing yields and producing concentrated fruit in the wines. The maximum allowed yield is 40 hL/ha. When both grape varieties are used, they must be co-fermented. Winemaking emphasises the aromatic potential of the wines, with most choosing to destem and then cold soak the fruit, but usage of a percentage of stems in the ferments is increasingly common. Warm fermentation temperatures are typical, for full extraction. Where Viognier is used, it adds floral and fruity aromas. Natural yeasts are frequently used (for greater perceived terroir expression) and malolactic fermentation takes place in cask. Maturation is either in small barrels (usually 225 L barriques, on the model of Guigal’s single-vineyard wines) or in larger wooden vessels, with demi-muids of 500–600 L being favoured by many for less overt oak notes in young wines. Stylistically the wines are known for their pronounced aromas and are typically softer and less full-bodied than the wines of the other top appellations, Hermitage and, latterly, Cornas. Condrieu AOC This appellation is situated close to the northern end of the northern Rhône vineyard area. The wine must be 100 per cent Viognier and the maximum yield is restricted to 41 hL/ha, ensuring medium to pronounced flavour intensity. The river turns southwest at this point, meaning the

The Rhône Valley

vineyards are often south-facing, enhancing fruit ripening. The vines are grown on steep, low fertility, rocky slopes, often in terraced vineyards, with constant challenges from soil erosion and wind. This small appellation (197 ha) surrounds the single-estate 3.5 ha AOC, Ch. Grillet AOC, which created the reputation of Viognier (some of it domaine-bottled from the 1830s onwards) as one of France’s great wines before the variety came back into fashion in the 1980s. Most Condrieu is fermented in stainless steel or large wooden vessels but with a few producers using the more expensive, small barrel, that produces wines with enhanced texture and flavour. Producers can choose whether or not to allow malolactic conversion to take place, depending on the vintage but is normally carried out. Wines are typically aged on the lees for 10–12 months often with lees stirring. The wines are typically very good to outstanding in quality and premium to super-premium in price. They are the model for high quality Viognier around the world. Saint-Joseph AOC This is a long appellation that runs from Condrieu to Cornas, nearly the entire length of the northern Rhône wine region (50 kilometres/30 miles). The historical heart of the region is around the lieu-dit (named site) Saint-Joseph, at the southern end, opposite Tain L’Hermitage. The appellation was extended in 1994, which included some sites not on hillsides that normally produce lower quality wines. Confidence within the appellation has grown and today the debate is whether to reduce the appellation and limit it to hillside slopes only. Jean-Louis Chave is a highly regarded producer based in the AOC who has done much to raise the prestige of the appellation, as has Domaine Gonon. Nearly 90 per cent of the wines are red. The maximum yield is restricted to 40 hL/ha. While Marsanne and Roussanne are allowed in small proportions in the red wine, in practice it is rare to include white grapes. Stainless steel and large wooden tanks are the most common fermentation vessels and ageing is generally in larger wood tanks or large barrels and occasionally barriques. The quality and price of Saint-Joseph covers a wide range from good wines at mid-price to very good to outstanding wines at premium and super- premium prices. Hermitage AOC The hill of Hermitage has been producing wine since the Greco-Roman era. Located above the town of Tain L’Hermitage, this most famous of all northern Rhône appellations is named after the twelfth century crusader and latterly hermit, Gaspard de Stérimberg. It is a small appellation (137 ha) virtually all planted, with one third being devoted to white wine production. On the left bank of the river as it flows south, the appellation is a south-facing slope, catching the sun and having protection from cold winds. The hot, dry vineyards with thin, stony soils result in wines of pronounced flavour intensity, high tannins in red wines and longevity. The most famous climats for Syrah are at the western end of the hill that records the highest temperatures, for example, Le Méal. Erosion is a constant problem with some parts of the vineyard having to being terraced, and much vineyard work has to be done by hand, raising cost. Yields are limited to 40 hl/ha (45 hl/ha for whites), seldom achieved, and many producers have old vines, giving low yields and highly concentrated wines.

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Hermitage.

Steep slope in Hermitage.

The Rhône Valley

Red winemaking is traditional; a proportion of stems is often included in ripe vintages, warm fermentation temperatures used for maximum extraction of flavour and tannins, and lengthy oak ageing (typically 12–18 months). A proportion of new oak is common but not always used and medium to large wooden vessels are common. White wines are typically a blend of a majority of Marsanne with some Roussanne or pure Marsanne. Fermentation is either in old wood vats, new or old oak barrels or in stainless steel. Maturation takes place in oak, with a minority proportion being new, or stainless steel depending on the style preferred by producers. The wines are typically aged on the lees for 10–12 months. After long bottle ageing, the best of these wines can develop rich, creamy and nutty flavours with outstanding complexity. In addition, in very ripe years a rare Vin de Paille is made (a sweet wine made by drying the grapes off the vine). The holdings are dominated by the négociant houses of Chapoutier and Jaboulet, with significant holdings owned by the co-operative Cave de Tain (it owns 15 per cent of the appellation)3 and by Jean-Louis Chave. While Chapoutier has pioneered an approach focusing on individual parcels, Chave is a long-standing supporter of blending across the appellation. The wines, both red and white, are typically very good to outstanding and mostly superpremium in price. The reds in particular are a model of the world’s most structured and longlived Syrah wines. Crozes-Hermitage AOC The largest of the northern appellations, Crozes-Hermitage covers nearly 1,700 ha on the left bank of the Rhône. It surrounds the town of Tain L’Hermitage and the hill of Hermitage itself and extends almost equally to the north, east and south of these. The north sector of the AOC has a continental climate, with marked Alpine influences; it can be extremely cold in winter, with a strong influence from the Mistral. It has a long growing season, high diurnal range, resulting in wines of moderate sugar accumulation and retained acidity. The southern sector is more temperate, although there can be heavy rainfall in the late autumn and through the winter. The AOC was created in 1937, and extended, in the manner of Saint-Joseph, in 1956, now to 1,700 ha. There is a difference between the relatively steep slopes to the north of Tain and the flatter vineyards to the south, which used to be dominated by orchards and farmsteads. In general, the soils are deeper and more fertile than in neighbouring Hermitage and the resulting wines have lower concentration, though the maximum yield is restricted to 45 hL/ha. On the flatter land, machine harvesting is possible, reducing cost. While much of the appellation produces mid-priced good to very good wine, there are also a number of premium-priced, high-quality wines, pioneered by Jaboulet’s Domaine de Thalabert. Carbonic and semi-carbonic maceration can be used to enhance the fruitiness of some wines made to be drunk young, but today this is rare. Traditional fermentation on the skins is common in wines intended to be aged. Destemming is widely practiced, with fermentation mainly in concrete tanks or stainless steel and maturation in these tanks or large oak vessels. Generally, wines are made for early drinking with medium tannins. The whites make up 9 per cent of the production. They are made from Marsanne and Roussanne, with more of the former planted. Top examples of white wines will be aged in old wood, and occasionally a proportion of new barrels. The wines are mainly good to very good in quality and mid-priced to premium, with some outstanding wines.

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Cornas AOC This is the most southerly of the northern Rhône appellations for red wine production, a natural south and east facing amphitheatre with some steep slopes. A warm Mediterranean climate, good protection from cold winds and the excellent aspect mean that this is often the first Syrah to be picked in the northern Rhône. Only red wine is made within the AOC and must be from 100 per cent Syrah. Maximum yield is restricted to 40 hL/ha. It is a small appellation of 145 ha, now mainly planted. The wines had a reputation for tannic intensity. While some producers use small barrels to soften tannins, the current trend is back towards robust and long-lived wines. Significant producers include Domaine Alain Voge, Domaine Vincent Paris and Domaine Auguste Clape. The wines are typically very good to outstanding in quality and premium to super-premium in price. Saint-Péray AOC This is the most southerly of the northern Rhône appellations, with a slightly cooler climate than its immediate neighbours. It is devoted to white wines grown on limestone and granitic soils, ensuring good water-holding capacity and drainage. Marsanne accounts for the vast majority of plantings, with some Roussanne. The maximum permitted yield is 45 hL/ha. The wines are fermented in stainless steel or in oak barrels and aged in the same or in large old oak vessels. Higher quality wines are typically aged on the lees for 10–12 months. Some producers choose to stir the lees to add body to the wines. The wine is typically good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced. In addition to still wine, traditional method sparkling wine is made from the same varieties, though it is increasingly rare.

Vineyard in Saint-Péray.

The Rhône Valley

Collines Rhodaniennes IGP This category (‘hills of the Rhône’) is used for red, white and rosé wines made from grapes grown outside of the AOCs in the northern Rhône. Higher yields are allowed (maximum 80 hL/ ha). It allows producers to make wines from other grape varieties than those allowed by the AOC rules and for top producers in the northern Rhône cru to offer less expensive wines than their AOC wines, typically mid to premium priced.

7.4.  The Southern Rhône

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The southern Rhône has a warm, Mediterranean climate with mild winters and very warm, dry summers. Overall rainfall is adequate for grape growing. However, drought is an increasing problem in some summers. Irrigation is permitted if drought is severe within strict rules, see Wine Law. The land is flatter here than in the northern Rhône and therefore there is little protection from the Mistral wind. As a result, low bush- trained vines are common for suitable varieties, especially for the Grenache Noir, the most planted variety in the south. Syrah is usually grown tied to wires on trellises to give it protection from the wind.

Châteauneuf-du-Pape vineyard with irrigation installed.

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APPELLATIONS Montélimar Montélimar

GRIGNANGRIGNANLES-ADHÉMAR LES-ADHÉMAR

FRANCE

44˚30´N 44˚30´N RR. A . Arrd dèèch che e

VINSOBRES VINSOBRES RR. .RRhhôônnee

CAIRANNE CAIRANNE RASTEAU RASTEAU GIGONDAS GIGONDAS VACQUEYRAS VACQUEYRAS

Orange Orange

TAVEL TAVEL

COSTIÈRES COSTIÈRES DE DE NÎMES NÎMES

VENTOUX VENTOUX

Avignon Avignon RR. . DDu ur CHÂTEAUNEUFCHÂTEAUNEUF- raanncc DU-PAPE DU-PAPE

LUBERON LUBERON

CÔTES CÔTES DU DU RHÔNE RHÔNE

1500m+ 1500m+ 500-1000m 500-1000m

hhôônnee RR. .RR

1000-1500m 1000-1500m

43˚30´N 43˚30´N

200-500m 200-500m 100-200m 100-200m 0-100m 0-100m

44˚00´N 44˚00´N

ee

Nîmes

BEAUMESBEAUMESDE-VENISE DE-VENISE

MUSCAT MUSCAT DE DE BEAUMESBEAUMESDE-VENISE DE-VENISE

LIRAC LIRAC 44˚00´N 44˚00´N

44˚30´N 44˚30´N

Golfe du Lion

CÔTES CÔTES DU DU RHÔNE RHÔNE VILLAGES VILLAGES

SOUTHERN RHÔNE 00

00

20 20

10 10

40 40

20 20

30 30 Miles Miles

60 60 Km Km

N

The hierarchy of appellations in the southern Rhône is: • • • •

Côtes du Rhône AOC Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC + named village, currently numbering 22 villages, e.g. Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC Séguret Individual appellations for the top villages of the southern Rhône, known as cru: Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOC, Gigondas AOC, Cairanne AOC etc.

Outside this hierarchy, there are other appellations such as Ventoux. In the southern Rhône, with the exception of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, the AOC regulations require typically that the red wines are Grenache Noir-dominant blends with Mourvèdre and Syrah, along with other permitted varieties, for example Carignan and Cinsaut. The regulations for red, rosé and white wines:

The Rhône Valley

• •

distinguish between principal, complementary (i.e. the main blending varieties) and other permitted varieties state the total minimum proportion of principal (and, where applicable, complementary) varieties which must be used. Some AOCs distinguish between a minimum percentage of a variety in the vineyard and in the final blend, giving the producer some flexibility. For example Côtes du Rhône AOC requires 70 per cent of the principal varieties in the vineyard but only 60 per cent in the final blend.

In this study guide, the percentages quoted are for the blend of the final wine, not the percentage of the varieties planted in the vineyard. Côtes du Rhône AOC This vast appellation covers all vineyard land suitable for grape growing in the southern Rhône (except for the Other Rhône Appellations) and, in principle, the northern Rhône too. In practice, the vast majority of the wine comes from the south as producers in the north can usually sell their wines under more valuable appellations. It is the second largest appellation by hectares planted in France, after Bordeaux AOC. Principal varieties

Other permitted varieties

Red and rosé wines Maximum yield 51 hL/ha

Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre, Syrah. Together these must make a minimum of 60 per cent of the volume of the final blend.

Many local minor varieties are permitted including Carignan and Cinsaut

White wines Maximum yield 51 hL/ha

Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, Viognier together must make up 80 per cent of the final blend.

Further, if the grapes come from the southern Rhône (as they mostly do), Grenache Noir must be a minimum of 30 per cent and the combination of Mourvèdre and Syrah a minimum of 20 per cent. Many local minor varieties are permitted including Piquepoul Blanc.

The AOC for Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC for red wines has similar rules but requires the final blend to have a minimum of 66 per cent of at least two of the three principal varieties and must include Grenache Noir. Maximum yields are 44 hL/ha for Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC and 41 hL/ha for Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC + named village. Maximum yields are lower in the southern Rhone crus: 35 hL/ha in Châteauneuf-du-Pape, 36–38 hL/ha in the red wines of the other villages. The red Côtes du Rhône AOC wines are typically medium intensity ruby, medium intensity red plum and blackberry fruit, no oak flavours, medium acidity, medium tannin (or low tannin if made by carbonic maceration), medium alcohol. The wines are typically good quality and inexpensive in price.

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Gigondas AOC This well-established appellation, AOC granted 1971, has vineyards up to 600 m above sea level. It is in part shaded by the Dentelles de Montmirail mountains, reducing the temperature in the mornings. This extends the period of maturation and increases the flavour in the resulting wines. The slightly lower temperatures and the cooling effects of the Mistral have become increasingly valued, as Grenache Noir in the warmer temperatures of recent decades has resulted in high alcohol wines. The final blend here is based on the principal variety Grenache Noir (at least 50 per cent) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvèdre. Vacqueyras AOC This AOC, granted 1990, is not quite as high as Gigondas, rising to 440 m, giving diurnal variation but not threatening ripeness in cooler years. Small amounts of white and rosé wine are made within the AOC. The final blend here is based on principal variety Grenache Noir (at least 50 per cent) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvèdre. These two appellations make wine that is typically good to very good in quality and midto premium priced. Vinsobres AOC This is the most northerly of the southern Rhône crus, promoted to being a separate AOC in 2006. (Like most of the southern Rhône crus, it had previously been a named village within Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC.) It is dominated by plantings of Grenache Noir, though in recent decades, more Syrah has been planted and grown, contributing flavour intensity, structure and colour. The wines are exclusively red. The final blend here is based on principal variety Grenache Noir (at least 50 per cent) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvèdre. The vineyards are on south and south-east facing slopes of 200–500 m, resulting in good sunlight interception, good drainage and some protection from the Mistral. The higher slopes are cooler, lengthening the period of ripening and increasing flavour intensity. As is usual in the region, some older plots of Carignan and Cinsaut are increasingly valued for their highquality fruit. Vinsobres and all the other more recent crus listed below make wine that is typically good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced, though with more mid-priced than premium priced wines. Rasteau AOC Promoted to AOC in 2010 for its red wine, Rasteau AOC produces red wine and a small amount of Vin Doux Naturel. The final blend here is based on principal variety Grenache Noir (at least 50 per cent) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvèdre. Vines are planted on low south-facing slopes (100 m) in a warm enclave, sheltered from the Mistral, resulting in ripe, fullbodied wines. As elsewhere in the warmer parts of France, irrigation is allowed here within the limits set. Most of the wine is fermented in large vats, especially concrete, and matured in large oak vessels. Some higher quality Syrah is aged in small barrels, at additional cost. The wines are typically good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced.

The Rhône Valley

Cairanne AOC This new AOC, created 2015, is not as steep as Gigondas or as warm as neighbouring Rasteau. It produces mainly red wines in a fruity and approachable style. The final blend here is based on principal variety Grenache Noir (at least 40 per cent, lower than the preceding AOCs) and at least one of Syrah or Mourvèdre. The small amount of white wine produced is has a reputation for high quality. Beaumes-de-Venise AOC Best known for its Vin Doux Naturel, this AOC has also included unfortified still red wine from 2005. Most of the vineyards are on slopes, some slightly shaded by the Dentelles de Montmirail. The final red blend here is based on principal variety Grenache Noir which with Syrah must together must make up 50 per cent of the blend.

New concrete fermentations tanks. Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOC This historic village and appellation name each owe their original fame to being the summer residence of the Pope in the fourteenth century when the papacy had been relocated to the nearby city of Avignon. It is also historic in the sense that in 1923 Baron du Roy of Château Fortia drew up a set of rules, the prototype for the first AOC in France, initially approved in 1936, to protect the name from being used by others outside of the region. The rules delimited the region where the grapes had to be grown, stipulated the use of 13 grape varieties (18 if you count the colour variants of five of them) and a minimum alcohol level of 12.5 per cent abv without chaptalisation that at the time was a challenging requirement. The appellation allows red and white wines to be made. More than 90 per cent of the wine produced is red and the rest white.4

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Today the red wine is principally made from Grenache Noir with Mourvèdre and Syrah, and the white wine from Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Bourboulenc and Roussanne. Note that Marsanne and Viognier, two major white varieties of the Northern Rhône, are not permitted for AOC wines. Mourvèdre is attracting increasing interest for its intense black fruit; however, it can only succeed where there is sufficient moisture in the soil. The grapes must be picked by hand. Because there is no stipulation of principal varieties and minimum percentages to be used, it is possible to make single varietal wines, e.g. Château de Beaucastel’s Châteauneufdu-Pape Roussanne Vieilles Vignes. This large AOC (more than 3,000 ha) includes limestone, clay, sandstone and sandy soils, the clay content being particularly helpful in its water-holding capacity in a region with dry summers. Low fertility and generally fast-draining soils are highly suitable for growing vines and for reducing vegetative growth, leading to smaller crops of ripe grapes. Average yields for the decade to 2018 are just under 30 hL/ha.5 Large pebbles (galets roulés) radiate heat at night, adding to the warming effect. In the past, this warming effect was valued but it is less so now as a warming climate is contributing to high sugar levels. Many producers blend across lieux-dits and soil types for added complexity and to create volumes that are commercially viable. In general, growers believe that wines from grapes grown on sandy soils are finer and lighter in style than the more structured wines from grapes grown on soil with the large pebbles. Red Châteauneuf-du-Pape is medium ruby in colour, medium (+) to pronounced intensity of ripe red plum and blackberry fruit with spice notes and sometimes new oak notes. The wines have medium acidity, high alcohol and tannins vary from medium (–) to high, depending on varietal mix, winemaking style and vintage. Because of the size of the appellation and the number of producers there is a range of quality but the majority are good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to super-premium.

Stony soils with visible clay seam.

The Rhône Valley

Stony soils. White wines are made from Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Roussanne and other local varieties. Some high quality wines may be fermented in oak barrels for additional complexity, while others prefer to preserve freshness and primary fruit character. Wines are matured either in tanks or oak barrels, occasionally with a proportion of new oak. The recent trend has been to make the wines lighter, more floral and fresher in style. Lirac AOC This long-established AOC lies across the river from Châteauneuf-du-Pape and makes mainly red wines, and some rosés (like neighbouring Tavel to the south) and white wines. For red wines, the principal varieties are Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre, Syrah and Cinsaut which together must make up a minimum of 90 per cent of the final blend. High sunlight hours and well-drained, infertile soils make for good conditions for growing and ripening grapes. Significant producers included Domaine de la Mordorée, who also typify the connection with Châteauneuf-du-Pape across the river, having vineyards in that appellation. Tavel AOC This appellation, uniquely in the Rhône Valley, is dedicated solely to rosé wines. The AOC lists 12 principal grape varieties (black and white), but the final blend must include Grenache Noir. None of the principal varieties may contribute more than 60 per cent, with the rest being made up from the allowed 12 varieties. The maximum yield is 46 hL/ha. The wines are medium intensity pink-orange in colour, much darker than most other rosés, with medium to medium (+) intensity of strawberry and raspberry fruit, medium (+) to full body and medium alcohol but at the top end of that band (e.g. 13.5% abv). The wines are good to very good in quality and midpriced to premium in price.

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Tavel rosé.

Tavel co-operative. During the last two centuries, Tavel rosé had a very high reputation as France’s best rosé and a wine well suited to gastronomy. This reputation is now challenged by the paler Provençal styles. Some Tavel producers have made paler wines (like rosé makers around the world) but the classic deeper colour remains the usual style.

The Rhône Valley

Other Rhône Appellations These appellations, sometimes referred to as satellite appellations, surround the main Côtesdu-Rhône growing area in the Southern Rhône. There are seven in total. The largest by production level are Costières de Nîmes, Grignan les Adhémar, Ventoux and Luberon. Ventoux AOC – This large and increasingly-planted appellation in the south-east of the southern Rhône is on the southern and western slope below the high Mont Ventoux, an important cooling influence due to the altitude and cool air coming down from the mountain giving freshness to the wines. Vines are grown up to 450 m. Almost two thirds of production are red wines, one third is rose, with a very small proportion of white wines.6 The principal varieties are Grenache Noir, Syrah, Mourvèdre, Carignan and Cinsaut for reds wines that together must be 50 per cent of the final blend (and at least two varieties must be included), making a range of blends a possibility. The appellation allows up to 60 hL/ha maximum yield, leading to some wines with light concentration. The appellation exports about a quarter of its production and co-operatives are very important in the area that also has a wave of new winemakers, e.g. Domaine de Fondrèche. Most wines are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-price, with a few wines at premium prices. Costières de Nîmes AOC – This appellation lies between the Rhône and eastern Languedoc and is in effect the south-west limit of the Rhône wine region. The vines are grown on southwest facing slopes, making for good sunlight interception, and is ventilated by breezes from the Mediterranean. Almost two thirds of production are red wines, one third is rose, with a very small proportion of white wines.7 The principal varieties for red wine are Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre and Syrah which together or singly must make up a minimum of 50 per cent of the final blend. The maximum permitted yield is 60 hL/ha. Recent decades have seen a movement from being dominated by co-operative wineries towards smaller, privately-owned estates. Most wines are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-price with a few wines at premium prices. Luberon AOC – This appellation is in the south-east of the Rhône Valley and borders onto Provence. Vines are planted on gentle slopes or flat land. The principal varieties are Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre. The final blend must include at least two of these which singly or together must make up a mininimum of 50 per cent of the blend. The maximum yield for red wine is 55 hL/ha. Most wines are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-price, with a few wines at premium prices. Grignan-les-Adhémar AOC – This appellation is at the northern end of the southern Rhône. It produces mainly red blends (minimum 50 per cent of principal varieties Grenache Noir and Syrah) in a slightly lighter style than the areas to the south at inexpensive and mid-price points, plus white and rosé wines. Most wines are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-price. IGP wines In the southern Rhône, in addition to AOC wines, IGP may be made from Rhône varieties or international varieties. Thus, for example, in the department of the Gard, home to Costières de Nîmes AOC, Merlot is the third most grown variety and Cabernet Sauvignon the fifth most grown variety.

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7.5.  Wine Law and Regulations

Grape varieties and maximum yields have been noted above under the individual appellations. The general prohibition of irrigation for AOC wines in France has been amended so that AOCs may apply for permission to irrigate under strict conditions. Proof of water stress to vines is required, no irrigation is permitted after véraison, and in no circumstances can irrigation be used to exceed the maximum yield allowed by individual AOCs.8

7.6.  Wine Business

While the northern and southern Rhône are dealt with separately as wine-producing regions, from a commercial point of view many major companies and the largest négociants are based in the north but operate across the region as a whole. Examples include Guigal, Jaboulet and Chapoutier. Co-operatives are much more important in the south than in the north with, for example, Cellier des Princes, based in Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Similarly, the Cave de Tain in Tain l’Hermitage is an important co-operative, especially for the wines of the northern Rhône, where it sells around 40 per cent of all Crozes-Hermitage AOC wines. Sales of Rhône wines by volume are divided between France – supermarkets (32 per cent), specialist wine retail and hospitality (29 per cent) and discounters (6 per cent) – and export (33 per cent). Exports are growing with the top three markets by volume being the the USA, UK and Belgium. As the value of wine has risen, more growers are making and bottling their own wines, rather than selling them to a négociant or taking grapes to a co-operative. For example, Côte Rôtie has over 50 growers undertaking their own bottling and has a higher ratio of domaines relative to the number of négociants than many other communes. There is a small en primeur and investment market for the regions’ very top wines, especially Côte-Rôtie, Hermitage and Châteauneuf-du-Pape. References 1. Rhone Valley, AOC Wine Regions, Key Figures 2017, Inter Rhône 2. As above 3. Jefford, A. 2016, The Crozes crusader, Decanter (retrieved 24 March 2020) 4. Châteauneuf-du-Pape Wines, press release of the Federation of Châteauneuf-du-Pape wine producers, 2018, p.9 (retrieved 8 April 2020) 5. As above 6. As above 7. As above 8. Martin, F. 2016, The irrigation of grapevines in Europe – an update on existing legislation, Irrigazette (retrieved 24 March 2020) 9. Jefford, A. 2016, The Crozes rusader, Decanter (retrieved 24 March 2020) 10. Dossier de presse, Inter Rhône p. 6 and 8 (retrieved 8 April 2020)

South of France

8

South of France This guide deals with the wines of the Languedoc, Roussillon and Provence. The former administrative region of Languedoc-Roussillon, that since 2016 has been part of the wider Occitanie administrative region, is treated in two parts: • •

Languedoc: the départements of Aude, Hérault and Gard Roussillon: the département of Pyrénées-Orientales.

With around 240,000 hectares under vine, Languedoc-Roussillon has more hectares under vine than the individual countries of Chile, Australia or South Africa.1 220,000 of these hectares are situated in the Languedoc. One common factor between these three regions is the low yields for AOC wines, due to low rainfall and a warm, windy climate (causing high rates of evapotranspiration). In a survey of yields for AOC wine in the decade 2005–2015, Languedoc-Roussillon had the lowest yields of all French regions, roughly half that of Champagne or Alsace.2 M M aa ss ss ii ff CC ee nn tt rr aa ll

AA

ll pp

F FR RA AN NC CE E 44˚N 44˚N

PIC PIC SAINTSAINTLOUP LOUP

TERRASSES TERRASSES DU DU LARZAC LARZAC

Avignon Avignon

Nîmes Nîmes

CORBIÈRES CORBIÈRES

MALEPÈRE MALEPÈRE

43˚N 43˚N

PP y y rr éé n n éé e s e s ANDORRA ANDORRA

Perpignan Perpignan

COTEAUXCOTEAUXD'AIX-EN-PROVENCE D'AIX-EN-PROVENCE

1500-2000m 1500-2000m

8.1. Languedoc

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The Languedoc is mainly located on a low-lying alluvial plain, though recently its more ambitious growers are reclaiming vineyards on hillside slopes with the intention of creating higher quality wines. The climate is Mediterranean and there is a large range of grape varieties grown including local varieties (e.g. Piquepoul), those typical of the south of France in general including the Rhône Valley (Syrah, Grenache Noir, Carignan).

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Large volumes of wine are produced at IGP level in this region, especially those produced from, and labelled as, single varieties. The Languedoc of today has a long history of grape growing, having been both a Greek and a Roman colony as well as the site of many monasteries in the Middle Ages. Its fortunes were transformed by the building of the Canal du Midi (connecting it to Bordeaux in the late seventeenth century) and of the railways (middle of the nineteenth century), enabling wines to be efficiently transported to export markets and to Paris. As a result, grape growing and winemaking became important drivers of the region’s economy. Co-operatives became very important in the region, especially in the 1950s when they accounted for 90 per cent of total production. Even today, they account for 70 per cent of the area’s production.3 Post 1973, once France no longer sourced wine from Algeria, Languedoc, together with Roussillon, became the largest source of everyday wine in France. Over-production in relation to demand led to the eventual removal of many vineyards; the total area under vine is half what it was in 1968. Today the production of inexpensive wine is accompanied by increasing attention to small production, high quality wines. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate The Languedoc’s Mediterranean climate, typically with high levels of sunshine, rainfall below 600 mm a year and very warm summers, is generally very favourable for grape growing. Low moisture levels and the cool, dry Tramontane north-west wind that blows for about 200 days per year mean that there is low disease pressure from fungal diseases, thus reducing the need for spraying and the consequent cost. This has also enabled the growth of certified organic wine production (Languedoc and Roussillon are responsible for one third of France’s organic production).4,5 However, in dry years very low rainfall can reduce production levels considerably where irrigation is not installed. Grape Varieties The most grown varieties in the Languedoc, all black, are as shown in the following chart. Top varieties by percentage of hectares in Languedoc

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Carignan

Source: Anderson, K. 20136

Syrah

Grenache Noir

Merlot

Cabernet Sauvignon

Cinsaut

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Carignan – This variety, spelled Carignane in American English, buds late (and may thereby avoid spring frosts) and ripens late (and therefore needs to be grown in a warm climate with a long ripening season). It can produce high yields (200 hL/ha and more), which made it popular in the past when the volume of production was the most sought-after characteristic. These wines frequently had low flavour intensity. To produce wines of high concentration, its yield has to be sharply reduced and this happens naturally when vines become old (for example 50 years and more). It is particularly prone powdery mildew and to grape moths. It is not particularly suited to mechanical harvesting as the bunches are firmly attached to the vine. The amount planted reduced significantly due to the EU vine pull scheme and it is being replaced in Languedoc (which had by far the largest plantings) with other varieties. Its grapes are high in acidity and tannins. Winemakers will often seek to soften these characteristics, for example, by using carbonic maceration or by blending with other varieties. The wines, other than those from very old vines, are typically unoaked, medium ruby in colour with simple blackberry fruit, high acidity and tannins. The great majority of wines are acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive in price. However, very good or outstanding quality examples have intense black fruit with spice and earthy notes and can attract premium and super-premium prices. Vineyard Management Historically vines were grown as bush vines and some of these remain. This form of pruning and training is well adapted to the climate (providing some shade to the bunches). However, most work has to be done by hand, which is expensive. In recent decades, many new vineyards have been planted with trellises, enabling a high degree of mechanisation, and thus reducing costs. (The reduced availability of labour and the improvement in the quality of machine harvesting have contributed to this trend.) IGP wines tend to be machine harvested, but AOC wines may also be machine harvested where the topography allows. WINEMAKING For inexpensive wines, winemaking is carried out in large concrete or stainless-steel tanks and using cultured yeasts to ensure rapid and complete fermentation and a consistency of style. Most inexpensive red wines are made by crushing the grapes and fermenting them on the skins for 5–7 days to limit the extraction of tannins. Mid-range fermentation temperatures are used

Grapes being delivered.

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Diatomaceous earth filer. to preserve primary flavours and the wines are stored for a few months in stainless steel or concrete tanks. These wines are made for early drinking but, with medium tannins, they will hold for 2–3 years. Carbonic maceration is also commonly employed to produce fruity wines with medium to deep colour and low tannins, particularly with tannic varieties such as Carignan. Again, midrange fermentation temperatures are used to preserve primary flavours and the wines are stored for a few months in stainless steel or concrete tanks. The vast majority of these wines are made for early drinking. However, a number of examples of high quality and ageable wines are also made in this way, particularly with Carignan and Syrah (for example at Château La Voulte Gasparets). For high quality, small volume production, there is more use of sorting tables, fermentation at warm temperatures, more use of ambient yeast and of barriques for the maturation of the wines. The additional equipment required for these wines and the use of barriques or tonneaux for maturing the wines adds to the cost of production. These wines are intended to be capable of maturing in bottle. There is also experimentation with concrete tanks and eggs and large format oak vats.

IGP WINES IGP represents nearly 70 per cent of the production in the Languedoc. The regulations are more flexible than for AOC (maximum yields of 90 hL/ha for white and red wines, 100 hL/ ha for rosé.) and a very wide range of varieties – a total of 58 – may be used. These higher

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yields mean that production levels per hectare are higher and costs lower, making the wines attractive in the inexpensive price band. The IGP category, especially the wines labelled with a grape variety, have been at the root of the region’s commercial success over the last three decades. In France there are three forms of IGP that can overlap: • • •

Regional, e.g. IGP Pays d’Oc, for the whole of the Languedoc-Roussillon region Departmental, e.g. IGP Gard, the Gard being a French administrative département A smaller unit named after a historical or geographical feature: e.g. IGP Côtes de Thongue.

IGP Pays d’Oc is by far the biggest producer of IGP wine in France. This single IGP produces between 10–15 per cent of all French wine depending on the vintage. By colour, just over half of the wines produced are red, a quarter white and just under a quarter rosé. The wines are typically fresh, fruity expressions of the variety being used with little or no use of oak for maturing the wine. They are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to medium-priced. The top four grape varieties grown and mainly used for single variety wines are Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Syrah; the top seven are given in the chart below. Below this top seven, large volumes of Pinot Noir, Viognier, Marselan, Cabernet Franc, Grenache Blanc, Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains, Carignan, Colombard, Vermentino and Malbec are grown. The top varieties by percentage of the total hectolitres produced for red, rosé and white wine is shown in the pie chart. Volumes of IGP Pays d’Oc wine produced by variety All other varieites 21%

Merlot 21%

Cinsaut 6% Cabernet Sauvignon 14%

Sauvignon Blanc 7% Grenache Noir 8%

Syrah 11%

Chardonnay 12%

Source: Interprofession des Vins Pays d’Oc IGP7 Half of the production of IGP Pays d’Oc is sold in France, mostly in supermarkets, but hospitality sales are also significant. The top three export markets are Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium.

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AOC WINES, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS

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Appellation requirements include detailed rules about the varietal composition for red, rosé and white wines, making a distinction between principal varieties and other varieties. The following explanation focuses on red wine, typically 90 per cent of production in all the appellations (excluding appellations devoted to white wine). Each appellation lists its principal grape varieties and other allowed grape varieties. In all cases, the Languedoc AOCs for red wine require a minimum of two varieties including one or more of the principal varieties. Most of them also give an upper limit for any one variety (e.g. maximum 80 per cent), meaning that all AOC wines are genuinely blends. The AOC may also set minimum and maximum amounts for a single variety or combinations of varieties. With the exception of the particular cases of Cabardès AOC and Malepère AOC, all the Languedoc appellations require the use of Grenache Noir in the blend and most require Syrah and Mourvèdre. In many appellations, these three varieties are the principal grape varieties. In Corbières AOC and Fitou AOC, Carignan is a principal grape variety and in nearly all other appellations it is an option.

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The rules for sub-zones can be different to the parent appellation. Thus, Saint-ChinianRoquebrun AOC requires a higher total percentage of Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre than Saint-Chinian AOC does. Different percentages can be set for the varieties in the vineyard and in the final wine. Thus, the AOC may require 50 per cent of a variety in the vineyard but only 40 per cent of the same variety in the final wine, allowing producers some flexibility. Unused grapes can be used for other wines, e.g. for rosé, IGP wines or made as Vin de France. In the rest of this guide the percentages given will be for the final wine. Each AOC also sets the maximum yields, which typically are between 45–50 hL/ha. Some sub-zones limit the yield, e.g. to 40 hL/ha. The regional appellation, Languedoc AOC, allows 50 hL/ha for red wines and 60 hL/ha for white wines, which may lead to slightly less concentration in some of these wines. In many of the individual appellations, the average yield in practice is well below these figures (e.g. around 35 hL/ha), due to low rainfall and soils with low fertility. To illustrate how this system works, the detailed example of Languedoc AOC, the large regional appellation, is given here: • • • •

The principal varieties here are Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre. A minimum of two varieties must be used including at least one of the principal varieties. No variety may be more than 80 per cent of the blend. The total combination of the principal varieties must make up a minimum of 40 per cent of the blend. The other varieties (in this case Cinsaut, Carignan and other local varieties) may not make up more than 30 per cent of the blend. This last percentage is much higher than in the specific AOCs listed below, reflecting the nature of a regional AOC. More typically the maximum is 10 per cent.

In general, in terms of style, quality and price, the red wines of Languedoc can be grouped as follows: •

•

•

Regional appellation (Languedoc AOC) – The wines typically have medium intensity in aroma and flavour with simple, blackberry and red plum fruit, with medium tannins, acidity, alcohol and body. The wines are acceptable to good in quality and range from inexpensive to mid-priced. Named appellations (e.g. Corbières AOC) – The wines typically have medium to medium (+) intensity in aroma and flavour with blackberry and red plum fruit with herb notes (lavender, rosemary), medium tannins, medium to medium (+) acidity, medium to high alcohol and medium (+) to full body. A minority of wines have oak aromas. The wines are good to very good in quality, with some outstanding examples, and range from inexpensive to premium priced. Sub-appellations (e.g. Corbières-Boutenac AOC) – The wines of the sub-appellations typically have medium (+) to pronounced aromas and flavours and medium (+) tannins. They are very good in quality with some outstanding examples and are mostly mid-priced with some premium examples.

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Corbières AOC Corbières is a hilly appellation south-west of Narbonne, at over 10,000 ha it is the fourth largest in France. Two key mountain ranges (Tauch and D’Alaric) provide sites for vineyards on slopes up to 450 metres. The cooling influence of altitude and cold northern winds helps to retain acidity in the grapes. Nearly 90 per cent of production by volume is red wine.8 At least 40 per cent of the final wine must be any of the principal grape varieties (Carignan, Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre and Syrah), with the remainder from other permitted varieties including Cinsaut (maximum 20 per cent). The maximum yield for red, rosé and white wine is 50 hL/ha. The sub-appellation of CorbièresBoutenac AOC requires Carignan, Grenache Noir and Mourvèdre to make up 70 per cent of Corbières-Boutenac. the blend. The wines of Corbières AOC are predominantly sold in France (70 per cent) and through supermarkets. 30 per cent by volume produced is exported, with China, Germany and Belgium being the leading export markets.9 As in many of these Languedoc appellations, rosé wine is also made, as is white wine from varieties such as Bourboulenc, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne or Rolle (Vermentino). Minervois AOC Minervois is an extensive appellation with a range of climatic For more detail on the grape zones based on altitude and proximity to the Mediterranean growing zones of Minervois, see Sea. This allows a range of suitable sites to be found for The Terroirs of the Minervois. grape growing for red (the great majority of production), rosé and white wine. Most red and rosé wines are Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre blends; together these three varieties plus Carignan and Cinsaut must be 50 per cent of the final blend with no one variety exceeding 80 per cent. Minervois La Livinière AOC – This AOC is an AOC for red wine only. It is situated on a limestone terrace of gentle slopes at up to 400 m of altitude, giving very good drainage, exposure to the sun and some cooling influences from altitude. The cooler temperatures can lead to higher acidity levels in these wines than those from the lower, warmer parts of Minervois AOC. Syrah, Mourvèdre and Grenache Noir must make up at least 40 per cent and these, plus Carignan and Cinsaut, must make up at least 80 per cent of the blend. Saint-Chinian AOC Saint-Chinian is another large appellation, sited between Minervois and Faugères, producing mainly red and rosé wines from blends principally of Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre (minimum 50 per cent in the blend). There are two areas within the appellation:

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•

•

the northern zone with arid, fast-draining schist soils, resulting in low yields and wines of higher concentration. Within this sector are the two sub-zones, Saint-Chinian Roquebrun AOC and Saint-Chinian Berlou AOC. the southern area where the soils are clay and limestone with greater water-holding capacity, which produces higher yields of less concentrated wines.

Fitou AOC Fitou is made up of two areas with a part of the Corbières AOC between them, adjacent to Roussillon. It was the first AOC in the Languedoc, formed in 1948. The coastal area of Fitou is relatively flat, low-lying plains, with clay and limestone soils that have good water retention. The wines made from this area tend to be less concentrated than those from inland. The inland area is more mountainous and has less fertile and fast-draining schistous soils, resulting in wines of potentially higher flavour concentration. The focus here is on the traditional varieties Carignan (which must be 10–40 per cent of the blend) and Grenache Noir (minimum 20 per cent). The largest producer in Fitou is the Mont Tauch co-operative responsible for approximately half of the total production of the appellation. Faugères AOC Faugères is situated at 250–400 m of altitude on well-drained and low fertility schistous soils, resulting in wines of very good concentration. While the maximum yields allow a higher production (e.g. 50 hL/ha for red wine), average yields are low (33 hL/ha). There is a high proportion of organic grape growing (40 per cent of vineyard land).11 The wines have to be aged for a year before release. They are sold almost entirely in France (nearly 90 per cent).12 Pic Saint-Loup AOC Pic Saint-Loup has a more continental climate than many For a more in-depth look at Pic Saintof the other Languedoc appellations, with cold winters and Loup AOC: see Jefford on Monday: warm summers and considerable rainfall (1,000 mm per Languedoc’s cool kid. year). In this climate, which is similar to the northern Rhône, Syrah performs well here and must be 50 per cent of the final blend. The appellation is only for red and rosé wines. Terrasses du Larzac AOC Terrasses du Larzac is a relatively new appellation, gaining AOC status in 2014. The vineyards are at a range of altitudes, some at 120–200m but with some up to 400m. High diurnal range (up to 20ºC/68ºF in summer) gives ripe fruit flavours and fresh acidity. The AOC is for red wines only and they must be a blend with at least three varieties, promoting complexity in the final wine. This area has attracted investment and is seeking to establish a reputation for high quality. Many wines reach premium price points with some super-premium examples, e.g. La Peira.

Terrasses du Larzac.

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La Clape AOC La Clape is another new appellation. AOC status was gained in 2015 for this coastal area, close to the city of Narbonne. It is warm, sunny, arid and windy. These conditions enable full ripeness, suitable therefore for varieties such as Mourvèdre that needs heat to ripen properly. 80 per cent of the wine produced is red. Although making up a relatively small proportion of the volume, La Clape is well known for its white wines which must include a minimum of 60 per cent of Grenache Blanc and/or Bourboulenc. Picpoul de Pinet AOC On low-lying land close to the coast, Picpoul de Pinet is devoted to white wine made entirely from the Piquepoul Blanc grape variety. (The appellation is spelled ‘Picpoul’, while the grape is spelled ‘Piquepoul’.) In a warm climate, it usefully retains acidity as it ripens. The grapes were once used mainly for the base wine for the local Vermouth industry. However, since the arrival of new technology and techniques in the 1970s and 1980s (especially gentle pressing, and the ability to avoid oxidation and ferment at low temperatures), fruitier wines have been produced leading to a rapid growth in demand, initially from tourists in the area and then in the export markets. Maximum yield is 55 hL/ha. The wine is dry and medium bodied with medium (+) to high acidity and medium intensity lemon fruit with light floral notes. The wines are acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. The wine is mainly exported (65 per cent) with tourists in the region accounting for a considerable part of the domestic consumption. The top export market is the UK, which accounts for nearly 60 per cent of exports, followed by the USA and the Netherlands.13 The wine is sold in a distinctive bottle (slender with an embossed Languedoc cross). Co-operatives, such as Ormarine in Pinet itself, play an important role in the region, accounting for around 90 per cent of the production of the appellation.

Picpoul de Pinet.

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Atlantic-Influenced Appellations The most westerly part of the Languedoc is home to Malepère AOC and Cabardès AOC in which Bordeaux varieties are grown alongside more typical Languedoc varieties. •

•

Malepère AOC has a climate influenced by the Atlantic as it is protected from Mediterranean influences by mountains. Malepère AOC must be a blend of at least two varieties and a minimum of 40 per cent Merlot. Cabardès AOC is subject to both Atlantic and Mediterranean influences and must be a blend of 40 per cent each of Bordeaux varieties (the two Cabernets, Merlot) and Grenache Noir and/or Syrah.

In addition, Limoux is an appellation in this region that is mainly devoted to sparkling wine. WINE BUSINESS In terms of volume, the Languedoc continues to be dominated by IGP and the simple ‘wine’ categories: 15 per cent of wine is AOC and nearly 70 per cent IGP.15 In response to rising demand, rosé production has increased markedly in recent years (+35 per cent between 2010 and 2017). In general, exports of AOC wine from Languedoc are growing rapidly (+15 per cent, five years to 2016), with the highest growth in the two biggest markets of the USA and China. While the Languedoc has focused historically on the For the story of Clos d’Ora, see production of inexpensive wines, often made by co-operatives, Jefford on Monday: Monsieur there has been a recent development of very ambitious wineries Bertrand’s dream. seeking to show that wines of the highest quality can be made in the area. Examples of this would include the pioneer Mas de Daumas Gassac, Domaine de Gérard Bertrand’s Clos d’Ora and the range of wines with typical Languedoc single varieties and blends from Château Puech-Haut. In between the extremes of inexpensive and superpremium wines, the main development in the current century has been a focus on mid-price wines. These seek to reflect their origin – being made from blends of varieties typical to the region – and are marketed under the specific appellations listed above. This development has been driven by a rise in small private producers who, either have left the co-operatives and are making their own estate wines, or investors from other parts of France or abroad attracted by the stock of old vines, the varied landscape and reasonable land prices. The Languedoc is a partner in the promotional body, Sud de France (covering wine, food, tourism), which organises the ViniSud wine fair and promotions in export markets.

8.2. Roussillon

Today Roussillon has around 21,000 hectares of vineyard, having reduced the area planted dramatically in recent decades (it is roughly one third the size it was in 1980), as seen in other parts of southern Europe. The region is dominated by the Pyrenees and many of the vineyards are located on the slopes or foothills of these mountains. Around 70 per cent of the vineyard area is classified as AOC – there is no extensive flat, coastal plain here suited to high volume grape growing, as in the Languedoc. Around a quarter of production is Vins Doux Naturels (see D5: Fortified Wines), while roughly equal volumes of AOC and PGI wines are made. Cooperatives continue to be very strong in the region and account for around 75 per cent of

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production. The majority of wines produced are red, followed by rosé with a small proportion of white wine.16 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate Roussillon has a warm, windy, Mediterranean climate with moderate rainfall (500–600 mm annually) and high sunshine hours. Generally, the climate is very favourable for grape growing, though drought can be an issue in dry years. The combination of frequent winds and low rainfall helps to reduce the disease threat from fungal diseases. However, these climatic factors also reduce yield (which in turn raises concentration of fruit) and therefore income. There is a high proportion of certified organic grape growing in the region (15 per cent by hectares planted), enabled by the warm, dry, windy and sunny conditions. Grape Varieties The most important varieties are Grenache Noir, Syrah, Carignan and Mourvèdre for red and rosé wines, the Muscats (mainly used for fortified wine) and Macabeu (for an introduction to this variety, see Macabeo in Spain) for whites. In contrast to Languedoc, all the top six varieties have been grown in the region for many decades. Top varieties by percentage of hectares in Roussillon 25 20 15 10 5 0

Grenache Noir

Syrah

Carignan

Muscat Blanc

Muscat of Alexandria

Macabeu

Source: Anderson, K. 201317 Vineyard Management As in the Languedoc, historically vines were grown as bush vines. Many of these remain. Well adapted to the climate (providing some shade to the bunches), most work has to be done by hand, which is expensive. In recent decades, vines have been planted on trellises, though the amount of flatter land, suitable for trellising, is far less than in the Languedoc.

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APPELLATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS The two main AOCs for dry wines are: Côtes du Roussillon AOC Côtes du Roussillon is a large appellation (nearly 5,000 ha) that includes the entire département of Pyrénées-Orientales except the Collioure area. It is situated on lower slopes (100–250 m) and is an appellation for red, rosé and white wines. Maximum yield is 48 hL/ha. The principal varieties for red and rosé wines are Carignan, Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre and Syrah. Maximum allowed amount of Carignan in the vineyard is 50 per cent, while Syrah and Mourvèdre separately or together must be a minimum of 25 per cent in the vineyard. The wines must be made from a minimum of two varieties with a requirement that the variety with the highest percentage is limited to 80 per cent in the final blend. In terms of style, quality and price the red wines are similar to the Languedoc AOC wines.

Bush vines in Roussillon.

Côtes du Roussillon Villages AOC Côtes du Roussillon Villages is less than half the size of Côtes du Roussillon AOC. It is an appellation for red wines only, and has the same rules about a minimum two varieties and the proportion of the main variety. The vines are grown on slopes from 100–400 m, with the altitude resulting in a cooling influence and so greater acidity in the wines. However, more work has to be done by hand, raising cost. The maximum yield is restricted to 45 hL/ha, though yields are often well below that due to the hot, dry climate, resulting in wines of high concentration. Five villages may append their names to this appellation, for example, Côtes du Roussillon Villages Tautavel AOC with a lower maximum yield of 42 hL/ha. Some of these villages require the Carignan to be made with carbonic maceration, to promote the primary fruit and reduce the tannins that might be extracted. In terms of style, quality and price, the wines are similar to Languedoc sub- appellations. Collioure AOC This small appellation, extending along the coast to the Spanish border, has the same boundaries as Banyuls AOC (fortified sweet wines). Full-bodied, dry, red and white wines are made from grapes grown on steep terraces above the Mediterranean Sea. The red wines, the great majority, are made predominantly from Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre. The white wines are made predominantly from Grenache Gris, a mutation of Grenache Noir. The maximum yield for red and white wines is 40 hL/ha, which is rarely achieved. The typical yield

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is 20–25 hL/ha due to the heat, low rainfall and poor soils. In terms of style, quality and price, the red wines are similar to Languedoc sub-appellations with consistently high concentration of fruit due to low yields. IGP Côtes Catalanes covers the Pyrénées-Orientales département and is used by producers for red and white wines, including some super-premium white wines (for example from Domaine Gauby). WINEMAKING As in the Languedoc, red wines can be made either by pressing the fruit and maceration on the skins or by carbonic maceration, depending on the style of wine desired.

Maturation cellar, Roussillion. WINE BUSINESS As noted, co-operatives continue to be very important within the region, however, as in Languedoc, there is an increasing trend towards the production of high quality wines by individual wineries. Some of these have been set up by those from outside of the region, for example Thunevin-Calvet from Bordeaux and Domaine de Bila-Haut, owned by Chapoutier, Rhône. Outstanding quality, super-premium wines are made by wineries such as Domaine Gauby, Clos des Fées and Le Soula. 80 per cent of the dry wine (i.e. excluding Vin Doux Naturels) by volume is sold in France, with China, Belgium and Germany as the top three export destinations by volume.18 Roussillon is also a partner in the promotional body, Sud de France.

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Terraced vineyards.

8.3. Provence

This region has become virtually synonymous with pale pink rosé made principally from Grenache Noir and Cinsaut, a style much copied around the world. Rosé accounts for around 90 per cent of Provence’s AOC wine, which in turn represents about 40 per cent of France’s AOC rosé wine.19 Alongside this style, red wine from Grenache Noir, Syrah, Cinsaut, Mourvèdre and Carignan has become a new focus and very small volumes of white wines are made from varieties such as Vermentino (see Sardinia), also known locally as Rolle, and Clairette. Vineyard plantings in coastal areas have been reduced in size due to competition for land from housing development and tourism.

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The main varieties grown in Provence are shown in the chart. Climate Provence has a warm Mediterranean climate with adequate rainfall in most years for grape growing. The cold Mistral wind can provide a cooling influence and helps to reduce fungal disease. Provence has double the national average of organic vineyards,21 facilitated by the generally favourable climate. However, the cold winds can also interrupt flowering and fruit set, reducing yields. The best sites for consistent yields are those that have shelter from the Mistral. Altitudes up to 400 m in inland sites also provide a moderating influence on warm summer temperatures.

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Top varieties by percentage of hectares in Provence

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Grenache Noir

Cinsaut

Syrah

Carignan

Rolle

Cabernet Sauvignon

Source: Conseil Interprofessionnel des Vins de Provence 201920 Vineyard Management The traditional bush vines of the region are being replaced with trellised vines to aid mechanisation and reduce cost. The bush vine offers more shade to the fruit, which can be an advantage. However, trellised vines make it easier to control the size of the canopy and to achieve ripeness in terms of sugar level and ripe skins and seeds at the same time. Inter-row access is easier for workers and machines. Grapes grown for making rosé are picked earlier than for red wine to retain acidity. However, if the wine is to be made by short maceration, then it is important that the tannins are sufficiently ripe to avoid any bitterness. Choosing an appropriate harvest date is critical in ensuring fruit ripeness whilst retaining the desired level of acidity.

Grenache at véraison.

ROSÉ WINEMAKING The pale colour of most wines is related to the relatively low level of colour in the skins of the common varieties of the region – Grenache Noir, Cinsaut and the local variety Tibouren. In addition, the AOC regulations allow up to 20 per cent of white varieties in the blend. (If white varieties are used they will typically form less than 10 per cent of the blend. Using white grapes in the blend may be useful to reduce the alcohol level.) Rosé is made either by direct pressing (now the most common option) or by short maceration (a few hours) on the skins (see

South of France

chapter on Specific Options for Rosé Winemaking in D1: Wine Production). Musts are typically acidified to achieve a good balance between fruit and acidity. For best quality, fruit is handled protectively by chilling it to 4°C (39°F, which reduces the rate of oxidation, and then excluding oxygen, with a view to retaining the fruity aromas and preserving the pale colour. For example, Bucher Vaslin developed a specialised press trademarked Inertys®,22 to eliminate oxidation in the press. Harvesting and pressing options for making rosé Hand harvesting and pressing whole bunches

Machine harvesting and short maceration or hold in press

Advantages: • Less stress on the grapes during harvesting especially if picked at the coolest time (4am on) • Fruit can be sorted in the vineyard • Whole bunch pressing is gentler, extracting fewer solids and phenolics • More juice is produced at lower pressure due to presence of stems which create channels for the juie

Advantages (harvesting): • Fast • Significantly cheaper than hand harvesting • Does not require large picking teams • Grapes can be picked at night for cooler temperatures • Shortest possible delay between picking and refrigeration and/or pressing

Disadvantages • Hand harvesting requires a large, welltrained, picking teams to harvest and select correctly • In many countries, it is increasingly difficult to find and retain such labour • Labour may not be available in the early morning • Hand harvesting is more expensive and slower • Whole bunch pressing is more time consuming as fewer bunches can be loaded into the press

Disadvantages: • Machine harvesting requires an up-todate, well-maintained machine and a skillful driver • Grapes are destemmed by the shaking mechanism of the machine and therefore whole bunch pressing is not possible • Destemmed grapes require a higher pressure to extract the same amount of juice as whole bunch pressing

Fermentation typically takes place in stainless steel tanks. Winemakers have a choice of either selecting a cultured yeast for a consistent, fruity style or using ambient yeast. Cultured yeast also helps the fermentation get off to a fast start without any off-flavours. It has become the majority option. Fermentation temperature is restricted to between 14°–18°C (57–64°F) in order to preserve delicate primary fruit aromas but avoid the banana aroma associated with very low temperatures. Wines have to be fermented to dry (as set out in the AOC rules), resulting in a consistently dry style for the appellation. Malolactic conversion is routinely blocked to retain acidity and to preserve primary fruit. If the colour of the wine is deeper than desired, this may be reduced by fining the wine.

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Nitrogen generator for Inertys press. The wines are typically stored for a short period (2-3 months) on the lees in stainless steel containers before being bottled. A few producers choose to keep the wine on the lees for 8–10 months for added texture; some also produce an oak-aged premium rosé, for example, Château d’Esclans.

Fermentation room.

Bottling line.

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APPELLATIONS Côtes de Provence AOC This is by far the largest appellation with 20,000 ha under vine. 90 per cent of the wine produced is rosé. As with most other Provencal AOCs, there is also provision for red and white wines. The principal grape varieties required by the appellation for rosé are Grenache Noir, Cinsaut, Mourvèdre, Syrah and Tibouren and the wines must be a blend of varieties. The maximum yield is 55 hL/ha with average yields being close to 45 hL/ha. Within the appellation, there are some sub-zones, the largest of which is Côtes de Provence Sainte-Victoire AOC (lower maximum yields 50 hL/ha). Côtes de Provence rosé is typically pale pink-orange in colour, with light to medium intensity aromas of raspberry and red plum with herbal notes, medium acidity, medium body and medium alcohol. Quality typically ranges from good to very good and there is a wide range of prices with many wines in the mid-priced to premium bands but also some superpremium wines. Similar wines are produced within the enclave in the Var département, entitled to the appellation Coteaux Varois en Provence AOC and in Coteaux d’Aix-en-Provence AOC (maximum 60 hL/ha; both these AOCs have Counoise as a principal variety, in addition to the usual varieties). Between them, the three appellations mentioned produce more than 95 per cent of the AOC wines of Provence. Les Baux de Provence AOC in the far north west of the region, close to the Rhône River, makes mostly red wines from Grenache Noir, Syrah and Mourvèdre. The three varieties must make up 60 per cent minimum of the blend. Bandol AOC This appellation, unusually for Provence, produced more red wines than rosé. However, in recent years, rosé has become the most common style by volume. The vineyards are on south-facing slopes protected from the wind. Where the slopes are steep, they have to be

Foudres for maturing wine, Bandol.

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terraced to reduce erosion. Working on slopes adds greater labour costs. Soils are typically rocky (limestone and clay) with low fertility. Area under vine has reduced from 1,400 ha to fewer than 600 in this century alone, due to a combination of competition for land and the difficulties of working on the slopes. The wines typically feature Mourvèdre that generally ripens reliably in the area due to the very warm microclimate. Red wines must be 50–95 per cent Mourvèdre and must be aged in oak for 18 months. Rosés must have between 20–95 per cent Mourvèdre. Maximum yields are restricted to 40 hL/ha. Significant producers include Domaine Tempier. Co-operatives are responsible for 50 per cent of production (e.g. Les Vignerons de La Cadiérenne). The red wines are typically good to very good in quality with some outstanding examples that can be aged for many years. Prices range from mid-price to super-premium. Other Appellations Provence also has a number of very small, historic, appellations that became AOCs from the 1930s onwards: Bellet AOC, Cassis AOC mainly for white wine, Palette AOC mostly made by Ch. Simone. As these appellations are mostly on the coast, they are much under pressure from building development. Much of the wine is sold to local tourists. In 1955 cru classé status was granted to 23 estates of which 18 remain. Examples include Clos Mireille and Domaine Rimaurescq. The list has never been revised. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS These have been covered in the preceding sections. WINE BUSINESS 65 per cent of Provence’s wine by volume is sold in France with half of that being sold in supermarkets and a high proportion at the cellar door. At 36 per cent of total world consumption, France is the number one consumer of rosé in the world, not only drinking French rosés but also being the largest importer of rosé from other countries, especially Spain.23

Bottling Bandol rosé for the Russian market

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The top export market is the USA (which takes nearly a half of all Provence wine exports) followed at some distance by the UK at 13 per cent. Exports have grown rapidly since the turn of the century, 500 per cent in volume and 1,000 per cent in value.24 Wines are marketed with strong reference to the lifestyle of Provence and the Riviera, boosted still further in recent years by the purchase of wine estates, such as Château Miraval, by well-known celebrities. In addition to wine estates, négociants and co-operatives continue to be important in Provence. For example, nearly 60 per cent of production in the Var is by co-operatives, while large négociants account for 50 per cent of the production in Provence as a whole.25 References 1. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market, April 2019, OIV, p 5 for hectares under vine in the three countries mentioned (retrieved 24 March 2020) 2. Average yields in French Wine Regions 2005–2015, American Association of Wine Economics, 2018, using FranceAgriMer data (retrieved 24 March 2024) 3. The vineyards of the Languedoc AOP and IGP Sud de France, Sud de France and Les IGP Sud de France, 2019, report, p. 5 4. As above, p. 11 5. Le vin bio à la conquête des Français!, Agence Bio and France Vin Bio, September 2019 (retrieved 25 March 2020) 6. Anderson, K. 2013, Which Winegrape Varieties are Grown Where? A global empirical picture, University of Adelaide Press, p. 491, 493, data from 2009 vineyard census 7. All the statistics in this section on the Pay d’Oc are taken from: Pays d’Oc, Varietal Wines, Key Figures, 2018, report 8. Key figures (for 2016), Syndicat AOC Corbières (retrieved 24 March 2020) 9. As above 10. Fitou, Oxford Companion to Wine, 4th edition 11. Infos et chiffres-clés, Syndicat AOP Faugères (retrieved 24 March 2020) 12. Dossier de Presse 2019, Faugères AOC, p. 6, (retrieved 8 April 2020) 13. Dossier de Presse 2019, Picpoul de Pinet AOC, p. 6 (retrieved 24 March 2020) 14. The Vineyards of the Languedoc AOP and IGP Sud de France, March 2019, p. 6 15. As above, p. 24 16. All figures come from Vins du Roussillon, Dossier de Presse 2019, Conseil Vins du Roussillon (retrieved 25 March 2020) 17. Anderson, K. 2013, Which Winegrape Varieties are Grown Where? A global empirical picture, University of Adelaide Press, p. 494, data from 2009 vineyard census 18. Vins du Roussillon, Dossier de Presse 2019, Conseil Vins du Roussillon, p. 19 (retrieved 25 March 2020) 19. General presentation, Conseil Interprofessionnel des Vins de Provence, production figures (retrieved 25 March 2020) 20. Rosé any way, a look at Provence diversity, Conseil Interprofessionnel des Vins de Provence, February 2019, p. 39 21. As above, p. 30 22. Bucher Inertys – pressing under controlled atmosphere, Bucher Vaslin (retrieved 26 March 2020) 23. Rosé any way, a look at Provence diversity, Conseil Interprofessionnel des Vins de Provence, 2019, 2018 data 24. As above 25. Karlsson, P. 2015, Why wine co-operatives are so incredibly important, 2012 figures from Vignerons Coopérateurs de France (retrieved 25 March 2020)

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9

South West France

South West France as a wine region covers a number of appellations, with the exception of Bordeaux even though geographically Bordeaux is in the south-west of France. The climate is broadly similar to Bordeaux, in that the whole region is influenced by the Atlantic. South of Bordeaux (Madiran, Jurançon), the Atlantic influence extends inland for more than 100km owing to the largely flat, gently undulating territory. Elsewhere the Atlantic influence diminishes with greater distance from the ocean (Bergerac, Monbazillac and Cahors), resulting in slightly less rainfall and warmer summers. For example, per year Cahors has about 200mm of rainfall less than in Bordeaux. Large volumes of wine are made at both PDO and PGI levels. The wines are described in the regional sections below. d e nd e ro n iro Gi G

R. R.

SOUTH WEST SOUTH WEST FRANCE FRANCE

FRANCE FRANCE

0

45˚N 45˚N

Bordeaux Bordeaux

R . Dordo g n e R . Dordo g n e

BERGERAC/ BERGERAC/ CÔTES DE BERGERAC CÔTES DE BERGERAC

10

0

10

20

40

20 20

40

60

80

100 Km

30

60 40

80 50

100 Km 60 Miles

30

40

50

60 Miles

N N

45˚N 45˚N

MONBAZILLAC MONBAZILLAC

R . BORDEAUX Ga o R . rBORDEAUX Ga ro e e nn nn

Golfe Golfe de de Gascogne Gascogne

20

0 0

ot R. L t o R. L

44˚N 44˚N

n e nn e ron ro Ga . Ga R. R

rs ers Ge . G R. R

44˚N 44˚N

CAHORS CAHORS

Toulouse Toulouse

MADIRAN MADIRAN JURANÇON JURANÇON SPAIN SPAIN 1500m+ 1500m+

Côtes de Gascogne IGP Côtes de Gascogne IGP

P y r e n e e s P y r e n e e s 1000-1400m 1000-1400m

500-1000m 500-1000m

200-500m 200-500m

100-200m 100-200m

0-100m 0-100m

9.1.  The Dordogne – Bergerac and Monbazillac

The Dordogne, immediately to the east of Entre-Deux-Mers, is home to a number of appellations that make wines with the same varieties and in similar styles to the wines of Bordeaux. Bergerac AOC and Monbazillac AOC are the two largest producing appellations.

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Vineyard in Bergerac. BERGERAC AOC The appellation includes dry and sweet white, rosé and red wines. 50 per cent of production is red wine, just over 10 per cent is rosé, and just under 40 per cent is white.1 With a climate slightly warmer and drier than Bordeaux, and clay and limestone soils with some gravel, the Bordeaux varieties, white and black, can be grown here and ripen well. The wines must be made from a blend of the allowed principal grape varieties. For example, the red wine must be made from at least two of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec and Merlot, and this blend must be at least 50 per cent of the final wine. Less internationally recognised local varieties are allowed as a small part of the blends. The maximum yields are similar to Bordeaux AOC (67 hL/ha for whites, 60 hL/ha for red wines), resulting in some wines of low flavour intensity. These wines are typically aged in large stainless steel or older oak casks, producing wines in an easy-drinking style that can be released earlier on the market and that reduces cost in comparison to ageing wine in new barriques. For higher quality red wines, Côtes de Bergerac AOC is restricted to the main Bordeaux varieties (no local varieties permitted), the maximum yield is lower at 50 hL/ha and ageing in oak is used by some producers. Most wines are predominantly Merlot. Bergerac AOC and Côtes de Bergerac AOC wines are typically good to very good in quality and are inexpensive to mid-price. Nearly 90 per cent of Bergerac AOC is sold in France. Within the domestic market, supermarkets are the largest outlet (more than 50 per cent), then direct sales (under 30 per cent) with around 10 per cent each going via hospitality and specialist wine shops. The largest export markets are China (40 per cent), Belgium and the UK.2

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MONBAZILLAC AOC This is an appellation for sweet white wines only. The grapes may be affected by botrytis or simply late harvested. The region lies between the River Dordogne and one of its tributaries. This location, plus the funnelling of moist air (mists and dew) along the rivers creates high levels of humidity. In warm late summer and early autumn, the humidity is burnt off by the sun creating good conditions for noble rot. The grapes must be picked by hand in a number of passes through the vineyard. The wine must be at least 80 per cent of the principal varieties, Sauvignon Blanc, Sauvignon Gris, Sémillon and Muscadelle. Selecting botrytised grapes by hand. Maximum yield is 30 hL/ha. Fermentation in barrel with new oak is much less common than in Sauternes, thus reducing costs and making the wine available at a lower price. The wines are similar in style to sweet wines from Bordeaux’s less prestigious appellations, good to very good in quality and inexpensive to midpriced. For the Bergerac region as a whole, the wines are mainly sold in France (more than 50 per cent in supermarkets and deep discounters) with less than 10 per cent being exported. The main export markets are in north-west Europe.

9.2. Cahors

In the Middle Ages and down to the nineteenth century, Cahors produced a great deal of wine that was transported via the River Lot that runs into the River Garonne and hence to Bordeaux. The wine was then exported from Bordeaux. It came to be known as the ‘black wine of Cahors’ because of its deep colour. However, the combination of competition with the Bordeaux region (which imposed taxes on exports of Cahors wine and only allowed it to be exported after its own wines had been released), phylloxera and a devastating frost in 1956, the area under vine was reduced to only a tenth of the size that it had been. Today the appellation has around 4,000 ha planted with Malbec with a further 18,000 ha within the appellation that are currently not planted.3 Malbec accounts for 85 per cent of hectares planted.4 Cahors is the only appellation in France in which Malbec is the principal grape variety. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Despite being 250 km inland, Cahors receives some influence from the Atlantic. However, the climate is warmer and slightly drier (less than 800mm of rainfall per year) than Bordeaux. Malbec suffers less from coulure and mildew and it to ripens more regularly in Cahors. Tannat is also authorised though it is usually less than 10 per cent of the blend and many wineries do not use it all. Lower rainfall means that there is less need for spraying against fungal diseases

South West France

than in Bordeaux. At 17 per cent, the proportion of organic grape growing is well above the average for France as a whole.5 The vineyards, next to the River Lot, range from being on rich, alluvial soils (resulting in higher yields and lower fruit concentration), via the mid slope (poorer soils and hence

Valley floor, Cahors.

Plateau, Cahors.

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lower yields and higher concentration) to the highest plateau at just below 350 metres (low nutrient limestone soils, resulting typically in lower yields and higher concentration). The single Guyot training system is the most common but others are also used (bush vines, cordontrained). Machine harvesting is widely practiced for land for the vineyards that are easier to access. Hand harvesting take place, depending on the market prices of the wines, machine accessibility, weather conditions and the availability of labour. Return on investment is often the decisive factor. Hand harvesting can raise quality, allowing more careful sorting, but also raises the cost of production. Malbec This variety, also known as Cot, is vigorous and hence needs careful canopy and yield management depending on the style of wine to be made. It is susceptible to coulure, which reduces yields. Traditional style Cahors wines, often Machine harvesting. made with a high percentage of Malbec, are typically deep ruby in colour, with medium to pronounced levels (depending on quality level) of violet, red and black plum fruit, medium to medium (+) acidity and medium (+) to high tannin. Very good and outstanding examples may be aged in French oak barriques (adding to cost) and so have vanilla and sweet spice notes. Some producers today favour foudres for ageing their wines, allowing slow oxidative development but not adding oak aromas. The wines range in quality from good to outstanding (the latter can be aged in bottle for many years) and are mid- to premium priced. Some lighter coloured high quality wines are also made (see next paragraph). WINEMAKING, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Cahors AOC must be a minimum of 70 per cent Malbec with rest of the blend being Merlot and/or Tannat. The top-quality wines are increasingly 90–100 per cent Malbec. Destemming is required by the appellation (to eliminate underripe stems that could add aggressive tannins). In the past, a lack of maturity was most likely to be due to cool seasons, but today it is as likely to be due to a lack of water preventing full ripeness. Styles vary from early drinking (using Merlot in the blend; typically 7–10 days on the skins for limited extraction of tannins) to wines intend to bottle age (typically 15–25 days on the skins for greater extraction of flavour and tannins). As noted, the higher quality wines are often matured in oak.

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Sorting fruit. WINE BUSINESS 80 per cent of Cahors is produced by private companies and 20 per cent by a single cooperative, the Cooperative des Vignerons d’Olt, which belongs to Vinovalie that operates in four wine regions. Since 2000, Cahors has marketed itself as ‘Cahors, the French Malbec’ and ‘Cahors, The Capital of Malbec’.6 In addition, a voluntary code has been introduced by growers to indicate three levels of quality and price: •

• •

Tradition – inexpensive, 70–85 per cent Malbec, often grown on rich alluvial soils and at higher yields and lower fruit concentration Prestige – mid-priced, often grown on the midslope Spéciale – often 100 per cent Malbec, premium priced, often grown on the highest plateau).7

The latter two categories are typically grown at lower yields, have higher fruit concentration and longer expected ageing potential.

Pumping Malbec wine.

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70 per cent of the wine by volume is sold in France with supermarkets and direct sales, the two most important channels. Exports make up 30 per cent by volume and are growing. They rose from 10,000 hL in 1997 to more than 40,000 hL in 2017. The top three markets are the United Kingdom, Canada and USA. (The top market by volume is the UK but Canada and the USA are the largest by value.)8 Significant producers include Ch. du Cèdre and Ch. de Chambert.

9.3. Madiran

This region is in sight of the Pyrenees mountain range that separates France from Spain and 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean. Madiran AOC is a high tannin red wine made principally from the Tannat variety. Within the same geographical area, a white late harvest sweet white wine called Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh AOC is made from local varieties, similar in style to Jurançon. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Madiran has some Atlantic influence with a relatively high annual rainfall of 1,000 mm. However, this falls mainly in late winter and spring. Warm, sunny summers and dry autumns with warm days and cool nights and a hot, dry southern Föhn wind (more detail in Jurançon below) enable Tannat to ripen fully in most years. Madiran comprises four large, roughly parallel ridges oriented north–south, with steep west-facing slopes. The soils on slopes are mainly clay and limestone with good drainage, producing grapes that make tannic wines suitable for long bottle-ageing. On the flatter land, clay and clay and loam soils predominate and the resulting wines are less tannic and can be drunk earlier. Madiran: top varieties, percentage of plantings 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Tannat

Source: Madiran press pack, 20189

Cabernet Franc

Cabernet Sauvignon

Fer Savadou

South West France

Tannat This black grape variety is vigorous and therefore best supported on a trellis. It is mid-ripening, and therefore has normally been picked before the onset of autumn rains. However, it is prone to botrytis bunch rot that has to be controlled. As a variety it is highly tannic, which affects decisions about winemaking (see below). Madiran wines intended for ageing are typically deep ruby in colour, with pronounced aromas and flavours of blackberry and blackcurrant plus oak flavours, high tannins, high acidity with a full body and alcohol that ranges from the top end of medium to high. These wines are very good to outstanding in quality and mid- to premium priced. Earlier drinking styles with lower levels of tannins and concentration are also made. WINEMAKING, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Madiran AOC must be made with 60–80 per cent Tannat, blended with Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon and/or the local black variety Fer (also known as Fer Servadou). Vines can be trained with the Cordon de Royat or a cane-replacement system. Grapes must be destemmed (to reduce the extraction of further tannins) and the maximum yield is 55 hL/ha. Wine makers have sought to soften the tannins in Madiran by shorter maceration times, ageing in oak and through bottle age (the last two adding cost). In 1991, Patrick Ducournau pioneered the technique of micro-oxygenation, seeking to soften the tannins in Tannat wines. In addition to wines intended for long ageing, the recent trend is towards a more accessible style. Early drinking styles are achieved by picking only the ripest grapes, gentle pressing and the use of micro-oxygenation. Wines can only be sold to consumers from the beginning of November in the year following harvest, allowing some time for maturation before release. WINE BUSINESS 80 per cent of Madiran AOC is sold in France (50 per cent of this is through supermarkets, 25 per cent through hospitality, and 25 per cent directly or through specialist wine shops). The top export markets are the UK, Belgium and Germany.10 Significant producers include Alain Brumont and Ch. d’Aydie. Production is split roughly 50:50 between private growers and cooperatives. Important co-operatives include Cave de Crouseilles and Plaimont, the latter being the dominant producer in the neighbouring Saint-Mont AOC that also grows Tannat and has members in Madiran.

9.4. Jurançon

This region is in the foothills of the Pyrenes, at an altitude of around 300 m, producing dry wines and a range of sweet white wines from the white varieties Petit Manseng, Gros Manseng and other local varieties. The wines produced are 70 per cent medium-sweet or sweet and 30 per cent dry11 and there are three styles: Jurançon Vendanges Tardives (sweet), Jurançon (typically medium-sweet) and Jurançon Sec (dry). Jurançon Vendanges Tardives typically have intense aromas and flavours of lemon and mango, high acidity and alcohol between the top end of medium and high with a full body. Jurançon AOC is medium-sweet and is typically good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Jurançon Vendanges

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Jurançon vineyards. Tardives AOC is sweet and is typically very good to outstanding in quality and mid-price to premium in price. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Jurançon has a mild, humid climate, with relatively high annual rainfall, about 1,200 mm, which is distributed throughout the year and can affect flowering and fruit set and the period of harvest. Vineyards are planted on slopes for good drainage to offset these issues. Some slopes are steep enough to require terracing, increasing initial investment and maintenance. The best sites are south and south-west facing for maximum sunlight interception, thereby aiding ripening. The principal grape varieties are Gros Manseng and Petit Manseng. Jurançon: top varieties, percentage of plantings 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Gros Manseng

Source: La Route des Vins du Jurançon12

Petit Manseng

Other local varieties

South West France

Pruned vines. The region is also strongly influenced by the presence of the Pyrenees as this gives rise to a Föhn wind. This hot and dry wind blows in spring and autumn, about one day in three, drying the air and ventilating the canopy (and bunches in autumn), as well as boosting temperature. The heat and the wind help to produce over-ripe berries for the sweet wines. Due to the altitude, spring frosts are also a risk. The budding zone is trained well above the ground to mitigate this risk. Soils are a mixture of limestone, sand, clay and stones. Grapes are picked by hand and, for the sweet wines, in a series of selective pickings, raising cost. The first selection is in October, mainly for dry wines but also some sweet wines for early consumption. The second and third selections (November to December) are used for progressively sweeter wines. These last two selections are carried out after over-ripe grapes have been dried on the vine (passerillage). The drying process is due to the effect of prolonged time hanging on the vine, the autumn sunshine and the wind. Low yields, see below, raise the intensity of fruit and increase production costs. Petit Manseng This variety is early budding and hence prone to spring frosts (see above). It is mid to late ripening, has thick skins and is resistant to botrytis bunch rot, which makes it suitable for late harvesting. It is moderately aromatic and retains its high acidity, making it particularly suitable for the production of balanced sweet wines. It also has high alcohol, which means that

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producers must be precise about the picking date to balance the goals of full flavour ripeness, acidity and potential alcohol. Gros Manseng Gros Manseng shares the characteristics of Petit Manseng but has higher yields and usually less aromatic concentration and flavour intensity. It is principally used for dry wines. WINEMAKING, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS As stated, there are three styles of Jurançon wine. All three must be made with a minimum of 50 per cent of Petit and/or Gros Manseng, though in practice these two varieties are used exclusively for an overwhelming majority of the wines. These three wines are subject to the following rules: • •

•

Jurançon Sec – dry, maximum yield 60 hL/ha Jurançon – a medium sweet wine, Petit Manseng on the vine. minimum of 40g/l residual sugar, maximum yield 40 hL/ha Jurançon Vendanges Tardives – a sweet wine, minimum 55 g/L residual sugar but typically much higher, no enrichment allowed, maximum yield 40 hL/ha, Petit Manseng and Gros Manseng exclusively. Grapes for Jurançon Vendanges Tardives may not be picked before 2 November.

The higher quality sweet wines made with Petit Manseng are typically fermented in barriques and aged in them for 12–18months. Top quality wines typically use old oak, though new oak is occasionally used. This adds complexity to the wines and increases the cost of production. Malolactic conversion typically does not happen as the pH is too low and the acidity too high. This retains acidity and preserves the primary fruit flavours. Producers are increasingly making high quality dry wines and may include a small proportion of Petit Manseng. These are typically aged on the lees often in stainless steel. WINE BUSINESS Sales are divided almost equally between direct sales, supermarkets and the hospitality sector, with a small percentage being exported. Significant producers include Domaine Cauhapé (dry and sweet wines). The co-operative Cave de Gan accounts for roughly half of production. Producers are giving more attention to dry wine production as there is competition, for example with other French regions, to sell sweet wines, and sweet wines are in general more difficult to sell.

South West France

9.5.  IGP Wines

There are 14 IGPs in South-west France. IGP Côtes de Gascogne is by far the largest, in terms of vineyard planted.13 It has been particularly successful in marketing its white wines in the export markets of UK and northern Europe, led by Tariquet and Plaimont. This resulted in a three-fold rise in production between 1990 and 2000, 80 per cent of which was exported. The wines are made from mainly from Colombard (producing neutral white wine with medium– medium (+) acidity, usually used in blends), Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The style of wine is fruity and easy to drink, labelled with the name(s) of the variety or varieties. The wines continue to have commercial success in export markets around the world but now have more competition from the wines from non-European countries. The quality of the wines is acceptable to good and the prices are inexpensive to mid-priced. References 1. Rapport d’activités 2017–2018, Vins de Bergerac Duras, 2019 (retrieved 25 March 2020)   2. As above 3. For the history of Cahors, see the website of Chateau du Cayrou (retrieved 13 March 2019) 4. Economy, Vins de Cahors (retrieved 18 March 2020) 5. As above 6. The Cahors Malbec Strategy, Vin de Cahors (retrieved 31 March 2020) 7. Cannavan, T. 2013, France, Cahors: king of Malbec vines, Tom Cannavan’s Wine-pages.com (retrieved 13 March 2019) 8. Economy, Vins de Cahors (retrieved 25 March 2020) 9. Dossier de presse, Madiran, Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh (retrieved 30 March 2020 10. Madiran et Pacherenc-du-Vic-Bilh : un territoire, deux AOC, Madiran, Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh (retrieved 25 March 2020) 11. L’appellation Jurançon Se Réinvente! Les Vignerons du Jurançon, 2018 (retrieved 18 March 2020, no longer publicly available) 12. Cépages, La Route des Vins du Jurançon (retrieved 30 March 2020) 13. Abellan, A. 2018, Tout, vous saurez tout sur la production de vins français 2017, Vitisphere (retrieved 18 March 2020)

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10

Jura

This small region, which has around 0.5 per cent of all land under vine in France, is to the east of Burgundy and borders Switzerland. It was once ten times its size today. In the century following 1850 a series of major setbacks (mildew, phylloxera, arrival of the railway enabling transport of wines from the south of France to Paris, world wars) led to a radical reduction in land under vine. However, since the turn of the millennium Jura has attracted attention from sommeliers and wine enthusiasts for its distinctive wines, especially those made from local varieties, the white Savagnin and the black varieties Poulsard and Trousseau. In addition, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are widely grown in the region. The styles covered in this study guide are the white and red wines, the highly distinctive Vin Jaune (only around five per cent of production) and the tiny production of Vin de Paille.

10.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE Jura has a moderate continental climate with relatively high rainfall (above 1,100 mm per year) including significant rain during the growing season. In early summer rain can pose a threat to flowering and fruit set (reducing yield) and excessive rain in the vineyards can make any

Vineyard on slope.

Jura

work in the vineyard very difficult. (Spring frost can also be a problem.) Long periods of wet weather during the season (exacerbated by the heavy clay soils) means additional work to control weeds and combat fungal diseases, adding cost. Hail has been a problem during the last decade, causing losses. Climate change has brought significant extra warmth and the Jura enjoys good sunshine levels. The vineyards are located on west-facing slopes of the Jura Mountains at altitudes of between 250 and 400 m with soils that are mainly clay and marl, with limestone in some places. Many vineyards are grassed between the rows to reduce erosion due to the slope and limit herbicide use (grass grown between rows means that herbicide use can be limited to the ground immediately below the vines). The vines are mostly replacement-cane pruned at some height above the ground to mitigate the frost risk. Vertical shoot positioning is used to encourage the flow of air to reduce the threat of fungal disease. Machine harvest has become more popular except where slopes are too steep, reducing cost and enabling growers to harvest rapidly and efficiently. Yields have averaged well below the maximum yield figures allowed (see Wine Law and Regulations) in the decade to 2017, due to various weather hazards, (frost, hail, heavy rain early in the season causing mildew outburst and excessive heat/drought later in the season) and caused increased costs. For example, red wine at AOC level averaged only 23 hL/ha in 2017, less than half the maximum allowed.1 GRAPE VARIETIES Jura: top varieties, percentage of plantings 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Chardonnay

Savagnin

Poulsard

Pinot Noir

Trousseau

Source: Vins du Jura2 Chardonnay – This is the most planted variety but much of it goes into Crémant du Jura, which is not dealt with here. As an early budding variety, it is prone to spring frosts. For information about Chardonnay as a variety, see Burgundy: Chardonnay.

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Savagnin – This white variety makes both conventional white wine and wine in oxidative styles including Jura’s most distinctive wine, Vin Jaune (see below). Savagnin buds early and thus is prone to spring frosts. It is a thick-skinned variety with good resistance to fungal diseases. It thrives on the steep slopes with marl. The conventional wines have high acidity and medium (–) lemon and apple fruit, a medium body and medium alcohol. Poulsard – Also known as Ploussard, this is the most planted black variety. As a variety that buds very early, it is vulnerable to spring frost. It is also prone to coulure (leading to reduction in yield) and to all the fungal diseases as it is thin-skinned (and thus requires constant attention in the vineyard, adding to cost). However, it ripens early, enabling growers to harvest it if there is a threat of autumn rain. The wines are very pale ruby, almost translucent in colour and have low intensity red fruit (redcurrant, cranberry), low tannins, high acidity, low end of medium alcohol and a light body. The wines are typically good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced. Pinot Noir – This is the second most planted black variety and is used in multi-variety red blends, in Crémant du Jura and increasingly as a single variety red wine. For information about Pinot Noir as a variety, see Burgundy: Pinot Noir. Trousseau – This is a black variety with thick skins, giving it resistance to fungal diseases, though it can suffer from botrytis bunch rot. It is prone to poor flowering and coulure, reducing yields. As a vigorous variety, it requires careful canopy management. To ripen fully it needs a warm site (for example, warm gravels and by planting it on either the warm lower part of the slope or on well-exposed higher, steeper slopes). The wines are pale ruby in colour and have low intensity red fruit (red cherry), low to medium tannins, medium to high acidity, low end of medium alcohol and a light to medium (–) body. The wines are typically good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced.

10.2.  Winemaking and Appellations

Savagnin and Chardonnay for conventional white wines are typically fermented in stainless steel tanks or old barrels at mid-range fermentation temperatures as fruity esters are not desired. Malolactic conversion is commonly used. Most red wines are macerated on the skins for a short time (5–10 days) with temperatures limited to 30ºC (86ºF) or below. Poulsard may be made with carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration, contributing to a fruity style of wine. Some are aged in large old oak barrels and casks for a few months before bottling and release. Trousseau and Pinot Noir may be kept on the skins for longer for a more structured wine (more flavour concentration and more tannins) with the capacity to age in bottle. Ageing in barrel for red wines is usually less than one year. Much winemaking for both white and red wines is in old barrels of various sizes with very little new oak being used. Both white and red wines are matured either in tank or in old wood barrels, preserving primary fruit and reducing cost. Some estates make Chardonnay in what is known as a Burgundian style, i.e. barrel fermented with possible lees stirring for added richness.

Jura

VIN JAUNE AND OTHER OXIDATIVE WHITES While many white wines in Jura are conventional white wines, it also produces the distinctive Vin Jaune and other oxidative styles. Vin Jaune is made by fermenting Savagnin grapes to dryness and then ageing in barrels with a headspace. A thin layer of a flor-type yeast develops, here called le voile or the veil (for further details on flor, see the chapter on Sherry in D5: Fortified Wines). The wine has to remain under flor for a minimum of five years within a total ageing requirement of six years in the barrel. However, many Savagnin barrels are withdrawn earlier than this. These are used to make oxidative Savagnin (having only had 2–3 years under the veil) or blends with Chardonnay. The Chardonnay may have been made conventionally, or itself aged under the veil. Winery with old barrels. Producers may choose to inoculate the wine with selected yeasts to create the flor or allow the process to happen naturally by making sure the barrels are placed in a well-ventilated cellar with seasonal temperature changes. The barrel-ageing cellar location and conditions are considered crucial to how the veil forms and how these oxidative wines develop in barrel. The alcohol level rises by about 1 degree up to 13.5%–15% abv due to the transpiration of water through the barrels. Vin Jaune is typically medium lemon to medium gold in colour and has pronounced aromas of bread dough, walnuts, ginger and green apple with high acidity. The wines are dry, often with high alcohol and are medium bodied. They are very good to outstanding in quality and premium to super-premium in price. They are renowned for being able to age for several decades. Other oxidative white wines have similar but much less intense flavours and are not so high in alcohol. VIN DE PAILLE Jura also makes very small amounts of Vin de Paille, a sweet wine made by drying the grapes off the vine. All Jura varieties except Pinot Noir are permitted. The wines must be above 14% abv, and residual sugar levels are typically 70–120 g/L. They must be aged in oak for a minimum of 18 months and released no sooner than three years after vintage.

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APPELLATIONS

JURA JURA 00

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ARBOIS ARBOIS Arbois Arbois

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CHÂTEAUCHÂTEAUCHALON CHALON

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152

46˚30'N 46˚30'N

46˚30'N 46˚30'N

CÔTES DU DU JURA JURA CÔTES St-Amour St-Amour

M oo nn tt ss M d d uu JJ uu rr aa

1500m+ 1500m+ 1000-1500m 1000-1500m 500-1000m 500-1000m 200-500m 200-500m 0-200m 0-200m

Aside from Crémant du Jura AOC, there are two larger appellations and two very small ones. Côtes du Jura AOC – regional appellation for the whole of the Jura wine region including the more specific village appellations below, around 560 ha planted. All five wine styles may be made (red, rosé, white, Vin Jaune and Vin de Paille) but most of the wine produced under this AOC is white. Arbois AOC – compact, densely planted AOC around the town of the same name in the north of the Jura wine region, around 780 ha planted. All five wine styles may be made. The majority of Jura’s red wines are made here. Château-Chalon AOC – restricted to Vin Jaune only, 54 ha. L’Etoile AOC – white wines only including Vin Jaune and Vin de Paille, 73 ha.

Jura

10.3.  Wine Law and Regulations

The appellations share the same production rules: •

•

•

•

White wine, excluding Vin Jaune and Vin de Paille, Savagnin and/or Chardonnay must make up a minimum of 80 per cent of the blend and the maximum yield is 60 hL/ha Red and rosé wines: Pinot Noir, Poulsard and Trousseau must make up a minimum of 80 per cent, maximum yield 55 hL/ha. Vin Jaune: Only Savagnin can be used and the maximum yield is 60 hL/ha, except in Château-Chalon that restricts yields to 30 hL/ha. The wine must be under le voile for a minimum of 60 months, during which time it must not be racked or topped up, and it can only be sold to the consumer from January, Clavelin bottle. seven years after harvest. This wine must be bottled in 62 cL clavelin bottle, an exception to EU legislation for standard bottle sizes. Vin de Paille: maximum yield is 20 hL/ha.

10.4.  Wine Business

In terms of volume of wine produced, Jura’s wine businesses are divided between estates (50 per cent) with négociants (nearly 30 per cent) and four co-operatives accounting for the rest. Three companies account for nearly 50 per cent of the wine sold: the co-operative, Fruitière Vinicole d’Arbois, the négociant La Maison de Vigneron (owned by Grands Chais de France) and Henri Maire (owned by Boisset and a very small négociant business but retaining large vineyard holdings). Alongside these three, there are many small estates. Both organic grape growing (about 20 per cent of vineyards, around twice the French average) and natural winemaking are important in the region, contributing to Jura’s reputation for artisan wines. Production volume is strongly affected by vintage variation. Over the five years to

Bottle-ageing Jura wine.

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2016–17, the range has been between 45,000 hL and 105,000 hL. Approaching 20 per cent of the wine is exported. Exports have increased rapidly over the 15 years to 2018.3 The Percée du Vin Jaune is a large annual wine fair held in the region that has done much to raise the profile of Vin Jaune and of Jura as a wine producing region. References 1. Statistiques, Campagne 2017–18, Vins du Jura, p. 6 (retrieved 19 March 2020) 2. Wines of the Jura, Vins du Jura (retrieved 30 March 2020) 3. Statistiques, Campagne 2017–18, Vins du Jura, p. 6 (retrieved 19 March 2020) and private communication, email, December 2020

Germany

Germany

11

For many consumers, Germany is synonymous with Riesling: it covers almost one-quarter of the country’s total vineyard area and Germany is comfortably the world’s largest producer of this grape variety.1 Wines are produced in a full range of styles from dry to lusciously sweet and its sweet wines are amongst the world’s finest. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the top German Rieslings commanded prices similar to those of classed growth Bordeaux and they are still enjoyed by a small but loyal following today. Yet, for others, Germany is synonymous with inexpensive wines with medium sweetness, produced from varieties such as Müller-Thurgau and Kerner, specifically developed to produce high yields of ripe grapes in the challenging climate. By the 1980s, this style, often referred to as Liebfraumilch on export markets and labelled under brand names such as Black Tower and Blue Nun, accounted for around 60 per cent of all German wine exports.2 Sales of this style of wine have plummeted since the 1980s as consumers, particularly in the important domestic market, turned to drier styles of wine, but Germany’s reputation as a quality wine producer is only slowly starting to recover. The history of the German wine industry has generally been one of ups and downs. Some of the most famous and influential vineyards date back to the Middle Ages, including Schloss Johannisberg and Kloster Eberbach in Rheingau, both of which were first planted in the 12th century. During this period, there was rapid expansion and, by the beginning of the 16th century, German wines were widely exported, helped by the proximity of the vineyards to the River Rhine (in German, Rhein), one of the most important waterways in Europe. The industry went into rapid decline in the early 17th century due to the Thirty Years War. The flatter valley plains where vines had originally been planted were taken over for the more lucrative grain production, for bread and beer. Vineyards were pushed onto the steeper slopes, which remain such a distinctive feature of German viticulture today. It took several centuries for the German wine industry to recover. The 1830s saw the introduction of new wine laws, based on the must weight of grapes, a principle which dominates German wine law to this day. Germany only became a unified country in 1871: until then it had been a collection of states which were often at war with each other and not necessarily free to trade amongst themselves. The late 19th and early 20th century saw the foundation of some of Germany’s nowfamous wine institutes, such as Hochschule Geisenheim University in Rheingau and the Julius Kühn-Institut in Pfalz. These have played a vital role in modernising the German wine industry and making it one of the most technologically advanced. By the end of the 19th century, Germany had established a reputation for producing some of the world’s finest white wines. It then underwent a major decline due the ravages of, firstly, phylloxera and mildew, and then the two World Wars. The area under vine halved in the 50 years to 1945. However, it has more than doubled again since. Both wars had a devastating effect on Germany’s economy and its exports. High volumes of inexpensive branded wines started to be produced. Grapes that could ripen reliably year on year, such as Müller Thurgau, were usually a key part of the blend, and grapes would be

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Rudesheim, Rheingau. sourced from multiple regions, again, to ensure volumes. At the same time, Germany began a program of vineyard restructuring known as Flurbereinigung that involved the consolidation of many small, fragmented vineyards and the building of access roads, both aimed at increasing efficiency, making mechanisation easier and so reducing the costs of viticulture. Without this, many vineyards would have become economically unviable – sadly, in some areas, particularly in Mosel where such consolidation was not always practicable, abandoned vineyards can still be seen, although in some cases well-established producers or highly motivated younger winemakers have now re-cultivated such sites. Although a number of wine laws had been passed before, the fifth German wine law in 1971 has laid the foundation for modern German wine production, establishing protected geographical labelling and classification of wine styles based on must weights. Whilst bulk wines still dominate production, in the past thirty or so years, there has been an increased focus on quality which is slowly attracting global consumers back to German wines.

11.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE With the exception of Baden, Germany’s main wine-producing regions lie around 49–50°N, making them amongst the most northerly in the world. Overall, the climate is cool and continental. At this latitude, site selection is essential. Most of Germany’s vineyards are situated along the river Rhine and its tributaries. The rivers play a vital role in radiating heat; moderating

Germany

Budburst on Riesling vines in Mosel. temperature and extending the growing season. The best vineyards are often on steep, southfacing slopes to maximum sun exposure. Some of the slopes are extremely steep, reaching gradients of 70 per cent overlooking the Mosel. Winters can be very cold, usually cold enough for the production of Eiswein. In spring, frosts are a major risk, although this is mitigated by the rivers and planting on slopes. Summers are warm but also wet; rainfall averages between 500 and 800 mm and much of it falls in the summer. This increases the risk of fungal disease, dilution of grapes and, in heavy storms, hail. Autumns, however, are long and dry, allowing for long ripening periods during which grapes can develop the high levels of natural sugar required for Prädikatswein and the morning mists along the rivers are ideal for the development of botrytis. Also important are mountain ranges, such as the Taunus and Haardt, which shelter the vineyards areas from cold winds and the worst of the rain. However, at such high latitudes, vineyards are planted at relatively low altitudes, mainly below 200 metres above sea level. Baden is further south, stretching towards the Swiss border. It is noticeably drier, warmer and sunnier than the others, although in cooler areas, spring frosts can still be a concern. SOIL Germany’s vineyards are planted on a wide variety of soils. Soil type plays an important role in fruit ripening in the coolest regions. In Mosel and Ahr, for example, dark-coloured slate retains heat during the day and radiates it out again at night. There are significant pockets of calcareous soils. In Baden, Pfalz and Rheinhessen, it is planted with Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir), Weissburgunder (Pinot Blanc) and Chardonnay, whilst

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in Franken, it produces some of the best Silvaner. Grauburgunder (Pinot Gris) prefers heavy, more clayey soils. Producers are increasingly interested in how grape varieties, especially Riesling, perform differently and show varying flavour profiles when grown in different soils. On the steep slopes, such as those in the Mosel and Rheingau, erosion is a major problem and vineyard owners are regularly forced to winch soil and rocks back up the slopes adding to the cost of vineyard maintenance. VINEYARD MANAGEMENT In 2018, Germany had the seventh largest area under vine in Europe at around 100,000 ha.3 Average annual production has been around 9 million hL in recent years.4 Yields vary from vintage to vintage and from region to region but, in Rheinhessen and Pfalz, they can average over 100 hL/ha and, in the past, were even higher. In the 1980s, due to EU regulations, Germany was forced to impose lower maximum yields but, whilst these vary from region to region, they are still around 150 hL/ha for Deutscher Wein and Landwein, and 105 hL/ha for Qualitätswein (for more on these categories, see Wine Law and Regulations). Quality-minded producers, however, work with much lower yields (see, for example, the Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter (VDP) in Wine Law and Regulations). These high yields are achieved despite the challenging climate. Many of Germany’s vineyards are at the northernmost limit for ripening grapes. There is considerable vintage variation and, in the coolest years and sites, grapes can fail to ripen fully. However, vintage variation has been reducing in recent years. Whilst this is undoubtedly due in part to climate change,5 there have also been significant advances in vineyard management techniques, led by the various research institutes. Fruit ripeness has been improved by better clonal selection (especially amongst black grape varieties), summer pruning, green harvesting and selective hand harvesting. Good canopy management is essential to maximise sun exposure and also to improve air circulation in order to reduce the risk of disease caused by the wet summers. On the slopes, vines were traditionally staked individually with canes tied at the top. However, this method is labour-intensive and requires skills which are gradually being lost and so, as a result of Flurbereinigung, all but the steepest vineyards now use single and double replacement-cane pruning with VSP trellising and Pendelbogen. (Pendelbogen is replacement-cane pruning with the canes arched in the trellis. The arching of the canes is thought to improve the flow of sap in the vine and increase the number of viable buds, in turn increasing yields.) Germany is not widely suited to organic and biodynamic viticulture. Because of the risk of disease, growers still have to spray their crops Pendelbogen-trained vine.

Germany

regularly. In Mosel, often the only practicable way to do this is by helicopter and it is likely that sprays would drift onto neighbouring vineyards, risking an organic producers’ accreditation. Despite this, around 9 per cent of German vineyards are certified organic.6 There is considerable support for sustainable viticulture and many estates employ some elements where they can. The topography of many German vineyards is also challenging. On steeper slopes, vineyards are terraced or planted up the slopes. Mechanisation is difficult or even impossible and, in some cases, they are so steep that equipment and workers have to be winched up and down. Although new technology is being introduced (such as small caterpillar tractors that can negotiate steep slopes), and Flurbereinigung has improved accessibility and efficiency, the steeply sloped vineyards require substantially more labour than flatter sites. This increases costs significantly and often only Riesling can command appropriate, sustainable prices. Even on flatter sites, labour costs are often higher than in other wine-producing regions. Whilst mechanisation is now widespread, German wine law (see Wine Law and Regulations) requires grapes for wines of Beerenauslese level and above to be hand-harvested and many producers still hand harvest for other Prädikatsweine to ensure healthy, fully ripe fruit. Large-scale commercial operations producing high-volume, inexpensive wines are highly mechanised and efficient, however. GRAPE VARIETIES Because of the cool climate, German wine production has traditionally been focused on white wine and grape varieties which can naturally tolerate the conditions, such as Riesling, or which have been bred specifically for that purpose (see German Crosses). In 1980, 90 per cent of grapes planted were white. However, since then, red wine production has increased significantly and, in 2017, 39 per cent of plantings were black. Much of Germany’s red wine used to be light and fruity, often with residual sugar but quality has improved greatly, thanks to the development of better clones, particularly of Spätburgunder and Dornfelder, better vineyard management and winemaking techniques, as well as increasing temperatures in the vineyard. Since the 1990s, plantings of Grauburgunder, Weissburgunder and, to a lesser extent, Chardonnay have also risen considerably. Otherwise, there are only small plantings of other international varieties, with Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc showing some promise but in very limited volumes. Grape varieties need not be stated on German wine labels but usually are. Riesling Riesling accounts for 23 per cent of all plantings.8 It has proven so successful because it can survive the cold German winters and, being late budding with thick wood, is relatively frost resistant. However, it is late-ripening and needs good sun exposure and dry autumns; in cooler years and sites, it may not ripen fully. Because of this, plantings fell in the 1970s and 1980s as producers turned to the more reliable German crosses which could readily achieve the must weights required by law. However, improved vineyard management techniques and rising temperatures have led to greater consistency of ripening and plantings have recovered and are continuing to grow. Riesling produces high-quality wines in a full range of styles, from dry to sweet. It retains high acidity even when fully ripe, providing balance in sweet wines and giving the wines

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Principal grape varieties grown in German (2018 data) 25,000 20,000 Vineyard area (ha)

160

15,000 10,000 5,000 0

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(Source: Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020)7 significant potential for ageing. In the right conditions, it can produce high natural levels of sugar and is susceptible to botrytis, making it ideal for producing sweet wines. Riesling is capable of making wines with pronounced intensity and great aromatic complexity. Depending on ripeness, fruit flavours range from green fruit to tropical. It can also show floral aromas, such as white flowers or honeysuckle. With age, the wines develop toast, honeyed and petrol-like aromas. Müller-Thurgau Müller-Thurgau (sometimes known as Rivaner) was one of the earliest German crosses. Earlierripening than Riesling, it can produce high yields in almost any conditions. It was Germany’s most planted grape variety in the 1970s and 1980s and was widely used in the production of inexpensive blends such as Liebfraumilch. However, as the popularity of such wines has fallen, plantings have more than halved. It has much lower acidity than Riesling (generally medium acidity) and gives wines with less structure and character but it can produce wines with attractive but relatively simple floral and fruity aromas for early drinking. Spätburgunder Spätburgunder is Germany’s most planted black grape (11.5 per cent of total plantings) and has enjoyed a rapid rise in popularity, both domestically and on the export market. Plantings have almost trebled and it thrives particularly in warmer areas such as Baden. Germany is increasingly being recognised as producing high-quality, complex and dry Spätburgunder, often with oak ageing. Vineyard management is constantly improving with producers using higher quality clones, perfecting canopy management and selecting harvesting dates to balance alcohol, acidity and ripeness of fruit and tannins. Some producers use whole bunch fermentation; the tannins from stems contributing to tannins without needing

Germany

to use oak for this purpose. In general, producers are tending to use less new oak and some are using more larger oak vessels than 10–20 years ago. Other Varieties Dornfelder is the most significant of the black German crosses and has grown from nothing to be Germany’s second most planted black variety in the past 30 years. It produces wines that are deep in colour, high in acidity with fruity and floral notes. It is used to produce two quite distinct styles of wine: on the one hand, a fruity, easy-drinking style, occasionally with a little residual sugar, with aromas of sour cherry and blackberry; and, on the other hand, a more complex style with ageing potential produced from lower yields showing greater focus on tannins and structure, fermented or aged in oak. Dornfelder has been particularly successful in Rheinhessen and Pfalz where it is the most planted black variety, ahead of Spätburgunder. Silvaner (Sylvaner in Alsace) plantings have also nearly halved since 1980, although the decline has now stabilised. Lower in acidity and less aromatic than Riesling, it, too, produces large amounts of simple, inexpensive wines with subtle fruit aromas that can range from green fruit to tropical fruit. However, where yields are controlled, in Franken in particular, it can produce high-quality, dry, medium- bodied wines with medium to medium (+) acidity and a distinctive earthy characteristic. Silvaner has now been overtaken by both Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder which have grown considerably in popularity since the 1990s. There are now sizeable plantings in Rheinhessen, Pfalz and particularly in Baden. Both varieties can produce very good quality wines, some of which are aged in oak. Grauburgunder particularly likes heavier soils and can produce wines with medium acidity and aromas of stone fruit and tropical (sometimes dried) fruit and honey. In style, they range from dry and medium-bodied to fuller-bodied, sweeter wines (often labelled as Ruländer). Weissburgunder can produce well-balanced wines with medium (+) acid and delicate citrus and stone fruit aromas. Chardonnay has only been allowed in Germany since 1990 and plantings remain very low. However, high-quality examples are being produced, often with oak ageing, in warmer areas such as the southern Pfalz and Kaiserstuhl in Baden. Portugieser, Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier), Trollinger (Schiava) and Lemberger (Blaufränkisch) produce mainly simple, fruity wines for drinking young, especially in Württemberg. However, some higher-quality examples are now being produced from loweryielding sites, particularly from Lemberger. GERMAN CROSSES These are a group of mainly white grape varieties developed by the various German wine institutes to cope with Germany’s cool climate. One of the earliest examples was MüllerThurgau, developed in the 1880s to ripen earlier than Riesling. The number of new crossings increased rapidly in the mid 20th century as the drive for producing high yields of grapes with high must weights was encouraged by

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the German wine laws (see Wine Law and Regulations). Unfortunately, most of the new varieties produced wines with a high level of sugar but without sufficient acidity or aromatic character to balance it. Nevertheless, they were widely used in inexpensive blends such as Liebfraumilch. As techniques develop to allow better ripening of other varieties, in particular Riesling, reliance on and interest in the crosses has fallen considerably, even those which proved themselves capable of producing good-quality wines. Scheurebe, in particular, can produce full-bodied wines with intense aromas of ripe grapefruit and peach. Although acidity levels are lower than for Riesling, they are still high enough to make ageworthy wines and also some high-quality sweet wines. Kerner also produces good quality wines up to high Prädikat levels with high acidity and some of the fruity, floral characteristics of Riesling. A number of black crossings were also developed, including perhaps the most successful of all, Dornfelder, which is now the second most planted black variety.

11.2. Winemaking

There is a wide variety of approaches to winemaking in Germany. Bulk wine still accounts for a large proportion of production but there are many small estates producing low-volume, high-quality wines (for more details see Wine Business). As in the vineyard, there have been significant advances in knowhow and technology in recent decades, driven by the research institutes and also winemakers gaining experience from elsewhere in the wine world. However, an increasing number are also returning to more traditional and less interventionist winemaking methods, such as natural fermentation and reduced filtration and fining, helped by the better harvests of healthy, ripe grapes. There is also much experimentation, such as with lees contact and oak, particularly with Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder but in some cases even with Riesling. Due to the cool temperatures, enrichment is a relatively common practice, although it is not permitted for Prädikatswein. Most of Germany’s wine regions fall within EU Zone A, allowing enrichment of up to 3% abv; Baden is in Zone B, for which the maximum enrichment is 2% abv. However, the practice is becoming increasingly rare outside bulk wine production, due to consistently riper fruit. De-acidification is also permitted, as is acidification but only in the hottest years. Again, however, these also now only tend to be used for high volume, inexpensive wines. Traditionally, German wines were fermented and matured in large old oak casks to allow for some oxygenation, and some producers of premium Riesling still do so today. There is a range of traditional casks found around Germany’s wine regions: for example, the 1,000 L Fuder of Mosel and the oval-shaped 1,200 L Stück used along the Rhine. German oak, especially from Pfalz, is popular particularly for large vessels, as is oak sourced from Central Europe. French oak is common for smaller vessels such as barriques. However, in the past few decades, fermentation in stainless steel has become the norm. It is used for inexpensive wines in which the ease of temperature control and cleaning are important, as well as the ability to purchase extremely large vessels. It also does not introduce

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Winemaking, Rheinhessen. any oxygen or add any flavours, so is still a common choice for mid-priced and premium Riesling (as well as other varieties such as Silvaner) to maintain its primary aromas. New oak is rarely used for Riesling as it could mask the primary aromas. However, a proportion of new oak, often in the form of barriques, may be used for red wines as well as Grauburgunder, Weissburgunder and Chardonnay. In the 1960s and 1970s, all but the finest wines with residual sugar were initially fermented to dryness but then sweetened post- fermentation, even at Prädikatswein level. This was done by the addition of Süssreserve (unfermented or partially-fermented grape must). Süssreserve must be produced from grapes of the same region and the same quality level as the wine to which it is added. It is common for the Süssreserve and wine to come from the same must; producers take a small proportion of must pre-fermentation, clarify, chill and protect it with SO2 so it remains fresh, and then add this must back to the fermented wine to create the desired level of sweetness. Süssreserve is added to the dry wine just prior to bottling; it contains minimal or no alcohol and therefore, depending on the volume added, may slightly reduce alcohol level of the final wine. Süssreserve is thought to give less balanced wines and, whilst many large commercial wineries still use this process, quality-conscious producers follow the traditional method of making sweet wines by stopping the fermentation by adding SO2, racking or filtering. Sweetening through Rectified Concentrated Grape Must (RCGM) can only be used for Deutscher Wein. Grapes destined for Beerenauslese, Eiswein and Trockenbeerenauslese have very high must weights and fermentation will usually proceed very slowly: Trockenbeerenauslese can take several months. Usually, the fermentation will stop naturally due to the high sugar levels, leaving high levels of residual sugar and low levels of alcohol (often between 5.5 and 8% abv).

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Since the late 1980s, there has been a dramatic shift in the German domestic market towards drier wines and the vast majority of German wine is now produced in a dry (trocken) or off-dry (halbtrocken) style. Even in Mosel, which is famous for its sweeter-style wines, more wines are being fermented to dryness. Nevertheless, top producers remain committed to producing high-quality wines with some degree of sweetness and the best quality examples are amongst the finest in the world and still have an enthusiastic following. Sweetness was often used to mask high acidity and bitterness from under-ripe grapes. However, German growers and producers have learnt how to ensure Riesling ripens fully and how to produce wines which balance sugar, acid and fruit characteristics. Techniques for the production of red wine vary according to quality and price. Inexpensive wines designed for early consumption often undergo thermovinification for quick extraction of colour and flavour. The wine can then be fermented off the skins to produce a fruity red with low tannins. These wines will typically not be oak matured. By contrast, for higher-quality red wines, most particularly Pinot Noir, techniques such as cold maceration, whole bunch fermentation and maturation in oak are common. Volumes of rosé wines are relatively small, making up almost 11 per cent of domestic sales of German wines in 2018.9 They tend to be sold domestically and inexpensive price points (often below the prices of whites and reds). Most are youthful and fruity, fermented at cool temperatures in stainless steel and bottled for release soon after. There are a small number of higher-priced rosés from quality- focused producers, some of which are aged in oak barrels.

11.3.  Wine Law and Regulations

Germany’s current wine laws date back to 1971, Revised German wine law of 2021 although they have been amended considerably since, In 2021, a revised German wine law was creating a system that has often been criticised as introduced that incorporated many of the features of the laws described in this section confusing to consumers. The fundamental principle and added some new features. There will be of German wine law has always been to classify a period of transition to introduce the new grapes according to their must weight at harvest. system until 2025. The revised law of 2021 There are few other rules regarding grape growing or is described at the end of this section. winemaking, although, as previously explained, there are limited restrictions on yields. There are four quality levels of German wine which are in increasing order of must weight, Deutscher Wein, Landwein, Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein. DEUTSCHER WEIN Formerly known as Tafelwein, this covers wine without a geographical indication made exclusively from grapes grown in Germany. Alcohol levels must be between 8.5% abv and 15% abv and they can be produced in any style. These are inexpensive wines intended to be drunk when young. Deutscher Wein usually accounts for a tiny proportion of annual production; together, Deutscher Wein and Landwein accounted for around 4 per cent of production of the 2018 vintage.10 LANDWEIN This category was introduced in 1982 and is the German equivalent of PGI wine.11 At least 85 per cent of the grapes must originate in the Landwein region named on the label. As

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with Deutscher Wein, alcohol levels must be between 8.5% abv and 15% abv. In most regions, wines can only be produced in a trocken or halbtrocken style (see Terms Indicating Sweetness), although in a few, sweeter styles are permitted. Landwein only makes up a tiny proportion of annual production. QUALITÄTSWEIN This is a PDO category but with less stringent regulations than that of the Prädikatswein category.12 The grapes must come exclusively from one of 13 designated quality wine regions (Anbaugebiete), the name of which must appear on the label. Wines can be made in all styles and the minimum alcohol level is lower (7% abv) to allow for sweeter wines; there is no maximum alcohol level. As for Deutscher Wein and Landwein, enrichment is permitted for Qualitätswein. The majority of everyday drinking and high volume wines come under this category, although there are also some high-quality examples as an increasing number of producers are following the VDP’s lead (see below) and labelling their dry wines as Qualitätswein trocken, and only using Prädikatswein for sweeter wines. Wines at Qualitätswein level and above must undergo laboratory analysis and a blind tasting prior to release. Those that pass are given an ‘AP’ (Amtliche Prüfungsnummer) number, which must appear on the label. This 10 to 12 digit number indicates where and when the wine was tested, the location of the vineyard and the bottler’s specific lot number (unique for each bottling). PRÄDIKATSWEIN Similar to Qualitätswein, Prädikatswein is a PDO category, but with more stringent regulations.13 The grapes must come exclusively from a Bereich (one of 40 recognised wine-producing districts, smaller than Anbaugebieten), the name of which need not, and increasingly does not, appear on the label (the name of the Anbaugebiete must, however, be stated). These are wines produced from grapes with the highest must weights and enrichment is not permitted at this level. Prädikatswein can be produced from any grape variety although it is particularly associated with Riesling. The amount produced each year depends on the vintage. On average, Prädikatswein production is about half that of Qualitätswein, but in the best vintages the amounts produced can be around the same. Prädikat means ‘distinction’ and there are six levels, which are defined by minimum must weight. In increasing order of must weight, these are: Kabinett As they are produced from the grapes with the lowest must weights for Prädikatswein, Kabinett wines are the lightest in body and highest in acid. They can be dry to mediumsweet in style: those with residual sugar can have alcohol levels as low as 7% abv (the legal minimum) but dry wines can reach 12% abv. Kabinett Riesling is light-bodied, has high acidity and aromas of green and citrus fruit. Spätlese Spätlese14 is produced from fully ripened grapes, which are usually picked about two weeks later than those destined for Kabinett wines. Compared to Kabinett, these wines have a greater concentration of riper fruit flavours (typically stone fruits for Riesling), slightly higher

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alcohol levels (at a comparable level of residual sugar) and a fuller body. Spätlese wines can also range from dry to medium- sweet. Similar to Kabinett and Auslese, the minimum alcohol level must be 7% abv. Auslese Auslese15 is made from specially-selected, extra-ripe bunches of grapes. Although bunches should be carefully selected, hand- harvesting is not compulsory and some producers harvest mechanically before sorting by hand when they reach the winery. Auslese wines have even riper and concentrated flavours than Spätlese. The wines often have honey characteristics and some of the grapes may have been affected by botrytis which will give added complexity of flavour. Auslese is the last category at which wines can be dry, although many of the best are sweeter in style, with a balance of sweetness and acidity that gives Single vineyard wine label them potential for long bottle-ageing. For the sweeter wines, alcohol levels can again be as low as 7% abv (the legal minimum). Because the range of must weights covered by this category is particularly wide, some producers use additional labelling terms, not defined by law, to indicate sweetness levels (see below). Beerenauslese Beerenauslese16 (often shortened to BA) is made from individually selected berries and must therefore be harvested by hand. At must weights this high, the wine will always be sweet and fermentation can be long and slow, reaching only relatively low levels of alcohol (for this reason, the minimum alcohol level for this category and that of Eiswein and Trockenbeerenauslese is 5.5% abv). The berries need not be botrytized but it is a typical feature of these wines. With Riesling, the typical flavours are of very ripe and dried stone fruit. BA wines are only produced in years with suitable conditions for noble rot to form (brief periods of humidity, followed by dry, sunny weather) and in very small quantities. Yields are very low and the wines are very labour-intensive to produce. The wines are therefore rare and very expensive. Eiswein German ice wine was given its own Prädikat category in 1982. Minimum must weights are the same as for BA but the grapes must be picked when they are frozen, at temperatures below –7°C (19°F).17 The harvest can take place any time from December (or occasionally November) to February of the following year (the vintage is given as the year in which the harvest started). Once picked, the grapes must also be pressed whilst still frozen – artificial freezing of the grapes is not permitted. Pressing releases small quantities of naturally concentrated juice with very high levels of sugar and acid. The grapes used must be very healthy: the unpleasant flavours of any rot

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would be amplified along with the other flavours. Growers waiting for their grapes to freeze regularly lose some, and sometimes all, of their crop either to disease or to predators. Some growers are improving their chances of producing it by covering their grapes in plastic sheeting to protect them until they freeze. Riesling Eiswein tend to have high acidity and concentrated, pure peach and grapefruit flavours. Because only very small amounts are produced, Eiswein is rare and sells at premium prices. For more on the production of ice wine, see the chapter on Specific Options for Producing Wines with Residual Sugar in D1: Wine Production. Trockenbeerenauslese The extremely high must weights required for Trockenbeerenauslese18 (often shortened to TBA) means that the grapes must have been affected by botrytis. The shrivelled, raisin-like grapes produce tiny amounts of highly concentrated, extremely sweet wines. However, the sweetness is still balanced by high acidity and this can help the wines age elegantly for a very long time. The high must weights mean fermentation is long and slow and rarely continues beyond 8% abv. Yields are extremely low and so TBA wines are only made in tiny quantities (rarely more than around 100 bottles at a time) and only in suitable years. TBA wines tend to be the most expensive wines produced in Germany. TERMS INDICATING SWEETNESS Below Beerenauslese level, wines can be produced at all sweetness levels, meaning consumers cannot easily tell how dry or sweet an Auslese, Spätlese, Kabinett or Qualitätswein may be. Many producers therefore use the EU labelling terms for sweetness – the German equivalents are as follows: • • • •

trocken (‘dry’) – wines with no more than 4g/l residual sugar (or up to 9 g/l where residual sugar does not exceed total acidity by more than 2g/l, as is usually the case with Riesling) halbtrocken (‘off-dry’) – wines with between 4 and 12 g/l of residual sugar (or up to 18 g/l where residual sugar does not exceed total acidity by more than 10g/l) lieblich (’medium / medium-sweet’) – wines with between 12 and 45g/l of residual sugar süss (’sweet’) – wines with more than 45g/l of residual sugar.

These definitions are based on the level of residual sugar and do not necessarily correspond to how dry or sweet the wine tastes. A high-acid Riesling will likely taste drier than a mediumacidity Müller-Thurgau with the same amount of residual sugar. The proportion of trocken wines varies considerably between regions, with a higher proportion usually being produced in warmer regions where ripeness of fruit can balance acidity without the need for sugar (especially for the high acid Riesling grape). For example, in 2018, trocken wines accounted for just under 50 per cent, but in Baden it represented 65 per cent and in Mosel just 30 per cent.19 Wines labelled as halbtrocken have been falling in popularity in recent years as consumers increasingly turn to drier styles of wine. Because of the potentially negative

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connotations, those producers who still produce wines that could be labelled as halbtrocken now either make no reference to sweetness on the label or use the term feinherb. A term with less obvious connotations (literal translation is ‘fine dry’) and not defined by law, feinherb is used for wines which fall within the legal definition of halbtrocken but also extends to those with slightly higher levels of residual sugar. Because the band of permitted must weights is relatively wide, especially for Auslese, some producers have adopted other, unofficial, methods of indicating wines produced from grapes with higher must weights and which therefore have riper, more concentrated flavours. They are most common in the Mosel where many producers are making wines at a range of sweetness levels. One of these is the Goldkapsel (or ‘gold capsule’) which designates wines that are characterised by botrytis; in some cases, shorter capsules indicate wines with higher levels of concentration than the average Auslese and longer capsules a further level above that. GEOGRAPHICAL LABELLING TERMS Under the 1971 wine laws, the precise boundaries of all German vineyards were established and registered. A number of Bereiche (wine-producing districts) were identified and within them individual vineyard sites (Einzellagen) and collective vineyard sites (Grosslagen). Currently, there are 2,658 registered Einzellagen. They range in size from less than 1ha to over 200 ha but the average is around 38 ha.20 Most are split between a number of different owners. Grosslagen are much bigger, ranging in size from 600 to 1,800 ha, usually comprising several Einzellagen. Currently, 167 have been registered.21 Note that Grosslage is very different from Grosse Lage, one of the top vineyards in the VDP classification (see Wine Law and Regulations). Einzellage and Grosslage names may only be used on Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein labels. They must usually be preceded by name of the village where the vineyard(s) are located (e.g. a wine made from grapes grown in the Goldtröpfchen vineyard in the village of Piesport would be labelled Piesporter Goldtröpfchen) unless the name of the property is so well known that it is officially permitted not to (e.g. Schloss Johannisberg and Schloss Vollrads). However, this makes it difficult for consumers to know what the quality level of a particular wine will be. For example, in Piesport, Piesporter Goldtröpfchen is an Einzellage producing some of the finest Mosel Rieslings, whereas Piesporter Michelsberg is a Grosslage producing largely inexpensive, lower-quality wines. (The ‘er’ at the end of Piesport (or any village) conveys that the vineyard belongs to the village.) To confuse matters further, in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz (which includes Ahr, Mosel, Nahe, Pfalz and Rheinhessen), the names of individual plots within a vineyard site may now also be registered and added to the name of the Bereich. OTHER LABELLING TERMS One other legally defined term of note is Liebfraumilch, once the mainstay of German wine exports, although sales have declined sharply since the 1980s. It is a medium-dry white wine of Qualitätswein level with at least 18g/l residual sugar. It must contain at least 70 per cent Riesling, Silvaner, Müller-Thurgau and Kerner although, in practice, Müller-Thurgau tends to dominate the blend. The grapes must come from one of four regions. The majority of wines came from Rheinhessen and Pfalz although some were produced in Rheingau and Nahe.

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A number of other style-based labelling terms have been introduced over the years but use of these terms has been limited. VERBAND DEUTSCHER PRÄDIKATSWEINGÜTER (VDP) Given the issues surrounding the Einzellage/Grosslage system, there have been calls to create a quality hierarchy of vineyard sites. Various producers’ groups and associations have been established with the aim of creating their own vineyard or wine classification, and as part of this stipulating more stringent rules for wine production. Of these groups, by far the bestknown and most influential is the VDP. Founded in 1910, the VDP (initially under a different name) was originally a group of producers from Rheingau, Rheinhessen, Pfalz and Mosel who wanted to promote wines made without must enrichment, at the time called Naturweine. However, in the late 1960s, the name and concept of Naturwein was rejected from German wine law, and in the 1971, the concept of Prädikatswein was introduced. In response, the VDP renamed itself and set up a new statute of higher standards for their members. Today, the VDP has around 200 members across all of Germany’s main wine-producing regions, split into a number of regional associations. Members can be identified by the VDP logo (an eagle bearing a bunch of grapes) which must appear on their wine capsules. VDP members own about 5 per cent of Germany’s total vineyard area and produce about 3 per cent of annual production by volume and 7.5 per cent by value. Riesling is the most planted variety amongst VDP members, accounting for over half of their vineyards. Just under a quarter of its members’ production is exported.22 The VDP has established stricter regulations regarding grape growing and winemaking than those imposed by the German wine laws, including much lower maximum yields, higher minimum must weights and growing predominantly the traditional grape varieties for their particular region. Members agree to abide by these regulations and are audited every five years

Wine capsules printed with the VDP logo.

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– those who are found not to comply may be excluded. The VDP also encourages sustainable viticulture; over one fifth of Germany’s certified organic producers are VDP members. Much of the production is of dry wines, both white and red, although wines with residual sugar account for a significant proportion of VDP wine in the Mosel. Even though minimum must weights are above those required by law (often significantly so), these dry wines must be labelled Qualitätswein trocken. Prädikat levels are to be used only for wines with residual sweetness. Another fundamental principle of the VDP is to emphasise the provenance of wines. It has therefore established a four-tier vineyard classification system, refined in 2012. It applies only to VDP members and does not form part of the German wine laws. The VDP is lobbying to have its labelling terms protected under German wine law. The four categories of VDP wine are: VDP Gutswein These are regional wines, similar in style to generic or regional wines in Burgundy, which originate from a member’s holdings within a particular region. They must meet the general standards prescribed by the VDP. The maximum permitted yield is 75hL/ha. VDP Ortswein The equivalent of village wines in Burgundy, these are produced from grape varieties that are typical of their region. The maximum permitted yield is again 75hL/ha. VDP Erste Lage This designates ‘first-class’ vineyards with distinctive characteristics and is the equivalent to Burgundy premier cru. These are excellent quality wines with ageing potential. More stringent grape growing and winemaking regulations apply. Only grape varieties which the local association has deemed to be best suited to a particular site or parcel may be used. The maximum permitted yield is lower (60hL/ha). Grapes must be harvested by hand and must be at least ripe enough to qualify for Spätlese status. Wines must be produced using ‘traditional winemaking techniques’. The village and the vineyard name must appear on the label. VDP Grosse Lage The equivalent to Burgundy grand cru, these have been determined to be the best parcels in the best vineyards. The parcels have been narrowly demarcated by the local associations as those whose qualities are discernible in the finished wine. These wines should be outstanding quality and have long ageing potential. Even stricter rules apply: maximum yields are lower than for Erste Lage wines (50hL/ha) and the choice of grape varieties is more restricted. Permitted grape varieties differ according to the Anbaugebiete. For Grosse Lage, Riesling is allowed in all Anbaugebieten (though only for botrytised wines in Ahr) and Spätburgunder in all Anbaugebieten but Mosel and Nahe. Various other grapes may be permitted according to the Anbaugebiete. Dry white wines cannot be released until 1st September in the year following the harvest. Red wines must spend at least 12 months ageing in oak and cannot be released until 1st September in the year after that. Sweeter Prädikat wines may be released on 1st May following the harvest.

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Dry wines made from grapes from Grosse Lage are designated Grosses Gewächs. The term Grosses Gewächs cannot appear on the label; instead the VDP ‘GG’ trademark is used. Only the vineyard name appears on the label and not the village (similar to grands crus in Burgundy). THE RHEINGAU CHARTA The Rheingau Charta (pronounced ‘Carter’) was introduced in 1984 to promote dry wines from the best vineyard sites of the Rheingau. The term Erstes Gewächs was introduced for the best sites in Rheingau and is now a legally-protected term for wines from these sites. To use this term on the label, wines must be produced exclusively from Riesling or Spätburgunder; grapes must be hand-harvested from lower-yielding vineyards and the wines must be dry with a minimum must weight equivalent to Spätlese. In 1999 the members of the Charta joined the VDP in Rheingau. These members, who previously used Erstes Gewächs, can now label those wines as ‘GG’ (Grosses Gewächs). REVISED GERMAN WINE CLASSIFICATION OF 2021 In January 2021, German wine law was revised. However, there is a transitional period for producers in which some categories can continue to use the old system, described in the main text, until 2025. The overall categories remain the same: Deutscher Wein, Landwein, Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein. The Quality Pyramid

QUALITÄTS& PRÄDIKATSWEIN

Wine with a protected geographical indication (PGI)

Wine with a protected designation of origin (PDO)

LANDWEIN DEUTSCHER WEIN

Deutscher Wein is wine without a geographic designation, the German term for the basic ‘wine’ category in EU legislation. The label may state the vintage and grape variety. Landwein = PGI, wine from one of Germany’s 26 defined Landwein areas, e.g. Rheingauer Landwein. The label may state the name of the Landwein regions where the grapes were grown but may not state a village or vineyard name.

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Qualitätswein = PDO, and therefore must come from a defined origin. The minimum must weight ranges between 50°–72° Oechsle depending on the origin. The wine may be enriched within stated limits. Prädikatswein is a category within Qualitätswein with, in most cases, higher must weight requirements, 70°–154° Oechsle. Enrichment is not allowed. Qualitätswein accounts for well over 90 percent of German wine production. The tiers of the Prädikatswein system are as before and are based on must weight in combination with an approved variety with the requirements varying from region to region. Prädikatswein (with increasing must weight requirement): • Kabinett • Spätlese • Auslese • Beerenauslese • Eiswein (has to have the same minimum must weight as Beerenauslese) • Trockenbeerenauslese

Großes Gewächs

Sin

gle

vin

eya

rd

win

es

The new element in the law of 2021 is a geographic hierarchy for Qualitätswein. It is based on the principle that the smaller the unit of origin, the higher the quality of the wine.

Ertes Gewächs

Village

Single Vineyard

alit

äts

we

ine

Vineyard

Qu

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Region (former Bereich/collective sites) Winegrowing Area

In each case the grapes must be grown within the defined area of origin. To start from the pyramid on the left and from the bottom of the diagram23: Anbaugebiet – wine growing area, the lowest level tier of Qualitätswein. The grapes must be grown in one of 13 German wine regions (Mosel, Rheingau, etc.).

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Region – The region category replaces both Bereich and Grosslage of the former regulations. The label must state ‘region’ on the label. Ortwein – village wine. The label must bear the name of the village. Einzellage – single vineyard. The wine can be dry or sweet. It must be made from one or more recommended grape varieties and be of Kabinett quality (i.e. meet the minimum must weight for Kabinett within its region). There are two further categories within the single vineyard category, Erstes Gewächs (first growth) and Grosses Gewächs (great growth). These categories have further requirements: Erstes Gewächs

Grosses Gewächs

The grapes must come from single vineyard or smaller parcel within a classified site. The wines must be made from a single grape variety (minimum 85% and only recommended varieties approved within the region of origin). The grapes must be picked selectively (i.e. can be harvested by any means but must be subject to selection).

The grapes must be handpicked.

Yields are limited to a maximum of 60 hL/ ha or 70 hL/ha on steep slopes with a minimum natural alcohol of 11 per cent.

Yields are limited to a maximum yield of 50 hL/ha with a minimum natural alcohol content of 12 per cent.

The wines must be dry (i.e. within rules for Trocken). The wines have to pass a sensory test by a tasting commission if ordered by the regional bodies

The wines have to pass a sensory test by a tasting commission.

The wines are subject to specified release dates (1 March of the following year).

The wines are subject to specified release dates. (1 September of the following year for white wines and 1 March of the next year for red wines)

For both these top categories, it is possible to indicate a smaller parcel, known as a Gewann, as long as it entered into the vineyard register.

11.4.  Principal Wine Regions

The principal wine-producing regions in Germany (Anbaugebiete) are as follows, ranked by size of production (note that the four highest-producing regions – Rheinhessen, Pfalz, Baden and Württemberg – produce almost 80 per cent of Germany’s wine). 24 Although the vast majority of German wine production is concentrated in the southern and south-western

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GERMANY GERMANY 0

51˚N 51˚N

0

200

4020

0 20

6040

8060

10080Km

100 Km

N

20 40

4060 Miles 60 Miles

N

R. R h

R. R h

SACHSEN SACHSEN

ein

ein

Ah

R.

l R . s el se Mo Mo . R R.

RHEINGAU RHEINGAU Frankfurt Frankfurt

MOSELMOSEL

Na R.

h

h

e

e

ain

Na R.

LUX.LUX.

ain

NAHE NAHE

50˚N 50˚N

R. M

R. M

50˚N 50˚N

r

BELGIUM BELGIUM

r

AHR AHR Ah

RHEINHESSEN RHEINHESSEN

FRANKEN FRANKEN

R. S

R. S

Mannheim Mannheim

r aa

r aa

PFALZPFALZ kar R . N ec

kar R . N ec

49˚N 49˚N

WÜRTTEMBERG WÜRTTEMBERG

49˚N 49˚N

FRANCE FRANCE 48˚N 48˚N

R. Rh ein

BADENBADEN R. Rh ein

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ORTENAU ORTENAU

BREISGAU BREISGAU

2000-4000m 2000-4000m

GERMANY GERMANY

KAISERSTUHL KAISERSTUHL

48˚N 48˚N

TUNIBERG TUNIBERG

1000-2000m 1000-2000m 500-1000m 500-1000m 200-500m 200-500m 0-200m 0-200m

SWITZERLAND SWITZERLAND

parts of the country, there are two small wine areas, Saale-Unstrut and Sachsen, in the east of Germany, that predominantly produce white wines from Müller Thurgau, Weissburgunder and Riesling. RHEINHESSEN Rheinhessen is home to just under a quarter of German vineyards. It is also the largest in terms of production and yields are amongst the highest in Germany. It is a relatively warm and dry region, sheltered by various mountain ranges including the Hunsrück and Taunus. The majority of its vineyards are planted on the warm, fertile valley floors which are ideal for the production of high volume, inexpensive wines: Liebfraumilch originated from Worms in the southern Rheinhessen. White grapes dominate in Rheinhessen with 71 per cent of plantings. Riesling is the most planted variety, just ahead of Müller-Thurgau, which, along with the other German crosses, is mainly used in inexpensive blends. There are also sizeable plantings of Silvaner, Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder. Dornfelder is the leading black variety, covering over double the vineyard area of Spätburgunder.

RR.. RRhh ein

Ürzig Ürzig

50˚N 50˚N

Rüdesheim Rüdesheim

Wehlen Graach Wehlen Graach Bernkastel Bernkastel Piesport Piesport Brauneberg Brauneberg ee s s oo RR.. MM he

Schlossböckelheim Schlossböckelheim

10 10

500-1000m 500-1000m

RHEINHESSEN RHEINHESSEN

Wachenheim Wachenheim

PFALZ PFALZ Bad Dürkheim Dürkheim Bad

30 30

200-500m 200-500m

Mannheim Mannheim Forst Forst Deidesheim Deidesheim

40Km Km 40

20Miles Miles 20

Worms Worms

hein R. R

00

20 20

Nierstein Nierstein Oppenheim Oppenheim

NAHE NAHE

GERMANY GERMANY

10 10

RR..

Hochheim Hochheim Geisenheim Geisenheim Mainz 50˚N Mainz 50˚N Nackenheim Nackenheim

Bad Bad Kreuznach Kreuznach

NNaa RR..

00

Ma

Johannisberg Johannisberg Erbach Erbach Hattenheim Hattenheim Assmanshausen Assmanshausen

Erden Erden

GERMAN VILLAGES

in

RHEINGAU RHEINGAU

MOSEL MOSEL

l

Ürzig Ürzig Graach Graach Piesport Piesport Brauneberg Brauneberg Sclossbökelheim Sclossbökelheim Assmanshausen Assmanshausen Rüdesheim Rüdesheim Geisenheim Geisenheim Johannisberg Johannisberg Winkel Winkel Oestrich Oestrich Hochheim Hochheim Nierstein Nierstein Oppenheim Oppenheim Bad Dürkheim Dürkheim Bad Forst Forst Deidesheim Deidesheim Ruppertsberg Ruppertsberg

Germany

N N

Villages Villages

100-200m 100-200m

Ruppertsberg Ruppertsberg

0-100m 0-100m

Bulk production still dominates – and plantings are still on the rise to supply it. The majority of this production is under the control of merchant houses. Quality wine production is dominated by small estates and a number of co-operatives. However, a number of areas are establishing a reputation for producing high-quality wines. The longest-established is the Rheinterrasse, a stretch of steeply-sloping vineyards on the west bank of the river around Nierstein and Oppenheim. The east-facing aspect of these vineyards mean they receive the warming morning sun in the coolest part of the day, enhancing ripeness. Proximity to the Rhine and its moderating influence also means that evening and autumn temperatures remain warmer than in vineyard areas away from the river, extending the ripening period. As a result, Rieslings from this area often show ripe lemon and peach flavours. Within the Rheinterrasse, the vineyards within the strip known as Roter Hang around Nierstein and neighbouring Nackenheim are particularly reputed. The Roter Hang is distinguished by its Rotliegenden soil, an iron-rich red soil consisting of slate, clay and sandstone. Rieslings from the Roter Hang are said to show smoky characteristics. Vineyards in the Wonnegau area in south Rheinhessen are also now gaining a reputation for high-quality Riesling and Spätburgunder. These vineyards also benefit from the moderating influence of the Rhine. Significant producers include Weingut Gunderloch on the Rheinterrasse and Weingut Keller closer to Worms.

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Vineyard, Rheinhessen PFALZ A narrow strip of vineyards squeezed between the Haardt Mountains to the west and the Rhine plain to the east: unusually for Germany, the vineyards of Pfalz are not centred along a river valley. The region runs north from Alsace: the Haardt are a continuation of the Vosges and produce a similar rain shadow effect, making Pfalz the driest German wine-producing region and the only one where drought can be a concern. The area under vine is only slightly smaller than Rheinhessen and production is not far behind. Again, white grape varieties dominate with 65 per cent of plantings, Riesling accounts for around a quarter of total plantings, followed by Müller-Thurgau, Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder. Due to the warmer temperatures, Pfalz wines tend to be slightly fuller-bodied with riper fruit flavours than those from Rheinhessen. The climate also suggests considerable potential for red wine production: currently, Dornfelder is the most planted black variety, and second overall, but there are also significant plantings of Spätburgunder. The most renowned vineyards are in an area known as the Mittelhaardt around Bad Dürkheim, Wachenheim, Forst, Deidesheim and Ruppertsberg in the northern part of Pfalz. The south- or east-facing steeply-sloping vineyards in the foothills of the Haardt gain maximum sunshine and are protected from winds, contributing to the production of ripe, full-bodied Riesling. There is a wide variety of soils, including limestone, sandstone, basalt and clay, which producers are exploiting to give wines of differing characteristics and flavours. Further south, the Südliche Weinstrasse, with its more fertile sandstone soils, was traditionally an area for inexpensive wine production. However, in recent years, a new generation of winemakers has led to an increase in quality in the wines from this area, particularly for Spätburgunder, Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder. Like Alsace, this southern

Germany

part of the Pfalz has experienced periods of both French and German rule, and is one reason, alongside suitable climatic factors, that Pinot grapes continue to be common in the area. As in Rheinhessen, high-volume production is dominated by merchant houses, whilst higher quality wines tend to come from small estates and a number of quality-focused cooperatives. Significant producers include Dr. Bürklin-Wolf and the co-operative Winzerverein Deidesheim. BADEN The wine region of Baden is split into multiple distinct areas (Bereiche). The main vineyard area stretches from just north of Heidelberg to the Swiss border in the south. There are also vineyards between Franken and Württemberg, and around the east of the Bodensee (Lake Constance). The main vineyard area is situated on the eastern side of the Rhine opposite Alsace and also benefits from the rain shadow of the Vosges. This, coupled with its relatively southerly latitude, overall makes Baden Germany’s warmest, sunniest and driest wine- producing regions. Baden is best known for its red wines. Spätburgunder is the most planted variety and those produced in Baden are amongst Germany’s best with complex flavours, often enhanced by oak ageing. They come in a variety of styles thanks to Baden’s varied soils and microclimates. The steep, south-facing slopes around Kaiserstuhl, an extinct volcano, produce the fullest-bodied wines with high alcohol and complex, smoky ripe fruit flavours. In cooler areas, such as the Bereich of Ortenau, and on the significant pockets of calcareous soil, such as around the Bereiche of Tuniberg and Breisgau, the wines have more acidity and more delicate fruit flavours. Despite its reputation for red wine, 59 per cent of Baden’s plantings are white. The warm, dry conditions make Baden ideal for the production of high volume, inexpensive blends and Müller-Thurgau is the second most planted variety. However, Baden has also been developing a reputation for very good Grauburgunder, Weissburgunder and Chardonnay, often matured in oak. Riesling only takes up a relatively small area in Baden but some high-quality, fuller-bodied examples are produced at all Prädikat levels. Whilst there are many small estates (for example, Bernhard Huber), co-operatives are responsible for around 75 per cent of Baden’s production, led by the Badischer Winzerkeller located in Breisach and one of the largest in Germany. WÜRTTEMBERG Located around Stuttgart, to the east of Baden and south of Franken, Württemberg currently produces mainly light, fruity red wines which are mostly consumed on the domestic market. The vast majority of production comes from the central co-operative, Möglingen. However, this is starting to change as a number of smaller estates are gaining a reputation for producing very good quality wines, especially on the steep, terraced vineyards above the river Neckar and tributaries. The warm summer temperatures are ideal for red wine production and 68 per cent of plantings are black grape varieties. However, whilst Spätburgunder is increasingly important, the most planted black varieties are Trollinger, Lemberger and Schwarzriesling, giving producers a potential point of difference on export markets. As well as the traditional light and fruity style, fuller- bodied examples with riper fruit flavours, higher alcohol are increasingly

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being produced particularly from Lemberger, often with oak ageing. Riesling accounts for over half of all white plantings. Significant producers in Württemberg include Rainer Schnaitmann and the large co-operative Württembergische Weingärtner. MOSEL One of Germany’s best-known wine regions, Mosel is famous for producing some of the world’s greatest Rieslings. Whites make up over 90 per cent of plantings and Riesling over 60 per cent on its own. It is one of the most northerly wine-producing regions in Germany and site selection is essential to ensure grapes can ripen. The best vineyards are on the steep, south-facing slopes overlooking the Mosel which enjoy the best sun exposure and, to a much smaller extent, sunshine reflected from the river. The dark-coloured slate soil also plays an important part in radiating heat. The Mosel is generally split into three sections: the Upper Mosel, Middle Mosel and Lower Mosel. The Middle Mosel is the largest and is home to the majority of the best vineyards. Vineyards particularly famous for their quality include (village mentioned first, then vineyards in brackets): Brauneberg (Juffer, Juffer-Sonnenuhr), Erden (Treppchen, Prälat), Graach (Himmelreich, Domprobst), Ürzig (Würzgarten), Wehlen (Sonnenuhr), Bernkastel (Doctor) and Piesport (Goldtröpfchen). (Note, on a wine label the Einzellage name would be presented as, for example, Bernkasteler Doctor.) Mosel Rieslings are paler in colour, lighter in body, with lower alcohol and higher acidity than those from elsewhere and have pronounced floral and green fruit aromas. The balance of acidity and flavour intensity gives these wines potential for long bottle ageing. Whilst drier wines are now increasingly produced, Mosel has a strong reputation for producing sweeter

Steep vineyard on the Mosel.

Germany

Flat vineyard on the Mosel. styles of wine in the Kabinett, Spätlese and Auslese categories and also for sweet Rieslings. The winters are almost always cold enough to produce Eiswein. The slate soils come in a variety of colours – grey, blue, brown and red – and producers are increasingly interested in how subtle differences can influence the characteristics and aromas of their wines. The topography of the steepest sites means that working the vineyards is expensive and labour intensive. The low yields required to make the sweetest wines such as BA and TBA also impact on cost of production. These costs, alongside the quality of many Mosel Rieslings, means that wine prices are amongst the most expensive in Germany. However, there are flatter sites, for example around Piesport, which are used for producing less complex, inexpensive wines, particularly from Müller-Thurgau, much of it bottled by the region’s merchant houses. About 20 per cent of the region’s wine is produced by the Moselland co-operative in Bernkastel, making it the world’s largest producer of Riesling.25 The Mosel is home both to small producers (for example, among many others, Egon Müller and Markus Molitor) and to major wine companies such as F.W. Langguth who source wine for the large Erben and Blue Nun brands (among its other brands) from other parts of Germany and other countries. The region also covers the valleys of the rivers Saar and Ruwer, both tributaries of the Mosel. The best vineyards are located in the sheltered side valleys of these rivers, with south, south-east and south-west aspects. Due to the slightly higher altitude of the vineyards, temperatures are a little lower in the Saar and Ruwer than in the Middle Mosel and acidity levels in the wines can be even higher. There are a number of highly reputed vineyards in these relatively small areas, the most famous of which is Scharzhofberg in Saar.

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FRANKEN The vineyards of Franken create a W-shaped course along the south-facing slopes of the river Main and its tributaries. Being further east, Franken has the most continental climate of Germany’s principal wine region, meaning warmer summers but a shorter growing season with cooler autumns and harsh winters. Spring frosts are a particular hazard. White grapes account for 82 per cent of plantings and the production of drier styles is a more long-standing tradition than elsewhere. The most planted variety is Müller-Thurgau, whereas Riesling makes up a relatively small proportion of plantings. However, it is the second most planted variety, Silvaner, which produces some of the region’s best and most distinctive wines (although plantings have fallen considerably in the last 30 years). Silvaner is an early-budding and early ripening variety, meaning it can reach full ripeness before temperatures fall in the autumn. This also makes it susceptible to spring frost but, due to its historical significance in the region, Silvaner tends to get the best sites, which are less frost prone. Very good Silvaner wines are produced on south and south-east facing slopes of chalky soils around the town of Würzburg, giving full-bodied dry wines with floral and wet stone aromas. To the west of the region, steep terraces of sandstone produce some very good Spätburgunder, amongst the most well-renowned producer is Weingut Rudolf Fürst. Many Franken wines are bottled in the traditional Bocksbeutel, a flat, round-shaped bottle with a short neck. Much of Franken’s production is consumed locally but its distinctive wines are starting to gain recognition on export markets. There are a number of high-quality estates, including Horst Sauer and a few owned by charitable institutions, such as Bürgerspital and Juliusspital. NAHE Situated between Mosel and Rheinhessen, Nahe consists of a relatively small number of vineyards, mainly small estates, scattered over a relatively large area. This results in a wide variety of soils and growing conditions, although the region as a whole is protected by the Hunsrück Mountains, resulting in mild temperatures and low rainfall. This is predominantly a white wine region: white varieties account for just over threequarters of all plantings with Riesling leading the way at nearly 30 per cent. As it is slightly warmer, Nahe Rieslings have slightly lower levels of acidity but riper fruit flavours and more body than those from Mosel, though less so than those from Rheingau and Rheinhessen. The vineyards in the east of region, particularly those on the south-facing banks of the Nahe between Schlossböckelheim and Bad Kreuznach have some of the warmest conditions, benefitting from the moderating influences of the Rhine and Nahe rivers, and gaining maximum sunlight. In this strip, the slopes can be as steep as in Mosel. The soils are a mixture of slate and sandstone. Cooler conditions can be found to the west of the region, where harvesting can be a couple of weeks later. Significant producers include Weingut Dönnhof and Emrich-Schönleber. Where the slopes are gentle, the soil is deeper and more fertile. As well as producing some inexpensive wines from Müller-Thurgau, the region’s second most planted variety, these sites also produce some good and very good quality wines from Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder. Dornfelder is the most planted red variety, ahead of Spätburgunder, but black varieties only make up just under a quarter of plantings.

Germany

RHEINGAU Rheingau is a small but highly prestigious region producing some of Germany’s highest quality and most ageworthy Rieslings. It covers a stretch of the Rhine from Wiesbaden to Lorchhausen as well as a short section of the river Main around Hochheim. Across the river from Rheinhessen, it is also protected from cold, northerly winds by the western end of the Taunus Mountains, which, along with the south-facing aspect of its vineyards, means that Rieslings here can be fuller-bodied, with riper fruit characteristics than those of the Mosel. The Rhine is also much wider here – about 1 km across. It has a moderating influence on temperatures reducing frost risk. It also increases humidity providing conditions that are perfect for the development of botrytis in the autumn. In Rheingau, the focus is primarily on quality. Yields are lower than average for Germany. The best vineyards are situated on steep slopes around Rüdesheim, Geisenheim (home of the famous research institute), Johannisberg, Hattenheim and Erbach. Sites on the mid-slope are thought to be subject to the best conditions, at least for dry wines; receiving some moderating influence from the river, but far enough away to avoid much of the humidity that can lead to fungal diseases. Soils range from sand, loam and loess around Hochheim in the east, to sandstone and slate further west. White wines dominate, accounting for 86 per cent of plantings, with Riesling being especially dominant here (making up 78 per cent alone). The majority of these wines are made in a dry style (indeed the country-wide trend for producing drier styles of wines arguably started in the Rheingau): however, Rheingau is also reputed for its botrytised sweet wines. At the western end, around Assmannshausen, where the river turns to head north again, Spätburgunder is the key grape. The steep south and south-west facing Höllenberg vineyard is renowned for producing relatively full-bodied Pinot Noirs of very good to outstanding quality.

Vineyard, Rheingau.

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Rheingau was once the home of the German aristocracy, and ‘Schloss’ found in many of the winery names denotes a castle or manor house. Production comes mainly from estates and Rheingau is home to some of Germany’s most famous, such as Schloss Johannisberg, Schloss Vollrads and the large, state-owned Hessische Staatsweingüter Kloster Eberbach. Cooperatives are less influential here than elsewhere. AHR Ahr is one of Germany’s smallest wine-producing regions with only a few hundred hectares under vine. It is also one of the most northerly: yet black grape varieties dominate, with 83 per cent of plantings. This is made possible because the river Ahr cuts a narrow, sheltered valley with steep, south-facing slopes and the soil is dominated by heat-retaining dark slate and greywacke (a dark sandstone). Traditionally, black grapes were late harvested in Ahr and were produced with residual sweetness. However, the region is now a source of very good Spätburgunder, fermented to dryness with relatively high tannins and spice notes from oak ageing. Wines from small estates are increasingly making their way on to the export market, although co-operatives still produce around three- quarters of Ahr wine. The Mayschoss co-operative was formed in 1868 and is thought to be the oldest co-operative in the world. Significant producers include the cooperative Winzergenossenschaft Mayschoss-Altenahr and Jean Stodden.

11.5.  Wine Business

In 2016, Germany had just under 16,000 wine growers, with approximately half owning vineyards of 3 ha or less.26 However, the number of growers has fallen by over 20 per cent since 2010, despite a slight increase in the area under vine. This increase has mainly been in the flatter, valley sites where vineyards continue to be planted for bulk wine production. For vineyards on the steeper slopes in particular, the high cost of labour and low yields, particularly for sweeter wines, coupled with vintage variation result in high production costs. Although such wines often command higher prices, for some growers the cost of farming the land is unsustainable against the prices customers are prepared to pay, hence the reduction in the number of growers in recent years. Germany’s best wines are mainly produced by wine estates which grow and vinify their own grapes.27 Estates vary enormously in size, from over 100 ha to small family concerns of 5 ha and under. Some were established many centuries ago by the Church (e.g. Schloss Johannisberg and Kloster Eberbach), aristocratic families (e.g. Schloss Vollrads) and charitable organisations (e.g. Bürgerspital and Juliusspital). However, there has also recently been an emergence of estates run by a new breed of highly-skilled and knowledgeable winemakers. The German Wine Institute initiated Generation Riesling in 2005 to give young winemakers (under 35 years of age) in Germany a national and international promotional platform. Many growers, however, sell their grapes to merchant houses (Weinkellerei) which are one of the main sources of the higher-volume wines, or process them through a cooperative.28 Germany was one of the first wine-producing countries to establish co-operatives and, although the number has been falling slightly, they remain a very important part of the German wine industry. Co-operatives receive the crop from about 30 per cent of the total German vineyard area and over three-quarters of production in Baden and Württemberg.29

Germany

Labelling at Schloss Vollrads, Rheingau. Many are now quality-focused with considerable grape growing and winemaking expertise and technology. In particular, despite being one of the biggest co-operatives in Germany, the Badischer Winzerkeller in Baden has been developing a range of small- volume bottlings of high-quality wines. The domestic market has always been very important and the shift to drier styles of wine and the increase in red wine production were heavily influenced by changing tastes amongst German consumers. Despite still being very much a beer-drinking country, Germany is the fourth largest consumer of wine in the world at approximately 20 million hL in 2018.30 It cannot satisfy this thirst purely from homegrown production and routinely imports 14–15 million hL per year.31 The volume of German wine exports has almost halved this century. In the first decade of the 2000s, Germany regularly exported around 2 million hL each year, accounting for between 20 and 25 per cent of total production. By the mid-2010s, exports had fallen to around 1 million hL per year (and have since remained there), closer to 10 per cent of total production. However, in the same period, the average price had risen from below €200 to €300 per hL.32 This has been influenced by a reduction in the shipping of bulk wine and an increase in bottled exports, which are significantly higher in value per unit volume, as part of a strategy of the Deutsches Weininstitut (see below). The top five export markets by volume are the USA, the Netherlands, the UK, Norway and Sweden. The USA and Norway are particularly important in terms of sales value per unit volume, whereas the average price of exports to the UK and the Netherlands is considerably lower due to the continued, but shrinking, presence of inexpensive wines, often Liebfraumilch, on supermarket shelves.

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The German wine industry’s promotional body, the Deutsches Weininstitut (DWI, or German Wine Institute), seeks to promote the quality and sales of German wines in the domestic and export markets. Most notably, they run a ‘Riesling Weeks’ campaign in 13 different countries, that encourage retailers and restaurants to promote German wines for a defined period (from a week to a month) each year. References 1. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 2. Liebfraumilch, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 3. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 4. 4-year average, 2015–2018. As above. 5. In 2009, it was reported that average vineyard temperatures in the growing season had risen by 1°C (1.8°F) since 2000 alone (Mengenregulierung beim Wein: Streit seit 20 Jahren, Volksfreund (retrieved 25 April 2019)) 6. La Bio Dans L’union Europeenne Edition 2019, Agence Bio (retrieved 22 March 2020) 7. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 8. 2018 data. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 9. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 10. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 11. The German term for PGI is geschützte geografishe Angabe (g.g.A.) 12. Qualitätswein was formerly known as Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA). The German term for PDO is geschützte Ursprungsbezeichnung (g.U.) 13. Formerly known as Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP) 14. Literally meaning ‘late harvest’ 15. Literally meaning ‘selected harvest’ 16. Literally meaning ‘selected berries’ 17. The above wording reflects German wine law. It is common also to find the temperature described as ‘–8°C (18°F) or lower’. 18. Literally meaning ‘dried selected berries’ 19. Data set is wines sent in for quality control testing (Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein only). Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 20. Einzellage, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 21. Boden und Lage, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 22. The Association, VDP (retrieved 22 March 2020) 23. Based on New Origin Pyramid for Qualität and Prädikat Wines, Wines of Germany, retrieved 22 June 2021 24. Unless otherwise stated all data is from Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 25. Mosel, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 26. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 27. The German term for a wine estate is Weingut. 28. There are numerous German words for ‘co-operative’: Winzergenossenschaft, Winzerverein, Winzervereinigung, Weingärtnergenossenschaft, and Weinbauernverband. Most of the Anbaugebiete also have a central co-operative cellar, or Zentralkellerei. 29. Germany, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 30. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020) 33. Note that a significant proportion is used for German Sekt production. 3m hL of imports are then re-exported. 32. Deutscher Wein Statistik 2019–2020, Deutsches Weininstitut (retrieved 22 March 2020)

Austria

Austria

12

Austria is known for its high acid, dry white wines made from Grüner Veltliner and Riesling. It also makes sweet white wines. Recently, a number of red wines, many based on local grape varieties such as Zweigelt and Blaufränkisch, are also becoming better known. Though somewhat of a newcomer to the world stage in wine, Austria has been making wine since the Bronze Age. The Romans and the Magyars also influenced wine production throughout the centuries. However, it was the Cistercian monks in the 10–12th centuries, as in many other wine regions of Europe, who had perhaps the most impact. These monks brought with them Burgundian wine culture and even helped establish the terraced hills seen in Wachau and its neighbouring appellations today. During the 15th and 16th centuries, there was a large expansion of the total vineyard area to 150,000 hectares (three times the area present in 2018). However, due to invasion from Turkey, high taxes on wine, and increased popularity of beer, vineyard areas continued to decrease from the 17th century onwards. In the late 1800’s phylloxera, powdery and downy mildew also caused decreases in vineyard area. During this time, there was already a culture of scientific research into vineyard management and winemaking which continues today. In the early 1900s, the first Austrian wine laws were created, for example forbidding hybrid vines. In the mid-1970s and 1980s a high proportion of wines was being exported, particularly from Burgenland, and in order to compete on price with other nations, a small number of large volume producers started adding diethylene glycol, an antifreeze agent, to their wines to increase volumes and to simulate sweetness. This was discovered in 1985, and Austrian wine exports dropped from almost 30 million litres in 1985 to under 5 million litres in 1986. However, the Austrian Wine Marketing Board (AWMB) was established in 1986 to help change the international image of Austrian wine. Austrian wine exports are now at 53 million litres but the value has more than tripled since 1985, meaning consumers are now willing to pay premium prices for high quality Austrian wine.1

12.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE Most of western Austria’s terrain is mountainous and not necessarily suited to commercial grape growing. However, more favourable conditions for grape growing can be found as the Alps flatten towards the Pannonian plain and along the Danube. Overall, Austria has a cool continental climate, however, a number of influences can affect local climate in different parts of the country. Those vineyards in the north of country, such as Weinviertel, are influenced by cool northerly winds, whereas the vineyards in the south, in Steiermark, have more influence from the Adriatic, and are therefore warmer. Vineyards in the east, such as those in Burgenland, near the Hungarian border are influenced by the warmer Pannonian climate, whereas those in the west, such as the vineyards on the Danube, may experience cooler breezes from the Alps. Spring frosts can be an issue in many regions and in Steiermark hail can also cause damage. Winter freeze is rarely an issue; however, damage can occur in particularly cold

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winters. In low rainfall years water stress can be an issue in some regions, especially those with thin free draining soils (see next paragraph), and irrigation may be required. SOIL Generally, there are two major soil types; thin soils over rock (granite or gneiss, crystalline bedrock material known locally as Urgestein) and richer soils such as loess.2 Riesling is usually planted on the thin soils as it tends to need less water than Grüner Veltliner. Due to its greater requirement for water, Grüner Veltliner is typically planted on either loess or, where it is present, clay. Other soil types include limestone and schist (such as on the Leithaberg hills) as well as gravel and volcanic material (such as in Steiermark and parts of Kamptal). VINEYARD MANAGEMENT In the 1980s the main training method was the Lenz Moser system in which vines are cordon trained to the height of 1.2–1.4 m (higher than other systems and requiring wider rows to avoid shading). The system was popular for high volume production as once established it requires little maintenance and allows many vineyard tasks to be mechanised. This has largely been superseded by single or double Guyot (replacement-cane) with VSP trellising, which is better suited to high quality production. Machine harvesting is more common on flatter lands in parts of Weinviertel and Burgenland, however in the vineyards around the Danube, such as Wachau, Kremstal, and Kamptal, the vines are planted on hand built, steep stone terraces that means all work is carried out by hand, adding to cost. Growers have indicated that growing vines on these terraces can take 3–5 times as many hours as those vines on flatter land.3

Before winter pruning.

Austria

Disease pressure is low in many parts of Austria, because of moderate precipitation – ranging from 450mm in the Weinviertel to 850mm in Steiermark. The lack of disease pressure has led to 14 per cent of all vineyards following organic practices4 with an additional 9 per cent certified sustainable.5 Rainfall can be low during the growing season, particularly in Niederösterreich, and so irrigation may be required. Maximum yields per hectare are legally capped at 67.5 hL/ha6 (however, the average yield over the five years from 2013 to 2017 has been 49 hL/ha).7 This is in line with Austria’s modern image which is focussed on creating high quality wines, rather than wines for bulk production. GRAPE VARIETIES Austria is best known for its native grape varieties. Two-thirds of all vineyards in Austria are planted with white grape varieties, in particular, Grüner Veltliner. Zweigelt is the most planted black grape variety. Austria: most planted grape varieties (2015 data) 16,000 14,000

Vineyard area (ha)

12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0

Grüner Veltliner

Zweigelt

Welschriesling

Blaufränkisch

Riesling

Source: Austrian Wine Marketing Board8 Grüner Veltliner This variety is widely planted and accounts for 32 per cent of all plantings in Austria.9 Unlike Riesling, it does not thrive in dry soils, and so is better suited to clay and loess soils, which can retain higher levels of water. It can be very vigorous if planted on fertile soil, and so careful canopy management is necessary in order to produce ripe grapes. The skins are thick, and if left in contact with the juice for too long, can contribute a phenolic taste, or bitterness to the wine. The skins also contain the chemical compound rotundone that gives a peppery aroma, characteristic of this variety. The wines made from Grüner Veltliner have medium (+) to high acidity and are typically not oaked. They range from simple wines, with citrus and green fruit aromas made for early drinking, of acceptable to good quality and inexpensive price to wines with pronounced citrus and peach fruit and great complexity of aroma and flavour, which can be aged in bottle. These

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wines are very good to outstanding quality and premium priced. Zweigelt This is the most planted black grape variety accounting for 14 per cent of all grapes.10 It is a crossing between the Sankt Laurent (see details under Thermenregion) and Blaufränkisch varieties. It ripens earlier and more easily than Blaufränkisch and can be high yielding. It is also a vigorous variety, and so leaf removal and canopy management are very important in order to produce quality grapes. Potassium deficiency in this variety can lead to withering of the grapes before they ripen, leading to loss of crop for that vintage. The grape is widely planted throughout the country, thanks to its ease of ripening and the fact that it is not susceptible to frost or rot. Wines made from Zweigelt generally have a medium (+) level of acidity with medium tannin Grüner Veltliner. levels. Red fruit, particularly cherry, dominate the flavours and aromas. Styles range from easy drinking, fruity unoaked wines that are acceptable to good quality and inexpensive to mid-priced, to full bodied, oaked styles that have the possibility to age. The latter are of very good quality and can command premium prices. Welschriesling Not related to Riesling, this grape is the second most planted white grape variety in Austria. It has high levels of acidity and can have somewhat neutral aromatics. It is mainly found in Steiermark and usually made into fresh, neutral, unoaked, dry wines, of acceptable to good quality and inexpensive in price. Plantings of Welschriesling are in decline partially due to a decrease in consumption of this simple, dry style.11 There are also large plantings in Burgenland around the humid Neusiedlersee region. Thanks to its thin skins it can be affected by noble rot, and then used for sweet wines production, labelled as Beerenauslese or Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA). These wines have high levels of acidity, with pronounced tropical fruit aromas and dried fruit, with the ability to develop in bottle. They are very good to outstanding quality and premium prices. Because of its neutral aromatics and high acidity, Welschriesling can also be used in Sekt production. Blaufränkisch Blaufränkisch is the second most planted black grape variety and tends to produce wines with medium (+) to high tannins, high levels of acidity, deep colour and black fruit flavours. This variety buds early making it vulnerable to frosts in spring. It also ripens late and therefore needs a warm climate to become fully ripe, and so is generally only found in Burgenland. Its thick skins mean it is not as prone to rot as some other varieties, which is important in the humid area around Neusiedlersee. It can produce high yields, and if left to do so will struggle

Austria

to ripen, creating wines with green aromas and flavours. However, when yields are managed it can produce some of Austria’s most age-worthy and intense red wines. The wines range from simple, fruity wines with little or no oak ageing, that are good in quality and mid-priced, to very good to outstanding wines with pronounced black fruit, spicy oak characters and high tannins that are premium priced. Leithaberg DAC and Mittelburgenland DAC are prime destinations for this grape variety. Riesling Riesling only accounts for just over 4 per cent of all plantings in Austria, however it is one of the most prized varieties.12 It is mainly found in Niederösterreich, where it is the second most planted white grape variety, and in many instances it is planted in the warmest sites on thin soils, as it needs less water than Grüner Veltliner to thrive. The wines made from Riesling are almost always dry, can be full bodied, with medium levels of alcohol, ripe stone fruit and sometimes tropical fruit flavours, with high levels of acidity, allowing many of them to improve over 10–20 years, where they become nutty, honeyed and have petrol notes. They are typically very good to outstanding in quality and command premium prices.

12.2. Winemaking

For white wines, the most typical aim is to preserve the primary fruit and varietal characteristics of the wine. Many producers use a short period of skin contact to maximize the aromas and flavours and ferment the wine in a neutral vessel. Temperature control to prevent the loss of delicate, volatile aromas is common. Grüner Veltliner and Riesling typically do not go through malolactic conversion, partly because it would be difficult to achieve due to the low pH of the wines, and partly through the desire to retain the varietal character and fresh acidity. For the same reason, wines are stored in old wood or stainless steel. Many producers will leave the wine on the fine lees for six months or longer to add texture. Most white wines are fermented to dryness. Red wines are typically fermented in large open-top vessels, with either punch downs or pump overs. Some producers use ambient yeast. Wines are either stored in stainless steel or matured in old oak vessels, often 300–600 L or larger, to help soften the tannins in the wine without extracting the flavours of new oak. A few premium wines are aged in barriques with a proportion of new oak. Some producers choose acacia vats over oak for maturation in both their white and red wines, as it gives a small amount of oxygenation without the vanilla characters of oak. As in other countries, some winemakers are experimenting with techniques such as prolonged skin contact or fermentation and ageing in amphorae.

12.3.  Wine Law and Regulations

Austrian wine law is a mixture of Germanic tradition and the Romanic system in which the style of wine is linked to an origin, the DAC (Districtus Austriae Controllatus) system. More recently, the latter has seen an increase in recognition; currently only two appellations remain without a DAC status.

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As Austria is in the EU, PDO and PGI terms are also used: • • •

Wein – Wine without Geographic Indication Landwein – Wine with Protected Geographic Indication (PGI) Qualitätswein – Wine with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO). Qualitätswein also has to undergo a government inspection to ensure it meets minimum quality standards, and the government inspection number will be stated on the label.

Together, Wein and Landwein only account for around 10 per cent of all production, with Qualitätswein (including Prädikatswein) making up the remainder.13 Within the Qualitätswein category, wines may also be labelled as: • •

Klassik – wines with a vintage declared and showing varietal character Reserve – dry wines with a minimum 13% abv, typically harvested and released later than the standard wines14

Like German wine law, Qualitätswein also has a higher category within it, known as Prädikatswein. Again, like German wine law, the different Prädikat levels are based on must weight at time of harvest. Kabinett does not fall into the Prädikatswein system in Austria. For the categories Spätlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Eiswein and Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA), see Qualitätswein in Germany. In addition, TBA wines from the city of Rust, situated on Lake Neusiedlersee, are labelled Ausbruch. Regionally Typical Qualitätswein – DAC Austria introduced an amendment to the wine law legislation in 2002 to create an appellation system, which is aimed to promote regional typicity. Only these wines are permitted to display their origin, such as Weinviertel or Kamptal, on the label, whereas those that do not conform to the legislation, would have to use the larger area of Niederösterreich on their label. The first DAC region to be validated was the Weinviertel in 2001. There are 16 DAC wine growing regions.15 In order to use the geographic origin on the label, only specific permitted grape varieties are allowed in each DAC, to help ensure regional typicity and profile are maintained. Those wines that do not meet the tasting panel criteria of what is deemed ‘typical’ for that region, will be rejected. At the same time, this may also lead to a situation where new-wave wines may not be eligible for DAC status even though their quality may be high. Like the AOC system in France or the DOCG system in Italy, the DAC letters are not a guarantee of quality, but rather an indicator of typicity. For DAC wines there is the option to use a quality hierarchy that distinguishes regional (Gebietswein), village (Ortswein) and single vineyard wines (Riedenwein). Other Labelling Terms Outside of Austrian wine law, there are associations that classify quality and origin for Austrian wines. The two most important associations are:

Austria

Österreichische Traditionsweingüter – Founded in 1992, the Österreichische Traditionsweingüter (ÖTW) is a group of producers, based in the Kamptal, Kremstal, Wagram, and Vienna, amongst other regions, who have been classifying their vineyards, in a similar fashion to Burgundy, based on soil type and climate. In 2019, 81 vineyards were selected as Erste Lage, and dry wines from these vineyards can use a designated 1ÖTW logo on their labels, as long as the two most traditional grape varieties from the wine region are used.16 Recently the ÖTW has applied to have these classifications become part of Austrian Wine Law, but a final decision has yet to be made. Vinea Wachau – This is the name of a group of quality-minded producers based in Wachau that have classification systems for the wines of the region, see more details in Wachau in Principal Wine Regions.

12.4.  Principal Wine Regions

Only four of the nine federal states in Austria have any significant amount of viticulture, and these are Niederösterreich, Burgenland, Steiermark, and Wien. NIEDERÖSTERREICH (LOWER AUSTRIA) This is Austria’s largest grape growing region. Two thirds of the plantings are of white varieties with Grüner Veltliner accounting for nearly half of all plantings. Many of Austria’s most famous vineyards are situated in this region. Spread over a large area Niederösterreich is generally broken down into three regions: • •

•

Weinviertel in the north the regions along the Danube that are west of Vienna, which include Wachau, Kremstal, Kamptal and Wagram the warmer Pannonian plain in the southeast.

Wachau This region is primarily situated along the north bank of Danube River. Riesling and Grüner Veltliner are the most planted

AUSTRIA 25

0

CZECHIA

100 Km

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NIEDERÖSTERREICH KAMPTAL KREMSTAL

WEINVIERTEL

SLOVAKIA

WACHAU

Vienna WAGRAM

48˚N

WIEN

R. Da nube

48˚N

THERMENREGION

A US T RI A

NEUSIEDLERSEE LEITHABERG

p s A l

MITTELBURGENLAND

BURGENLAND Graz

47˚N

STEIERMARK

HUNGARY

SLOVENIA 4000m+

2000-4000m

1000-2000m

500-1000m

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0-200m

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Terraces in Wachau. grape varieties and are never blended. Most of the vineyards are found on steep terraces, with the best sites facing south for maximum sunlight interception.17 The stone terraces retain heat during the day and radiate it back to the vine at night, ensuring very ripe fruit. The Danube also reflects heat and sun into the terraces. The soils are varied but Riesling is generally planted on soils based on gneiss, and Grüner Veltliner is planted on loess. As the Wachau only receives around 460 mm of rain per year, irrigation is necessary in many vintages, though it is controlled. In some years, humidity from the Danube can cause noble rot formation, which may not be desired by a number of producers, as the style that is preferred is dry. The wines produced in Wachau are almost exclusively very good to outstanding in quality and tend to be premium in price. While this region is largely dominated by family-owned estates (significant producers include F.X. Pichler and Franz Hirtzberger), it is also home to a large quality-driven co-operative, Domäne Wachau. From 2020, providing that they meet the set requirements, wines have been able to be labelled as Wachau DAC. For regional and village wines a range of grape varieties can be used, however, for single vineyard wines, only Grüner Veltliner and Riesling are permitted. All DAC wines must be harvested by hand. Wachau also has an association of producers, called Vinea Wachau, that have classified single vineyards based on soil and climate, which can be displayed on the bottle. They have also created registered trademarks for three different classifications of dry white wine (less than 9g/L residual sugar) to help indicate the style and quality. • • •

Steinfeder – Fruity, dry wine, with a maximum of 11.5% abv; the lightest style. Federspiel – A more concentrated, dry wine with alcohol ranging from 11.5–12.5% abv. Smaragd – Typically a highly concentrated, dry wine, with ripe fruit flavours; minimum 12.5% abv.

Austria

Due to the stony terraces and high levels of sunshine, many of the wines will have citrus, stone fruit and in the case of Smaragd wines, tropical fruit flavours. The body will range from light in the case of Steinfeder to full in Smaragd, and all three styles will have no new oak influence. All wines have medium (+) to high levels of acidity. Rieslings rarely go over 14% abv but, in hot vintages, Grüner Veltliner will sometimes exceed this. The most outstanding wines, normally found in the Smaragd category, can improve with bottle age for decades. Kremstal Kremstal is situated around the town of Krems and borders Wachau to the west. The region is influenced by the warm Pannonian plain to the east, and therefore some Zweigelt is grown here as it is warmer than in Wachau; this is especially true in the vineyards that are south of the Danube. Significant producers include Salomon Undhof, Lenz Moser and the important co-operative Weingut Stadt Krems. DAC wines must be Riesling or Grüner Veltliner. Red wines from this region are labelled as Niederösterreich (which accounts for approximately 25 per cent of plantings).18 Grüner Veltliner and Riesling are made in a dry style with medium (+) to high levels of acidity. Both wines will range from medium to full bodied depending on the site. Both Grüner Veltliner and Riesling produce wines ranging from good to outstanding quality levels with midprice to premium pricing. Red wines are also made in the area but must be labelled Niederösterreich. Most are made from Zweigelt in a fruity, easy drinking style with little or minimal oak influence. They tend to have refreshing, medium (+) to high levels of acidity and medium levels of tannin and body with red and black fruit aromas. They are good to very good quality and mid-priced. Kamptal Named after the river flowing through it (Kamp), this region surrounds the town of Langenlois. Over 50 per cent of plantings are Grüner Veltliner, with Zweigelt taking second place and then Riesling. It has similar temperature and sunshine hours to Kremstal however with less humidity, so botrytis is infrequent. The region is subject to both warm breezes from the Pannonian plain, meaning that black grape varieties can be ripened, but also cooling air from the Bohemian Massif. The resulting large diurnal range means that the wines have a high level of acidity. Kamptal DAC states that only wines made from Grüner Veltliner or Riesling can be classified as such. Both grapes can produce wines of very good to outstanding quality, with the possibility to improve over time and can command premium prices. The red wines of Kamptal need to be labelled as Niederösterreich, as in Kremstal. Zweigelt is made in a fruity, easy drinking style of good quality. The wines are mid-priced. However, there are also some that may have been aged in large oak casks for 12 months to add complexity, which are typically very good quality and command slightly higher prices. Recently, Pinot Noir has also seen a renaissance in the area. Significant producers include Bründlmayer and Hirsch. Wagram The Wagram vineyards are planted both north and south of the Danube on gently rolling hills, with a strong warming influence from the Pannonian plain. The region is based on loess soils and so Grüner Veltliner is most widely planted here. The area is also known for wines from

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Roter Veltliner (no relation to Grüner Veltliner), a local white grape variety producing fullbodied whites that develop nutty aromas with bottle age. There is no DAC. Grüner Veltliner is made in a Klassik and Reserve style, with the latter allowing for some subtle oak influence. Other than some Eiswein and late harvest styles most wines are dry, with medium body, and high levels of acidity. They are good to very good in quality and are mid- to premium priced. Weinviertel This is the largest appellation in Niederösterreich and in Austria as a whole. Grüner Veltliner accounts for half of all plantings here. It is difficult to make generalisations about such a large area, but overall it is fairly dry with 400–600mm of rain. Cooling breezes from the north allow for a high diurnal range, meaning peppery aromatics are preserved as are high levels of acidity. The DAC states that wines can only be made from Grüner Veltliner. Reserve wines have a minimum of 13% abv and allow for some oak ageing and/or the inclusion of some botrytis affected grapes (which adds richness and complexity, but the wines are still dry). Typically, Grüner Veltliner from Weinviertel is the most peppery in Austria, thanks to the cooling winds from the north, and has citrus and green fruit aromas, with medium to medium (+) body and high levels of acidity. The wines are good to very good quality, and range from inexpensive to premium prices. Significant producers include Sohm & Kracher. Thermenregion Situated close to the capital of Vienna, this region benefits from the warm air coming from the Pannonian plain, and so black grapes can ripen consistently and account for almost 50 per cent of overall plantings.19 This region is not part of the DAC system. Many of the high-quality red wines are made from Pinot Noir or, local variety, Sankt Laurent. Sankt Laurent has medium (–) body, medium tannins and red cherry flavours, and is sometimes likened to Pinot Noir. These wines are often matured in oak to give flavours of spice. These are good to very good quality and are mid-priced. The most planted white grape is Neuburger (a local white grape with subtle spicy and floral aromas), but wines from Rotgipfler (full- bodied with peach flavours), Zierfandler (aromatic with notes of peach, honey and spice) or a blend of the two is the local speciality. BURGENLAND Located on the border with Hungary this is one of the flattest and warmest areas in Austria where the warm air from the Pannonian plain means that it is possible to reliably ripen many different black grape varieties. Black grape varieties make up over 55 per cent of all plantings, mainly Blaufränkisch and Zweigelt. The styles of red wines range from easy drinking and fruity, to full bodied and intense with new oak aromas. Grüner Veltliner and Welschriesling are the most planted white grape varieties. Grüner Veltliner does not normally reach the quality levels seen in Niederösterreich as the climate here is too warm. Welschriesling, however, plays a major role in the production of botrytised wines, some of which are outstanding in quality. Neusiedlersee Situated around the eastern shores of the large shallow lake, the Neusiedlersee, this vineyard area (of the same name) is flat, warm, and humid. This is the warmest area in Austria, so much

Austria

so that the water of the lake can reach up to 30˚C at the height of summer.20 In the autumn months when the air temperature drops but the water of the lake is still warm, fog forms overnight, covering the surrounding vineyards. Only the vineyards closest to the lake and the marshy areas with many small ponds are covered by the fog. High humidity encourages botrytis to take hold. However, the warm autumn sunshine in the afternoon burns away the fog, and prevents grey rot formation. This means that Neusiedlersee has consistent noble rot in every vintage. Welschriesling is planted near the lake as its thin skins make it prone to noble rot infections. This combination leads to very good and outstanding TBA styles. Away from the lake humidity is not as high, however, it is still very warm, and so black grape varieties are found, Zweigelt being the most planted. TBA styles are made predominantly from Welschriesling, though other white grapes are blended and they are some of the most prized wines of this region. They are very sweet, with balancing high levels of acidity, have noble rot aromas of marmalade, and are not usually oaked. As the grapes are hand harvested over many weeks, the wines are premium priced and are very good or outstanding in quality. They are generally capable of ageing in bottle. In 2020, Ruster Ausbruch DAC was created for TBA wines that meet certain requirements from the municipality of Rust. Dry red wines are also produced and may be varietal Zweigelt wines or blends of Zweigelt and Blaufränkisch. The DAC for Neusiedlersee is for red wines rather than the sweet wines (labelled as Burgenland), and are based on Zweigelt. DAC Klassik wines must be 100 per cent Zweigelt. They typically have flavours of red cherry fruit with no or little influence of oak, medium acidity and medium to full body. They are good to very good quality and mid-priced. The Reserve wines must be a minimum of 60 per cent Zweigelt and can be blended with Blaufränkisch, Pinot Noir or Sankt Laurent. Reserve wines are typically aged in oak. They are good to very good quality and are mid- to premium priced. Significant producers include Krutzler for red wine and Alois Kracher for TBA sweet wines. Leithaberg Located to the west of Neusiedlersee, this is a varied region and produces a large number of styles of wine. On the western shores of Neusiedlersee around the town of Rust, Ausbruch is produced. Thanks to the high levels of humidity and fog (see Neusiedlersee) a very sweet TBA style is produced. However, to the west of the lake humidity is less and black grape varieties are more commonly planted with Blaufränkisch accounting for 20 per cent of all plantings. The Leithaberg hills provide much needed diurnal range, so that grapes planted here have high levels of refreshing acidity. Leithaberg DAC can apply to either red or white wines. Red DAC wines requires a minimum 85 per cent Blaufränkisch. The wines must be aged in oak. Acidity levels range from medium (+) to high, with body ranging from medium (+) to full. They are very good to outstanding in quality with premium prices. Dry white DAC wines are also made and can be blends or single varietals made from the grape varieties Weissburgunder (Pinot Blanc), Chardonnay, Grüner Veltliner or Neuburger. Levels of acidity range from medium to high depending on the blend and body from medium (–) to medium (+). The wines are good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced.

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Bottle-aged Ruster Ausbruch. Mittelburgenland Mittelburgenland is located to the south of Leithaberg. Exposed to the Pannonian plain, the warm climate means Blaufränkisch can easily ripen here and accounts for more than half of all plantings. Three DAC styles are found here, all of which must have minimum 85 per cent Blaufränkisch: • • •

DAC – typically aged in stainless steel tanks or large oak casks DAC + Vineyard designation – slightly higher minimum alcohol level and typically aged in large oak casks or barriques DAC Reserve – slightly higher minimum alcohol level, a longer minimum time maturing and typically aged in large oak casks or barriques

The basic DAC styles are mid-priced and good to very good in quality. The Reserve wines tend to be full bodied, with pronounced aromas and are very good to outstanding quality and premium priced. STEIERMARK This region, also known as Styria, is found in the south-eastern corner of Austria, on the border of Slovenia. Many vineyards are situated on steep hills and have terraces. The cold winters mean that winter freeze may be an issue, and spring frost and hail are also problematic for growers. Netting is used to help prevent hail damage.

Austria

This region is known for its crisp, dry, white wines. The most planted white grapes are Welschriesling, Sauvignon Blanc and Weissburgunder. Most wines have high levels of acidity, in part due to the large diurnal range. Many wines are made for immediate, refreshing drinking. The wines are good to very good in quality and are mid-priced. Recently, the Steiermark has installed a DAC system for each of its sub-regions: Vulkanland Steiermark DAC, Südsteiermark DAC and Weststeiermark DAC. A range of grape varieties are permitted for the regional wines, whereas local specialities, such as Sauvignon Blanc, must be the focus of the village (Ortsweine) and single-vineyard wines (Riedenweine). WIEN The vineyards in the Federal State of Vienna are situated around and in the capital city. Most wines produced here are made to be consumed immediately in informal local premises that sell newly made wines from the current harvest (see below). The DAC here is a white wine called Wiener Gemischter Satz and must be a blend, of which 20 different grape varieties are permitted. It must also be dry and unoaked. DAC wines can be labelled with an indication of vineyard site and these wines do not necessarily need to taste dry. Most wines are medium (+) to high in acid with light bodies and acceptable to very good in quality with entry level to intermediate pricing, though there are also high-quality wines at premium prices.

12.5.  Wine Business

The wine business in Austria is highly fragmented, with almost 4,000 wine estates. However, there has been a considerable decline in very small wine estates (often being managed on a part-time basis) over the past few decades, and an increase in the number of producers with more than 5 ha where the estate is a full-time business.21 More than half of all sales of wine in Austria is sold in the hospitality sector.22 Heurigen play an important part in domestic sales, especially for smaller vineyard owners. Heurigen (the Bottled and bulk wine exports, 2000–2018, volume in 1000 L 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0

00 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 2011 012 2013 2014 015 016 2017 018 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

20

Bottled Source: Austrian Wine Market Board23

Bulk

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word comes from heurige meaning ‘this year’s’) are small inns or taverns that serve simple food and local wine and many of which have outdoor spaces for eating and drinking. They are most frequently open in the late summer and autumn, but many operate year round. In the retail sector, domestic wine is also dominant, accounting for two-thirds of all wines purchased.24 Following the wine scandal, Austria moved to the production of higher quality wines, both in the home market and for export. The chart shows how in the last 15 years they have focussed on exporting mainly bottled wines rather than in bulk. Austria now exports around 20 per cent of its overall production.25 The main export market is Germany, which accounts for just under half of all wine exports by volume.26 Switzerland and the USA are next most important by volume. Germany is also the main market by value, accounting for over 50 per cent of the total value of all Austrian wine exports. Austrian wine is promoted by the Austrian Wine Marketing Board with a particular aim of supporting and maintaining the quality of Austrian wine. References 1. 2018 data. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 2. Brook, S. 2016, The Wines of Austria, Oxford, Infinite Ideas Ltd. p. 19 3. Clarke, O. 2011, Oz Clarke’s Wine Atlas, 2nd edition, London, Pavilion Books 4. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 5. As above 6. Maximum Permitted Yield, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 7. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 8. As above 9. 2015 data. As above 10. 2017 data. As above 11. As above 12. 2017 data. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020, no longer publicly available) 13. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 14. Reserve, Glossary, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 15. Wachau became the 15th DAC in 2020. 16. Vineyard Classification, Traditionsweingüter Österreich Region Donau (retrieved 24 March 2020) 17. There are a small number of vineyards located on the south bank of the Danube as well. 18. Brook, S. 2016, The Wines of Austria, Oxford, Infinite Ideas 19. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 20. Clarke, O. 2011, Oz Clarke’s Wine Atlas, 2nd edition, London, Pavilion Books 21. Austrian Wine in Depth, Austrian Wine Marketing Board (retrieved 24 March 2020) 22. Austrian Wine Statistics Report 2018, Austrian Wine Marketing GmbH (retrieved 24 March 2020) 23. As above 24. As above 25. As above 26. As above

Tokaj

13

Tokaj

Tokaj is one of the world’s most historic and celebrated wine regions (Tokaj is the place, Tokaji the wine). The famous Aszú (sweet wines made from shrivelled and botrytis-affected grapes) were first mentioned in 1571. In the 18th century, Tokaj created one of the first controlled appellations, classifying its vineyards and decreeing which villages were allowed to use the Tokaj name. For centuries, Tokaji was one of the world’s most famous wines, enjoyed in royal courts across Europe (it offered sweetness before crystal sugar became available). Unfortunately, this tradition was brought to a halt when Hungary became a Communist state in 1945 and the focus shifted from quality to quantity: wines were often deliberately oxidised, sweetened, fortified and pasteurized. However, during the Communist regime, more vineyards remained in private hands in Hungary than in other Eastern European countries meaning that, when Communism ended in 1989, producers in Tokaj were able to start rebuilding their reputation more quickly.1 Helped by the arrival in the early 1990s of foreign investors such as AXA, Vega Sicilia and Hugh Johnson, winemaking has evolved considerably in the last 25 years with a return to a fresher and fruitier style of Aszú and the development of a new generation of high-quality dry wines and new styles, such as Late Harvest.

13.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE The Tokaj region lies in the north-eastern corner of Hungary. It extends from the town of Tokaj into the foothills of the Zemplén Mountains towards the Slovakian border (a small part of the region continues into Slovakia). Tokaj has a moderate, TOKAJ SLOVAKIA SLOVAKIA continental climate: summers are warm whilst winters can N N Satoraljauhely be cold, although the region Satoraljauhely is sheltered from the worst of the cold, northerly winds by HUNGARY 48˚20'N 48˚20'N 48˚20'N 48˚20'N forested mountain peaks. The vineyards are mainly planted on slopes which helps reduce the risk of winter cold and frost damage. Importantly at this latitude (48°–49°N), the slopes face south, south-west and 48˚10'N 48˚10'N 48˚10'N Szerencs south-east to take maximum advantage of the sunlight Tokaj Tokaj (sunshine hours are between 1,400 and 1,500 hours in the growing season). 200-500m 0-200m 500m+ 0-200m 00

00

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A misty morning in Tokaj. Rainfall ranges from around 500 to 600 mm per year. Although this is relatively low, around half of this falls during the growing season. Irrigation is not permitted. Autumns are warm and dry, providing ideal conditions for the shrivelling of the grapes. Two major rivers (the Tisza and Bodrog) meet in the town of Tokaj; the Bodrog floods regularly creating shallow marshes and water meadows. The moist air results in frequent morning fogs in the autumn, ideal for the development of botrytis. In the autumn, the warm, sunny afternoons control the development of botrytis and limit grey rot.

SOIL Tokaj is a region of hundreds of extinct volcanoes. The deep volcanic bedrock is overlaid by a complex variety of soils, the most significant of which are nyirok, a volcanic soil which is said to produce the most powerful wines, and loess, a sandy silt with high clay content found particularly around the Tokaj hill (to the west of the town) which is thought to produce lighter, more delicate wines. The soft volcanic bedrock means vines can root very deeply, making water stress and nutrient deficiencies rare. It is also ideal for digging the cellars which are widely used in the region for ageing wine. These cellars are famous for the grey-black cushiony growths of the cellar fungus Zasmidium (previously Cladosporium) cellare, which is believed to help regulate humidity.

Tokaj

VINEYARD MANAGEMENT Traditionally vines were grown on single posts at a density of up to 10,000 vines per hectare. This is still occasionally seen in small old plots but almost all vines are now grown on trellis, using replacement-cane pruning or cordon training with VSP and at lower densities (on average between 4,000 and 5,000 vines per hectare). The modern training systems have allowed mechanisation. However, many vineyards are still worked by hand, especially on steeper slopes and, in any event, hand harvesting is required for the careful selection of Aszú berries. Labour availability is not currently a problem but may be in the future. The main disease concerns are powdery mildew and, in wetter years, grey rot. Managing the canopy to ensure good air circulation is particularly important for grapes intended for dry wine. Pests include wild boar and birds. Because Aszú berries have shrivelled on the vine, yields are tiny (2 to 3 hL/ha). To ensure quality, yields for dry wines are also kept relatively low (on average around 30 to 40 hL/ha). It is possible to have higher yields in warm, sunny vintages, but in poor years yields must be controlled to ensure ripeness. GRAPE VARIETIES There are six permitted grapes varieties in Tokaji PDO, the most important being Furmint, Hárslevelű and Sárga Muskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains). Furmint Furmint is by far the most planted grape in Tokaj with 69 per cent of all plantings. It is a very versatile grape capable of producing high- quality wines from dry to sweet. It is late-ripening and needs Tokaj’s long, sunny growing season to ripen fully. However, even when fully ripe, it retains high levels of acidity. Furmint is well-suited to the production of sweet wines. Despite being thick-skinned, Furmint is particularly susceptible to botrytis, making it a vital component in Aszú wines. As they ripen, the grapes naturally accumulate high levels of sugar which are further concentrated by the action of botrytis, shrivelling and late harvesting; however, this is balanced by high acidity in even the sweetest wines. Dry wines are produced in a range of styles, from those which are intended to be drunk young to more ageworthy examples; the latter often being matured in oak. Due to the high sugar levels, they can be full-bodied with high levels of alcohol. However, due to improved viticultural practices it is now possible to get wines that are ripe and at medium alcohol levels. Single-varietal dry wines are increasingly common. Typical flavours include lemon, apple and pear which can be detected in all styles of wine. The wines develop notes of honey and nuts with age. Grapes affected by botrytis give flavours of dried apricot and mango. Hárslevelű Hárslevelű is the second most planted grape (18 per cent of the total). It produces wines which are fruitier than Furmint with distinctive aromas of white peach and orange blossom. Hárslevelű appears mainly in a supporting role in blends, adding its distinctive perfume, although it is sometimes made as a varietal wine, both dry and sweet.

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Sárga Muskotály Sárga Muskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains) accounts for around 9 per cent of the region’s vines. It adds floral notes in blends in both sweet and dry wines, but also appears as a varietal wine, mainly dry but occasionally sweet.

13.2.  Winemaking and Wine Styles

ASZÚ Aszú is the Hungarian word for grapes that have been infected with botrytis and have shrivelled on the vine. The sugary juice inside these shrivelled grapes is so concentrated that it cannot be effectively extracted by normal pressing. The Aszú grapes are therefore macerated in must, fermenting must or base wine to draw out their sugars and flavours. Classic Aszú is deep amber in colour, high in acidity with low to medium alcohol and intense aromas of orange peel, apricots and honey. The best can reach super-premium prices. In the autumn, the foggy mornings allow botrytis to develop and the breezy sunny afternoons shrivel the grapes. Warm, humid autumns encourage the development of botrytis; in hotter, drier years, yields of Aszú wines will be significantly reduced. Aszú grapes are picked individually in several passes through the vineyard, a timeconsuming and labour-intensive process. They are then stored until required. Prior to maceration, most producers mash the Aszú grapes into a paste. They do this by crushing or breaking open the grape in some way, usually by passing them through a pump. A number of producers, however, prefer to use uncrushed grapes to avoid any bitterness from the skins and seeds. The paste or grapes are macerated usually for between 12 and 60 hours. Where uncrushed grapes are used, these will be punched down regularly. Maceration usually takes

The beginning stages of botrytis.

Heavily botrytised grape bunch.

Tokaj

place at around 12–15°C (54–59°F) but may rise to 16–20°C (61–68°F) with strongly fermenting must. The choice of maceration method depends on the desired style of wine: maceration in must gives the lightest styles followed by maceration in young finished wine. Maceration in fermenting must gives the strongest extraction and most complex wines, but unless berries are both ripe and clean, can also extract unpleasant bitter, unripe characteristics. The timing of the maceration also affects the final style of wine: strongest extraction occurs when the must is fermenting most actively early on while some producers prefer the later stages for a lighter extraction. Where base wine is used for maceration, it must by law have a minimum potential alcohol of 12.08% abv, though in practice the base wine is often 14.5–15.5% abv (which is lowered by the addition of the Aszú berries/ paste). Otherwise, winemakers are free Maturation in barrel in cellars carved from the volcanic bedrock to choose which grape varieties they use (Furmint and Hárslevelű are the most common) and how botrytised the grapes that make this base wine are. Some producers prefer a rich and botrytized base wine to give extra complexity and creaminess. Others prefer minimal botrytis in the base wine to allow the character of the Aszú grapes to show through. The base wine for Aszú is different to the dry styles of wines produced, for which overripeness and botrytis are avoided. When the maceration has taken place in must or fermenting must, the juice is drained and the Aszú paste or berries are pressed. The must is then fermented (or continues to ferment) to gain the desired balance of sugar and alcohol. Some producers use ambient yeast for fermentation, but many prefer cultured yeast for their reliability, as the high sugar levels can make fermentation difficult. Both stainless steel tanks and barrels are used for fermentation. Depending on the desired style of wine, some target a higher level of alcohol (12 to 13.5% abv) to produce a less sweet style. Fermentation may stop naturally, especially at higher sugar levels (180 g/L and above) and these wines will be naturally stable. However, many producers stop fermentation (by chilling or racking the wine or adding SO2) to avoid the risk of refermentation and to control house styles. Aszú wines must be stored for a minimum of 18 months in oak, though some producers prefer longer. Hungarian oak, often from the Zemplén mountains above the region, is widely used for fermentation and ageing. Traditionally, wines were matured in small 136-litre barrels (known as gönci); however, most producers are now switching to larger barrels (300 to 500

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L). There is a mixture of new and older oak in use. Aszú wines must be bottled in a traditional, clear-glass, 500 mL Tokaji bottle. Until 2013, Aszú was classified by its level of sweetness, using the puttonyos scale. Traditionally, this measure counted the number of pickers’ buckets or hods (puttony) of Aszú berries added to a traditional gönci barrel of must. However, more recently it had been measured by set minimum residual sugar levels, with ‘three puttonyos’ having the least residual sugar and ‘six puttonyos’ denoting the most. In 2013, Tokaj regulations changed significantly: the minimum level of residual sugar was increased to 120g/L, the equivalent to the previous minimum for five puttonyos. Wines with lower levels of sugar are now labelled Late Harvest or Tokaji Édes Szamorodni depending on how they are made. Aszú wines can be labelled as ‘five puttonyos’ or ‘six puttonyos’ (above 150 g/L residual sugar), but this is not mandatory. (Wines can be labelled ‘three puttonyos’ or ‘four puttonyos’ if the producer wishes as long as they have a minimum of 120g/L of residual sugar.) ESZENCIA These are extremely rare, and therefore extremely expensive, wines made from the tiny volume of syrupy free-run juice that trickles from Aszú berries. The juice is so sweet that it can take years to ferment and even then only reaches very low levels of alcohol (usually less than 5% abv). The legal minimum residual sugar level is 450 g/L, and the wines are full-bodied (often with the consistency of syrup) with pronounced, highly concentrated flavours. High in acidity, these wines can retain their freshness and therefore age for a very long time. LATE HARVEST Recently, as a reaction to the amount of time and investment needed to produce and mature Aszú wines, a new style of Tokaj has been emerging produced in a similar way to sweet wines found in other wine-producing regions (the maceration process is not used). Late Harvest wines are typically produced with a lower proportion of botrytized grapes than for Aszú wines. Late Harvest wines tend to be lighter bodied and less concentrated than Aszú. The legal minimum residual sugar level is only 45g/L although most wines are between 90 and 110g/L. Oak ageing is not compulsory and many wines spend little or no time in oak (and instead are stored in stainless steel) as producers aim to emphasise the fruit characteristics. The result is that Late Harvest wines are ready for release much earlier than Aszú, typically between 12 and 16 months after harvest.2 SZAMORODNI Szamorodni is a Polish word meaning ‘as it comes’, indicating that this traditional style is made from whole bunches with varying amounts of healthy and botrytized grapes. It is produced in either a sweet (édes) style or as a dry (száraz) wine, depending on the level of ripeness and botrytis. The sweeter style is the more common. The minimum residual sugar level is 45g/L, although most are bottled at around 90 to 110g/L. Following a change in the law in 2016, the wines need only be aged in oak for 6 months, considerably shorter than for Aszú. As a result, a number of producers are placing greater focus on the category, seeing it as a more authentic Tokaji wine than the more recent Late Harvest style. Bottled in the same traditional,

Tokaj

Flor yeast on the top of dry Szamorodni in barrel. clear, 500 mL Tokaji bottle as Aszú, the best édes wines can be of equivalent quality to Aszú, though in a fresher style. Dry Szamorodni is aged under a thin film of flor yeast (much thinner than those formed in Sherry production) for up to 10 years without topping up. The wine is protected from excessive oxidation and it develops nutty and green apple aromas. DRY WINES For much of Tokaj’s history, dry wines were essentially a by-product, produced when botrytis did not develop. However, as in many regions whose reputation was built on sweet wines, there has been a significant move towards dry wines in the 21st century and some high quality examples are now being produced. Production has tripled in the last five years. Producers have started to understand the different approach required to produce dry as opposed to sweet wines. For example, good dry wines need healthy grapes with no botrytis: producers are planting new vineyards on higher and windier sites above the fog zone and using more open canopies and appropriate vine treatments to prevent rot. At first, the new breed of dry wines were made from very ripe grapes, underwent full malolactic conversion and lengthy periods of ageing in new oak barrels. However, since then, many producers have reined in their approach, using less ripe berries, fermenting in stainless steel and generally taking a less interventionist approach to produce lighter-bodied wines which better show varietal character. They are also increasingly looking to express terroir and a number of single-vineyard (Dűlő) wines are now produced.

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Dry wines are most often made from Furmint but Hárslevelű and Muscat are also used and blends are also made. Under PDO, wines labelled as a single varietal must contain at least 85 per cent of the specified grape.

13.3.  Wine Law and Regulations

Hungary joined the EU in 2004 and has adopted a PDO/PGI system of wine appellations. Tokaji PDO is further broken down into more specific categories of village and estate wines and certain designated vineyards can be named on the label. From the 2013 vintage, PDO wines must be bottled in the region. The various different styles of Tokaji PDO (e.g. Aszú and Szamorodni) are defined by law. Many of the various regulations regarding grape growing and production for these styles has been covered in the preceding sections. There is a PGI (Zempléni) which is used for wines made from other grapes, in particular international varieties, and for inexpensive wines produced at yields higher than those permitted by the PDO.

13.4.  Wine Business

There is currently 5,747 hectares under vine in Tokaji PDO. Although this figure is increasing as new, higher vineyards are being planted to produce high-quality dry wines, barely half of the potential vineyard area has been planted.3 The average size of holdings is small, between 1 and 2 ha, and many growers have contracts with larger producers to provide grapes, especially Aszú berries.4 For example, the state-owned Grand Tokaj sources from over 2,000 growers and produces around 35 per cent of region’s wines. Production over the last five years has averaged at 170,000 hL.5 Although there is some vintage variation, based on harvest averages for the last five years, Aszú accounts for around 10 per cent of production and dry wines 21 per cent.6 Of the rest, a significant amount is inexpensive, non-botrytised wine (often made semi-sweet by stopping fermentation early) destined for the home market and other Eastern European countries. Only relatively small amounts of Tokaji are exported outside Eastern Europe, with China, France, the UK and the USA being the largest markets. Overall, exports account for around 40 per cent of production.7 References 1. Tokaj, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 2. As above 3. Personal communication, Caroline Gilby MW, email, September 2018. Original source of data Tokaji Borvidék Hegyközségi Tanácsa. 4. As above 5. Five-year average taken from 2014–2018 data. Bortermelés Statisztika Hegyközségek Nemzeti Tanácsa (retrieved 23 March 2020) 6. Personal communication, Caroline Gilby MW, email, September 2018. Original source of data Tokaji Borvidék Hegyközségi Tanácsa. 7. Personal communication, Caroline Gilby MW, email, September 2018. Original source of data Hungarian Central Statistical Office.

Greece

Greece

14

Greece has been producing wine for at least 5,000 years, some claim even longer. It was not the first wine-producing country but it greatly advanced grape-growing and wine production techniques. Wine was an integral part of everyday life in Ancient Greece and a central feature of the symposium, which brought together art, philosophy, food and wine. The height of Greek wine culture was during the ‘Golden Age’ (around 500–300 BCE). The Greek empire spread around much of the Mediterranean, taking its wines, considered the best in the world at the time, and wine culture along with it. Some of the earliest-known wine writing comes from this period and shows an understanding of how and why wines from different locations can vary in quality. The Greeks also introduced some of the first wine laws to protect certain wines from particular locations, prevent fraud and raise taxes. The wine being produced was not as we now know it today. A wide variety of substances, including herbs, spices, flowers, honey and oils, was added to protect the wine from oxidation and to mask off-flavours. One common additive was pine resin and, although the use of other substances has long disappeared, it continues to be used to this day in the production of Retsina (see Winemaking). Greece became a part of the Roman Empire in the 2nd century BCE. This introduced wines from elsewhere in the Empire and effectively prevented Greece from exporting its own produce. The decline in the Greek wine industry continued under, first, the Byzantine Empire and then the Ottoman Empire to the point that wine was only produced for consumption in and around the village where the grapes were grown. The Modern Greek state was established in 1830, following the revolution of 1821. The retreating Ottomans destroyed most of Greece’s agricultural land and then two Balkan wars, the two World Wars and a civil war prevented the recovery of the Greek wine industry. In addition, many of the vineyards that survived at the end of the 19th century were destroyed by phylloxera, which appeared in Macedonia in 1898. Despite efforts to revitalise the industry, for most of the 20th century, Greece was seen as a source of cheap, often poorly made wine, in particular Retsina, produced mainly by cooperatives and the handful of large companies which began to emerge. By the 1970s, some smaller producers were bottling their wines and even selling them outside their local area. The 1980s, however, saw a rapid rise in the number of small qualityminded producers: some had previously worked for the larger companies but many were people who had benefited from the growth of the Greek economy and now wanted to make wine. This led to the creation of a modern Greek wine culture of estate-produced, higherquality wines. Initially, these wines only made a small impression on export markets. Most Greek wine is still consumed domestically but the financial crisis of 2008 led to a significant drop in consumption and forced producers to look to the export market. Wine exports have increased significantly in the last decade, although from a very low base, as foreign consumers begin to discover Greece’s wide assortment of indigenous grape varieties.

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14.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE Greece’s vineyards are located at latitudes between 34° and 42°N. Its climate is generally Mediterranean with long, hot summers (with temperatures usually over 30°C/86°F) and reaching 45°C/113°F in some years) and short, mild winters. Inland, the climate turns increasingly continental: summer temperatures are even hotter and winter temperatures can drop below freezing. Spring frost can be a problem in areas of northern Greece, such as Amyndeon. However, there is a much wider variety of conditions than might at first appear. Greece is a very mountainous country and many of its best vineyards are planted at altitude to moderate temperatures. In some places, such as Amyndeon and Mantinia, it can be cool enough that grapes do not always reach full ripeness, depending on the grape variety. There are a few flatter areas, most notably the plains of eastern Macedonia and central Greece; these areas are hotter, although, towards the coast, the sea is another moderating factor. Vineyards are a common sight on many Greek islands, where strong, onshore winds especially on the Cyclades islands, such as Santorini, are a constant threat. These can stop photosynthesis, interrupting flowering and berry-set and delaying ripening, and can be strong enough to destroy unprotected vines. They are also very dry and so increase water stress. Rainfall levels vary: Santorini is exceptionally dry but the averages in most other wineproducing regions range from 400 to 700mm. Generally speaking, there is little or no rain during the growing season, except in the mountainous areas to the north and west. Water stress is therefore a common issue and irrigation often essential, where water resources are available. SOIL Greece has a wide range of soils with vineyards planted on everything from limestone to volcanic soils: even within small areas, numerous soil types can be found. Apart from on the fertile plains, the soils tend to be low in fertility. Greek farmers usually kept their fertile soils for more lucrative or demanding crops, leaving the less fertile land for olives and vines. Whilst this means that yields have traditionally been low, many Greek vineyards have ended up on soils that are now considered ideal for the production of highquality and characterful wines. VINEYARD MANAGEMENT In 2018, there were 106,000ha of vineyards in Greece.1 Only around 61,500 ha of those vineyards produce grapes for wine, the remainder growing table and drying grapes.2 Vineyards tend to be very small, the average being just over 0.5 ha.3 Many growers sell their grapes to larger producers or co-operatives or simply produce small volumes to sell locally. The size of the vineyards, along with the often tricky terrain, means that many are still worked by hand. Greek viticulture is a mixture of the traditional and the modern. The larger companies began modernising in the 1960s and 1970s, passing on their expertise to the smaller growers and producers who supplied them. However, the industry really began to move forward when Greece joined the EU in 1981 and gained access to funding. Many of the new breed of producers had studied viticulture and gained experience in other parts of the world; however,

Greece

Vineyard size and terrain mean that many vineyards are managed and harvested by hand. they still recognise how retaining some of the more traditional methods can allow them to create distinctive wines. The hot, dry conditions make Greece suitable for organic and biodynamic viticulture. Many growers have been using organic practices for centuries; the use of chemicals is a relatively recent occurrence. At the same time there is a growing number of producers that have sought organic certification and that are experimenting with biodynamic techniques. The majority of vineyards are trellised; usually vines are cordon-trained with VSP. In some places, specific trellis and pruning systems have been developed over the centuries to suit local conditions, in particular in Santorini to cope with the high winds and very low rainfall. Irrigation is permitted, and is mostly used for international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, as a number of the local varieties have developed higher tolerances of drought. However, the water-holding capacity of the soil in an area is also a key influence. The system used is always drip irrigation. GRAPE VARIETIES One of the most distinctive aspects of Greek viticulture is the large number of indigenous grape varieties, which account for around 90 per cent of all plantings.4 The precise number of these varieties is unknown as new ones are being discovered all the time: estimates suggest around 300. Many of these are found on a very small scale in very limited areas but around 60 are currently grown in significant amounts. Producers have recognised that these indigenous varieties offer an important point of difference for Greek wines on the export markets. International varieties only began to make their mark in the late 1980s. This was prompted by a demand for these wines in the domestic market and also by a concern, on the part of producers looking to export, that foreign consumers would be unwilling to buy wines made from grapes they had not heard of and struggled to pronounce. Whilst some producers have made successful single-varietal wines from the likes of Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc,

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Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah, these varieties were often used in blends with local varieties to give consumers something they could recognise on the label. A number of these blends have been particularly successful: for example, Sauvignon Blanc with Assyrtiko and Merlot with Xinomavro. The graph below shows plantings of some of the most significant grape varieties in 2017–18. Greece: Selected leading grape varieties (2017–18 data) 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000

sc

ho

file r

o

h Mo

Sy ra

t rlo

ign uv Sa et

Ca

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rn

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on

ko rti sy As

vro ma no Xi

itik o rg Ag io

itis Ro d

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tia

no

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Sa

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(Source: Wines of Greece)5 White Grape Varieties White wine makes up over 70 per cent of annual production.6 Savatiano – This is the most planted grape variety in Greece. It has long been considered the workhorse grape of central Greece, largely due to its drought resistance. Savatiano is mainly used to produce large volumes of inexpensive wine and is also the most common ingredient in Retsina (see Winemaking). However, its reputation is starting to rise with some very good quality examples from low- yielding, dry-farmed bush vines. These wines have subtle aromas of citrus, pear and stone fruit as well as a nutty character with age. Roditis – This is the second most planted grape variety and is widely grown throughout Greece. Similar to Moschofilero (see below), Roditis is pink skinned (though this rarely has any effect on the colour of the wine unless it is macerated for a few hours). Its ability to produce high yields has made it popular and, like Savatiano, is mainly used for inexpensive wine and as a blending ingredient for Retsina. However, its reputation is also improving thanks to higherquality wines being made at altitude and from old vines, for example in some areas of the Peloponnese. The best examples are medium bodied with high acidity and flavours of ripe fruit, such as melon.

Greece

Roditis vines in high altitude vineyards. Assyrtiko – This is Greece’s best-known and most prized indigenous white grape (although plantings are around one fifth of those of either Savatiano or Roditis). Originally from Santorini, Assyrtiko is now widely planted on the mainland as it has proven to be highly adaptable to different conditions. It also retains high levels of acidity when ripe, even in the hottest conditions. This high acidity balances the typically high alcohol levels and also means the wines can age well; it also makes Assyrtiko ideal for producing lusciously sweet wines, such as Vinsanto from Santorini. Dry Assyrtiko typically has citrus, stone and tropical fruit, often with a strong smoky or flint characteristic. Some producers make wines where at least part of the blend has been aged in oak, often leading to a fuller body and different profile of flavours (less intense primary, more secondary characteristics). Moschofilero – Another variety prized for its quality potential, Moschofilero produces aromatic wines with notes of citrus, flowers (particularly rose petals) and spices, not dissimilar to Muscat. The wines are high in acid, light-bodied and relatively low in alcohol (around 12% abv). It is pink-skinned and many wines have a pink tinge; some producers make a rosé using extended skin contact. It is mainly planted in Mantinia in the Peloponnese.

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Moschofilero has pink skins. Malagousia – Twenty years or so ago, Malagousia was almost extinct. It has quickly established a reputation for producing high-quality wines and, although plantings are still very small, it is spreading rapidly throughout Greece. It produces wines with medium levels of acidity and medium body with complex and intense aromas of stone fruit and flowers. Grapes grown in cooler sites or picked early can have a herbal or herbaceous note. Wines may be fermented in stainless steel, in old oak or with a proportion of new oak. It is grown in most areas of Greece. There are also significant plantings of various Muscat varieties which are used for everything from dry to lusciously sweet wines. Black Grape Varieties Agiorgitiko – The most planted black variety (and third most planted of either colour) is Agiorgitiko, a versatile grape that can produce a wide range of wines from a lighter, fruity style for early drinking to a more complex, full-bodied age worthy style as well as high quality rosés and even sweet wines. The reds are deeply coloured with medium acidity, medium to high levels of soft tannins and medium alcohol. Agiorgitiko typically has aromas of ripe red fruit (although it can become jammy if allowed to get extra ripe) and sweet spices. It is often aged in oak, usually a proportion of which is new. It is mainly found in the Peloponnese, and is particularly highly regarded from PDO Nemea.

Greece

Agiorgitiko. Xinomavro – This is probably Greece’s most prized indigenous black grape variety. It grown all over northern Greece but its most famous wines come from Naoussa in northern Macedonia. Xinomavro is often likened to Nebbiolo: in their youth, the wines can have unpleasantly high levels of acidity and grippy tannins with aromas that are more vegetal than fruity. The wines are pale-coloured and turn garnet rapidly. Xinomavro can often benefit from long bottle ageing: the best wines, produced from lower-yielding vines and aged in oak, can age for decades, developing highly complex aromas of flowers, herbs, spices, leather and earthiness. More recently, a number of producers have started producing wines that are more accessible in their youth (more fruity and softer tannins). Using riper grapes and less extraction, these wines are much fruitier, with lower levels of acidity, and are often aged in new oak. Some producers also blend Xinomavro with Merlot to soften out its rough edges.

14.2. Winemaking

Production levels have also fallen since the 1990s. In 2017, 2.6m hL of wine was produced, compared to 3.5m hL in 1990. Traditionally, grapes were crushed by foot and then fermented in old casks, made mainly from oak or chestnut, which were then simply stopped up and the wine left to mature for a few months before being drawn off and consumed.

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As with viticulture, however, there has been significant modernisation, particularly since Greece’s accession to the EU in 1981. Virtually all wineries now use modern presses, temperature control and stainless-steel vessels for fermentation. From the late 1980s onwards, there was a significant increase in the use of new oak barriques first for red wines and then also for whites. The barrels were mainly made from French oak, although American oak was used too. Although this approach is still common, many producers are now looking for more restrained oak characteristics. Modern producers are also returning to some of the more traditional winemaking practices, such as using naturally-occurring yeast, shorter extraction and even maturing their wines in amphorae like the Ancient Greeks. Others are experimenting, for example with lees contact for Assyrtiko and Malagousia. There is also a long tradition of sweet wines, often made using sun-dried grapes. Wines are made from both white and black grape varieties, with Muscat one of the most widely used. RETSINA The use of pine resin to preserve wine dates back to Ancient Greece. It was originally used to seal amphorae and then used as an additive, probably for flavouring purposes. Its modern-day popularity started in the late 19th century, but with increased tourism to Greece after the world wars, sales boomed in the 1960s. Unfortunately, many wines were made cheaply and badly. The resin was often used to try and mask poor quality or even faulty wines (rarely successfully). However, there have always been high-quality examples, produced from ripe grapes using good-quality resin. Retsina is produced throughout Greece but most comes from the hot central plains. It is made from a number of varieties, although Savatiano and Roditis are the most commonly used. The amount of resin used has fallen over the centuries as winemaking techniques have improved. Resin is usually added to the must (in the past it was added to the wine) and the wine is then left on its lees for no more than a week after fermentation (in the past it was often left much longer), both leading to a more subtle, integrated pine resin character. Retsina is now a legally-protected category with regulations to ensure quality standards. The amount of resin that can be added is controlled and parameters for the final product such as minimum acidity levels and permitted alcohol levels are specified. Retsina does not comply with the standard EU definition of wine as it is not made exclusively from grapes. However, it has been granted special status as a ‘wine of appellation by tradition’ (OKP in Greek). Premium bottlings, often made with Assyrtiko, are gradually helping to improve the reputation of this wine style.

14.3.  Wine Law and Regulations

The appellation system of Greece is in line with the rest of the EU. The Greek equivalent of PDO is POP (Prostatevmeni Onomasia Proelefsis). There are currently 33 located throughout Greece,7 accounting for about 20 per cent of total annual production.8 The individual PDOs lay down rules on grape growing and winemaking, such

Greece

as yields and which varieties can be grown (PDO Naoussa is unusual in also having ageing requirements). With the notable exception of Muscat for sweet wines, PDO wines are usually restricted to native varieties. PGE (Prostatevmeni Geografiki Endiksi) is the Greek equivalent of PGI. There are now over 120, with several being added every year, producing around 62 per cent of all Greek wine. Grape growing and winemaking rules are less strict and, in particular, international varieties may be used in PGI wines.9 Wines without a geographical indication are simply labelled ‘Wines from Greece’. This is mainly used for high-volume brands, blended from grapes produced in more than one region and accounts for around 18 per cent of annual production.10 In addition, Greece has a special category, OKP, for traditional products, most notably Retsina.

14.4.  Principal Wine Regions KOSOVO 42˚N 42˚N

IA NIA AALLBBAAN

Greece’s PDOs that are the best known internationally are situated in Macedonia, the Peloponnese and on various islands in the Aegean Sea.

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MACEDONIA NAOUSSA Thessaloniki The Greek region of Macedonia is MACEDONIA MACEDONIA situated along the northern border 40˚N 40˚N 40˚N 40˚N of the country. It is a large region TURKEY and, as a result, offers a wide range of conditions from the mountains in Aegean the north and west to the plains in Sea s GREECE the east. In the mountains, the climate Athens 38˚N NEMEA 38˚N 38˚N 38˚N is continental: however, due to altitude, temperatures are relatively cool. Rain falls throughout the year MANTINIA PELOPONNESE PELOPONNESE (on average around 650–700mm) making water supply less of an issue than elsewhere. Macedonia’s SANTORINI 36˚N two leading PDOs, Naoussa and 36˚N 36˚N 36˚N an e n Amynteo, are situated in this area. a rr Medite On the plains, the climate is Sea warm and Mediterranean. This area is in the rain shadow of the 2000-4000m 1000-2000m 500-1000m 2000-4000m 1000-2000m 500-1000m mountains and therefore drier. 200-500m 0-200m The fertile soils are ideal for the 200-500m 0-200m production of higher-volume wines but there are also some good and very good quality wines being produced in the PGIs of Drama and Kavala.

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Macedonia is traditionally a red wine producing region. The PDOs of Naoussa and Amynteo can produce only 100 per cent Xinomavro. The warmer, drier Drama Valley to the east has established a strong reputation for high quality, full-bodied, modern style Bordeaux blends. However, there are also some white wines of note: Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc at altitude and full-bodied ripe wines from popular Greek varieties such as Assyrtiko and Malagousia in Drama and Kavala. Naoussa PDO Naoussa covers the south-eastern slopes of Mount Vermio and the vineyards are planted at between 150 and 400m. The best sites are sheltered from the strong, cold winds which can blow in from the north and west but temperatures are still relatively cool. Wines must be made from 100 per cent Xinomavro. They tend to have high acidity and tannins, great complexity of aromas and the potential to age for decades. Most wines are mid-priced with a few premium examples, and range from good to outstanding in quality. Significant producers include Thymiopoulos Vineyards and Kir-Yianni. Traditionally, the wines were aged in large old wooden vessels, giving wines with pronounced spicy and meaty, rather than fruity, aromas. In the 1990s, some producers started using new French oak barriques, giving even firmer tannins, more body and oaky aromas, although many have now reverted to a more restrained style. In recent years, a more modern style has emerged, using riper fruit and either cold soaking or whole-bunch fermentation to produce a deeper-coloured but less tannic wine. Naoussa has a complex mixture of soils and microclimates based more on aspect and topography than altitude. A number of producers are now making village or single-vineyard wines, which can highlight the variations between different areas of the region.

Xinomavro vines in Naoussa.

Greece

Outside the PDO system, a number of good quality rosés and red blends of Xinomavro with Merlot are being produced. Amynteo PDO Amynteo is on the opposite, north-western side of Mount Vermio. The vineyards are higher than those in Naoussa, between 570 and 750m and the northerly aspect means that they are exposed to the cold northerly winds, leading to cool summers and cold winters. Site selection is therefore crucial. Unusually for Greece, the region is close to a number of lakes without which the temperatures would be more extreme. However, closer to the lakes, humidity is higher, increasing the risk of rot, and the soil is more fertile and care has to be taken to control yields otherwise the grapes can fail to ripen. In some years, spring frost can be a problem. Again, PDO wines must be made from 100 per cent Xinomavro, although, unlike in Naoussa, rosé is permitted. Due to the cooler temperatures, Xinomavro from Amynteo is usually lighter in body and lower in tannins than from Naoussa, with the best having a distinctive floral quality. However, generalisations are difficult: areas that have sandy soils have remained phylloxera-free, meaning there are significant stocks of old vines giving more concentrated wines, and, as in Naoussa, some producers are now making a riper, more accessible style of wine. The wines tend to be mid-priced and good to very good in quality, though outstanding examples exist. Significant producers include Alpha Estate. Again, some producers blend Xinomavro with Merlot and other varieties, but these wines cannot be labelled as PDO wines.

Lakes help to moderate temperatures in Amynteo.

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PELOPONNESE The Peloponnese is the peninsula which forms the southern part of the Greek mainland. It has the largest vineyard plantings in Greece, making up almost 30 per cent of the national total, despite the fact that many suitable vineyard sites are planted with grapes for drying.11 It also has the largest number of PDOs in Greece, the most significant being Nemea and Mantinia. It is a very mountainous region with mainly poor, rocky soils. Despite the southerly latitude, temperatures are moderated by altitude. There is only a small area of flatter land, including the plains around Patra, where conditions are hotter and the soil more fertile. The prevailing easterly winds bring rain from the ocean but, due to the mountains, rainfall levels drop further east across the peninsula. Apart from PDO Nemea, the Peloponnese is dominated by white grapes, in particular Moschofilero and Roditis. Outside the PDOs, large volumes of inexpensive wines are produced, especially from Roditis and Agiorgitiko. However, some good and very good wines are also produced (for example, those from high altitude sites within PGI Slopes of Aigialia). PGI wines are also made from international varieties, sometimes blended with local varieties. Nemea Nemea is situated close to the Corinth Canal, which separates the peninsula from the rest of mainland Greece. The PDO is only for red wines made from 100 per cent Agiorgitiko. Both dry and sweet versions are permitted, although sweet wines are rare. In the 1990s, there was an increase in the use of new French barriques, although, as elsewhere, more subtle use of oak is now returning. Also, a new style wine has emerged, produced using semi-carbonic maceration to enhance fruity flavours and keep tannin levels relatively low. The wines range from acceptable and good quality inexpensive wines to very good and outstanding age worthy

High altitude vineyards in Nemea

Greece

wines that can command premium or even super-premium prices. Significant producers include Gaia Wines and Tselepos. The climate is Mediterranean. The majority of rain falls in the autumn and winter but there can be significant differences on the amount year on year (as low as 400 mm and as high as 900 mm), which can have an impact on yields and quality of wines from certain areas from one year to the next (for example, in dry years vineyards on clay are better able to cope than those on more free-draining soils). Autumn rain can sometimes dictate harvest times. Nemea is usually divided into three distinct zones by reference to altitude. The lowest zone on the valley floor between 230 and 400m is the hottest (summer temperatures can reach 40°C) and has the most fertile soil. Grapes ripen easily and are usually reserved for inexpensive wines but are also used for high-quality sweet wines. The cooler middle zone, between 450 and 650 m, is currently considered to be the best for quality wines. Poor, free-draining soils naturally limit yields and the cooler days slow sugar accumulation while flavours and tannins ripen. However, the zone is far from homogeneous. There is a range of microclimates (caused by different altitudes and aspects) and specific soil types and there is talk of introducing a cru system to differentiate between the different sites. In the highest zone (650–1,000 m), Agiorgitiko can struggle to ripen fully in the cooler temperatures and cool clay soils. The fresh red fruit flavours, high acidity and potentially harsh tannins have meant that grapes from here have mainly been used for rosé production (which is outside the PDO system). However, producers are starting to explore this zone’s potential to produce fresher styles of red wine with higher acidity. Mantinia To the south and west of Nemea, PDO Mantinia occupies a plateau with elevations starting at 600m. Despite its southerly latitude, the altitude makes this one of the coolest grape-growing areas in Greece. It also has one of the longest growing seasons with the harvest usually starting in October and sometimes even in November. In the coldest years, grapes do not reach full ripeness. This is a PDO for white wines only. Moschofilero must make up at least 85 per cent of the blend, although many of the highest quality wines are made from 100 per cent Moschofilero. The relatively low temperatures give wines with high acidity, low to medium alcohol, medium (–) to medium body, floral and slightly spicy aromas. The wines are fermented in stainless steel to retain their freshness and tend to be drunk when young. The wines are usually mid-priced and good to very good in quality. Significant producers include Boutari and Seméli Estate. THE ISLANDS Many of Greece’s islands have a long-standing tradition of producing wine and are home to a wide variety of indigenous varieties. The best known of these lie in the Aegean Sea to the east of the mainland. However, the Aegean is known for its strong winds and many of the islands have very low rainfall and rocky soils with poor water retention. The difficult conditions make viticulture on the Greek islands relatively expensive and many growers have been unable to resist the lucrative opportunity to sell their land for tourist developments. Despite the many difficulties, a number of islands have a reputation for producing highquality wine. The most famous is Santorini, in the Cyclades island group in the southern part of the Aegean. Other islands of note include Paros, also in the Cyclades, which has a number of PDOs for still and sweet wines; Tinos, another island in the Cyclades, Samos and Lemnos in

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the northern Aegean, which are famous for their sweet Muscats; and Crete, which is gaining a reputation for high-quality wines from both indigenous and international varieties. Santorini In the 21st century, Santorini has become possibly the most celebrated wine-producing region in Greece, especially on the export market, with its dry and sweet PDO wines made primarily from Assyrtiko. The island lies on a volcano: during its last major eruption, in 1500BCE, much of the island collapsed leaving a central submerged crater (known as a caldera). The island today is only the eastern rim of the original volcano and there have been numerous smaller eruptions since, most recently in 1950. The winds on Santorini are particularly strong. To provide shelter, vines have traditionally been trained low to the ground in a basket shape, usually in a hollow. Each year, the vines are woven around the previous year’s growth; when a basket gets too bulky, every twenty years or so, it is cut off and a new basket is started from a shoot. This is specialised work and requires about four times the labour of conventional trellis systems. There have been therefore been some experiments with VSP in more sheltered areas, although these have been highly controversial amongst traditionalists.

Assyrtiko trained into a basket on Santorini. There is very little rainfall throughout the year and the growing season can be completely dry. Normally, the only moisture comes from the fog which rises from the caldera every morning and the traditional training system also helps to trap this moisture. To cope with the very limited amounts of water available, vine densities are very low: less than 2,500 vines per hectare. Phylloxera has not been a problem on the island and it is estimated that some vines have roots and trunks that are over 400 years old. The volcanic soil is very infertile and, along with low rainfall, contributes to low vigour and low yielding vines. PDO Santorini has the lowest permitted maximum yields in Greece: 60hl/ ha, although, in practice, they are considerably lower than that, as low as 15hl/ha from the oldest vines. The PDO is for white wines only, both dry and sweet. The dry wines must contain at least 75 per cent Assyrtiko whereas the sweet wines must contain at least 51 per cent Assyrtiko; however many of the best are single varietals.

Greece

The dry wines usually have high levels of acidity, medium to high alcohol and a distinctive smoky characteristic, alongside Assyrtiko’s fruit aromas. The highest quality wines can age for around a decade in bottle developing a honey, toasty character. Most Assyrtiko is fermented at low temperatures in stainless steel or other neutral vessels to retain fruit flavours. Producers are increasingly experimenting with oak ageing and lees contact to give more body and complexity. Santorini’s dry Assyrtikos tend to be good to outstanding in quality and mid to premium priced. Santorini is also famous for its sweet wine, Vinsanto (note the difference from the Tuscan Vin Santo), made from late-harvested grapes which are dried in the sun for up to two weeks. Vinsanto must be aged for at least two years in oak before release but many producers age it for longer, often in larger casks which are not fully filled in order to encourage oxidation. The wines often have flavours of raisins, coffee and chocolate. The high sugar levels (usually 200–300 g/L) are balanced by Assyrtiko’s naturally high acidity, and the wines are often of very good or outstanding quality. Due to the small amounts produced, Vinsanto can command super-premium prices. However, the prices for dry wines have increased noticeably in recent years, partly due to increasing demand but also because of the high production costs. Significant producers include Estate Argyros and Domaine Sigalas.

14.5.  Wine Business

There are around 7,000 grape growers many of whom own very small plots and sell their grapes to larger producers, the largest of which are Greek Wine Cellars and the Boutaris Group.12 There are currently more than 1,000 wineries in Greece, but most of them are very small, selling their wine only locally or in bulk to co-operatives or larger companies.13 However, in the last ten years there has been a rise in small wineries marketing and selling their own wines. In the 1920s, the Greek government established a number of co-operatives to try and revitalise the Greek wine industry. They were responsible for a significant proportion of production until the 1980s but in particular of the poorer quality wines for which Greece became infamous. Nevertheless, there were some more quality-minded co-ops, such as that on Samos which developed a reputation for high-quality sweet wines. Other co-ops have had to adapt and modernise to survive and many now produce higher quality wines and are an important means for smaller growers and producers to get to market. Approximately 13 per cent of Greek wine is exported.14 The traditional export markets for Greek wines are Germany (nearly 40 per cent of exports), Scandinavia and Benelux, but these countries usually buy large quantities of cheap wines and exports have been declining recently.15 The USA and Canada have emerged as leading markets for higher-quality wines in the 2010s as have, more recently, Australia and the UK. The weak economy has made Greek wines excellent value on export markets and very few of even the highest quality wines reach premium prices. One of the key challenges for Greek producers is to introduce consumers to unfamiliar grape varieties. However, the indigenous varieties provide an important point of difference for Greek wines: Assyrtiko has proven a particular success on export markets and others are starting to make progress. The unfamiliar language and alphabet have also proved an obstacle and export-minded producers now use the Latin, rather than the Greek, alphabet

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on labels and use familiar terms such as PDO and PGI rather than their Greek equivalents. The promotional body, Wines of Greece, have been active on export markets to promote and educate trade and consumers about Greece’s wines, regions and grape varieties. Nevertheless, the domestic market is still by far the most significant. Many Greek wine drinkers still prefer wines made from international varieties, creating an awkward difference between domestic and export markets. References 1. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market April 2019, OIV (retrieved 23 March 2020) 2. Key Production Figures, Wines of Greece (retrieved 23 March 2020) 3. As above 4. As above 5. As above 6. Greece, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 7. Note, some other sources say 34. 8. Key Production Figures, Wines of Greece (retrieved 23 March 2020) 9. As above 10. As above 11. As above 12. Karakasis, Y. 2017, The Vineyards and Wines of Greece 2017 (eBook) 13. Key Production Figures, Wines of Greece (retrieved 23 March 2020) 14. 2017–18 data. As above 15. As above

Introduction to Italy

Introduction to Italy

15

Italy has a very long history of wine production. It goes back at least to the 8th century BCE with both Phoenician influence in central Italy in the Etruscan period and Greek influence in the Greek colonies, which covered much of southern Italy. It is likely that it was the Etruscans who exported wine culture to Mediterranean France from the 6th century BCE onwards. By the time of Pliny the Elder (died 79 CE), wine culture was well established in Italy and Pliny even writes about the fame of individual vintages. The massive expansion of the city of Rome created a home market for wine and, with Roman expansion in the Mediterranean, the possibility of export in amphorae to Gaul (the area which today includes modern day France) and Spain. In this period, the most prestigious wines were from modern day Lazio and northern Campania, though wine was being made and consumed in the rest of the Italian peninsula. For example, wines from the north of the peninsula are commented on in writing from the time of Emperor Augustus (31 BCE to 14 CE). After the end of the Roman Empire (5th century CE), wine production continued as a part of the standard Mediterranean diet of grain, olives and wine but the market for fine wine and the export of wine came to a halt. The economy revived in the 11th to 14th centuries with the cities of Genoa and Venice becoming trading centres for Europe as a whole. As a result, they became centres for trading in wine. Florence became the banking capital of Europe with families such as Antinori making their money in banking and then investing in land and wine production. Similarly, the Frescobaldi family made money as traders and became important landowners and wine producers. Both families continue to be major players in wine production today. From the 13th century on, wine became an important cash crop while much of Italy was farmed on a sharecropping basis. The landowners typically took half of the produce of the land with peasants keeping the other half to live on and, occasionally, to sell. Most wine was consumed locally with a proportion being exported by boat to other parts of Europe, as transport on land was very difficult. The names of some Italian grape varieties (for example, Barbera and Trebbiano) are mentioned in books of the 14th century. The first full treatment of Italian grape varieties was written by the Renaissance botanist Andrea Bacci in the late 16th century. Little is known about the quality of wines produced in the following centuries, though exports appear to have reduced. The modern period of Italian wine began in the 19th century when the styles known today were beginning to be established. For example, Chianti became a wine predominantly based on Sangiovese only at the end of that century. International varieties began to be planted in north-east Italy in the early 20th century after phylloxera. The unification of Italy in 1861 and the economic boom after the Second World War set the scene for the contemporary period. In the decades after the war, the emphasis was on high yields and volume production. The last three decades of the 20th century saw the general standard of Italian wines develop from simple wine for local, daily consumption or as inexpensive wine for export to wines that can succeed in a competitive international market. The most important innovations were the use of stainless steel tanks and temperature control

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for white wines in Friuli in the 1960s (see Friuli, Winemaking) and the success of red Bordeaux blends in Tuscany (known as Super Tuscans, see Tuscany, from the 1970s, raising the ambition of all winemaking in Italy. The last two decades have seen a renewed emphasis on quality wines from Italy’s abundance of local grape varieties, alongside the great commercial successes of Pinot Grigio and Prosecco. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate As Italy is a long, thin country (latitude ranges from 35–47ºN), with the Apennines running down most of the country providing a wide range of sites, it is best to consider the climate under the individual regions. Many regions are influenced by the sea that surrounds the

ITALY ITALY SWITZERLAND SWITZERLAND AA VALLE VALLE D’AOSTA D’AOSTA 45˚N 45˚N

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Introduction to Italy

country on three sides but some inland areas have a continental climate (examples include Trentino-Alto Adige and Veneto). Nonetheless, in general, many of the wine regions have a warm, Mediterranean climate, very suitable for viticulture. Vineyard Management Since the Second World War, there has been a nearly complete change from traditional forms of grape growing to modern, specialised vineyards with vines on trellises. Pergola training had been common in high volume production areas in the north, mixed planting was common in Tuscany (vines in the same field with olive trees, vegetables and grain) and bush vines were common in the south. Pergola training and bush vines are still in use in some places. For example, the shade provided by the pergola system can be helpful in some circumstances and bush vines are highly adapted to hot dry climates in the south where producers are willing to continue to do much of the work by hand. The preferences of producers for the various training systems will be noted in the individual regions. Grape Varieties Italy is noted for its large number of local varieties, to which the common international varieties have been added. Conservative estimates vary between 375 and 500 identified varieties, far more than any other country. Many of the varieties are very strongly associated with a single region, for example Nerello Mascalese in Sicily. At the same time, some varieties, both black and white, are intensively planted in individual regions or widely planted in a number of regions. For example, of the top ten most planted varieties in Italy (see chart below), Sangiovese and Trebbiano are widely planted especially in central Italy, while nearly all the Catarratto is planted in Sicily. Italy top ten varieties, hectares planted 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000

Source: Agea data via Italian Wine Central2

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WINEMAKING As noted, Italian winemaking has developed due to influences in white winemaking from Germany (fermentation in stainless steel, temperature control) and in red winemaking from France (maturation in small new French oak barrels). Traditionally, red wines were matured in large casks (e.g. 1,000–5,000 L) often made from Slavonian oak and used for many years, enabling slow controlled oxidation but not adding new oak flavours. In the 1980s and 1990s, ambitious winemakers increasingly used new French oak barriques both with Bordeaux varieties and with some Italian varieties such as Nebbiolo and Sangiovese. In the main, the last two decades have seen reversal of this trend in favour of old oak, larger vessels or alternatives such as concrete. Thus, while new French oak continues to be used for high quality Bordeaux blends and some wines made from local varieties (e.g. top quality Barbera), most wines made from Italian varieties (e.g. Nebbiolo and Sangiovese) no longer have pronounced new oak flavour. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Central Tuscany saw the very first attempt to define a wine production area legally by Grand Duke Cosimo III de’Medici in 1716. The geographical limits of Chianti, Pomino (modern Chianti Rufina), Carmignano and Val d’Arno di Sopra were outlined and criminal penalties on any merchant or customer buying wines falsely claiming to be from these areas were introduced. It appears that this law was never used, though its intention was to protect the good reputations of these wines and to prevent fraud. DOC and DOCG In modern times, Italy has developed a system of wine law on the model of the French appellations system, as later incorporated into European Union law. The first version of this was the introduction of the DOC system (Denominazione di Origine Controllata), similar to the French AOC, with effect from the 1967 vintage. The alternative was vino da tavola. This was used overwhelming for simple, everyday wines but also occasionally for outstanding quality wines that did not qualify for a DOC, including: •

•

Wines made in areas that were not at that time covered by a DOC, for example the Super Tuscan Sassicaia grown on the coast at Bolgheri, which is not a traditional area for high quality wine. The Bolgheri DOC was later introduced in 1994 to accommodate the Super Tuscans. Wines that did not conform to the rules of a DOC as they were then written. For example, Le Pergole Torte from the Montevertine estate. This estate is within the Chianti Classico defined region. However, the wine was made with 100 per cent Sangiovese at a time when the DOC required Chianti Classico to be a blend including white grapes. Montevertine took the decision to make this 100 per cent Sangiovese wine, leave the Chianti Classico consortium and sell the wine as vino da tavola and later, when the category was introduced, as IGT.

The DOCG category (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita) with stricter rules (for example, requiring a lower yield) had been included in the legislation that introduced the DOC. This category was eventually used in practice in 1980. In general, the more prestigious wine regions have become DOCGs.

Introduction to Italy

For DOC and DOCG wines, there are also certain legally defined labelling terms. These include: • • •

Classico – Wines made exclusively from grapes grown within a defined historical area of a DOC or DOCG. Superiore – Wines with a higher minimum alcohol level, typically an additional 0.5% abv. Riserva – Wines submitted to a certain ageing period, at least two years for red wines and one year for white wines. Some individual DOC/DOCG specify that this ageing or part of it must be in oak.

IGT In 1992, Italy introduced the category of IGT (Indicazione Geografica Tipica), corresponding to the French Vin de Pays, now PGI. This is for wines from a defined but larger geographical area, with a wider choice of grape variety and styles, and typically allowing higher yields than DOC or DOCG wines. Examples include IGT Toscana. Like other IGTs, this includes provision for a range of wine styles – white, red, rosé, dry, abboccato (demi-sec), frizzante (lightly sparkling), novello (wine made and intended to be drunk soon after the harvest), sweet wines made from dried grapes (passito) or late harvested grapes (vendemmia tardiva). The grapes can be grown in any suitable place in the whole of Tuscany and growers may use any registered variety. The Italian system was incorporated into the EU-wide introduction of the categories of PDO and PGI in 2008. This allows producers either to use the new categories (DOP and IGP in Italian) or the traditional DOC/DOCG categories for PDO wines. DOC and DOCG wines fall within the PDO category. IGT wines can be labelled either IGT or IGP. The most basic category, vino, replaces the older vino da tavola. WINE BUSINESS Italy, with France, is one of the world’s two largest wine producing nations. Wine production in 2018, a large harvest, was 55 m hL (48 m hL was the average for the last five years.) In each of those years except 2014, Italy was the world’s largest producer.3 The average size of vineyard holdings is small (less than 2 ha)4 with many growers taking their fruit to co-operatives, merchants or large companies. The largest companies include Volume of Italian wine produced by quality category

Vino, 33%

DOP, 42%

IGP, 25%

Source: ISTAT data for 20189

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Caviro (a giant co-operative operating in seven regions and processing more than 10 per cent of all Italian wine grapes),5 Cantine Riunite, Gruppo Italiano Vini, Santa Margherita and Zonin.6 Wine consumption per capita has been in long-term decline in Italy, with consumption now at one-third the level of a century ago. The consumption of spirits and especially beer has grown in the same period. As domestic consumption has dropped, producers have increasingly looked to export markets. Two fifths of wine produced was exported, split equally by volume between still wine and sparkling (showing how important the sparkling wine sector is in terms of volume, for more details see the chapter on Sparkling Wine in Italy in D4: Sparkling Wines). However, still wines contributed 65 per cent of the value of Italian wine exports.10 By total value, exports from Italy are below France but above Spain. The most important export markets by value are the USA and Germany (26 and 18 per cent respectively in 2017, followed at a lower level by the UK, Canada and Switzerland.11 References 1. d’Agata, I. 2014, Native Wine Grapes of Italy, Berkeley, pp. 1–2 2. Estimates for 2015, Top Ten Most Planted Grape Varieties in Italy, Italian Wine Central using data from Agenzia per le Erogazioni in Agricoltura (retrieved 26 March 2020) 3. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market April 2019, OIV (retrieved 26 March 2020) 4. Vineyards in the EU – statistics, EuroStat (retrieved 26 March 2020) 5. Caviro, la più grande cantina d’Italia, Caviro (retrieved 26 March 2020) 6. Wine in Italy 2017, EuroMonitor report June 2018 (subscription only) 7. Holmes, A. J., & Anderson, K. 2017. Alcohol consumption by type of alcoholic beverage, Italy, reproduced in Our World in Data, Our World in Data (retrieved 26 March 2020) 8. Pantini, D and Bonon P. 2015, National market vs global market: how profitability and supply chain relations change in Italian wine-industry, Nomisma Wine Monitor (retrieved 23 April 2019, page no longer available) 9. Wine Production in Italy by Color and Quality Level, Italian Wine Central (retrieved 26 March 2020) 10. Vino: tendenze e dinamiche recenti 4 ottobre 2019, p. 7, ISMEA Mercarti (retrieved 26 March 2020) 11. Top five destinations of wine exported from Italy in 2018, ranked by share of export value, Statistica, (retrieved 26 March 2020)

North-East Italy

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COLLI COLLIORIENTALI ORIENTALI

DELFRIULI FRIULI FRIULIFRIULI- DEL PICOLIT VENEZIA VENEZIA PICOLIT GIULIA GIULIA

II TT AA LL YY

Lake Lake Garda Garda

47˚N 47˚N

COLLIO COLLIO RR. . FRIULIDOC DOC PPiaia FRIULI veve

Trieste Trieste

Venice Venice

SOAVE SOAVE CLASSICO CLASSICO SOAVE SOAVE

RR. .AAddigigee

45˚N 45˚N

46˚N 46˚N

RR. .PPoo

Adriatic Adriatic Sea Sea

CROATIA CROATIA 45˚N 45˚N

PINOT PINOTGRIGIO GRIGIODELLE DELLE VENEZIE VENEZIEDOC DOC 1500m+ 1500m+

1000-1500m 1000-1500m

100-200m 100-200m

0-100m 0-100m

500-1000m 500-1000m

200-500m 200-500m

In this section, the wines of Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and the Veneto will be discussed.

16.1. Trentino-Alto Adige

While regarded as one region for some administrative purposes, Trentino and Alto Adige are best dealt with as two wine regions. Both are influenced by an Austrian heritage and became a part of Italy one century ago in 1919. Today the province of Trentino is a predominantly Italianspeaking region, while in the province of Alto-Adige, also known as Südtirol, the majority first language is German. (In this study guide, the Italian names of places will be adopted.) The entire region is in the foothills of the Alps with fruit growing (especially apples) taking place on the plain between the mountains and viticulture being predominantly practiced on the lower slopes of the hills. Trentino-Alto Adige grows both international varieties and local ones. Most wines produced are single-variety wines. The typical wines are described below.

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TRENTINO Trentino typically produces mainly white wines (unoaked, fresh, Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay and Müller-Thurgau) as well as red wines from Teroldego, Merlot and Marzemino that are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. A few producers’ wines are very good to outstanding in quality and are in the premium to super-premium range. Just over 80 per cent of the wines are produced by co-operatives. Production levels over the last ten years have remained broadly stable. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing While being in the north of Italy and in sight of the Alps, Trentino has a moderate, continental climate but with cooling influences. Daytime summer temperatures can be high due to the mountains providing protection from cold north winds, the moderating presence of Lake Garda to the south and heat building up on the valley floor during the growing season. However, there are large day/night temperature differences due to cold air descending from the mountains at night. The cold nights enable grapes to retain acidity and prolong the growing season, allowing flavours to intensify. Vineyards on higher and steeper slopes require working by hand, including harvesting.

Vineyards below the mountains in Trentino Grape Varieties Overall, approximately 75 per cent of the vineyard area is planted with white grapes and 25 per cent with black.2 Maximum yields are high: dependent on variety, whites are around a maximum of 100 hL/ha, reds around 90 hL/ha. The region grows a large number of varieties. The overarching Trentino DOC allows ten white varieties to be bottled as single variety white wines and nine black varieties

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Trentino: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Pinot Grigio

Chardonnay

Müller Thurgau

Teroldego

Merlot

Marzemino

Source: Consorzio di Tutela Vini del Trentino1

as red wines. International varieties widely grown are Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay, MüllerThurgau, Pinot Bianco, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc and Gewurztraminer in whites and Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Pinot Noir in red. However, the larger volumes are represented by Pinot Grigio and Chardonnay that together represent about half of the hectares planted. The region is also home to a range of local grape varieties, the most important of which are outlined below. Three black varieties Teroldego (black cherry), Marzemino (red cherry) and Lagrein (red cherry and black plum), are all closely related to each other. They are all vigorous, mid- to late-ripening varieties making deeply coloured, medium tannin wines. They are mostly good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Teroldego – This is the most common black variety in Trentino. Historically it was trained on pergolas for high yields. Quality minded growers now are also using Guyot. It can suffer from drying out of stems but is less susceptible to mildews than the other two varieties. The best clones are 145 and 152 for intense aromas. The best quality wines come from the Teroldego Rotaliano DOC on sandy and gravelly soils in the far north of Trentino. Outside the geographical area of Teroldego Rotaliano DOC and despite being the most grown black variety in the province, Teroldego cannot be bottled as Trentino DOC but as Vini delle Dolomiti IGT (which includes wines from both Trentino and Alto-Adige). Marzemino – This black variety is prone to botrytis bunch rot and powdery mildew. Older vines were usually trained on pergolas; newer lower-yielding clones have been trained as spurred cordons. The best, ripest, wines come from the Ziresi subzone of the Trentino DOC due to full sun exposure and rich calcareous/clay and basalt soils.

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Lagrein – This variety needs a warm site with plenty of sunshine to ripen fully. It can be subject to poor fruit set and thus low yields. Bitterness and some harshness on the finish is being addressed by shorter maceration times and oak ageing. Because of its deep colour, the variety is also used for rosés. The wines can be labelled in either Italian or German as ‘red’ and ‘rosé’: Lagrein rubino/dunkel and Lagrein rosato/kretzer. Moscato Rosa – This variety is a member of the Moscato family and is made into rose-scented sweet wines. Poor fruit set and susceptibility to botrytis bunch rot make it difficult to grow successfully. The wines are made either by the appassimento method or by picking late harvest fruit. The wines are premium priced. Nosiola – The white variety Nosiola is grown in the Valley of the Lakes, the warmest area with a sub-continental climate. It produces a small volume of distinctive white wines with a light hazelnut flavour. It is also made in a semi-dried fruit version, called Vino Santo (not Vin Santo). The hazelnut flavour is from the fruit, not from oak. It is vulnerable to spring frosts, powdery mildew and sour rot. The dry wine is mid-priced, the Vino Santo premium priced. For Schiava, see Alto-Adige.

Experimental vinification of disease resistant varieties. Winemaking The great majority of white wines are made by soft pressing of the grapes and fermenting the juice in stainless steel vessels at low temperatures (12–16°C/54–61°F) to retain primary fruit character. They may be briefly aged on the lees and released promptly for their fruitiness. Some top whites may be aged in small oak barrels, a small proportion being new, for an added layer of vanilla and spice notes.

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Red wines are made in two styles. Most are again made to be fresh and fruity in style with medium level of tannins and medium body. This is achieved by maceration on the skins during alcoholic fermentation (5–7 days) and moderate fermentation temperatures (17– 20°C /63–68°F). They are briefly aged in stainless steel or old, neutral wooden casks. By contrast, a minority of premium reds go through a period of maceration after alcoholic fermentation (additional 7–14 days) and warm fermentation temperatures (26–32°C/79–90°F). These wines will typically be aged in small oak barrels with a small proportion of new oak. These wines have medium (+) to intense fruit flavours and an additional layer of vanilla and sweet spice oak. Wine Law and Regulations Trentino DOC allows wine to be made from many varieties, international and local. They can be: • • • •

•

Bianco (minimum 80 per cent Chardonnay and/or Pinot Bianco) Rosso (single variety or blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Carmenère and Merlot) single variety wines, minimum 85 per cent of the named variety two variety blends from shorter lists of varieties. For example, for white wines, 50–75 per cent of one of Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, Pinot Grigio or Sauvignon Blanc plus the remainder of one of these named varieties. Rosé, also called Rosato or Kretzer.

In addition, there are DOCs for the sweet wines. Certain important sub-zones can appear on labels in conjunction with DOC Trentino, e.g. Val di Cembra. For the Pinot Grigio delle Venezie DOC available to growers in Trentino but not Alto Adige, see the Veneto. Wine Business Trentino is a province with many small growers with an average holding of 1.2ha.3 Due to this, co-operatives and to a lesser extent merchants are very significant for wine production.4 The co-operatives account for more than 80 per cent of total production with the largest, Cavit, producing 60 per cent of all wine made in the province.5 Smaller estates only produce about 10 per cent of the total production. The main denomination Trentino DOC allows for the production of most of the common varieties, with the alternative option of Vigneti delle Dolomiti IGT. While a very high proportion of the wine is bottled as DOC, it is questionable if Trentino DOC as such has promoted uniformly high quality as its yield allowances are high, as already stated. This has encouraged some of the most highquality growers not to use Trentino DOC, for Cavit is a consortium, of 10 co-operatives spread example Foradori. around Trentino. It processes the fruit of 4,500 The wines of Trentino have very good growers. This press kit gives insights into its penetration in the restaurant sector in Italy,6 structure, exports (80 per cent of turnover) and especially Trentodoc (see D4: Sparkling Wines), regional sustainability programme. Müller Thurgau and Teroldego Rotaliano.

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Concrete tanks at co-operative winery.

New stainless steel tanks at co-operative winery.

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ALTO-ADIGE Viticulture has been practiced in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the Dolomites for centuries. Today Alto Adige produces pale red Schiava and then mostly international varieties Pinot Grigio, Gewürztraminer (here regarded as a local variety; the village of Tramin is in the province), Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Noir and Sauvignon Blanc. The wines are mostly good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Some top wines are very good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to premium in price, especially Pinot Noir. 60 per cent of wine produced is white and 40 per cent red.7 The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Alto Adige has a mild Alpine continental climate. It is protected from cold winds by the mountains to the north. Vines typically are grown between 300–700 m of altitude. Warm air currents in the valleys, nearly 300 days of sunshine a year and large day/night temperature differentials create very good conditions for ripening grapes and retaining acidity. There is sufficient rainfall, spread throughout the year with a low amount in winter. Rainfall can sometimes be a concern at harvest time. There is a large variety of soils: volcanic porphyry, quartz and mica rock and Dolomitic limestone, giving producers a range of soil types suitable for a range of varieties. Training systems are either the traditional pergola or Guyot. Leaf picking to encourage exposed bunches to ripen has been practised for some time but now, with rising temperatures, this has to be done carefully to avoid the risk of fruit burning or drying out. Vineyards on higher and steeper slopes require working by hand, including harvesting.

Vineyard at foot of mountain, Alto Adige.

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There are a number of growing zones (not technically sub-zones within the DOC) in the province according to topography, climate and soils. The two largest are: •

Bassa Atesina in the south of the province with the warmer climate: all the main varieties are grown except Schiava. Müller Thurgau is grown at high altitude. Oltradige, including the Lake Caldaro area for Schiava, with Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon in the valleys and Pinot Noir and white varieties at higher altitudes.

•

Grape Varieties Alto Adige, top varieties, percentage of plantings 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

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Source: Consortium Alto Adige Wines8 Schiava – Schiava is also known by its German name Vernatsch. While four separate varieties have been identified, they are normally grown and vinified together. The vines are typically grown on a pergola to cope with their natural vigour and the vines produce high yields. The wine is typically a pale ruby wine with perfumed violet and strawberry aromas with a medium to light body and low tannins. In the Santa Magdalena DOC Schiava can be blended with up to 15 per cent Lagrein producing a deeper coloured and fuller bodied wine. Lagrein – See under Trentino. Winemaking The emphasis in most white winemaking in Alto Adige is on preserving fruit aromas and flavours. The must is fermented at low to moderate temperatures (12–15°C/54–59°F) with selected yeasts and aged in stainless steel vessels. Mid-priced wines may be kept on fine lees for 4–6 months to fill out the body of the wine, premium wines for nearly a year. Some top white wines and reds (Lagrein, Pinot Noir) are aged in French barriques.

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Wine Law and Regulations Alto Adige is proud of the fact that 98 per cent of the wines are DOC. The Alto Adige DOC is used for the typical range of varieties grown in the province. 11 white varieties are allowed within the DOC and seven black varieties. Within Alto Adige DOC the wines can be: •

• •

Bianco (minimum 75 per cent Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco or Pinot Grigio – two of these varieties must be present but no single variety can exceed 70 per cent of the whole blend). There is no corresponding Rosso category. single variety wines, minimum 85 per cent of the named variety. two variety blends, for example, Chardonnay-Pinot Bianco or Cabernet-Lagrein in which both varieties must be more than 15 per cent of the blend each.

It also possible to label wine in this DOC with one of the six subzones. The largest of these is Alto Adige Valle Isarco (mostly whites). The separate Lago di Caldaro DOC is devoted to Schiava. Allowed yields are slightly lower than in Trentino, for example the maximum for whites is around 90 hL/ha. Wine Business Vineyard holdings in Alto Adige are typically very small, on average about one hectare per grower.9 Co-operatives are a very important part of the industry and account for 70 per cent of production including some high-quality wines. Even the better-known private estates have a limited number of hectares, with the result that they need to make mid-priced and premium wines. For example, Alois Lageder has 50 hectares (plus twice as much additional contract fruit) and Elena Walch, 60. The top co-operatives work hard to encourage quality and pay high prices to growers to incentivise quality. These include Cantina Kaltern (the largest winery in the province) and Cantina di Tramin. In general, the wines of the province are sold principally in Italy (75 per cent with a focus on whites and aromatic varieties) of which just under half are sales in the province itself with its very important tourist business. The most important sales sector in Italy is hospitality, then specialist wine shops with only a small proportion of supermarket sales. The most important export market is Germany and then the USA. The province is currently promoting its wines

Alto Adige logo.

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actively in nine overseas markets. Schiava is sold locally and is exported to German-speaking countries.10 The Consortium Alto Adige Wines is the overarching body that promotes the wines. The wines are all branded with the Südtirol logo on the capsule of bottles.

16.2. Friuli

Friuli-Venezia Giulia, commonly known as Friuli, is Italy’s most north-easterly region, best known for its high-quality white wines. Bordering both Austria and Slovenia, its wine culture reflects influences from German-speaking and Slavic countries. The region is responsible for under four per cent of Italian production,11 and has concentrated on quality white single-variety wines. More than 75 per cent of the wine produced is white.12 However, in both the white and red categories, Friuli is notable for the number of different local and international varieties grown.

Hillside vineyard in Collio. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The vineyards in the south of the region are on the flat plain near the Adriatic Sea and experience a warm maritime climate where warm air from the Adriatic Sea meets cooler influences from the Alps. The region has high rainfall (1,200 mm per year), one-third more than Bordeaux, with accompanying humidity. This requires extra work in the vineyard to combat diseases and makes organic viticulture challenging in this region.

North-East Italy

Compacted marl known locally as ponca. The region can be divided into two zones, the plain and the low hills. This corresponds to a broad distinction between everyday wines and higher quality wines. Everyday wines, especially Pinot Grigio and Merlot, are made from higher-yield fruit grown on the alluvial plain with rocky deposits, soils that are more fertile than the hillside sites. This includes five DOCs, the most important of which are Grave del Friuli DOC (mostly volume wines) and Friuli Isonzo DOC (best quality from sites on right bank of the river Isonzo neighbouring Collio). Yields are typically higher on the plain. The higher quality wines come from the hillside vineyards of Collio DOC and Collio Orientali del Friuli DOC with calcareous marl and sandstone. Soils include compacted marl, known as ponca, with excellent drainage. While the altitude is modest (200 m), a range of slopes and exposure to wind contribute to lower yields and higher quality, greater costs and price. Grape Varieties A wide range of varieties is grown in the region. The chart above shows the main varieties planted. While Pinot Grigio makes up 25 per cent of the total vineyard area planted in Friuli, many other varieties are grown: •

Local varieties – Ribolla Gialla, Malvasia di Istria, Verduzzo and Picolit (all white varieties) and Refosco, Schiopettino, Pignolo and Tazzalenghe (black varieties). (Glera is also grown for the Prosecco DOC that extends into Friuli. This is dealt with in the unit on Sparkling wines.)

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Friuli: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Pinot Grigio

Merlot

Friulano

Chardonnay Sauvignon Blanc Cabernet Franc

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)13 • •

Varieties in common with Austria/Middle Europe – Riesling, Welschriesling (in Italy called Riesling Italico), Gewürztraminer, Müller- Thurgau, Blaufränkisch (called Franconia) French varieties – Merlot, Sauvignonasse (i.e. Friulano), Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Pinot Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Carmenère.

As can be seen from the chart, Friuli has significant plantings of grape varieties that are commonly grown around the world. Three grape varieties in which Friuli specialises are: Friulano – This variety, formerly known as Tocai Friulano, was renamed Friulano (‘from Friuli’) when the EU ruled that the name Tokaj was only to be used for the wine style in Hungary. The variety is known elsewhere as Sauvignon Vert or Sauvignonasse and, in Friuli, it has a prominent role. It has good disease resistance, important in a region with high rainfall. The wines have medium (–) floral and apple flavours, medium to high alcohol with medium (+) acidity. They can either be made entirely in stainless steel to preserve the aromatics (most common) or be lightly oaked. The best wines have a capacity to age. They typically range from good to very good in quality and from mid-priced to premium. Ribolla Gialla – This white variety is only grown in Collio and Colli Orientali, as it needs hillside sites to prevent it growing too vigorously. It is prone to shot berries. The wines have citrus and pepper notes and high acidity. Many styles are being experimented with as the profile of the variety has grown: oak-aged or not, Charmat sparkling wine, dry and off-dry, extended skin contact for orange wines, amphora wines. Refosco – Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso is the most planted of the local black varieties. It is another vigorous variety that produces its best wines when grown on hillside sites with lower fertility. It is late ripening and resistant to botrytis. The red wines produced are red cherry

North-East Italy

Friulano. flavoured with herbal aromas. It has small berries that produce wines with high tannins that are best smoothed out by time in barrels. WINEMAKING The style of clean, mainly unoaked, white wines associated with Friuli was introduced by Mario Schiopetto and others from the late 1960s. It drew on German technical expertise especially the use of stainless steel for fermentation and ageing vessels, temperature control, cultivated yeasts and, latterly, pneumatic presses. Friuli became the go-to region within Italy for this style of wine. In the wake of this success, in recent decades, experimentation with late harvest fruit, skin maceration, lees stirring and the use of oak has followed. The region also produces red wines from international varieties (mainly Merlot) and from a range of characterful, often tannic local ones. As in neighbouring Slovenia, traditional orange wines are made – see below. Small volumes of sweet wine are also made from local varieties. Orange Wines Friuli, and especially the small Oslavia sub-region of Collio, like neighbouring Brda in Slovenia, is a centre for the production of orange wines. These wines are made from long maceration (8 days up to 6–8 months) on the skins of white varieties followed by long ageing (2–6 years) in large format oak barrels. The pioneers of this movement, returning to old winemaking ways in the face of the perceived industrialisation of winemaking, included Joško Gravner (who also introduced amphora), Stanko Radikon and Dario Prinčič. They share a commitment to: • •

organic methods in the vineyard the use of local varieties (especially the celebration of Ribolla Gialla), alongside international ones

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• • • • •

long maceration on the skins fermentation with ambient yeasts with no temperature control long maturation in large format oak or other wood no fining or filtration low or no added SO2.

The resulting wines are amber, orange or gold in colour. They have pronounced flavours, unlike white wines from the same varieties, of dried fruits, dried herbs, hay and nuts, and medium tannins. They sell for premium prices and are particularly appreciated by sommeliers, those committed to natural wines and adventurous drinkers.

Orange wine.

DENOMINATIONS The two most important DOCs for the national and international market are Collio and Collio Orientali del Friuli (COF). These two DOCs share similar characteristics and are mainly divided by political history. The latter became part of Italy in the nineteenth century while Collio was only brought into modern Italy in 1914. The same geology and wine culture of the Collio continues into Slovenia across the border. Collio DOC restricts yields to 77 hL/ha. It is in the process of becoming Collio DOCG.14 The principal wines in these two DOCs are the single-variety whites – Friulano, Ribolla Gialla, Sauvignon Blanc or Chardonnay. The DOC wines can have a variety name for example, Collio Orientali del Friuli Sauvignon Blanc or Collio Friulano. This is extended to 18 approved varieties, reflecting the range of varieties grown. Some progress is being made in identifying the best sub-zones for each variety. For Grave del Friuli DOC and Friuli Isonzo DOC, see under The Growing Environment and Grape Growing above. Two sweet wines have denominations of their own and are two of Friuli’s four DOCG wines. Colli Orientali del Friuli Picolit DOCG is an historic wine that once was a competitor for Hungarian Tokaj. Volumes produced have always been small as the variety Picolit has bunches each with only 10–15 berries due to problems with berry set. The wine is made from air-dried grapes. Ramandolo DOCG is made from air-dried grapes of the Verduzzo variety. In addition to the existing DOC(G)s, a new Friuli DOC was introduced in 2016 that allows growers to produce wine to a DOC standard across all the authorized areas of Friuli. Permitted yields are high (e.g. 98 hL/ha for the most popular whites). It remains to be seen if consumers and those in the supply chain see this as a positive development. For the Pinot Grigio delle Venezie DOC, see the Veneto. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS These have been dealt with in the preceding sections.

North-East Italy

WINE BUSINESS The two main growers’ organisations for high quality wines are: • •

Consorzio Tutela Vini Collio Consorzio Tutela Vini Friuli Colli Orientali e Ramandolo which oversees four DOC(G)s: Colli Orientali del Friuli, Ramandolo, Picolit, Rosazzo

Friulian wine continues to have a good reputation in the Italian restaurant and specialist retail market. It is very successful in national wine competitions, such as the Gambero Rosso. Exports grew by 55 per cent by value between 2013 and 2018,15 partly but not exclusively due to the popularity of Prosecco and Pinot Grigio. While white wines continue to be the speciality of the region, increasing focus is being put on promoting red wines, especially the native varieties including Refosco. This may be partly because other north Italian regions, especially Trentino-Alto Adige, have entered the market for clean, modern, well-made whites, often at a lower price. Competition at the lower end of the market has also come from inexpensive Pinot Grigio grown both across Italy and in Eastern Europe where costs can be lower.

16.3. Veneto

The large Veneto region (emphasis on the first syllable, VEN-e-to) extends from the southern end of Lake Garda in the west to Venice in the east and ranges from the foothills of the Alps in the north to the flat plains of the Po delta to the south. The Veneto is Italy’s largest wineproducing region (in most years), not least due to the worldwide popularity of sparkling Prosecco (dealt with in the unit on sparkling wines) and Pinot Grigio. However, it is also the home of the well-known DOC(G)s, Valpolicella and Soave. These make both entry level and high-quality wines. The wine styles, quality and price are described under the DOC headings below. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The climate in the Veneto is warm and moderately continental, with moderate rainfall. Cooling influences may come from altitude, exposing the vineyards in the foothills to a large diurnal temperature range, and from breezes from Lake Garda that cool the vineyards in the west of the region. The flat plain is affected by moist air and fog from the River Adige and the broad Po River valley, Italy’s largest expanse of flat land, thus increasing the number of sprays needed to combat disease and rot. The trunk disease Esca has become an increasing threat. Soils are generally very fertile contributing to high yields. This is particularly the case in vineyards on the plain that have rich soils with high fertility. Hillside sites are better suited to quality production due to a combination of better drainage and less rich soils. The DOCs for Valpolicella and Soave extend to the plains. This extension, in combination with the high yields allowed, means that quality is varies from good to outstanding. The chart below of the top six varieties planted shows the dominance of Glera in the region as a whole; for Prosecco, see D4: Sparkling Wines. Also notable is the volume of Merlot grown (alongside local varieties) that mainly goes into inexpensive wines for the local market. The flat fertile plain is a source of fruit for inexpensive, high volume brands growing international grape varieties such as Pinot Grigio, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Merlot and for the local varieties Corvina, Garganega and Trebbiano. High yields mean that

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Veneto: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 25 20 15 10 5 0

Glera

Garganega

Merlot

Corvina

Pinot Grigio

Cabernet Sauvignon

Source: Anderson, K. 201316 these wines are usually simple and fruity. They may be labelled Veneto IGP. There are a number of DOCs outlined in more detail below: Valpolicella, Soave, Bardolino, Bianco di Custoza and Lugana.

Vines on trellises.

North-East Italy

Pergola trained vines. SOAVE Soave is east of Verona and has two distinct parts: foothills to the north and a flat plain in the south, near the River Adige. The hillside soils are limestone and clay and/or volcanic rocks (basalt). These soils are naturally cool, and this together with the influence of altitude, slows down ripening, leading to grapes with full flavour ripeness yet high acidity. Garganega This is the historic white variety of the Veneto and is vigorous, very productive and late ripening (October). Traditionally it was trained on a pergola system but nowadays it may be trellised. It is sensitive to winter cold and to mildew and botrytis. The grapes are usually handpicked on hillside sites and machine-harvested on the plain. The wines typically have high acidity levels, a medium body and medium intensity of lemon, apple/pear, white pepper and, in the ripest examples, stone fruit. They do not typically display any aromas or flavours of new oak, though some high-end examples are oaked. The best examples can age, developing aromas of almonds and honey. They are typically good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. The top producers’ wines are very good to outstanding in quality and mid- to premium priced. The vines on the plain are planted on fertile sandy and alluvial soils. Grapes produced here on the plain are fruity with medium acidity and the wines are meant to be drunk young. They are acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive in price. Quality producers will typically employ a short cold maceration period, cool fermentation at 16–18°C (61–64°F) and a few months of ageing on the lees before bottling. A few producers ferment and/or age their leading wines in oak barrels. Wines are also made by the appassimento method (see below).

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Wine Law and Regulations For Soave, there are three main DOCs for dry wines, with slightly rising minimum alcohol levels. Soave DOC – Grapes from the entire Soave region (now three times larger than the original region of 1931), of which a minimum of 70 per cent must be Garganega, with up to 30 per cent of Trebbiano di Soave (local synonym for Verdicchio) or Chardonnay. Of this 30 per cent, a maximum of 5 per cent can be any other authorized variety. Maximum yield is a substantial 105 hL/ha. The wine can be sold very young, after 1 December of the year of harvest. Production is around 80 per cent of all Soave.17 Soave Classico DOC – Grapes from the hilly Classico region, same rules about varieties as Soave DOC, marginally lower yield at 98 hL/ha. Wines can be released on 1 February of the year after harvest. Production is around 20 per cent of all Soave. Soave Superiore DOCG – Grapes from same hilly zone as Recioto di Soave (see below), same rules about varieties as Soave DOC. Lower yield than the two other Soave DOCs at 70 hL/ha. Wines can only be released on 1 September of the year after harvest. However, production is tiny by comparison with the two above. The details above show that high to very high yields are permitted in both Soave and Soave Classico. This led to the introduction of Soave Superiore DOCG with its markedly lower maximum yields. However, leading producers work with yields close to the maximums allowed and still produce concentration and flavour intensity in their wines, showing that Garganega when well grown on favourable sites can produce fully flavoured wines at relatively high yields. Recioto di Soave DOCG – Grapes from a delimited hilly zone, this is made from the same blend as Soave but from semi-dried grapes. As a result, the yields are a low maximum of 36 hL/ha, producing rich, floral, honeyed, sweet wines with high balancing acidity. Wine Business Soave is a region of small growers (average vineyard holding two hectares) and large bottlers. Less than 10 per cent is bottled by small family wineries. The largest co-operative, the Cantina di Soave, bottles just under half of the total wine made. The demand for Soave was at its peak in the 1960s and 70s but in recent decades, it has lost ground in the volume market to Pinot Grigio from the Veneto and elsewhere. As a result, old, low quality Garganega vines within the Soave DOC are being replanted with Pinot Grigio. However, Soave continues to be in demand in export markets with 80 per cent being exported, especially to Germany and the UK. Over the last ten years, the value of exports has held up with the volume dropping, indicating that slightly higher prices are being achieved.18 Until recently, the quality reputation for Soave was conveyed either by reference to the Classico zone or by the names of individual producers (examples include Pieropan and Inama). As part of an effort to re-position Soave as a higher quality wine, the Soave Consorzio has now carried out a classification of single vineyards across Soave as a whole. This followed detailed study of soils, aspect and elevations and their combined effect on wine style. These ‘cru’ vineyards are all on hilly sites and most but not all of them are in the Classico zone.19 In 2020, 33 named single vineyards were approved.

North-East Italy

VALPOLICELLA The Valpolicella area is immediately north of Verona. The foothills in the north of the denomination have limestone and clay or volcanic soils which are cooler than those in the south, and which slow down ripening so the grapes have more acidity and ripen more slowly, producing wines of greater concentration. The soils in the flatter south of the denomination are gravel and sand, which are warmer. As a result, the grapes are fruitier with less acidity and lower concentration.

Hillside vineyards in Valpolicella Classico. Grape Varieties Corvina Veronese – This variety, commonly known as Corvina, is vigorous and dependable, producing high yields. It has thick skins making it suitable for drying (see Appassimento below). However, it is prone to downy mildew, botrytis and esca and is sensitive to drought. It is mid to late ripening. It is well suited to pergola training as it does not fruit on the first few buds of the cane and the shade prevents sunburn to which the variety is prone. The height of the pergola also helps with good air circulation helping to reduce disease. Studies have shown that temperatures can be significantly lower in pergola systems, but they do also lose more water through evaporation. If carefully grown, Corvina can be grown on trellises. Corvina is mostly blended in Valpolicella and related wines. In blends, it contributes violet, red cherry and red plum fruit with a herbal note and low to medium tannins and high acidity. There are a few single-variety Corvina wines following the success of Allegrini’s La Poja, a concentrated barrel-aged red. Corvinone – Despite its name, ‘big Corvina’, probably arising from its big clusters, this variety is not related to Corvina. It is prone to downy mildew. The principal problem in growing

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the variety is that the berries do not ripen uniformly and therefore the fruit must be picked over bunch by bunch at harvest, adding work and cost. Corvinone is a good complement to Corvina in blends as it supplies tannins, while also contributing red cherry fruit flavours. It also dries well – see below on appassimento. Rondinella – This very reliable and productive variety can grow on a range of soils. It has good disease resistance (and therefore is good for drying) but is prone to esca. It can give rather neutral wines with light, simple cherry fruit. It accumulates sugar very fast and so is useful for Recioto (see below). Molinara – This is a high yielding variety that has been grown less in recent years, due to the pale colour of the wines, with producers (and the market) preferring deeper coloured wines. It contributes acidity, red-berried fruit and lightness. Winemaking The aim in making inexpensive Valpolicella is to create fresh, fruity wines for early consumption. After crushing the grapes, fermentation is carried out at controlled temperatures of 20–25°C (68–77°F) to retain primary aromas. Maceration times are typically short, 5–7 days, as the aim is for wines with light to medium tannins. The wines are aged in stainless steel or large neutral oak barrels for 6–8 months before release. However, wines made by the appassimento method, using semi-dried grapes, have become increasingly important and common. Appassimento – Both Soave and Valpolicella make use of the appassimento method. The resulting wine style is called passito. In the Veneto and in many other parts of Italy (e.g. in

Appassimento in trays.

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Tuscany for Vin Santo) the grapes are picked and allowed to reach a semi-dried state before they are crushed. The grapes are stored for 3–4 months in well-aerated drying lofts. It is a historic method for concentrating flavour, raising alcohol levels and making sweet (and today, dry) wines. It may well have arisen in antiquity to make wines robust enough to transport.

Appassimento: grapes hung up to dry.

Appassimento: grapes showing signs of drying.

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The grapes may be picked early at 11–11.5 per cent potential alcohol to maintain acidity and to ensure perfect bunches. Completely healthy grapes with open bunches are left to dry, either on the vine or, more usually, off the vine. The grapes are hung up or, in volume production, laid one bunch deep in well-spaced trays, to prevent the growth of moulds. The grapes must be checked regularly and rotated occasionally. Today humidity, temperature and air movement are carefully controlled. Depending on the speed and length of drying, the grapes lose around one third of their weight. This loss of water leads to higher levels of sugar, potential alcohol, acidity, anthocyanins (colour), tannins and concentration of flavours. In addition, chemical changes occur in the drying grapes. For example, more glycerol is produced, giving a softer, fuller mouth-feel. In this way, because of the differing production methods, the Corvina blend can produce both pale ruby, simple, fresh, fruity wines (Valpolicella) and deep ruby, concentrated, complex, high alcohol wines with tannic and acidic structure (Amarone and Recioto). Wine Law and Regulations A range of wines is produced within Valpolicella. The wines are all Corvina-dominant blends. The DOCs and DOCGs listed below all have the following in common: • • •

Corvina and/or Corvinone must be 45–95 per cent of the blend. Rondinella: 5–30 per cent Other authorized varieties including Molinara.

From these blends, the following wines may be made. Valpolicella DOC – maximum yield is 84hl/ha, resulting in some wines of low flavour concentration. As noted, the wines are typically made with a short maceration on the skins. Wines show bright purple tints in youth and have red cherry and rose aromatics, no oak flavour, low to medium tannins and medium to medium (+) acidity. The wines are typically good quality, with some very good examples and are inexpensive to mid-priced. Valpolicella Classico DOC – the grapes must come from the hilly, defined, historic Classico zone. Wines typically have greater concentration than the wines of the preceding DOC. The wines are typically good to very good in quality and are inexpensive to mid- priced. Valpolicella Valpantena DOC – wines made from grapes grown in the Valpantena valley. Superiore – an additional optional for Valpolicella DOC and Valpolicella Classico or Valpantena DOC for wines with a marginally higher minimum alcohol level, which are often aged in large oak vessels for one year. They must be aged for one year after 1 January of the year after the harvest. Thus, in Valpolicella, Superiore is used in the traditional way for Italian wines as a higher grade of the basic DOC. (By contrast, in Soave and Bardolino the term Superiore is used as a separate DOCG wine in an attempt to reposition the wine in terms of its commercial status.) Wines are ruby in colour, with greater concentration than basic Valpolicella. A few producers make wines of outstanding quality sold for super-premium prices labelled as Valpolicella Superiore. Examples include Quintarelli or Romano dal Forno. However, these wines are made from a significant proportion of semi-dried grapes and have been aged for

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many years before release, reflecting the traditional winemaking practices for the very highquality wines of the region. As a result, they are not representative of this category in general. Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG – the historic, sweet, semi-dried grape wine of Valpolicella. The grapes can be sourced from anywhere within the Valpolicella DOC, though if Classico is stated on the label, the grapes must come from the Classico area. (Thus Recioto, Amarone and Ripasso are not additional distinct geographical appellations but are based on winemaking styles.) The grapes must be dried off the vines for 100–120 days. The final yield (after drying and pressing the semi-dried grapes) is a maximum of 48 hL/ha. The wines have intense red, fresh- and dried-fruit flavours, a full body, and medium (+) to high tannins. Production is typically small scale and often artisan. As a result, the styles differ in terms of alcohol and sweetness levels (minimum 12% abv and approximately 50 g/L residual sugar). Despite the labour involved and the much lower allowed yields than for Valpolicella, prices received do not match those for the more fashionable Amarone. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and typically premium priced. Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG – is the modern (twentieth century) dry or just off-dry semidried grape wine of Valpolicella. As with Recioto, the grapes can be sourced from anywhere within the Valpolicella DOC and final yield (after drying and pressing the dried grapes) is a maximum of 48 hL/ha. The grapes are vinified usually after 100–120 days of drying. The minimum abv is 14 per cent but more typically 15 per cent and above, and often with 5–9 g/l residual sugar. (The maximum residual sugar is 9 g/L) The wine must be aged for a minimum of two years in large casks or barriques (four years for the ‘Riserva’ category). The wines have intense cherry and dried fruit flavours accompanied by spice and wood notes, medium to high tannins and a high acidity, which balances the richness. According to the style preferred by the producer, the wine may have new oak flavours or nutty and volatile notes from mildly oxidative ageing in large casks if these are not kept entirely topped up. Due to the popularity of the style and the high volumes being made, quality ranges from good to outstanding. Equally there is a wide range of prices from mid-priced to premium and superpremium. Valpolicella Ripasso DOC – In the ripasso method, unpressed grape skins with some residual sugar are taken from the end of the fermentation phase of Amarone or Recioto. Newly made Valpolicella wine, having been pressed off its own skins, is then added to these grape skins for a second maceration. Yeasts, which are also transferred in this process, ferment the remaining sugar, during which time the grape skins give more colour, flavour and tannins to the wine. 15 per cent of Amarone wine may also be added to contribute further flavour, tannins and alcohol. The finished wine must have a minimum 12.5 per cent abv and 13.0 per cent for Superiore. They must be aged for one year after 1 January of the year after the harvest. This is often in large oak vessels. They are medium- to full-bodied with medium (+) tannins and flavours of fresh and stewed red cherries and plums. Given the popularity of the Ripasso style, producers are also making wines from a blend of dried grape wine and standard wine and selling it as IGP. The wines are good to very good in quality and mid- to premium priced.

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Wine Business The Valpolicella Consorzio represents more than 80 per cent of the producers who make DOC(G) wines. In addition to marketing and promotion activities, it is involved in research and in an initiative to sign up growers to a common standard for sustainability (see below). The popularity of Amarone and Ripasso has had profound Is the recent increased effects on the wines being produced. In the past Recioto production of Amarone a success and Amarone were rare and exceptional wines. Recioto has story or a threat to quality? remained a niche market, while Amarone production has grown Consider the issues raised here. six-fold since the mid-1990s and that of Ripasso nearly fourfold in the decade to 2016. Production of Valpolicella has dropped significantly (40 per cent over the decade to 2016).20 Growers receive around three times the price for Amarone grapes as for basic Valpolicella. Approximately 65 per cent of Amarone produced is exported with Germany, the United States, Switzerland and UK being the principal export markets.21 The Valpolicella Consorzio has launched an externally certified sustainability project designed to incorporate 60 per cent of members by 2018 and ultimately the entire region. It has three themes: ‘reduce, respect, retrench’ (i.e. ‘save’). More details are available here. OTHER DOCS IN THE VENETO Pinot Grigio delle Venezie DOC This new DOC was introduced in 2017 replacing the Pinot Grigio delle Venezie IGP with stricter production requirements. (At the same time, it was no longer permitted to bottle Pinot Grigio under the new Trevenezie IGP that replaced delle Venezie IGP.) The grapes for Pinot Grigio delle Venezie DOC have to be grown in the three regions of the Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and the southern Trentino province of Trentino–Alto Adige. This area produces 85 per cent of all Italian-grown Pinot Grigio and more than 40 per cent of the world’s Pinot Grigio.22 In comparison to the former IGP, while the maximum yield remains high it has been reduced (152 to 126 hL/ha). The new DOC is proving very popular among growers with high take-up of the opportunity to bottle Pinot Grigio under the DOC. (There are many other DOCs for Pinot Grigio available to growers in smaller, defined zones within the individual regions. As a result, growers have a choice between the new overarching DOC and a local DOC.) The wines typically have light to medium (–) intensity apple and lemon fruit, with light to medium (–) body, medium alcohol and medium (+) acidity. They are typically good in quality (with some very good examples) and inexpensive to mid-priced. Bardolino DOC and Bardolino Superiore DOCG Bardolino DOC, and Bardolino Superiore DOCG, including its small Classico sub-zone, is immediately adjacent to Lake Garda with its moderating influences. It produces mainly light bodied reds and rosés. These wines are Corvina blends (35–80 per cent Corvina) as in Valpolicella but with the possibility of up to 20 per cent of other authorized red varieties (10 per cent max. for any single variety). In practice, this means that Merlot can be used to boost the red fruit character and to reach the minimum alcohol level of 10.5 per cent (DOC) or 11 per cent (DOCG) for the Superiore category. Maximum yields are 91 hL/ha. The rosé, called Chiaretto, is a light, fresh, red-fruited wine with a medium salmon colour.

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Bianco di Custoza DOC This DOC is situated between Verona and Lake Garda. It produces mostly easy-drinking, lightly aromatic, fresh white wines made from a blend of mainly Trebbiano Toscano, Garganega, Friulano and optionally Cortese. The wines are mainly sold in the Italian market. Two large cooperatives are the biggest producers. Lugana DOC South of Lake Garda, the Lugana DOC crosses the boundary into neighbouring Lombardy. Most of the vineyards are in Lombardy but the majority of wine is bottled by big producers in the Veneto. The principal grape variety here is now called Turbiana (previously known as Trebbiano di Lugana) and is the same as Verdicchio. The best examples are moderately aromatic with ripe apple, citrus and hazelnut notes with lively acidity and a saline finish. Some producers may age a part or all of their top wines in oak. Some wines can age for five years plus. References 1. Trentino: where the mountains make a difference, Consorzio di Tutela Vini del Trentino, slide 5, presentation received 2017 2. As above 3. As above, slide 7 4. The Co-Operative Model in Trentino – Italy: a case study, OECD, 2014 (retrieved 26 March 2020) 5. Cavit, personal communication, visit, November 2017 6. Nomisma research, 2014, quoted in ‘Trentino: where the mountains make a difference’, p. 24 7. The Winegrowing Region of Alto Adige/Südtirol, Consortium Alto Adige Wines Press Kit 2018, p. 9, available here (retrieved 3 April 2020) 8. 2017 planting figures from Alto Adige Press Kit 9. As above 10. As above 11. ISTAT data for 2018, Wine production by region, Italian Wine Central (retrieved 26 March 2020) 12. ISTAT data for 2018, Wine production in Italy by color and quality level, Italian Wine Central (retrieved 26 March 2020) 13. Anderson, K. 2013, Which Winegrape Varieties are Grown Where? A global empirical picture, University of Adelaide Press, p. 501 14. Bordoni, J. 2017, Collio DOCG: official recognition within a year (2017), Italian Wine Chronicle (retrieved 26 March 2020) 15. L’export italiano di vino per regione, Export Regionale, WineMonitor Nomisma (retrieved 26 March 2020) 16. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 503 17. Soave Preview: virtues and versatility, Consorzio Tutela Vini Soave, 2017, p. 4 18. As above, p. 5 19. Italian Ministry Approves New ‘Cru’ Vineyards in Soave, The Drinks Business, (retrieved 27 June 2019). 20. Valpolicella in figures, Valpolicella Consorzio Tutela Vini, report, p. 10, received July 2017 21. For a detailed report on the domestic and export sales of Amarone, see Combining wine, tourism, and promotion: Minister Centinaio from “Amarone Preview (2019), Wine News (retrieved 6 March 2019) 22. Sinigalia, A. 2019, Pinot Grigio delle Venezie: nasce la Doc, AIS Veneto (retrieved 17 April 2020)

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17

North-West Italy

17.1. Piemonte

PIEMONTE PIEMONTE 00

1010

GATTINARA GATTINARA 3030

45˚30´N 45˚30´N

4040Km Km

NN

2020Miles Miles

o ciinno . Tiic RR. T

00

45˚30´N 45˚30´N 1010 2020

GHEMME GHEMME

PIEMONTE PIEMONTE LOMBARDY LOMBARDY

RR. .PPoo

Turin Turin

RR. .PPoo

45˚00´N 45˚00´N

45˚00´N 45˚00´N

BARBERA BARBERAD’ASTI D’ASTI aannaaroro RR. .TT

Asti Asti BARBARESCO BARBARESCO NEBBIOLO NEBBIOLO D’ALBA D’ALBA

ROERO ROERO

NIZZA NIZZA GAVI GAVI

Alba Alba BAROLO BAROLO

DOLCETTO DOLCETTO D'OVADA D'OVADA

DOLCETTO DOLCETTO DIDIDOGLIANI DOGLIANI

DOLCETTO DOLCETTO D’ALBA D’ALBA

44˚30´N 44˚30´N

44˚30´N 44˚30´N

LIGURIA LIGURIA

LANGHE LANGHE NEBBIOLO NEBBIOLO

1500m+ 1500m+

1000-1500m 1000-1500m

100-200m 100-200m

0-100m 0-100m

Genova Genova

Gulf Gulf of of Genova Genova

500-1000m 500-1000m

200-500m 200-500m

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The Piemonte region, also known as Piedmont in English, is home to the Nebbiolo variety, producing some of Italy’s most prized, aromatically intense and long-lived wines, especially but not exclusively in the Langhe, part of the Cuneo province. The region also grows Barbera (the most grown variety), Dolcetto and the white varieties Cortese and Arneis. Moscato is dealt with in the unit on Sparkling Wine, while Brachetto produces a rosé sparkling wine similar to Moscato d’Asti. Piemonte: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Barbera

Moscato Bianco

Dolcetto

Nebbiolo

Cortese

Brachetto

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)1 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate The grape growing regions of Piemonte have a moderate continental climate with cold winters and hot summers. The region is protected from cold northern winds and excessive rainfall by the Alps to the north and from weather systems coming from the Mediterranean by the Apennines. The region can be subject to thunderstorms, hail and fog. Late frosts can also be a threat. However, low rainfall in June to September allows grapes to ripen and reduces the threat of fungal disease. Rainfall increases in late September and October, posing a threat to late ripening varieties such as Nebbiolo. GRAPE VARIETIES, DENOMINATIONS AND WINEMAKING Nebbiolo This black variety was until recently only grown in Piemonte and neighbouring regions. It is an early budding (and hence at danger from spring frosts) and vigorous variety that ripens very late (see above on climate). It is mainly grown in the Cuneo province, especially in the Langhe, but also in the northern provinces of Piemonte. Wines made from Nebbiolo are typically pale ruby in colour, turning to pale garnet within 3–5 years, with pronounced intensity aromas and flavours (violet, rose, red cherry, red plum), a full body, high tannins, high acidity and can be high alcohol.

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High-trained Nebbiolo. It is said to produce its finest, most perfumed wines on calcareous marls. Because of its value in the market, it tends to be given the best south- and southwest-facing sites in the Langhe that enable it to ripen fully. The vines have to be pruned high as the first few buds are infertile and therefore it needs to be pruned with more buds so that those further up the shoot will bear fruit. Single Guyot is the most common form of training as it facilitates mechanical trimming of the canopy. Excessive exposure of grapes to the sun can be a problem. Nebbiolo vines are vigorous and need regular canopy management (necessary to avoid unripe fruit due to shading) and, for the best quality, time-consuming cluster thinning. Clonal research into Nebbiolo has mainly been aimed at producing wines of deeper colour as traditional wines were pale in intensity and quickly turned to pale garnet, even in young wines. However, some believe that the new clones have lost some of the variety’s high aromatic intensity. Many growers, including significant producer Gaja, prefer mass selection to propagate new vines, seeking vines with low vigour (for wines of increased concentration), open bunches (to reduce fungal disease) and small berries (good depth of colour). Nebbiolo is grown in a number of denominations. Barolo DOCG – This appellation takes its name after the village of the same name and incorporates a number of villages to the south west of the city of Alba. Barolo as a dry, tannic wine made from 100 per cent Nebbiolo, goes back to the middle of the nineteenth century and came to fame through its association with the local royal House of Savoy. This led to the name ‘the wine of kings, the king of wines’. The vineyards are planted on south- and south-west facing slopes, typically 200–400 metres above sea level, combining good sunlight interception with cooling influences. This

North-West Italy

La Morra, Barolo. allows grapes to ripen fully but over a long growing season, producing wines of pronounced aromatic intensity and high acidity. The DOCG restricts yields to 56 hL/ha (for all categories of Barolo, see below). Plantings of Nebbiolo for Barolo have nearly doubled to just short of 2,000 hectares in the period 1980– 2013,2 reflecting the great success of the wine in recent decades. Barolo DOCG has to be aged for three years and two months after harvest, including 18 months in oak. Barolo Riserva DOCG has to be aged for five years and two months with a minimum of 18 months in oak. These long maturation times add to the costs of production. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and premium and super-premium priced. The soil types in Barolo DOCG are complex. However, often a contrast is made between: •

•

the villages with blue-grey marl in the north and west of the denomination (for example La Morra) that produce lighter more aromatic wines that become drinkable after a few years in bottle the villages in the south and east of the denomination with less fertile, predominantly yellow-grey compacted sand and clay (for example, Serralunga d’Alba) producing wines that are closed and tannic in youth and should be cellared for 10–15 years.

Historically, most top producers prided themselves on blending wines from the grapes of a number of vineyards, searching for more complexity, as continues to be done by some (most notably, Bartolo Mascarello). However, certain single vineyards have long had a very high reputation for quality (examples include Cannubi or Vigna Rionda). Significant producers who were the early champions of single vineyard wines in Barolo and Barbaresco include Angelo Gaja and Bruno Giacosa. In 2010 an official system of sub-zones was introduced, called Menzioni Geografiche Aggiuntive (MGA or MeGA, official additional geographical indications) within the rules of the Barolo DOCG. In Barolo the sub-zones are:

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• • •

entire villages (e.g. La Morra) specified single vineyards (examples include Bussia or Cannubi) a number of specified vineyards now made into a single MGA (for example the Via Nuova vineyard was included within the Terlo MGA).

In addition, the word vigna – vineyard – can now only appear as a labelling term if the name of the MGA is also is stated. A very small amount of Barolo Chinato is made, which is Barolo wine, sweetened and infused with herbs and spices. Barbaresco DOCG – The DOCG for wines made from 100 per cent Nebbiolo takes its name from the village of the same name and incorporates a number of villages to the east of the city of Alba. It is only about one third of the size of Barolo DOCG. The area shares many of the characteristics of Barolo, though most vineyards are at slightly lower altitude and the climate is slightly warmer. Harvest is typically a week earlier. The subtly riper style is reflected in shorter minimum ageing requirements: two years for Barbaresco DOCG and four years for the Riserva. These maturation times add to the cost of production, but less so than in Barolo. Maximum yield is 56 hL/ha, as with Barolo. In 2007, slightly earlier than Barolo as the DOCG area is much smaller, an official system of Menzioni Geografiche Aggiuntive was introduced within the rules of the DOCG. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and premium and superpremium in price. Traditional winemaking for Nebbiolo used to involve very long maceration on the skins (three to four months), followed by five to eight years of ageing in large old wooden vessels to soften

Vineyard in Barbaresco.

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the tannins. In the late 1970s and early 1980s a group of young producers (including Elio Altare in Barolo and Angelo Gaja in Barbaresco) sought wines with deeper colour, softer tannins and less need to be aged, and with new oak flavours. However, while these innovations in the region raised quality and prices, current practice has moderated the extremes. Most producers seek to pick only grapes with ripe skins and seeds (to eliminate aggressive tannins), macerate on the skins for 3–4 weeks for top wines and age the wines in either large format oak (French or Slavonian) or a combination of large and smaller format oak (barriques and up to 500 L), only a small proportion being new. Most, but not all, now agree that overt vanilla and sweet spice notes from new French oak mask the delicate aromas of the Nebbiolo variety. Nebbiolo is also grown in Roero DOCG, north of the Tanaro River and in scattered, often-historic denominations in the north of Piemonte, closer to the major city Milan. These include Gattinara DOCG and Ghemme DOCG that have a continental climate with greater diurnal variation than Barolo, resulting of wines of higher acidity. South-facing sites at around 300 m above sea level enables fruit to ripen and the wines are light bodied but intensely perfumed. (Similar wines are also made at much higher altitudes, up to 750m, in Valtellina in the neighbouring region of Lombardy.) In these denominations, Nebbiolo is often blended with small proportions of other local varieties. Wines from Nebbiolo for early drinking are made within the regional denominations, such as Langhe Nebbiolo DOC or Nebbiolo d’Alba DOC. These wines are typically made from young vines or less favoured sites. During winemaking, maceration lasts for seven to ten days only and the wines are aged for up to a year in neutral containers. Some top producers use Nebbiolo Langhe DOC to bottle parcels from Barolo or Barbaresco that do not meet the quality they require in their top wines and to offer some wines at more accessible prices.

Barriques in Barolo.

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Large casks in Barolo. These wines are cheaper to produce (shorter maturation times) and are typically mid-priced to premium priced. Barbera As noted, this black variety is the most grown variety in Piemonte as a whole, with three times as much vineyard area as Nebbiolo. While it is widely grown in the region and in Italy in general, it is concentrated around the towns of Asti and Alba and the area known as the Monferrato. The best quality wines come from Asti and its sub-zones, including Nizza, which has now been promoted to a DOCG of its own. Barbera is also grown around Alba, but here the best sites are reserved for Nebbiolo. Nonetheless, Barbera grown in the Langhe can be of high quality as it is less sensitive to site than Nebbiolo. Barbera is a relatively early budding variety and therefore prone to spring frosts. It is a very vigorous and disease-resistant variety, though it is susceptible to fan leaf virus. It will grow on a range of sites and aspects. It can produce very high yields and therefore the grower can choose to allow high yields for wines of acceptable to good quality or prune hard for highly concentrated wines. It ripens relatively late, but before Nebbiolo. Barbera is generally high in acidity and relatively low in tannin. It is made in a range of styles including the traditional lightly sparkling style. Most wine now is made as still wine for early drinking with medium to deep ruby colour, medium intensity red plum and red cherry fruit sometimes with black pepper aromas, high acidity, medium tannins and medium alcohol. These lighter wines show the high acidity of the variety. Most wines are good to very good in quality and are inexpensive to mid-priced. As noted, some very good to outstanding wines are made that command premium prices.

North-West Italy

Barbera close to harvest. However, highly concentrated Barbera wines are also made. The fruit is grown at lower yields, often from old vines, and the wines are aged in French oak barriques, as pioneered by Giacomo Bologna. Oak tannins from barrels adds to the body of these wines and gives them further capacity to age. Where Barbera is aged in barriques, this adds to production costs, especially where new oak is used. Barbera d’Asti DOCG has a maximum yield of 63 hL/ha and the wine has to be aged for a minimum of four months only. The yield of Nizza DOCG is limited to 49 hL/ha and it must be aged for 18 months, six of which must be in oak. Barbera is also made within Piemonte DOC allowing up to 84 hL/ha, which can result in wines of low concentration. Dolcetto In comparison to Nebbiolo and Barbera, the black variety Dolcetto ripens early and can be grown on cooler sites. It is susceptible to fungal diseases, is fragile (the buds are easily broken), has low vigour and ripening can be blocked by prolonged spells of cold weather. These issues have contributed to a reduction in vineyard area planted. This reduction has also been due to the much higher prices that can be obtained for Nebbiolo grapes. The variety is reductive in the winery, requiring frequent pump overs or rack-and-return to introduce oxygen and avoid off-flavours. To retain the variety’s fresh primary fruit requires mid-range fermentation temperatures, short times on the skins (7–15 days) and soft extraction methods to avoid extracting its naturally high tannins. Wines are typically aged in stainless steel tanks or cement vats to preserve primary fruit. Most wines are good to very good in quality and are inexpensive to mid-priced. Some very good to outstanding wines are made that command premium prices.

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The best areas for Dolcetto are Alba (Dolcetto d’Alba DOC, maximum yield 63 hL/ha), Ovada (Dolcetto di Ovada DOC) and Dogliani (Dogliani DOCG), the last two with lower maximum yields of 56 hL/ha. The wines are typically deep ruby in colour, with medium (+) intensity red cherry fruit with floral notes, medium (–) acidity and medium (+) tannins. Significant producers include Marcarini (Alba) and Marziano Abbona (Dogliani). Dolcetto can also be made at higher yields as Piemonte DOC (77 hL/ha). Other Local Black Varieties With growing interest in indigenous varieties and rising prices for Nebbiolo, renewed attention is being paid to the wines made from other local varieties such as Freisa. This is related to and highly aromatic like Nebbiolo, but without its high tannins. Cortese Cortese is a high yielding white variety typically producing wines with light intensity aromas of lemon, apple/pear and white flowers with high acidity and medium body. It is thin-skinned and susceptible to grey rot in rainy conditions. After pressing, the must is fermented at mid-range temperatures. (Top quality wines may undergo a few hours of pre-fermentation maceration to increase aromatic intensity.) Wines are typically aged in stainless steel containers to preserve the primary fruit. Most wines are made for early drinking, though some top wines can be aged in the bottle for tertiary notes. The wines are typically good quality with some very good examples and inexpensive to mid-priced, with some premium and ageable examples. Wines made as Gavi (or Cortese di Gavi) DOCG must be made entirely from Cortese grapes with a maximum yield of 67 hL/ha. (Gavi di Gavi DOCG is wine made from grapes grown within the municipality of Gavi itself.) Riserva wines are limited to 45 hL/ha and must be aged for one year in any vessel before release. Significant producers include Castellari Bergaglio and La Scolca. Arneis Most Arneis is grown in the Roero area. The wines have light intensity but complex aromas of white flowers, chamomile, white peach and lemon. They have medium (–) acidity. The wines are typically good quality with some very good examples and are inexpensive to mid-priced, with some premium examples. Grapes must be picked as soon as the desired ripeness is reached as the acidity drops very rapidly. Care must be taken in the winery to minimise oxygen contact as it oxidises easily. Roero Arneis DOCG must be made from a minimum of 95 per cent Arneis and yields of up to 70 hL/ha are permitted. The wine became popular from the 1980s on, despite the difficulties of growing it successfully. Significant producers include early champions of the variety, Vietti and Bruno Giacosa. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Yield levels and ageing times for individual PDOs have been covered in the preceding section. Piemonte does not have any PGI (IGT) wines. Wines produced either are within the simple ‘wine’ category or are accommodated within the DOCs/DOCGs. Piemonte DOC has provision for a wide range of local and international varieties.

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Samples for analysis to get DOCG approval. WINE BUSINESS For historical reasons, the Langhe and Piemonte more generally has remained a region with small family-owned farms. By comparison with other leading Italian regions, especially Tuscany, there has been little consolidation of vineyard holdings. In the past, small growers sold their grapes to larger producers, for example, Fontanafredda. Today, with much higher prices for Nebbiolo wines, many small estates bottle and market their own wines.

Farmhouse-winery, Barbaresco.

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A very high proportion of Barolo and Barbaresco is exported (about 85 and 75 per cent respectively) with the top markets being USA, Germany, the UK and Scandinavia.3 With prices for top quality Bordeaux and Burgundy rising rapidly since 2010, fine wine merchants, collectors and buyers have been looking for alternative wines that can be aged in bottle and collected. Nebbiolo has attracted increased interest due to its capacity to develop tertiary flavours in bottle. The new focus on named sub-zones within Barolo and Barbaresco is becoming to have traction in the market, at least for the better known sub-zones. A comparison can be made with vineyard names in Burgundy. In turn, as the prices of Barolo and Barbaresco have begun to rise, attention has also turned to less expensive Nebbiolo wines from the other DOCGs. References 1. Anderson, K. 2013, Which Winegrape Varieties are Grown Where? A global empirical picture, University of Adelaide Press, p. 502 2. O’Keefe, K. 2014, Barolo and Barbaresco. The king and queen of Italian wine, University of California Press, p. 53 3. Speller, W., private communication, email, March 2019

Central Italy

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Central Italy

In this section the wines of Tuscany, Marche, Umbria, Lazio and Abruzzo will be considered. All these regions grow a significant volumes of Sangiovese, while also having red varieties characteristic of the individual regions. Similarly, for white wines, Trebbiano Toscano is widely grown though in far smaller volumes.

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Tuscany is a historic and prestigious region of central Italy. The great majority of its wines are red with Sangiovese as the dominant variety. The first exports of wine from this region to other regions of Italy and to Mediterranean countries go back to the Etruscan period (seventh century BCE). However, concerns about consistent quality have been a long-standing feature for the region. In 1444, a prohibition on

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picking grapes before a certain date was issued to protect the quality of wine coming from Chianti. Grand Duke Cosimo III de’Medici designated four regions of wine production in Tuscany in 1716, a precursor of the modern systems of geographical indications. In 1872 Baron Bettino Ricasoli, later Prime Minister of Italy, recommended that Sangiovese should be the dominant variety in Chianti and that the white variety Malvasia could be used to soften wines for early drinking. This became the standard approach for Chianti with the result that a proportion of white varieties were required by the DOC of 1967. In 1932, the government’s Dalmasso commission created a much-enlarged area, now called Chianti DOCG, with seven subzones. This was to enable large producers and bottling companies to sell wine from the wider region with the prestigious name of Chianti. It gave the name Chianti Classico to the original, hilly Chianti. Much of the extended Chianti does not share the same soils or elevation as Chianti Classico. Up to the Second World War, a system known as sharecropping was in place. Landowners allowed farmers the use of the land in return for half of the production, which resulted in little incentive to improve quality. After the War, aristocratic owners of estates were joined by investors, first from Italy, and then around the world. This transformed the level of investment in the wine business in Tuscany, especially initially in Chianti Classico. The creation of Sassicaia in 1968 and Tignanello in 1971 inspired the category of Super Tuscans and led to many similar wines in the 1980s. These wines were made from Bordeaux varieties or included Bordeaux varieties and were aged in French oak barriques, not the traditional large cask. They were made in a style that appealed to international markets (deep colour, fruity, with vanilla and sweet spice notes from the use of new French oak barriques). They were released as vino da tavola (lowest classification) as they either came from nontraditional areas or did not follow the rules of the DOCs as they were then. They acted as a stimulus to raise the quality and price of Tuscan wines in general. Many DOCs were created, and DOCs promoted to DOCG, starting in the 1980s but accelerating from the 1990s. Chianti Classico became an autonomous DOCG in 1996. In other words, it is no longer a sub-zone of Chianti. Recent decades have seen the focus return to indigenous varieties, especially Sangiovese, and to less evident new oak flavours in the finished wine. This includes the use of larger casks (locally known as botti) and of tonneaux. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate The climate in Tuscany is generally warm Mediterranean with adequate rainfall for grape growing. Altitude in the inland areas is an important cooling influence. Most of the rain falls in autumn and winter. Inland, summers can be hot and winters cold. The growing season normally has some rain. The climate hazards are occasional spring frost, hail, and rain during the harvest period. Summer drought and prolonged high temperatures (leading to the cessation of photosynthesis and therefore incomplete ripening of skins and seeds) can be hazards in some years.

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Grape Varieties Sangiovese – As noted, Sangiovese is the dominant variety grown in Tuscany. It is widely grown across central and southern Italy and accounts for 10 per cent of all vines grown in Italy as a whole, making it the most planted variety in Italy. Wines made entirely or mostly from Sangiovese are typically medium intensity ruby in colour, with red cherry, red plum and herbal notes, medium to full bodied, with high acidity and high tannins. Quality ranges from acceptable to outstanding and prices from inexpensive to premium with a few super- premium examples. For more details on individual Tuscan denominations see Denominations, Wine Law and Regulations. Tuscany: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Sangiovese

Trebbiano Toscano

Merlot

Cabernet Sauvignon Canaiolo Nero

Source: Anderson, K. 20131 The variety has a number of different names in Tuscany in addition to Sangiovese, some of which appear in the names of denominations, for example Morellino di Scansano. In Montepulciano, the variety is known as Prugnolo Gentile. Sangiovese has a reputation as being a difficult variety to grow successfully. It buds early (and therefore is prone to late spring frosts) and it ripens late (and thus can be affected by early autumn rain). It does best on sunny south and south-east facing slopes where it has the best chance to ripen. Grapes for the better quality wines tend to be grown between 200 and 550 m above sea level to enable full ripeness achieved over a long season, though this risks rain at harvest time. With a warming climate, growers are looking to plant on higher sites or those with less sunny aspects. Sangiovese does best on friable, shale and limestone soils (providing excellent drainage) and is reasonably

Sangiovese.

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successful on clay. As it is a vigorous variety, its canopy needs to be trimmed regularly to avoid shading. Thin skins make it is very susceptible to botrytis bunch rot. It can produce high yields and growers have to decide whether to produce volume or, by pruning, cluster thinning and green harvesting, reduce yield to raise quality.

Cordon-trained, VSP, with irrigation pipe.

Cane-trained, VSP.

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The main types of training are cordons pruned to spurs or cane pruned with vertical shoot positioning. There is a large choice of clones available. Growers have been replacing their previous choices, planted to produce high yields with moderate yielding, higher-quality clones or, latterly, vines created by mass selection from best performing plants. The Chianti Classico 2000 project produced seven clones that have been widely planted. The aims were smaller berries, thicker skins, and more open bunches to produce wines with deeper colour, more flavour intensity and greater disease resistance. Newer releases from a range of sources are also popular and vines with less vigour that are thus less labour intensive are seen as desirable. Esca has become a significant hazard in recent years with growers learning to avoid large cuts in old wood to reduce the vulnerability of vines. Wild boars can do considerable damage in vineyards. More skilled methods of pruning to reduce the threat of esca and fencing to keep out wild boar add to the cost of grape growing. Trebbiano Toscano – A late budding white variety and therefore not vulnerable to spring frost. Vigorous and high yielding (and therefore very popular in the past when yield was the most highly prized characteristic). It is prone to downy mildew and eutypa dieback but otherwise has good disease resistance. It ripens well in sunshine and heat, while retaining high acidity. The flavours are neutral (medium (–) lemon, herbal). In France, the same variety is called Ugni Blanc and is mainly used for brandy production. The variety is declining in popularity. Although it was previously valued for being high yielding and reliable, its lack of fruitiness and low flavour intensity has led to a reduction in plantings and, because of increased demand for red wine, it has often been replaced by black varieties. Its characteristic high acidity makes it an important part of the blend for sweet Vin Santo. For that wine, it is regularly blended with other local varieties. Varieties used to blend with Sangiovese – Most Tuscan DOC(G)s allow Sangiovese to be blended with a small proportion of other black varieties. Growers can choose from local options (see for example on Canaiolo below) or international varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot and, latterly, Syrah. Canaiolo Nero used to be the most popular variety in Chianti before the nineteenth century but now has become merely a blending option in most Tuscan denominations. On its own, it provides red-berried fruit and some floral notes with only light tannins. As such, it is said to promote the floral and red-berried character of Sangiovese when blended with that grape. By contrast, some think that Merlot and especially Cabernet Sauvignon as a blending partner are too dominant in terms of the taste of the final wine, even in small proportions. WINEMAKING Historically Sangiovese was part of a blend that could include white varieties. It was typically kept on the skins for very long periods (30 days and more) and aged in large, neutral oak casks for an extended time (e.g. 3–4 years) to soften the tannins. More recently, and in the absence of white grapes, maceration times have been reduced to 7–10 days for early-drinking wines with medium tannins and to 15–25 days for wines with high tannins intended for ageing. Investment in the 1990s helped spur the change through the use of temperature-controlled stainless-steel fermentation tanks to preserve primary fruit. For some producers, concrete fermentation tanks are making a comeback.

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Botti and barriques for maturing wine. Trends in maturation in oak for wines intended for ageing have also changed. The latter decades of the last century saw the widespread use of a proportion of new French barriques, adding a layer of vanilla and sweet spice to the flavour of Sangiovese. Since the beginning of the new century, there has been a move to using older barriques, 500-litre tonneaux and the traditional large, neutral, oak cask. The aim is for the subtle sour red cherry fruit to be the main point of interest of the wine, not the additional flavour from oak. Inexpensive wine is aged for short periods in stainless steel tanks. DENOMINATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Chianti DOCG Modern Chianti DOCG is a large area that covers much of central Tuscany. It surrounds the smaller Chianti Classico. It is an area of hills, though many vineyards are at lower elevations (less than 300 m above sea level) than Chianti Classico. Producers have a choice of bottling the wines either as Chianti or, if they are within one of the seven subzones, as Chianti with the name of the subzone, with slightly tighter regulations (see below). The blend for Chianti DOCG is 70–100 per cent Sangiovese. The blending varieties may be local varieties or international ones, though Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Cabernet Franc may not exceed 15 per cent. Ten percent of white grapes continues to be allowed (e.g. Trebbiano Toscano) but they are rarely used. Minimum alcohol level is 11.5% abv, with the subzones mostly requiring a minimum of 12%. Maximum yield is 63 hL/ha in Chianti. This moderately high yield level with less intensive work in the vineyard and short ageing (Chianti DOCG can be released for sale in March following the vintage) in large format stainless steel or old oak contributes to the light to

Central Italy

medium flavour intensity and the lower cost (and therefore price) of Chianti, as compared to denominations such as Chianti Classico. They are typically medium bodied and medium alcohol. Wines are inexpensive to mid-price and quality ranges from acceptable to very good. Any Chianti to be released as Riserva must be aged for two years before release, raising the cost of producing the wine. Apart from the wines of certain subzones, no oak ageing is required. Chianti Subzones Within Chianti DOCG, there are seven named subzones, for example Chianti Colli Fiorentini (Chianti from the Florentine hills). The subzones have yields set at a lower maximum of 56 hL/ha, enhancing the possibility of higher quality wine but reducing production volumes. For Riserva wines, in the subzones Chianti Colli Fiorentini, Chianti Colli Senesi and Chianti Rufina at least six months of this period must be in oak barrels. The named subzones have some differences between them. For example: Chianti Rufina DOCG – This is a small zone and the coolest one due to a combination of altitude (around 350 m) and cooling winds descending from a pass in the Apennines to the north. This results in wines of high acidity and more restrained fruit character when young, but with a capacity to age and develop complexity in the bottle (e.g. Selvapiana). Because of its proximity to Florence, it has a number of aristocratic estates (e.g. Frescobaldi at Nipozzano). However, it has not attracted the same level of investment and new owners as Chianti Classico or Montalcino and therefore has not seen the same raising of quality standards in general. Wines are typically mid-priced with a few premium examples, with quality ranging from good to outstanding.

Cordon-trained Sangiovese, Chianti Rufina.

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Chianti Colli Senesi DOCG – This is the largest of the subzones and generally warmer than the others, producing fuller bodied and richer wines. It requires a higher proportion of Sangiovese in the blend (minimum 75 per cent) and less of the Cabernets (maximum 10 per cent, singly or together). Wines are inexpensive to mid-price and quality ranges from acceptable to very good. Chianti Classico DOCG Chianti Classico is the hilly area between Florence and Siena, with the best wines typically coming from 200–500m above sea level. The elevation contributes to cool nights, lengthening the growing season and promoting full ripeness and high acidity. Soils here are schistous, crumbly rock with clay, and marl (known as galestro), calcareous soils with clay (known as alberese) and sandstone and sandy soils. The soils combine good drainage with sufficient water-holding capacity. Galestro is said to give aromatic wines with the potential to age. Soils with more clay are said to give wines with more structure and body. Some work on the hillsides has to be done by hand, raising costs. The wines must have a minimum 80 per cent Sangiovese, though in practice most wines are around 90 per cent Sangiovese with a wide choice of supplementary varieties, both local (e.g. Canaiolo) or international (especially Merlot). No white varieties are permitted in the blend. Maximum yield is restricted to 52.5 hL/ha. Chianti Classico can be released no sooner than October in the year after the harvest, adding to the cost of production. Riserva must be aged for two years from 1 January after the harvest. The label may mention the name of a single vineyard. Wine made from grapes grown in this area may not be bottled as Chianti DOCG. A debate continues about whether the names of key villages could appear on labels but that is not currently allowed.

Preparing new vineyard in rocky soils, Chianti Classico.

Central Italy

There is a range of styles of Chianti Classico. The importance of export markets and the prominence of Super Tuscan wines in the 1980s and 1990s led to wine being made in what is referred to as an international style (deeper colour, plummy fruit from the presence of Merlot, evident vanilla from new oak). The recent trend has been towards a more traditional style: paler colour, sour cherry fruit from dominant Sangiovese grapes, restrained new oak. The wines are typically medium flavour intensity, with some pronounced examples. Prices range from mid-price to premium, with quality ranging from very good to outstanding. There are numerous significant producers including Fontodi and Castello di Ama. To promote the top tier of Chianti Classico the Consorzio introduced a new designation in 2013, Chianti Classico Gran Selezione. The grapes must come from a single vineyard or an estate owned by the producer and be aged for a minimum of 30 months (no requirement to age in wood). Brunello di Montalcino DOCG Montalcino is in southern Tuscany and the denomination is named after the town of the same name. The wine was first bottled and sold in 1865 by the Biondi-Santi family, who remained the only commercial producer until the Second World War. Since the 1970s, there has been massive expansion of planting, led by Banfi, a wine company that originated as an importing company in the USA. Having had great success exporting Lambrusco to the USA and other countries, Banfi purchased land and planted Muscat in the southern part of Montalcino, but this proved unsuccessful. The vines were grafted over to Sangiovese and this subsequently led to a large commercial success for Banfi’s Brunello di Montalcino in the USA and other markets. Eleven producers and 65 ha in the 1960s have grown to more than 250 producers and 2,100 ha today. In general, the area is warmer than Chianti Classico and drier, as it is protected from rain by Monte Amiata to the south but, in most years, there is still adequate rainfall for vines to flourish. These conditions allow the production of wines with ripe fruit, full body and high alcohol. The area also benefits from cooling breezes at night from the Mediterranean Sea, 40 kilometres away, helping to preserve acidity. Elevation varies. The vineyards in the longest established area just south of the town are more than 500m above sea level while other parts of the DOCG are much lower (minimum 120m). The majority of the denomination is hilly. Similarly, soils are very variable. The northern part has more galestro-based soils with higher elevations leading to wines that are more aromatic. There is more clay in the lower, warmer, southern part, which in turn produces fuller bodied wines. Many producers blend grapes from several parts of the area. As in Chianti Classico, there is a debate about whether or not to introduce subzones. Hillside vineyards in Montalcino.

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Brunello di Montalcino DOCG must be 100 per cent Sangiovese. Maximum yield is restricted to 54 hL/ha. Brunello requires extended ageing: it may not be released until 1 January five years after the harvest, and ageing must include two years in oak containers. (For Riserva, six years including two in oak.) The ageing requirements add considerably to the cost of production, due to the need to invest in oak containers and to have space to house them. As in Chianti Classico, there was experimentation with new French oak barriques, but the trend in this century has been to return to large format oak. The label may mention the name of a single vineyard. Prices are mainly premium and super premium. The wines are typically of outstanding quality with intense sour cherry fruit, high levels of acidity and tannin (giving a capacity to age) and showing complexity, even on release, due to the tertiary notes developed in the long, initial ageing. There are many significant producers including Casanova di Neri and Soldera. Rosso di Montalcino DOC, also required to be 100 per cent Sangiovese, comes from grapes grown within the same area as Brunello. It is often made from young vines or from less promising sites. It is aged briefly in stainless steel or oak to preserve primary fruit and can be sold after a year. The wines are typically mid-price and are good to very good in quality. This category also allows producers to declassify to Rosso DOC wine that would normally be Brunello di Montalcino DOCG in very difficult vintages (e.g. 2014). Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG This region is in south-eastern Tuscany, between Montalcino and the border with Umbria. It is a historic denomination reflected in the name of the top wine, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Vineyards are planted on east and south-east facing slopes at elevations of 250–600 m, with the higher vineyards producing more aromatic wines due to a longer ripening season. Soils include heavy, cool clay (producing fuller bodied wines) and sand (more aromatic wines). Wine styles vary. Traditionally, the wines were full bodied and austere, requiring ageing in the bottle. However, some major companies have been working to produce wines that can be drunk in their youth; methods include shorter extraction periods and the use of small format French oak for maturation. Vino Nobile di Montepulciano must be made from 70–100 per cent Sangiovese. Maximum yield is 56 hL/ha. The wine must be aged for a minimum of two years from 1 January after the vintage, with a mandatory period of 12–24 months in wood (dependent on the subsequent amount of bottle age, if any, before release.). Moderate yields and ageing requirements add cost to the wine. Riserva wines must be aged for three years (but no additional requirement for ageing in oak). Names Sangiovese ripening in Montepulciano. of vineyards may be included on the label. As with

Central Italy

Montalcino, Rosso di Montepulciano DOC is a category available for less expensive wines for early drinking. Vino Nobile is typically mid-price to premium and very good to outstanding quality. Significant producers include Avignonesi and Contucci. Due to the success of the major Tuscan denominations, the supply of Sangiovese-based and other wines from other areas of Tuscany has increased. Morellino de Scansano DOCG Close to the coast of southern Tuscany, this warm area is moderated by altitude (average 250 m) and cooling winds from the sea at night. As a result, the wines have ripe fruit, some black fruit notes alongside sour cherry, medium to medium (+) acidity and ripe medium (+) tannins. Morellino di Scansano requires 85 per cent Sangiovese with a maximum yield of 63 hL/ ha. The wines are good to very good quality and inexpensive to mid-price. A few producers have a track record of outstanding wines at premium prices. Examples include Le Pupille and Morisfarms. Bolgheri DOC Bolgheri is a compact, now densely planted denomination of 1,200 ha on the Tuscan coast specialising in red Bordeaux blends, though single variety wines, white wines and rosé wines are also made. The red Bordeaux blends represent 80 per cent of the area planted. A warm climate, with cool nights due to the area’s proximity to the sea, leads to fully ripe grapes. Winds from the sea throughout the year help to reduce the risk of fungal diseases. Initially vines were planted at 400 m above sea level but when it was found that lesser altitudes also experienced cooling winds, planting on lower sites took place. Soils are varied. Rain is sufficient and well distributed throughout the year. As in other Tuscan denominations,

Vineyard at Ornellaia, Bolgheri.

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irrigation is allowed. As the area has been planted recently irrigation has been widely installed. There is relatively little rain during the harvest period. Vineyards are typically planted as cordon-trained, spur-pruned with VSP, being easy to maintain and to produce high quality fruit. Densities are around 6,000 vines per ha (rather higher than in traditional areas of Tuscany), enabling competition between vines to reduce yields and raise the concentration of the final wine. The wines were initially bottled as vino da tavola as there was no DOC until 1983. Bolgheri was not an area known for wine and the wines were made predominantly with Bordeaux varieties that were not typical in Tuscany. Bolgheri DOC regulations allow up to 100 per cent of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Merlot, up to 50 per cent of Syrah and Sangiovese and up to 30 per cent of other varieties, for example, Petit Verdot. As noted, in practice, Cabernet Sauvignon dominates the blends. Bolgheri Rosso Superiore has the same options for varieties but more restricted yields, 56 hL/ha, rather than the 63 hL/ha for Bolgheri Rosso. Rosso must be aged for one year, Rosso Superiore for two years following January 1 of the year after the harvest. Typically, Rosso Superiore wines are aged in French barriques, with a significant proportion of new oak. Moderate yields and the use of new French oak barrels raises the cost of production. Small amounts of white wines are made, especially from Vermentino, which can also be bottled as a DOC Bolgheri wine. Bolgheri Rosso Superiore is typically deep ruby in colour, with medium (+) to pronounced intensity blackberry and red plum fruit, sometimes with green bell pepper notes in cooler years, and vanilla and sweet spice from oak, with medium (+) acidity and high tannins. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and premium to super-premium in price. Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC – This is a separate DOC for the single estate, Tenuta San Guido, which produces Sassicaia. The DOC regulations require a minimum of 80 per cent Cabernet Sauvignon and minimum ageing of two years, 18 months of which must be in 225 litre oak barrels. The highest quality wines, especially Sassicaia and Ornellaia (owned by the Frescobaldi family), are regarded as world-class examples of Bordeaux style wines, collected and traded around the world. These and other companies also make less-expensive second wines on the Bordeaux model. The Bolgheri Consortium represents more than 90 per cent of the vineyards planted, with the ten largest producers holding 70 per cent of the vineyards. The amount of wine being bottled has grown rapidly in the decade to 2017, reflecting the success of the DOC. Maremma Toscana DOC Based on the former IGT of the same name, this denomination covers an extensive area, encompassing the entire province of Grosseto, adjacent to the coast of southern Tuscany. The volume of production has risen rapidly since the DOC was created in 2011. The DOC allows a wide range of varieties, both local and international. Nearly half of the grapes grown are Sangiovese with Cabernet Sauvignon and Vermentino (white) the next most important varieties. Permitted yields are moderately high (e.g. 77 hL/ha for single variety red wines) and prices mostly inexpensive to mid-price. A handful of high-quality estates sell their Bordeaux blends within the DOC at premium and super-premium prices, for example Le Pupille and Rocca di Frassinello.

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Vernaccia di San Gimignano DOCG This is an historic white wine region, mentioned several times in the middle ages, within the western side of Chianti DOCG and recipient of Italy’s first ever DOC in 1966 (now DOCG). The region has dry summers and is windy, reducing the presence of fungal diseases. Vines are planted on hillsides between 200–400 m, giving good sunlight interception and drainage. The wine is made from the grape variety of the same name, minimum 85 per cent, with up to 10 per cent of Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling being allowed. The wine is typically of medium intensity on the nose with lemon and floral notes and has medium (+) acidity.

Sandstone soils at San Gimignano. The variety, grown on the local sandstone soils, ripens mid to late in the season and can produce very high yields. This may have contributed to a lessening of its reputation as too many wines were produced which lacked concentration. The DOCG now limits production to 63 hL/ha. Sales of Vernaccia di San Gimignano have remained broadly stable over the 15 years to 2018. There is a very large local market to the tourists visiting the famous town with its remaining 14 medieval towers; over 30 per cent of all the wine produced is sold locally. Half of the wine produced is exported with the US, Germany and Switzerland being the biggest markets. Prices are mainly inexpensive to mid-priced with a few producers getting premium prices for their highest quality wines (e.g. Panizzi and Montenidoli). Since 2014, the Consorzio has been promoting an initiative to reduce the carbon footprint of its wines (by reducing the amounts of chemicals used, reducing energy and water consumption, and using lighter bottles).2 Red wines from Sangiovese and international varieties are also made in the area and can be bottled under the separate DOC San Gimignano.

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Toscana IGT In addition to the DOC(G)s, producers also have the option of Toscana IGT with higher permitted yields. Any registered grape variety or varieties may be used and the grapes can be grown anywhere in Tuscany. While most of the wines are inexpensive to mid-priced, some of Tuscany’s most expensive and prestigious wines are bottled as Toscana IGT, including Masseto (Merlot from Frescobaldi’s Tenuta dell’Ornellaia) and Solaia (Cabernet Sauvignon/Sangiovese/ Cabernet Franc blend from Antinori). Vin Santo Vin Santo is an amber coloured sweet wine made by the appassimento method (see the section on Drying Grapes Off The Vine, in Specific Options for Wines with Residual Sugar in D1: Wine Production), most often using a blend of Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia). It is a style of wine prevalent throughout Tuscany and permitted within many denominations. The DOCG Vernaccia di San Gimignano permits this style, as do three separate DOCs for Vin Santo that correspond to the zones of Chianti, Chianti Classico and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. For example, Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia, singly or combined, must be a minimum of 60 per cent in Vin Santo Chianti Classico DOC. Traditionally the grapes were dried in the loft of the house, their juice fermented, and then the wine aged in small barrels sealed and stored unopened in the loft for many years (5–10 years). Many wineries produce small batches in this way while a few producers, e.g. Avignonesi (Montepulciano), produce significant volumes. Minimum ageing in barrels is two years in Chianti Classico and three in Montepulciano, but this is often exceeded. The combination of rising and falling temperature and oxidative ageing without topping up leads to the amber colour, and a complex palate of dried fruit (apricot, lemon) flavours, nutty notes, as well as a variable level of volatile acidity. The wines are sweet but with balancing high acidity and medium (+) to high alcohol. Modern production either continues in this way or controls the fermentation temperature to retain some primary fruit. The wines are premium or super-premium in price due to the small batch production and years of ageing before sale. There is also a much rarer red version, based on Sangiovese, called Occhio di Pernice (‘eye of the partridge’).

Seal on Vin Santo barrel.

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WINE BUSINESS Production of Tuscan DOCs and DOCGs by volume Other DOC(G)s Vernaccia di San Gimignano Vino Nobile di Montepulciano Morellino di Scansano

Chianti

Maremma Toscana Brunello di Montalcino Chianti Classico Source: Federdoc, 2017 production figures3 In terms of price, most of the Tuscan regions sell both an inexpensive wine that can be released early and premium to super-premium wines some of which must be aged for longer periods. The requirement to age Brunello for a minimum of five years adds additional cost to production. These include space in the winery and containers to age wine for many years before release, as well as the delay on the return on investment. Within Tuscany, DOC(G) wines account for around 65 per cent of all wine production. As can be seen in the chart, Chianti accounts for nearly half of all DOC(G) wines and Chianti Classico is the next biggest segment. By contrast, in terms of value, Chianti Classico (€112m) leads, followed by Chianti (€87 m) and then Brunello di Montalcino (€61 m).4 The structure of the industry is very different across the denominations. 14 per cent of Chianti is made by co-operatives, but only 6 per cent of Chianti Classico and one percent of the wine from Montalcino.5 There is no co-operative-made wine from Bolgheri. For Chianti DOCG, within Italy in supermarkets and deep discounters half of all the wine is sold in bottles up to 0.75 litre and the next most important format is the ‘brick’ (see section on Packaging and Closures in D1: Wine Production), typically 500 mL to 1 L (nearly 30 per cent), reflecting a low average price. It is the highest selling red wine in Italy by volume and value (year-end to August 2018).6 Export markets are very important to some of the Tuscan regions. Chianti Classico exports nearly 80 per cent of its production, with the main markets being the USA (largest single market at 33 per cent of all production), much bigger than Germany and Canada, the next largest (2017 figures).7 Montalcino exports 70 per cent by value, with the USA and Canada as the main markets. Similarly, nearly 80 per cent of Montepulciano is exported, with Germany, the USA and Switzerland being its largest markets.8 Just under 70 per cent of Chianti DOCG wine is exported, mostly at low prices. The most important export markets are Germany followed by USA and UK.9 As has been seen, Chianti Classico and Brunello di Montalcino are successfully exported, with the most important markets being the USA, Germany, Canada, the United Kingdom and Switzerland.

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Top export countries for bottled PDO Tuscan wine in 2017, millions of euros 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

USA

Germany

Canada

UK

Switzerland

Source: Regione Toscana10 As elsewhere, within Italy there is a marked difference between the route to market for inexpensive wines that will be sold through supermarkets and bars, and mid-price to superpremium wines that will be sold through specialist wine shops and higher priced restaurants. The marketing of Tuscan wines varies according to the denominations. Broadly, Chianti, Chianti Classico and Montepulciano appeal due to their place in Tuscan wine history, while wines from Montalcino and Bolgheri are promoted as wines of world-class quality. Wine tourism and the construction of architecturally ambitious wineries

Petra winery, Tuscany

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have been a marked feature since the 1990s, building on Tuscany’s reputation as a highly desirable holiday destination. The region as a whole promotes its wine through such as events as the Tuscan anteprima, a once-a-year opportunity for wine journalists and buyers from around the world to taste the new vintage of all the Tuscan regions.

18.2. Marche

Tuscany has increased opportunities for wine tourism, including the building of modern architectdesigned wineries. For an overview, see Toscana Wine Architecture

The Marche region (sometimes translated as the Marches) is in central Italy and extends from the Adriatic Sea to the Apennines. It is bordered by Emilia Romagna to the north, Tuscany to the west and Abruzzo to the south. It mainly produces red wines from blends of Montepulciano and Sangiovese (for basic information on this variety, see Tuscany: Sangiovese) and white wines from Verdicchio. The two black grapes now produce three times as much wine as is made from Verdicchio, which used to be the region’s main variety. Most of the wines, both white and red, are in the inexpensive to mid-priced range with Riserva wines attracting premium prices. Land suitable for grape growing is on the low hills rising from the coast, and in some higher zones, with a broadly Mediterranean climate featuring hot summers and little rainfall in summer. Inland, west of Ancona, the climate is more continental in character with helpful dry autumns. As in Tuscany, the soils are principally limestone and clay, with a good balance between being free-draining and retaining sufficient water for vines through the summer. The main grape varieties grown in the Marche region are detailed in the chart.

Vineyard in Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC.

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Marche: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 25 20 15 10 5 0

Sangiovese

Montepulciano

Source: Anderson, K.11

Verdicchio

Biancame

Trebbiano Toscano

Passerina

WHITE WINES: GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND DENOMINATIONS Verdicchio In the vineyard, this variety needs to be given space, as the first four buds are sterile, and it therefore is planted at low densities. A late ripening variety, it retains high acidity levels. It needs to be given a long time in the vineyard to ripen fully to make high quality wines, but this exposes the crop to the risk of late season rain. It is susceptible to both forms of mildew and to botrytis bunch rot.

Young and 20-year old Verdicchio.

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The wines have a pale lemon colour, medium (–) aromatic intensity with blossom, apple, lemon, fennel and almond notes with a slightly bitter finish, high acidity and a medium body. Wines are made across the whole quality range from acceptable to outstanding. Most entry level Verdicchio does not go through malolactic conversion (to preserve the crisp high acidity). The wines are aged for 4–6 months in stainless steel and bottled for early release and consumption. Some producers choose to put their riserva wines through malolactic conversion for creamier acidity. A long ripening season can produce wines with high fruit concentration and high acidity. Riserva wines will often be aged on the lees in old oak barrels for additional texture, but not oak flavours. These wines can be aged for a decade or more, developing dried fruit and mushroom tertiary notes. The two main denominations are: •

•

Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC in the low hills west of Ancona in the valley with clay and limestone soils producing floral and fruity wines. This is much the larger of the two denominations with nearly ten times as many hectares as Matelica.12 Permitted yields are high at 98 hL/ha. Classico is reserved for grapes from the historic heart of the appellation and Classico Superiore for wine from lower yields (77 hL/ha, giving wines of greater concentration). Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva was promoted to DOCG. It requires minimum 18 months of ageing, which may be, but does not have to be, in oak. This additional ageing requirement adds to the cost of production. Verdicchio di Matelica DOC is in a higher zone in the foothills of the Apennines, protected from the influence of the sea by mountains and hence with a continental climate of hot days and cold nights, resulting in a longer ripening season and higher retained acidity than vines grown closer to the sea. The soils are a mixture of sandstone with fossils and contain less clay than in Castelli di Jesi; they are therefore faster draining. The permitted yield is marginally lower than for the basic Castelli di Jesi (91 hL/ha). The wines here are fuller bodied but with higher acidity and are less overtly fruity. Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva DOCG requires minimum 12.5% abv and 18 months of ageing, which may be, but does not have to be, in oak.

Pecorino Pecorino is planted mostly in the south of the Marche and farther south in Abruzzo. It has high disease resistance. Like Verdicchio it is best trained long (Guyot or pergola) as it has sterile buds near the trunk. Clonal selection has focused on rectifying its low productivity. It ripens early, thus avoiding late season rain. It can be vinified before other local varieties creating space in the winery. The wines tend to be high in alcohol (e.g. 14.5% abv) due to the low productivity but this can be balanced by the grape’s natural high acidity. The wines have herbal notes (sage, thyme, mint), with crisp apple and pear fruit and are medium bodied. The wines can be sold as Marche IGT or, if grown within the Offida area and in line with its regulations, as Offida Pecorino DOCG. Some of the DOCG wines are released early to retain primary fruit while a minority are aged for 12–18 months in old oak barrels for additional texture. The wines from this white variety have grown rapidly in popularity since the turn of the millennium.

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Passerina This variety is also grown in the Marche and in Abruzzo. It has good disease resistance and high production. It ripens later than Pecorino, thus making it more vulnerable to late season rain. Passerina has naturally high acidity, but can lose acidity quickly once fully mature, and therefore harvest needs to be scheduled with this in mind. It produces ripe lemon and yellow apple fruited wines. The wines can be sold as Marche IGT or, if grown within the Offida area and in line with its regulations, as Offida Passerina DOCG. Biancame This is a local variety making fresh and crisp white wines for local consumption. Trebbiano Toscano As in other regions of central Italy, Trebbiano Toscano (see Tuscany) is grown for wine that is consumed locally. REDS WINES: GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND DENOMINATIONS Montepulciano This is a key black grape variety in Marche for both its quantity and its quality. In the Marche, it is often blended with Sangiovese. The high quality wines tend to be 70–85 per cent Montepulciano. The variety is resistant to botrytis bunch rot and downy mildew but is susceptible to powdery mildew. It needs a long season to ripen fully (to avoid bitterness) but

Large format oak for red wines.

Central Italy

tends to ripen unevenly within individual bunches. This leads to either lower quality or to the need to select carefully, which adds cost. The wine made predominantly from Montepulciano is deep ruby in colour. It is susceptible to developing reductive sulfur compounds during winemaking and requires frequent aeration to avoid the development of off odours. Maceration times depend on the style being made: short 4–5 days for simpler, lighter wines and a longer period of around 20 days for higher quality wines. However, care must be taken not to extract too much tannin. The wines are made in two contrasting styles: • •

ripe, medium intensity red-cherry fruited wines with no oak flavours with a medium body and medium tannins (short maceration); medium (+) to pronounced intensity red cherry and black plum fruited wines with oak aromas and medium (+) tannins (long maceration of top quality fruit followed by ageing in oak, typically large oak vessels).

Montepulciano, often blended with Sangiovese (which contributes acidity), is a major part of Rosso Piceno DOC (35–85 per cent Montepulciano) which covers a large area of the middle of the Marche. Rosso Piceno Superiore DOC is a higher quality designation that can only be made from fruit grown in 13 townships in the Ascoli Piceno province in the south of the region. This denomination requires a slightly higher alcohol level and a minimum of one year of ageing. Within this geographical area, a further distinction was made with the creation of the Offida DOCG, 100 kilometres south of Ancona. Offida Rosso DOCG must be 85–100 per cent Montepulciano and the wine must be aged for 24 months of which 12 must be in oak before release. South of Ancona the Rosso Conero DOC and Conero Riserva DOCG are dedicated to Montepulciano wines (minimum 85 per cent in both cases). In the case of Conero Riserva DOCG, the blending variety, if used can only be Sangiovese. Conero Riserva DOCG must have a minimum two years of ageing (of which one in wood) before release. Sangiovese In the Marche, as noted, it is used typically as the second variety in blends with Montepulciano. It contributes red cherry fruit, high acidity and high tannins. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS These have been dealt with under the varieties. WINE BUSINESS The IMT (Istituto Marchigiano di Tutela Vini) is a consortium dedicated to the promotion of the wines of the region. It represents three quarters of the individual denominations and 80 per cent of the exports of the region. Significant private companies include Umani Ronchi (70 per cent exported) and Fazi Battaglia. Co-operatives include Moncaro, which exports 55 per cent. Most of the wine of the Marche is sold in Italy but about one third by value of wine produced is exported. The USA, Canada, China and Japan are the leading markets.13 In the past inexpensive Verdicchio sold very well both in Italy and in export markets but now has been overtaken by Pinot Grigio from other regions, leading to a marked drop in the area

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planted.14 The current challenge is for producers to build an international reputation for quality, rather than quantity.

18.3. Umbria

Umbria is a landlocked region south of Tuscany with a predominantly hilly landscape and sharing a similar climate to inland hilly Tuscany. In addition to growing varieties common to central Italy, its two most important wines are the white wine, Orvieto DOC, and the red, Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG, both made from grape varieties not previously discussed. Umbria: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 25 20 15 10 5 0

Sangiovese

Trebbiano Toscano

Grechetto di Orvieto

Merlot

Sagrantino

Cabernet Sauvignon

Source: Anderson, K. 201315 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate Umbria has a warm, mildly continental climate. Hot summers can lead to periods of heat stress for the vines. An average of 800mm of rain falls mainly in autumn and winter. This gives enough water to be stored in winter to keep vines supplied through the growing season, and lessens the risk of fungal diseases. The risk of rain in September and October, can affect the harvest period. However, there are sufficient dry autumns that allow picking for late harvested and botrytised styles. Grape Varieties Grechetto – Grechetto di Orvieto is a white, thick-skinned variety, with resistance to fungal disease that makes it suitable for late harvesting. It has good resistance to downy mildew. Wines made with Grechetto have low to medium intensity lemon and white flower aromas and flavour, with high acidity and a medium body. Sangiovese – See under Tuscany

Central Italy

Sagrantino. Sagrantino – This is the speciality black variety of Umbria. It needs full sunshine and heat to ripen and is moderately productive. The vineyards are principally on hillside sites, 220– 470m, for the best sunlight interception and good drainage. It is trained with either Guyot or cordon with spurs and VSP trellised. The main pests are tiny spiders that can live on the hairy underside of its leaves and reduce vegetative growth, vine moths and downy and powdery mildew, depending on the conditions in any year. Sagrantino is a very tannic variety. The varietal wines are deep ruby in colour, with medium (+) to pronounced blackberry and red plum fruit, high acidity and high tannins, which require long ageing in the production phase and often in bottle before the wines are ready to drink. DENOMINATIONS, WINEMAKING, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Most Umbrian whites are blends that include Trebbiano Toscano (see under Tuscany) and/or Grechetto. Orvieto DOC Orvieto is situated mainly on the western edge of Umbria with a small extension into neighbouring Lazio. There is a Classico zone around the town of the same name. The wine must be a minimum 60 per cent of Trebbiano Toscano and/or Grechetto and be grown at 100–550m above sea level. Better quality wines are likely to include more Grechetto for greater flavour intensity. The wines typically have medium (–) intensity lemon and apple fruit, top end of medium alcohol and medium (+) acidity and a light body. Maximum yields are 77 hL/ ha. The wines are typically acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. The

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White grapes entering destemmer. Superiore category has a much reduced maximum of 56 hL/ha, resulting in wines with higher concentration. The DOC includes provision for dry, off-dry and sweet wines. Labelling options for sweet wines include the categories of late harvest wines (vendemmia tardiva) and wines made from grapes affected by noble rot (muffa nobile). The dry wines are fermented in stainless steel at cool temperatures to retain primary fruit. They are aged briefly in stainless steel tanks (to retain fresh fruit) before being released for drinking within 1–2 years. Significant producers include Barberani. Montefalco Rosso DOC and Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG The wine called Rosso di Montefalco DOC is a blend in which Sangiovese is the main variety (60–70 per cent), with Sagrantino (10–15 per cent) and other permitted varieties. Maximum yield is 77 hL/ha. Minimum ageing is 18 months before release. By contrast, Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG must be made from 100 per cent of the Sagrantino variety. For the latter, yields are restricted to 52 hL/ha. The wine must be aged for 33 months before release, of which one year must be in wood. These lower yields and the long maturation time add to the cost of production. Single vineyard wines may carry the name of the vineyard. The wines are typically very good to outstanding in quality and mid- to premium priced. In the past, as elsewhere in Italy, very long maceration periods (e.g. two months) were normal for Montefalco Sagrantino. These have been reduced to 2–3 weeks in most cases to avoid the extraction of harsh tannins. Some companies have softened the wines by ageing in new French oak barriques (e.g. Arnaldo Caprai, two years in barriques), while others prefer ageing in traditional large casks, followed by extended bottle ageing.

Central Italy

The Montefalco consortium has initiated a series Read more about a sustainability initiative in of projects to raise the standard of grape growing Montefalco as implemented by the winery across the denomination as a whole. It has created a Arnaldo Caprai: The Sustainability Project network of weather stations, collected and processed the data and made it available so that growers can be informed of impending threats of disease. This has enabled growers to reduce the number of treatments in the vineyard and the amount of chemicals used. The production of Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG has grown rapidly, with hectares under vine quadrupling to 650 ha in the period 2000 to 2015. 60 per cent is exported, especially to the USA, Germany and Canada.16 WINE BUSINESS Umbria has several large companies that have been innovators in the fields of organic viticulture (e.g. Barberani in Orvieto DOC), recovery of energy from biomass (Lungarotti) and sustainability (Arnaldo Caprai). Montefalco Grape Assistance is an example of a regional sustainability initiative.

18.4. Lazio

Lazio, the central Italian region that includes the city of Rome, was historically important for wine production in Etruscan and Roman times and has continued to provide locally made wines to the city. Today it is known principally for its white wines that constitute roughly 70 per cent of its production. They are made mainly from Malvasia and Trebbiano Toscano. Some red wines are produced, mainly from Merlot, Sangiovese and the local variety Cesanese. Vineyard area has declined in recent decades, although some DOCs, especially Frascati, continue to be well known. A small number of high-quality wineries are also well known, for example Falesco, a home estate of Riccardo Cottarella, one of Italy’s leading oenologists and consultants. Lazio: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Trebbiano

Malvasia

Merlot

Sangiovese

Cesanese

Source: Anderson, K. 2013, Note: The Malvasia in this chart is Malvasia Bianca di Candia.

Other

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THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate Lazio has a warm, Mediterranean climate that is moderated by altitude on low hills (up to 300m) and by cooling winds from the sea, enabling grapes to ripen regularly. The hazards from the climate are occasional spring frost, hail, excessive heat in summer and rain during the harvest period. Rainfall is normally adequate with little falling in the summer months, so reducing the threat from fungal diseases. Grape Varieties Trebbiano di Toscano – see Tuscany. Malvasia Bianca di Candia – This white variety has good resistance to disease and produces high yields. Its juice is prone to oxidation in the winery and therefore has to be handled carefully to avoid it losing freshness and becoming too deep in colour. In blends it contributes medium (–) intensity lemon and apple fruit, medium alcohol and medium (+) acidity and a light body. The amount planted has decreased since the early 1990s. Malvasia del Lazio – Malvasia del Lazio is a cross between Muscat of Alexandria and a local variety. It produces wines with grapey and peach flavours. It must be harvested at exactly the correct time as its acidity drops quickly once it is ripe. It was commonly planted in Lazio until the 1960–70s, but was widely replaced due to its lower yields and lower disease resistance in comparison with Malvasia Bianco di Candida and Trebbiano Toscano. Cesanese – This black variety is semi-aromatic, very late ripening and high yielding but with high quality potential. It is prone to powdery mildew. It is vulnerable to autumn rains and to a failure to ripen fully, resulting in low quality wines. Some Cesanese is grown inland and on higher slopes (up to 600m), giving greater diurnal range and hence fresher fruit with higher acidity. Cesanese can be used in a number of denominations including DOCG Cesanese di Piglio, which requires a minimum 90 per cent of the variety. The wines have pronounced aromas with red cherry and rose-petal scented fruit, with medium tannins and acidity and high alcohol. WHITE WINES: WINEMAKING, DENOMINATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Frascati DOC Historically Frascati was made predominantly from Malvasia del Lazio. However, today Frascati DOC can be made from Malvasia Bianca di Candia and/or Malvasia del Lazio, provided these two varieties singly or together make up at least 70 per cent of the wine. Wines with more flavour are made from the latter variety, but the former is often preferred by growers because of its higher disease resistance and higher yields. Further, the wine can include up to 30 per cent of Trebbiano Toscano, a neutral but high yielding variety. This results in wines that are cheaper to produce but with lower flavour intensity. High yields are permitted (maximum 105 hL/ha), contributing to wines of light flavour intensity. Most Frascati DOC is made at cool fermentation temperatures to retain primary fruit. The wines are stored briefly in stainless steel tanks (to retain fresh fruit) before being released for drinking within 1–2 years. Most wines are acceptable to good quality, with some very good examples. The wines are inexpensive to mid-price.

Central Italy

Frascati vineyard. Frascati Superiore DOCG This DOCG has the same rules about grape varieties as Frascati DOC. It was introduced in 2011 with lower yields (maximum 77 hL/ha) with a view to improving quality (greater flavour intensity and fuller body than standard Frascati). The wines have to be aged for one year before release, with no requirement to age in oak. Frascati Superiore DOCG is now about 20 per cent of the total of vineyards devoted to Frascati production.17 Quality is good to very good and the wines are mid-priced. Most Frascati Superiore is aged in stainless steel to preserve primary fruit. Some producers make one more ambitious wine (mid-priced to premium) which may be barrel fermented. Castelli Romani DOC This DOC covers a broad area south of Rome and has many other DOCs within it, including Frascati. More white wine is made than red and these whites must be made from Malvasia del Lazio, Malvasia Bianca di Candia or Trebbiano Toscano at up to 120 hL/ha, resulting in light flavour intensity. RED WINES: WINEMAKING, DENOMINATIONS, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS As noted, Merlot and Sangiovese are the leading black varieties by volume of production. The wines are mostly inexpensive to mid- priced and drunk locally. The regulations for the DOCs that are made predominantly from Cesanese (for example Cesanese di Affile DOC) allow up to 65–70 hL/ha, which can result in wines of light flavour intensity. The wines are typically aged in stainless steel tanks or large format oak, as additional

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oak flavours would mask the aromatic qualities of the grape variety. The wines are mainly midpriced with a few premium examples, for example from Damiano Ciolli. WINE BUSINESS While the wines of Lazio were famous in Roman and medieval times, the emphasis in the middle to late twentieth century was on high volume, inexpensive production by large companies. As a result, the reputation for quality fell and production decreased. The area of hectares under vine for Frascati has dropped by 15 per cent in the ten years to 2017.18 For Frascati, co-operatives continue to play an important role, being responsible for around 20 per cent of production. 60 per cent of Frascati is exported.19 The main export markets are the USA, Canada and Germany. In addition to servicing the considerable local demand from Rome and its tourists for inexpensive, acceptable to good quality wines, Lazio also has a number of high-quality small producers creating high quality wines, for example, Casal Pilozzo.

18.5. Abruzzo

Abruzzo is on Italy’s eastern coast, south of the Marche and north of Puglia. It is Italy’s fifth largest region by production volume,20 ahead of Piedmont and Tuscany, with production volumes being led by co-operatives. The black Montepulciano variety dominates planting, though not quite to the same extent as Sangiovese in Tuscany. The region produces three main wines, a white, a rosé and a red: • • •

Trebbiano d’Abruzzo, a crisp white with high acidity, typically unoaked a medium to medium (+) bodied rosé, Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo, made from the Montepulciano variety the red Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, also made from the Montepulciano variety.

In addition, Abruzzo makes single varietal wines from Pecorino and Passerina. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The region can be divided between hillside vineyards under the high Apennines and the flatter, coastal zone. The hillsides have a warm continental climate with cold snowy winters and warm, short summers with cooling influences from the mountains. These cooling influences result in a longer season for ripening grapes and therefore sugar accumulation is slowed allowing greater time for the development of aromas and flavours. The risks here are late spring frosts and autumn rains at harvest time. The coastal zone has a warm Mediterranean climate. There is lower risk Pruning pergola-trained vines. here of spring frost and of rain at harvest

Central Italy

Coastal vineyard. time. Temperatures are higher than on the hillside and soils are more fertile. As a result, the vineyards in general are better suited to the production of high volume wines. In general in Abruzzo, planting density used to be low (2,500 vines per hectare) and pergola the typical form of training. High yield allowances led to a significant amount of wine with medium to low concentration. However, quality has begun to rise with denser planting, newer forms of training and lower yields for the better quality wines.

Winter in Abruzzo.

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In the coastal zone, cordon-trained spur-pruned or Guyot is more common, allowing working with machines and mechanical harvesting, bringing down the price of wine. Work in the hillside vineyards is mostly by hand, though some will be able to use tractors to work the land. Harvesting is by hand. Grape Varieties Abruzzo: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Montepulciano

Trebbiano Toscano

Trebbiano Abruzzese

Chardonnay

Sangiovese

Pecorino

Source: Anderson, K. 201321 Montepulciano – For the grape variety, see under the Marche. Trebbiano Toscano – See under Tuscany. Trebbiano Abruzzese – Considerable confusion exists around this variety. Its relationship, if any, to the other varieties called Trebbiano has not yet been clarified.22 The variety is often called Trebbiano d’Abruzzo, but this is the name of the DOC, not the variety. Trebbiano Abruzzese is mid to late ripening, vigorous and highly productive. It is well suited to growing on pergola systems as high training is appropriate to the size the vines and provides the fruit with shade. It is prone to powdery mildew. DENOMINATIONS, WINEMAKING, WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS The regulations for the wine called Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC allow the use of either or both Trebbiano Abruzzese and Trebbiano Toscano. The latter is usually thought to be of lower quality (low flavour intensity). Further, yields of up to 98 hL/ha are allowed, leading to many wines of light to medium flavour intensity at best. Nowadays the wine is typically made protectively with cool fermentation temperatures, using either ambient or cultured yeast. Malolactic conversion is typically blocked to preserve acidity. The wines are typically aged in stainless steel. While most Trebbiano d’Abruzzo is acceptable to good quality, a few estates produce very good to outstanding wines. Examples include Valentini (whose Trebbiano d’Abruzzo is often

Central Italy

regarded as one of Italy’s greatest white wines and commands a super-premium price) and Masciarelli. The rosé wine Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo DOC must be made from a minimum of 85 per cent of the Montepulciano variety. Historically, it was medium intensity pink, a much deeper colour than many modern rosés, but now wines are often made to be of lighter intensity. They can be made using short maceration (generally up to 12 hours) or direct pressing. Some producers make rosé as a by-product of their red wine production (saignée). They are medium to medium (+) bodied. The Montepulciano variety is rich in anthocyanins so maceration times are short to avoid the extraction of too much colour. As with Montepulciano in the Marche, Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC is made in two styles, described above in the section on the Marche. The naturally high tannins of Montepulciano may be softened by very light extraction, which is achieved by short time on the skins. As the grape is rich in anthocyanins, brief maceration will still produce a medium colour intensity. Some producers also use up to 15 per cent of Merlot or Primitivo to complement 85 per cent of the named variety. High quality wines will be given extended time in barrel to allow the tannins to soften and may benefit from bottle age too. Large oak vessels are most common, with some producers using small French oak barriques for their best wines. There are three levels for red wines made from Montepulciano: •

•

•

Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC must be grown on hilly sites, Yields of up to 98 hL/ha are allowed. If grown at this maximum level, the grapes produce wines of light to medium concentration. By contrast, the five official sub-zones of this DOC restrict yields to 66 hL/ha and require 18 months of ageing, half of which must be in oak. At this yield, the wines will have more concentration than the basic DOC wines. The newer Colline Teramane Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOCG, a former sub-zone of the DOC, but now a DOCG in its own right, has the same restricted yields as the sub-zones but must be aged for two years before release, of which one must be in wood.

Unusually, the DOC wines do not have to be bottled in the region of origin. This has led to the criticisms that this freedom has contributed to lower quality standards and to the use of wine from Abruzzo to add colour and alcohol to red wines in other regions and countries.23 Montepulciano d ’Abruzzo wines are typically deep ruby in colour, medium intensity red cherry and plum-fruited, medium (+) body and high tannins as well as inexpensive to midpriced. At the mid-price level, wines will typically be aged in oak. Some of the DOCG wines are very good quality and premium priced. WINE BUSINESS Three quarters of wine production comes from the region’s 40 co-operative wineries. The wines are sold in Italy and are exported, especially to northern Europe, the USA and Canada, often because of the good value for money. The majority of wines are inexpensive. A very small number of premium and super-premium priced wines are sold in specialist wines shops in Italy and abroad.24 Significant producers include Valentini (super-premium priced), Masciarelli, and among the co-operatives, Cantina Tollo, which exports 35 per cent of its production.25

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References 1. Anderson, K. 2013. Which Winegrape Varieties are Grown Where? A global empirical picture, University of Adelaide Press, p. 502 2. Anteprima Vernaccia di San Gimignano 2018, Press release, Consorzio del Vino Vernaccia di San Gimignano 3. V.Q.P. R.D. D’Italia 2018, Confederazione Nazionale dei Consorzi Volontari per la Tutela delle Denominazioni dei Vini Italiani pp. 34–8 (retrieved 20 April 2020) 4. XV Rapporto Ismea-Qualivita: DOP e IGP patrimonio da 15 miliardi di euro, ISMEA (2017 data, retrieved 20 April 2020) 5. Personal communications, emails, from the consortiums for Chianti, Chianti Classico and Montalcino, October 2018 6. Chianti Universo Grande Distribuzione, Consorzio Vino Chianti, August 2018, report, p. 2 7. Chianti Classico press kit, 2018, pp. 2–3, 2017 figures 8. Montepulciano press kit, 2018 9. Chianti. Volumes and Distribution, Consorzio Vino Chianti (retrieved 14 March 2019) 10. I numeri del vino, ISMEA, Anteprime di Toscana, Buywine 2019, p. 15 (retrieved 20 May 2020) 11. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 501 12. 2,762 ha in Castelli di Jesi, 300 ha in Matelica, Istituto Marchigiano di Tutela Vini, November 2017 13. As above. 14. Reduction of 30 per cent in the decade from 2000–2010, while Pinot Grigio grew 130 per cent (Anderson, K. 2013). 15. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 502 16. Statistics, Montefalco DOC and Montefalco Sagrantino DOCG, Consorzio Tutela Vini Montefalco, report received October 2018 17. 2017 figure, Consorzio Tutela Denominazioni Vini Frascati, personal communication, email, November 2018 18. As above 19. Dati Economici Relativi al Vigneto Frascati per la Vendemmia 2018, Consorzio Frascati (retrieved 21 April 2020) 20. Wine Production by Region, Italian Wine Central using ISTAT data for 2018 (retrieved 26 March 2020) 21. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 501 22. d’Agata, I. 2014. Native Wine Grapes of Italy, University of California Press, p. 142 23. Brook, S. 2014. Regional profile: Abruzzo Decanter (retrieved 26 March 2020) 24. Winemakers in figures, Consorzio Tutela Vini d’Abruzzo (retrieved 21 April 2020) 25. Winery, Cantina Tollo (retrieved 21 April 2020)

Southern Italy

19

Southern Italy

In this section, the wines of Campania, Basilicata, Puglia, Sicily and Sardinia will be considered. 42˚N 42˚N 42˚N 42˚N

Rome Rome

VERMENTINO VERMENTINO DI GALLURA DI GALLURA

40˚N 40˚N

SARDINIA SARDINIA

Ty rrh en ia n Tyrrhen ia n Se a Sea

VERMENTINO VERMENTINO DI SARDEGNA DI SARDEGNA

Cagliari Cagliari

42˚N 42˚N 42˚N 42˚N

Adriatic Adriatic Sea Sea

AGLIANICO DEL VULTURE/ AGLIANICO AGLIANICODEL DELVULTURE/ VULTURE AGLIANICO DEL VULTURE SUPERIORE CASTEL DEL MONTE CAMPANIA SUPERIORE CASTEL DEL MONTE GRECOCAMPANIA DI TUFO GIOIA DEL COLLE GRECO DINaples TUFO GIOIA DEL COLLE CAMPI FLEGREI Naples CAMPI FLEGREI TAURASI SALICE PUGLIA VESUVIO TAURASI SALICE SALENTINO PUGLIA VESUVIO FIANO SALENTINO BASILICATA FIANO DI AVELLINO BASILICATA DI AVELLINO PRIMITIVO PRIMITIVO 40˚N DI MANDURIA 40˚N DI MANDURIA

CALABRIA CALABRIA

CARIGNANO CARIGNANO DEL SULCIS DEL SULCIS

SICILIA DOC SICILIA DOC

Palermo Palermo

38˚N 38˚N

38˚N 38˚N

SICILY SICILY

ETNA ETNA

SOUTHERN SOUTHERN ITALY ITALY

CERASUOLO CERASUOLO DI VITTORIA DI VITTORIA

TUNISIA TUNISIA

0 0

1500m+ 1500m+

1000-1500m 1000-1500m

500-1500m 500-1500m

200-500m 200-500m

100-200m 100-200m

0 0

50 50

100 100 50 50

150 Km 150 Km 100 Miles 100 Miles

NN

0-100m 0-100m

19.1. Campania

Campania is south of Lazio and sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Apennine Mountains providing a number of sites suitable for growing ripe, healthy grapes. Most viticulture is on slopes and at altitudes of 200–600m. There is a range of soils. In Roman times, Falernian wine (unknown varieties) from northern Campania was famous for its quality and ability to age. Now the region is known for its three white local varieties – Falanghina, Greco and Fiano – and for the black variety Aglianico, especially from Taurasi DOCG. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Campania has a warm Mediterranean climate. Inland vines are planted on slopes up to 600m altitude, providing a cooling influence. Many of the varieties grown are late ripening. They can be threatened by cold and rainy early autumns. Frost in spring can be a problem where vines are planted in frost pockets or lower slopes and valley floors.

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Soils There are three main soil types in Campania. The DOC(G)s are given here by the principal soil type: •

•

•

Limestone and clay soils in the hills, providing a good balance between fast drainage and water retention. This area includes the three best known denominations: – Fiano di Avellino DOCG, white wine made with Fiano – Greco di Tufo DOCG, white wine made with Greco – Taurasi DOCG, red wine made with Aglianico Volcanic and sandy soils in the volcanic areas around Naples: – Campi Flegrei DOC with tuff, pumice and sandy soils, typically fast draining: the wines are made principally from the white variety Falanghina and the black Piedirosso (for reds and rosés). – Vesuvio DOC (which includes wines labelled Lacryma Christi)1 with similar soils: the wines are made principally from the white variety Coda di Volpe and the black Piedirosso. Alluvial sediments in the large area between Naples and Benevento with a number of denominations: Sannio DOC (the province of Benevento) and Beneventano IGP, all making wines from a range of Campanian and Italian varieties.

Sandy soils with pumice in Campi Flegrei. GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND DENOMINATIONS Campania is notable for wines made with local varieties. Most of them are 100 per cent varietal or 85 per cent plus an authorized blending variety. Barbera and Sangiovese are also grown for local consumption and bulk wine.

Southern Italy

Campania: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Aglianico

Falanghina

Barbera

Malvasia

Sangiovese

Greco

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)2 Falanghina Long considered merely as a workhorse variety, Falanghina is important both for being the most grown white variety in Campania (second only to the black Aglianico) and for its rise in popularity around the world since the 1980s especially in the hospitality sector. Falanghina has good resistance to disease but the fruit can begin to shrivel at the end of the season and therefore choosing the correct harvest date is important. It is mid-to-late ripening, which means it is occasionally threatened by autumn rain. The wines have medium intensity apple and white peach fruit with herbaceous notes (grass) and have medium (+) acidity. Nearly all wines are unoaked. The wines range from acceptable to very good quality and are inexpensive to mid-price. Falanghina del Sannio (maximum yield 84 hL/ha), the largest DOC featuring Falanghina, accounts for one third of Campania’s plantings of the variety. The Campi Flegrei produces lower alcohol wines, 12–13 per cent, due to windier conditions than inland. Maximum yields for Campi Flegrei Falanghina is also 84 hL/ha. Greco Greco is a challenging grape to grow as it is prone to grey rot and to both mildews and has low vigour and productivity. However, it is tolerant of heat and is drought-resistant, making it suitable for a warm region. Vines either are trained with the Guyot system or are cordontrained and spur-pruned, allowing some mechanisation on less steep slopes. The grapes are picked around the first week of October, giving a long season to develop depth of flavour. The variety is particularly associated with the Greco di Tufo DOCG. This is a small but densely planted area with limestone and clay soils, offering a beneficial combination of good drainage and water retention. (‘Tufo’ does not refer to a type of soil; it is simply the name of the principal town in the DOCG area.) The maximum yield for the DOCG is 70 hL/ha. Greco is less grown in Campania than Falanghina but more than Fiano. As a heat-tolerant and droughtresistant variety, it is attracting interest in countries with warming climates and water restrictions.

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The wines are deep lemon in colour, high in alcohol with an oily texture, with floral, stone fruit and smoky notes. Most wines are unoaked and the best can age in bottle. Quality is very good, with some outstanding examples, and prices range from mid-price to premium. Fiano Fiano is a potentially high-quality white variety that has only one third of the plantings of Falanghina but is held in very high regard, especially for the wine coming from the Fiano di Avellino DOCG. It was rescued from neglect by the Mastroberardino family after the Second World War. Guyot and cordons with VSP are commonly used as training systems. It is sensitive to both forms of mildew but has thick skins and so can resist botrytis even though it is late ripening (harvested in mid to late October). Within the Fiano di Avellino DOCG, maximum yields are 70 hL/ha. The wines have medium (–) to medium intensity floral, peach and hazelnut aromas and flavours, with medium (+) body, medium to medium (+) acidity and a waxy texture. Fiano is grown in a range of soils with resulting different expressions. Lighter, fruitier wines come from open, sandy, soils (with fast drainage) and weightier wines from clay-dominated soils (high water retention). Quality is very good to outstanding and prices range from mid-price to premium. The best wines can age for 8–10 years in the bottle. Most wines are aged in stainless steel tanks but some producers make a small- production wine aged in wood. Aglianico Aglianico is a black variety that is early budding (and therefore vulnerable to spring frost) and late ripening. It requires a long season for the tannins to ripen. It is a vigorous variety and yields have to be controlled if its quality potential is to be realized. It is prone to botrytis bunch rot and therefore vulnerable to rain late in the season. Despite its name (‘hellenic’), DNA

Vineyard in Taurasi with clay soil.

Southern Italy

Aglianico just before picking for Taurasi DOCG. analysis does not support the traditional view that it is a Greek variety and it is probably an ancient grape from Southern Italy. It is mostly planted on spurred cordons or cane-pruned with VSP and at medium densities, enabling some mechanisation. The wines have medium (+) to pronounced intensity rose, red plum and blackberry aromas, high acidity and high tannins which can be softened either by ageing in high quality small barrels or long ageing in traditional large oak casks, plus bottle age. In Campania, Aglianico produces high quality wines on the cool slopes (200–600m), these cooler sites creating a longer season and more intense flavours. The most important denomination for Aglianico is Taurasi DOCG, with a minimum 85 per cent Aglianico. Maximum yields are 70 hL/ha. The DOCG requires three years of ageing, a minimum of one of which must be in wood (four years including 18 months in wood for riserva). For fully ripe skins and pips, the grapes are picked at the end of October and early November. The wines are made with long maceration on the skins (20 days or more) and aged French oak barriques or, as in the past, in large oak casks. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to premium in price. Sales are divided between Italy and exports with the USA being the most important market. Piedirosso This is an old Campanian red variety, probably from the Vesuvius area, making pale ruby wines, with fresh, medium (+) acidity, medium tannins and red plum and red cherry fruit. It is grown mainly in the area around Naples (Campi Flegrei DOC and Vesuvio DOC) including the islands of Ischia and Capri. In the two DOCs it has to form at least 50 per cent of

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Vineyard under Vesuvius. the grapes used but in practice most of the wines are 100 per cent. It is adapted to the heat and drought (and flourishes here with only 600mm of rainfall per year and windy conditions), and has open bunches with thick-skinned berries (and so resists botrytis). It is little troubled by powdery or downy mildew thanks to the dry and windy conditions in the growing season. In the two DOCs mentioned, many vines are planted on their own roots (phylloxera is present but does not spread in the sandy soils) at low densities. It used to be trained very high with many bunches for high volume production but the producers have now moved to Guyot or spurred cordons to achieve better fruit quality with greater fruit concentration. It is harvested late but still produces wines of only 12–13% abv. Piedirosso is used partly to make early-drinking, varietal wines and partly to soften Aglianico-based wines where it adds perfume and freshness. Most wines are aged in stainless steel or old oak with a few growers ageing their top wines in new French oak barriques. Markets are principally local (the region, Naples and its tourists) but with some international interest because of the theme of volcanic wines. Prices are in the range of mid-priced to premium. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS The individual DOC(G)s and their markets have already been commented on. They are complemented by province-wide DOCs for a whole province, e.g. Irpinia DOC for the province of Avellino and Sannio DOC for the province of Benevento. These DOCs include a wider range of varieties that can be grown and less stringent production rules.

Southern Italy

WINE BUSINESS Campania has a number of large private companies that have vineyards across multiple denominations and provinces. Mastroberardino played a significant role in the recovery and commercialisation of the Campanian varieties, Terredora is an offshoot from the same family, while Feudi di San Gregorio has done much to update the image of Campanian wine. In some provinces, co-operatives are very important. For example, La Guardiense (see picture) in the province of Benevento is a 1,000-member co-operative that makes about 15 per cent of the production of the province as a whole. Exports increased significantly in the decade to 2019, at more than twice the rate of Italian wine exports as a whole in that period.3

La Guardiense Co-operative, Benevento.

19.2. Basilicata

Basilicata sits between Campania and Puglia. Most wine production is of IGT or simple ‘wine’ quality. Its most important denomination, Aglianico del Vulture DOC, is to the east of Monte Vulture, an inactive volcano. Here potentially high quality, structured red wine is made from the Aglianico variety, which accounts for nearly one third of all plantings in the region. Across the region, small amounts of wine from other varieties (e.g. Italica) are made, mainly for local consumption.

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Basilicata: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Aglianico

Sangiovese

Primitivo

Montepulciano

Italica

Malvasia

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)4 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT, GRAPE GROWING AND WINEMAKING As noted, Aglianico del Vulture DOC is Basilicata’s most important wine. For the general characteristics of Aglianico, see Campania. The wine must be 100 per cent Aglianico with a maximum yield of 70 hL/ha and one year of ageing. In the Vulture DOC, Aglianico is grown on clay, limestone and volcanic soils (stony, lava, ash layers). The volcanic layers provide excellent drainage while the clay and limestone hold water, helping to give the wines access to enough

Monte Vulture.

Southern Italy

Clay, limestone, lava and ash soils. water despite the only adequate amount of annual rainfall (550 mm).5 The climate is warm Mediterranean with cooling influences from altitudes up to 600m, resulting in high day/night temperature differences. Breezes from the Balkans are a further cooling factor. These factors help to retain acidity and to extend the growing season, creating wines of high aromatic intensity. As noted above, Aglianico requires a long ripening season. It is picked in October and into November depending on the year, resulting in high flavour intensity. Wines are increasingly being aged in French oak barriques, a proportion of which may be new, rather than traditional large oak casks. These powerful wines have red plum and blackberry fruit, a full body, high acidity, usually high alcohol and high tannins, and are capable of extended bottle ageing. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to premium in price. There is also Aglianico del Vulture Superiore which is a DOCG (maximum yield is restricted to 52 hectolitres per hectare, minimum three years of ageing, one in oak; Riserva, five years of which two in oak). Some producers use this category (e.g. d’Angelo), others (e.g. Elena Fucci) prefer to sell their wine as DOC and release it, for example, two years after the harvest. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS The DOC and DOCG rules have been summarized already. WINE BUSINESS Sales of Aglianico del Vulture are divided between Italy and the export markets that are led by USA, Japan, China and northern Europe. Some growers are joining forces to promote

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their wines together. For example, Generazione Vulture is a group of young growers keen to promote their region and its wine. Significant producers include the long-established Paternoster (now owned by Tommasi from the Veneto), d’Angelo and Elena Fucci.

19.3. Puglia

Puglia, the ‘heel’ of Italy, is south of Abruzzo and is surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea. With a hot Mediterranean climate and moderating breezes from the sea, it is well suited to volume wine production as low rainfall reduces the threat of fungal diseases, soils are fertile and irrigation is permitted. Historically, much wine was exported to cooler areas of Italy and beyond to add alcohol and body to wines. Today, while much inexpensive wine is still made, growers are seeking to raise quality and prices received. A range of mainly black Italian and local grape varieties is grown. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT, GRAPE GROWING, WINEMAKING AND DENOMINATIONS Puglia: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Sangiovese

Primitivo

Negroamaro

Montepulciano

Trebbiano Toscano

Trebbiano Giallo

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)6 As noted, Puglia grows large volumes of mainly black grapes for bulk wines, including Sangiovese and Montepulciano (see Tuscany and Marche respectively), as well as two forms of Trebbiano for inexpensive white wines. In addition, it has three black varieties typical of the region, Primitivo, Negroamaro and Nero di Troia. Primitivo This high yielding variety, also known as Zinfandel, ripens early in Puglia, often being picked in August, thus avoiding autumn rains. It is prone to spring frosts (being early budding), to drought and has poor flowering and fruit set in rainy and humid years. The variability of production level is a challenge for growers with regard to supplying customers and in terms of cash flow. In Puglia the bunches of Primitivo are looser with smaller berries, giving them more

Southern Italy

Low density bush vines.

Old vine Primitivo.

disease resistance than Zinfandel in California.7 The bunches typically contain ripe and under ripe fruit, meaning that strict sorting is required to produce high quality wines, adding cost. The variety accumulates sugar easily and hence tends to produce high alcohol wines. The grapes have a tendency to dry on the vine as harvest approaches, adding to the high alcohol and growers need to judge when to pick to avoid overly jammy or dried fruit flavours. Older vines in Puglia are typically bush trained and planted at low density, providing some shade for the fruit and makes the most of the low rainfall. Newer vines and those for inexpensive wine are trellised (cordon trained or cane-pruned with VSP) to enable mechanization. Inexpensive wines are typically vinified at warm fermentation temperatures with maceration on the skins for 7–10 days to extract flavour, colour and medium to high levels of tannin. They are aged for a short period (6 months) in stainless steel or large casks. Premium wines will have longer on the skins for greater structure. They are often aged in French oak barriques for 12 months, adding to cost. The two main DOCs are: •

•

Primitivo di Manduria DOC – As the grape variety is named, there must be a minimum of 85 per cent Primitivo. The maximum yield is 63 hL/ha; Riserva category must be aged for two and a half years, including 9 months in wood, minimum 14% abv. Gioia del Colle DOC – The red wine must comprise 50–60 per cent Primitivo, blended with Montepulciano, Sangiovese and/or Negroamaro and up to 10 per cent of Malvasia. The maximum yield is 52 hL/ha. The Riserva category must be aged for two years (no requirement for ageing in wood) and have a minimum 14% abv. While this hilly area is slightly cooler (250–500 metres above sea level), both DOCs make full-bodied, high alcohol wines.

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The wines have medium (+) to pronounced, ripe to jammy red cherry and strawberry fruit, medium acidity and medium to medium (+) tannin. Quality is right across the range with many acceptable to good wines as well as some very good and a few outstanding wines. Top producers include Gianfranco Fino (Primitivo di Manduria) and Polvanera (Gioia del Colle). Primitivo has had mixed fortunes in recent decades. Many vineyards, including many old vines with high quality potential, were removed under the EU wine pull scheme. Since then, the variety has become more popular again, partly through the success of Californian Zinfandel. Negroamaro This variety, also written as Negro Amaro, is widely grown on the eastern side of the Salento peninsula. It is a high yielding variety with good resistance to diseases and to drought. These characteristics, combined with an ability to retain acidity, make it highly suitable for growing in a hot climate. As with Primitivo, in the past it was used to add alcohol and body to wines of cooler regions. The most important DOC is Salice Salentino. Salice Salentino Rosso DOC requires a minimum of 75 per cent Negroamaro and, if the variety is on label, 90 per cent. The maximum yield is 84 hL/ha, which can result in wines of low concentration and flavour intensity. Riserva wines must be aged for a minimum of two years with at least six months in large wood casks. The red wines are typically macerated on the skins for 7–10 days. They are aged either in stainless steel for a short time (6 months) for inexpensive wines or for a year in oak (midpriced to premium). The wines have black plum and black cherry fruit, medium to high alcohol, medium acidity and medium (+) tannins. The variety is also used to make rosé wines (rosato, deep pink orange in colour), which is very popular as a summer drink in the region and the wider Italian market. Wines are mainly good to very good quality and inexpensive to midpriced, with a few premium wines. Best producers include Agricola Vallone and Leone de Castris (including for its rosato).

Negroamaro rosato.

Southern Italy

Nero di Troia This variety, also called Uva di Troia, is mainly grown in central and middle parts of Puglia. It is a late ripening variety and is prone to downy mildew. Unlike Primitivo and Negroamaro, it needs a long season to develop its full colour, making it prone to autumn rain. The bunches ripen at different times, making costly repeated passes through the vineyard a necessity. The wines have medium intensity red cherry and redcurrant fruit with a black pepper note, high but fine-grained tannins and medium (+) acidity. The most important PDO for Nero di Troia is Castel del Monte (minimum 90 per cent Nero di Troia if the variety is stated on the label). For Castel del Monte there is both a DOC (maximum yield, 91 hL/ha) and a DOCG for Riserva wines (maximum yield 70 hL/ha, two years of ageing including one in wood). The DOC wines are mainly aged in stainless steel for a short time, 6 months, while DOCG Riserva wines will be aged either in French oak barriques or in large casks. Wines are typically good to very good, with a few outstanding examples, and are in the mid-priced to premium range. Top producers include Rivera and Torrevento. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS The regulations for PDO wines have been covered under the key grape varieties. WINE BUSINESS Puglia continues to produce large volumes of inexpensive wine. Less than 10 per cent is classified as PDO and 60 per cent is classified simply as ‘wine’.8 Co-operatives continue to play a very important part, investing in winemaking equipment and the largest having the scale to market their wines throughout Italy and abroad (e.g. Cantina Due Palme with 1,000 members and access to 2,500 hectares of vineyard). Quality in recent decades in Puglia has been driven forward by a combination of local companies and investment by well-established Italian wine companies, e.g. Antinori at Tormaresca.

Large tanks.

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Investment in new large casks.

19.4. Sicily

Sicily, a large island at the toe of Italy, has a long history of wine production going back to ancient Greek settlements. Today it produces both large volumes of bulk wine and distinctive PDO wines. Local grape varieties dominate, especially the white Catarratto and the black Nero d’Avola. While Sicily’s reputation for rising quality was initially based around international

Vineyards with olive groves and arable farming.

Southern Italy

varieties, it now equally known for its local varieties, especially Nero d’Avola and Nerello Mascalese. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT, GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND DENOMINATIONS Sicily: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Catarratto

Nero d’Avola

Grillo

Inzolia

Syrah

Chardonnay

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)9 Sicily in general has a warm Mediterranean climate, highly suitable for grape growing. However, some areas have particular microclimates due to local factors such as altitude (particularly Etna). Low rainfall necessitates irrigation, especially in high volume production areas.

Vines with irrigation.

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Catarratto, Grillo and Inzolia are local white varieties that produce mainly inexpensive dry white wines, as well as Marsala, a type of fortified wine. They are mainly blended either with each other or with Chardonnay. The wines are typically fermented at medium temperatures and aged in stainless steel for 6 months before bottling and early release to maintain primary fruit. Catarratto This variety is notable for being high yielding and disease resistant. It has light intensity lemon and herbal notes, high acidity and medium alcohol. The wines are typically inexpensive and acceptable to good quality. Grillo This variety is a natural cross between two other varieties grown in Sicily, Catarratto and Moscato. It is moderately high yielding and heat resistant and has good disease resistance. As such, it is very suitable for Sicily’s warm, dry climate. Care has to be taken not to over-expose the bunches as this can lead to a loss of aroma. The must oxidises easily and therefore modern wines are made using protective winemaking techniques (in contrast to many wines of the past and to Marsala). The wines are full-bodied, with medium intensity lemon and floral notes, medium alcohol and high acidity. Most Grillo is good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid- price. Marco de Bartoli, early champion of the variety, produces an oak aged example, which is premium priced.

Spraying against powdery mildew. Inzolia Inzolia, also known as Ansonica, is an early ripening variety, with good drought resistance. It needs to be picked early to retain acidity. The wines have medium (–) intensity lemon fruit, medium acidity and a medium body. The medium acidity makes it a useful blending partner

Southern Italy

with the higher acidity of Catarratto and Grillo. The wines are inexpensive to mid-priced and mainly acceptable to good in quality, with some very good examples. Best producers include Valle dell’Acate and Principi di Butera. Catarratto, Grillo and Inzolia are allowed in many of the DOCs within the island. To take a typical example, Alcamo Bianco DOC (north- west corner of the island) requires a minimum of 60 per cent Catarratto with the other specified varieties, local or international, making up the blend. Maximum yield is 84 hL/ha, resulting in some wines of low flavour intensity. Other DOCs give a minimum percentage for any one variety or for a combination of the three varieties. Moscato Muscat of Alexandria, locally known as Zibibbo, is a heat and drought resistant variety used to make wines in a range of styles, especially on the island of Pantelleria which is closer to Tunisia than to the rest of Sicily. Here intense sunlight, heat and drying winds mean that only the most drought-resistant varieties can flourish. Low bush vines are planted in individual planting holes (to about half their final height) to conserve water and give some protection from the wind. Wines are made in three styles on Pantelleria: • • •

Dry – fermented in stainless steel, released early to retain aromatic Muscat character Late harvest – picked a week later than for dry wines with the fermentation being stopped to retain residual sugar for a sweet style Passito – made with semi-dried grapes, traditionally sun-dried, with high levels of residual sugar.

The challenge is to balance sweetness with sufficient acidity. Some companies pick most of the fruit early (for optimum acidity) and then dry it in the sun for 20–30 days. These dried berries are later added to the must of very ripe fruit picked at the end of the season. The passito wines are deep lemon in colour with pronounced aromas of cooked orange, apricot and honey. They are sweet with high alcohol. The wines are very good to outstanding in quality and premium and super-premium in price. Top producers include Donnafugata for all three styles. For Carricante, a further notable white grape variety in Sicily, see below on Etna. Nero d’Avola By far the most planted black variety in Sicily, Nero d’Avola (also known as Calabrese) grows well in a hot climate. As a late-ripening variety, it is often grown close to the ground to maximise the heat, though it is an adaptable variety that also grows satisfactorily in damper, cooler sites. It is a very vigorous variety (requiring a lot of canopy management, that adds some cost) and is susceptible to powdery mildew. It can suffer from uneven flowering that can affect yields from year to year. The wines are medium to deep ruby in colour with red cherry to black plum fruit, medium (+) to high tannins and medium to medium (+) acidity. At moderate yields the grape can produce very good to outstanding quality wines with concentration, which are typically aged in small oak barrels and are mid-priced to premium in price. At high yields, it produces acceptable to good wines, stored for a short period in stainless steel (6 months) and they are inexpensive to mid-priced.

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Young Nero d’Avola vines. Much Nero d’Avola is made as a varietal wine. It is an option in many Sicilian DOCs (maximum yield is in the range 70–77 hL/ha) and often produced as IGT or in the ‘wine’ category. It is also blended with the black Frappato variety in Sicily’s only DOCG wine, Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG, and with international varieties. In the red (not rosé) wine, Cerasuolo di Vittoria, Frappato adds strawberry and herbal aromas and fresh red fruit, For this DOCG wine the blend is 50–70 per cent Nero d’Avola and 30–50 per cent Frappato, with a maximum yield of 52 hL/ha, resulting in wines with very good concentration. Top producers of varietal Nero d’Avola include Gulfi (for single vineyard wines) and Feudo Montoni. For Cerasuolo di Vittoria blends, top producers include Cos and Planeta. Nerello Mascalese This variety is grown for volume wine production often at high yields across Sicily but in the last two decades the wines made from this variety grown on Etna have become highly regarded wine. It buds early (making it vulnerable to late spring frost); yields can vary from year to year due to coulure; and is late ripening and therefore can be affected by early autumn rain. At altitude on Etna (400–1,000 metres above sea level) it has a very long season, adding to the intensity of flavours. The variety is prone to powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot. Care has to be taken to deleaf around the fruit zone at the right time in cooler sites on Etna. If deleafing is too early, then the berries can be burnt by the sun; if not done soon enough the fruit may never ripen fully, leading to unripe flavours and harsh tannins. As this is a moderately high tannic variety, musts are typically kept for a relatively short time on the skins (10–15 days) to avoid over-extracting tannins. However, some top producers, e.g. Graci, keep the wine on the skins for much longer (30–90 days) believing that this results in smoother tannins.

Southern Italy

Vegetative vine growth in front of Mount Etna.

Nerello Mascalese before véraison.

Nerello Mascalese typically produces wines with medium to pale ruby colour (depending on the level of extraction), high intensity aromas and flavours of red cherry and violet with herbal earth notes, high acidity, medium to high tannins (depending on extraction) and the high end of medium alcohol. In Etna Rosso DOC, the blend is a minimum of 80 per cent Nerello Mascalese, with the remainder being provided by Nerello Cappuccio. The latter provides colour and red berry fruit in blends. The best wines on Etna are typically from very old vines (60–100 years),

Hillside vineyard, Etna.

Old vine, Etna.

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providing high concentration but low yields, contributing to high costs. Equally, most vineyards are on moderate to steep slopes, meaning that work has to be done by hand, adding to cost. Maximum yield for Etna Rosso is restricted to 56 hL/ha. The Riserva category requires four years of ageing, of which one must be in wood. The wines are pale ruby in colour, with medium intensity red cherry fruit, high acidity and medium (+) to high tannins. They are usually aged in large, neutral oak casks or 500–600 litre barrels, rather than in new small barrels. The wines are typically very good to outstanding in quality and mid-price to premium in price. Carricante This variety is the main part of the blend in Etna Bianco DOC. While the DOC requires only 60 per cent Carricante, better producers use up to 100 per cent; those who blend will do so with Catarratto. Carricante is prone to the common fungal diseases. It grows successfully at high altitudes (up to 1,000 m) where black grapes would fail to ripen. The large diurnal range produces wines with high acidity. The wines are normally put through malolactic conversion to reduce the acidity. The wines are typically aged in old oak for additional texture. The wines have medium intensity lemon and green apple flavours, high acidity and medium alcohol. The quality and price ranges are the same as Etna Rosso, but the volumes are much lower. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS In 2011, the former IGT Sicilia became Sicilia DOC. This DOC covers a large range of varieties and combinations of varieties (e.g. Grillo-Viognier or Nero d’Avola-Syrah). Maximum yields are high (white wines 91 hL/ha, red wines 84 hL/ha), resulting in some wines of low flavour intensity. The initial implementation of the DOC did not include the usual requirement to bottle the wine in the region of production as large volumes of wine were shipped to northern Italy for bottling, leading to the criticism that the standards for the new DOC were not high enough. However, this had now been rectified. There has been a rapid and large scale take up of the new DOC especially for Grillo and Nero d’Avola varieties.10 WINE BUSINESS Sicily is unusual in Italy in that the wine business is led by a small number of large and influential private companies (for example Planeta, Donnafugata and Tasca d’Almerita, the three founders of Assovini Sicilia, see below). It also has important co-operatives, for example, Settesoli which with 2,000 growers and 6,000 hectares has 7 per cent of all Sicilian vineyards.11 In the past, much of Sicily’s wine production was transported to Italy in bulk to add alcohol and body to wines from cooler climates or to be bottled in other Italian regions. It continues to be a large producer of bulk wine, with only about 20 per cent of its wine production being bottled.12 Sicily now offers both inexpensive wines and mid-priced to super-premium wines. Apart from offering good value, Sicilian wines became better

Large volume winemaking.

Southern Italy

known through two main varieties: the 1990s was a period when Nero d’Avola sales increased significantly. However, the boom was short-lived thought to be due to a drop in quality in the wines on offer. In this century, Etna Rosso has created great interest in markets with specialist wine retail and specialist wine bars. Seventy wine businesses, representing 80 per cent of Sicilian bottled wine by value,13 are members of Assovini Sicilia which promotes Sicilian wines around the world and organises the annual tasting of newly released wines (Sicilia En Primeur).

19.5. Sardinia

Sardinia is an island off the coast of Tuscany and south of Corsica. Its complex history is reflected in the point that two of its most important varieties (Cannonau, i.e. Grenache Noir, and Carignano, i.e. Carignan) are widely grown in the warmer parts of southern Europe. The white Vermentino is the most important white variety, while the black Monica and white Nuragus are grown mainly for local consumption. Sardinia has a warm Mediterranean climate with low rainfall during the growing season. It has adequate rainfall for grape growing in parts of the island (e.g. in the north-west corner) but low rainfall in the south-east corner makes irrigation more of a requirement. Cooling influences include altitude (most of Sardinia is hilly). Sites which are open to winds from the sea are affected by the drying character of these warm winds but are less susceptible to common fungal diseases. GRAPE VARIETIES, DENOMINATIONS AND WINEMAKING Sardinia: top six varieties, percentage of plantings 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Cannonau

Vermentino

Source: Anderson, K. (2013)14

Carignano

Monica Nera

Nuragus

Sangiovese

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Cannonau This is the Sardinian name for Grenache Noir (see The Rhône Valley). The most important DOC is Cannonau di Sardegna which can be grown in any part of the island, though there is a more restricted Classico zone . Maximum yields are 77 hL/ha for the entire DOC (resulting in some wines of low concentration) and 63 in the Classico zone. Riserva wines must be aged for two years, six months of which must be in wood (12 months in the case of Classico). The wines are good to very good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Dry and sweet fortified wines are also made from Cannonau and sold locally. Top producers include Sella & Mosca and Argiolas. Vermentino The white variety Vermentino is early budding making it susceptible to spring frosts. It is also prone to downy mildew and the European grape moth. It ripens in mid-season, making it less prone to late season rain. It grows best on sunny, exposed sites with poor soils. The variety is known as Rolle in southern France where it is also grown. The wines typically have medium intensity lemon and acacia aromas, with riper examples showing tropical fruit notes, a light to medium body with medium alcohol and medium (+) acidity. Most wines good to very good in quality and are mid-priced to premium priced. The wines are typically made by gentle pressing of the grapes, a short period of skin contact (24 hours), fermentation at cool to mid-range temperatures in stainless steel to retain primary fruit and a short period of ageing (3–4 months) in neutral containers on the fine lees. Some very good wines are aged on the lees for six months for a fuller body. The wines are mainly aged in stainless steel partly due to cost but also to avoid overwhelming the delicate aromas. The most important PDOs are: •

•

Vermentino di Sardegna DOC, which again can be grown anywhere on the island. High yields of up to 112 hL/has are allowed, leading to some wines of low concentration and flavour. Vermentino di Gallura DOCG, the north-east corner of the island is Sardinia’s only DOCG. This restricts yields to 63 hL/ha.

Carignano This variety, see South of France: Carignan, is mainly grown in the south-west corner of the island, where, as a heat and drought-resistant variety, it can thrive despite high summer temperatures, low rainfall and drying winds from the sea (which also reduce the threat of fungal diseases). Low fertility sandy soils also help to restrain its natural vigour. The main PDO is Carignano del Sulcis DOC. The most common form of training is the bush vine and this is a requirement for the Superiore category within the DOC. Bush vines are suited to the dry climate of the area and restrain the natural vigour of the variety. Limited irrigation is permitted to allow vines to grow adequately in the period of vegetative growth but not assist them after véraison during the final ripening of fruit. The DOC allows up to 77 hL/ha resulting in some wines of low flavour concentration, while the Superiore category limits yield to 52.5 hL/ha. Inexpensive wines are typically fermented at warm temperatures and macerated on the skins for 7–10 days and are aged for 3–4 months in large neutral containers (cement, large

Southern Italy

oak casks). Mid-priced and premium red wines by contrast will be macerated on the skins for around 15 days at warm fermentation temperatures for fuller extraction of colour, flavour and tannins and aged in French oak barriques for 12–18 months. Both the Superiore and Riserva (available for the basic DOC as well as Superiore) categories require two years of ageing. The wines range from good to very good in quality with some outstanding wines, with prices from inexpensive to premium. Best producers include Agricola Punica and Santadi. As in other parts of Italy both traditional bush vines and trellised vines (replacement cane with VSP or cordon-trained, spur-pruned) are in widespread use. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Rules for the named PDOs have been given above. WINE BUSINESS Sardinia, like other southern Italian regions, has had to change from being a seller of bulk wine for blending. Sardinian regional and EU funding encouraged the growth of co-operative wineries in the late twentieth century. However, vineyard area reduced dramatically when EU subsidies were available to remove uneconomic vineyards. It is now concentrating on creating a distinctive identity around its most important grape varieties. Two thirds of the wine produced is classified as PDO.15 Sardinia has important and high-quality co-operatives, such as Cantina Santadi, which in the past was advised by the eminent oenologist Giacomo Tachis. Exports of Sardinian wine by value have remained flat for nearly all of the last decade.16 References 1. For an explanation of the name, see Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio, Wine Enthusiast (retrieved 26 March 2020) 2. Which Winegrape Varieties are Grown Where? A global empirical picture, University of Adelaide Press, p. 501 3. Esportazione di vino Italia – valore per regione, I numeri del vino (retrieved 21 April 2020) 4. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 501 5. Climate Data for Rionero in Vulture, AM Online Projects (retrieved 26 March 2020) 6. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 502 7. d’Agata, I. 2014. Native wine grapes of Italy, p. 408 8. The Italian Wine Sector, (2017) Wine Australia (retrieved 26 March 2020) 9. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 502 10. 50 milioni di bottiglie in 7 mesi, record per DOC Sicilia, 2018. Wine in Sicily (retrieved 13 May 2021) 11. About, Cantine Settesoli (retrieved 20 May 2020) 12. Atkin, T. (not dated), Sicily, retrieved 26 March 2020 13. Assovini Sicilia (not dated) retrieved 26 March 2020 (no longer publicly available) 14. Anderson, K. 2013, p. 502 15. I vini della Regione Sardegna (not dated), Assovini.it (retrieved 26 March 2020) 16. Esportazione di vino Italia – valore per regione, I numeri del vino (retrieved 21 April 2020)

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20

Spain

Spain has a long history of wine production, with some evidence of vine cultivation for over five thousand years. When the sea-faring Phoenicians founded the city of Cádiz, on the southern coast of Spain, around 1100 BCE, their wine-making expertise meant that the port quickly became important for trading wine and evidence of their winemaking, in hollowedout stone lagares, has been found nearby. Successive invading forces all left their mark on winemaking in the region; firstly, the Carthaginians brought improved winemaking techniques and then the Romans, after ‘pacifying’ the whole peninsula, brought stability and a huge increase in production volumes, most being exported all across their empire. At its fall, barbarians from northern Europe invaded, followed in 711 by the Moors who didn’t themselves drink wine but tolerated grape growing, some winemaking and consumption by others. Their gradual overthrow by the Christians, broadly from the north of Spain to the south over several centuries, restored wine production with evidence of exports out of Bilbao to several English ports during the 13th century. Exports always depended on Spain maintaining cordial relations with other countries and numerous wars over the centuries ensured commercial turbulence. However, it was somewhat shielded from such fluctuations by trade with its newly founded colonies in the Americas. The key exports at this time were fortified wines, most notably from sherries from Jerez but also Fondillón, a fortified Monastrell from Alicante, and the raisined wines of Málaga. Unfortified winemaking had progressed little since Roman times and, although Rioja had established itself as a leading wine region, quality was not particularly high and little was exported. In the late 18th century, Manuel Quintano y Quintano, a canon in holy orders whose family produced wines, travelled to Bordeaux, bringing back not only expertise in winemaking and cooperage but also some oak barriques. Very few producers followed his practices as it was ruled that there should be no price differential between the various wines produced in Rioja. As better practices and oak barrels were expensive, it meant that higher quality wines were less profitable. The Spanish civil wars of the mid-19th century, disputing succession to the Spanish throne, meant that both Luciano de Murrieta, later the Marqués de Murrieta, and the Marqués de Riscal both sought exile in Bordeaux for some while, returning when safe to put their newlyfound expertise into practice, including maturation in barriques. The quality of their wines eventually convinced the local government and other producers that these techniques were the way forward. A few years later, the phylloxera louse arrived in France and steadily devastated their vineyards. The wines of Rioja, both in their style and their closeness to the French border, were a suitable replacement and, to satisfy this sudden demand, many new wineries were founded, most particularly around the railway station in Haro, so that wine could easily be shipped in bulk to France to augment what little French wine was still being produced. Phylloxera eventually reached Rioja and many other parts of Spain in the early 20th century and, although the cause and remedy were known, it led to a substantial reduction in production. The commercial impact was tempered somewhat by a drop in demand; France’s

Spain

vineyards were now recovering and Spain had lost its overseas colonies so that those two key export markets had shrunk. Nevertheless, the human cost was immense, with massive unemployment causing considerable poverty and significant emigration from all parts of Spain. Vineyards were replanted across the country but many indigenous grape varieties were now virtually extinct. Wine production gradually recovered and, learning from past mistakes, the Rioja Wine Exporters’ Syndicate was founded in 1907 to guarantee the authenticity of Rioja’s wine in export markets. In 1926, Rioja also became the first Spanish wine region to establish a regulatory council (Consejo Regulador). Despite such positive developments, quality wine production in Spain was hampered throughout much of the 20th century. The Civil War of 1936 to 1939 left the country under a dictatorship for nearly forty years, with the Spanish economy devastated firstly through the immediate internal impact of the civil war and secondly through the loss of export markets during the second world war and then the economic isolation of General Franco’s government. Wine production continued but mainly through co-operatives that were producing high volumes of inexpensive wines. Although most Spanish winemakers had no experience of the wider wine world, Miguel Torres of the eponymous winery did study winemaking in France and, on returning to the family wine business in Penedès, Catalunya in the early 1960s, was permitted to put his learning into practice; some French and German varieties were planted, vineyards were trellised, temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks were installed and a winery laboratory established. The resulting wines showed what different styles were achievable in Spain and showed many others the path to follow. From the mid-1970s, Spain’s return to a constiitutional monarchy and democratic rule has led to greater economic freedom, with Spain’s accession to the EU in 1986 bringing further investment in wine production. Modernisation swept the country, with widespread investment in temperature control and stainless steel tanks, so that the quality level of basic Spanish wine has improved dramatically. In 1996, the legalisation of irrigation meant that more vineyards across a greater number of regions could produce a viable crop and, in this way, has caused production levels to rise significantly. In the last 30 years, greater research, investment, education and experience of winemaking in other countries has benefited the quality and diversity of Spanish wines at all price points. Despite its long winemaking history, Spain is a country in which new regions and styles of wine are being explored, whilst there is also significant interest and activity in revitalising many indigenous grape varieties, employing traditional winemaking approaches and returning old abandoned vineyards to production. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate In general terms, being located at 36–43°N, Spain can be considered a warm country. However, with an extensive coastline, several significant mountain ranges and a large raised plateau (the meseta) covering its central regions, climate can vary markedly over the different wine regions: •

The north west of the country is influenced by the Atlantic, and therefore has a maritime climate with high levels of rainfall throughout the year. Many of the vineyard areas in the north and north east are sheltered somewhat from the Atlantic by mountains and

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Bay Bay of of Biscay Biscay

44˚N 44˚N

44˚N 44˚N

FRANCE FRANCE Santander Santander

AACoruña Coruña

RIBEIRO RIBEIRO

RR. M . Miñ iñoo

322

RÍAS RÍAS BAIXAS BAIXAS

RIBEIRA RIBEIRA SACRA SACRA

BIERZO BIERZO Vigo Vigo

León León

RIBERA RIBERA DEL DELDUERO DUERO

MONTERREI MONTERREI

40˚N 40˚N

RUEDA RUEDA

ooss eedd GGr r ddee

42˚N 42˚N

Zaragoza Zaragoza

Barcelona Barcelona PENEDÈS PENEDÈS MONTSANT MONTSANT PRIORAT PRIORAT

TORO TORO

rraa SSi ieerr

PORTUGAL PORTUGAL

RIOJA RIOJA

Valladolid Valladolid

roro uuee RR. .DD

ATLANTIC ATLANTIC OCEAN OCEAN

Pamplona Pamplona

RR. .EEbbroro

VALDEORRAS VALDEORRAS

42˚N 42˚N

PP yy rr éé nn éé ANDORRA ee ss ANDORRA SOMONTANO SOMONTANO COSTERS COSTERS DEL DELSEGRE SEGRE CAMPO CAMPO CATALUNYA CATALUNYA DE DEBORJA BORJA

NAVARRA NAVARRA

CCoorrddi il l el erraa CCaannt taabbrri ai a

CARIÑENA CARIÑENA CALATAYUD CALATAYUD r raa r r eer r ddaa SSi i GGuu e e dd

Madrid Madrid

40˚N 40˚N

UTIEL UTIELREQUENA REQUENA RR. .TTaajojo

Palma Palma

Valencia Valencia

LA LAMANCHA MANCHA RR. .JJúúccaar r aaddiaiannaa RR. .GGuu

VALENCIA VALENCIA YECLA YECLA

Badajoz Badajoz

ALICANTE ALICANTE Alicante Alicante

VALDEPEÑAS VALDEPEÑAS

38˚N 38˚N

JUMILLA JUMILLA

uuaaddaalqlquuivivirir RR. .GG

Sevilla Sevilla rraa SSi ieerr

aa aadd NNeevv

JEREZ JEREZ

NN AA EE NN AA RR EERR T T II EEDD MM

AA EE SS

38˚N 38˚N

Málaga Málaga

Cádiz Cádiz

36˚N 36˚N

36˚N 36˚N

SPAIN SPAIN VT VTCastilla CastillayyLeón León

2000m+ 2000m+

•

•

00

MOROCCO MOROCCO

VT VTCastilla Castilla 1000-2000m 1000-2000m

500-1000m 500-1000m

200-500m 200-500m

00

50 50

100 100 50 50

150 150Km Km 100 100Miles Miles

N N

0-200m 0-200m

have more of a continental climate, though with some maritime or, to the north east, Mediterranean influences. The south and east of the country faces directly onto the Mediterranean, and vineyards in close proximity to the sea have a moderated climate with warm, dry summers and mild winters. The meseta, at an altitude of 600–900m, covers a vast area over central Spain. The climate here is continental, with hot days and cool nights, though altitude can help moderate the heat.

The country’s topography is a high plateau tilted from north-east (Pyrenees) to south-west (Andalucia), with lower ground formed by several major rivers along which many wine-growing regions are found.

Spain

Vineyard Management Globally, Spain has the largest vineyard plantings with 969,000 ha under production.1 However, it is only the world’s third largest producer of wine (by volume), behind Italy and France, with a five-year average of 39 million hL per annum.2 This in part reflects the nature of many Spanish vineyards, which are made up of bush vines planted at low density. In La Mancha, the largest DO (Denominación de Origen) in Spain, vines can be planted at densities as low as 1,000 vines per hectare. Low density planting is favourable in many regions due to the climate. With a low annual rainfall, as little as 300 mm in some parts of the country, it is helpful to reduce competition between vines for soil water. Although, irrigation for grape growing was nationally legalised in 1996, it is still controlled by the Consejo Regulador for each wine region. In some wine regions, it is only permitted in the establishment of young vines and in extreme cases of drought, while in others it may be permitted during the start of the growing season but not during the ripening period. In many regions, there are significant plantings of old bush vines. These are increasingly being recognised as an asset, providing good quality fruit, and hence there is limited desire to grub them up and replant at higher densities, even if irrigation would permit that to be done. The very low yields from such vines is another reason for low production volumes for size of vineyard area. Many areas of Spain receive very little rain in the growing season. However, during this time, it can often fall in heavy storms with temperatures rising quickly afterwards. This creates a risk of mildew and this is a concern across many regions across Spain. Spring frosts can also be a hazard in many areas with continental climates.

Low density bush vines in Calatayud.

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Phylloxera affected many regions in Spain in the early 20th century and the majority of vines are therefore grafted onto resistant rootstocks. Some regions with sandy soils, such as areas within Toro and Rueda, were unaffected and have some plantings of incredibly old ungrafted vines. One of the most common pests is European grapevine moth, which is generally managed through pheromone traps. Many producers employ organic practices but far fewer are certified as such since they consider that few consumers in both the domestic and export markets are willing to pay a premium for organic wines and hence contribute towards the cost of attaining and retaining certification. Spain remains a country of small vineyard holdings, with about 66 per cent of vineyard plots being less than 0.5 ha in size and a further 22 per cent between 0.5 and 3 ha.3 This means that, despite marked advances in understanding of vineyard management over the last few decades, the level of vineyard mechanisation is still relatively limited. Grape Varieties Vineyard land is split relatively evenly between white and black grape varieties, with slightly more black grapes. Spain, most planted grape varieties, 2018–19, ha 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0

Airén

Tempranillo

Garnacha

Bobal

Macabeo

Monastrell

(Source: OeMV)4 The two grape varieties with by far the largest plantings are Airén and Tempranillo. Airén – This white variety is mainly planted in the centre of Spain in Castilla-La Mancha and, although it makes inexpensive neutral white wines for early consumption, much of its production is distilled into Brandy de Jerez. Tempranillo – This black grape variety is grown widely across several areas of Spain, where it can be known by various synonyms. Although it can be used to make inexpensive, fruity red wines, it is also a leading component in some of Spain’s most prestigious and expensive wines, most particularly those from Rioja, Ribera del Duero and Toro (for characteristics see each of these regions). Its dominance, however, is relatively recent and is thought to be closely associated with the growth of Spanish wine in international markets and consumers’

Spain

association of Tempranillo with Rioja, widely considered to be Spain’s leading wine region. Its ability to produce medium to high yields, depending on the site, has surely also helped its popularity with grape growers. However, quality focused growers and producers tend to limit its yields in order to produce concentrated, structured wines. Tempranillo is early ripening and, therefore produces its finest wines in warm climates where there is some cooling influence, such as altitude or cool winds. It is made into both single varietal wines and within blends of other local grape varieties that differ across the regions. Bobal – A black grape variety mainly grown near the east coast of Spain producing red and rosé wines. See further details in Utiel-Requena, in the section Valencia and Murcia. Garnacha Tinta – See Grenache in Black Grape Varieties in The Rhône Valley for more details of this grape variety. In Spain, it produces both red and rosé wines predominantly in the central north and north east including the autonomous communities of Rioja, Navarra, Catalunya and Aragon. From here on Garnacha Tinta will simply be referred to as Garnacha. Note that Garnacha Tintorera is a different grape variety also known as Alicante Bouschet. Macabeo – This white grape is mainly planted in Catalunya where it is used for both still wines, usually for early consumption, and in Cava. It is also the main white variety in Rioja (where it is called Viura) and, although it makes a number of inexpensive neutral wines, it is also a leading component in many premium-priced wines that have been fermented and matured in oak. Monastrell – See Mourvèdre in The Rhône Valley for more details on this grape variety. In Spain, it produces red wines predominantly in the regions around Valencia and Murcia. It is well suited to the warm Mediterranean climate in these regions as it is late ripening and needs heat in the late growing season to become fully ripe. Many of Spain’s other grape varieties will be covered in the entry for the wine region in which they are planted. WINEMAKING Winemaking practices in Spain have evolved considerably in the last 40 years. Youthful, fruity styles of red, white and rosé wines are made protectively, often with fermentation in stainless steel, temperature control and the use of inert gases, cultured yeasts, fining and/or filtration. Some inexpensive and mid-priced young reds may undergo carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration to enhance their fruity character. Temperature-controlled, stainless steel fermentation is also common for premium red and white wines. However, some producers are choosing to use concrete tanks or eggs, and, less commonly but on the increase, amphorae, both for fermentation and storage. Oak maturation is common for red wines, especially those mid-priced and above. Although Spain makes many good and very good unoaked whites, producers often decide to ferment and/or mature their top white wines in oak. White wines that are not matured in oak may be stored on the lees after fermentation to enhance their texture. National ageing legislation specifies the minimum times that wines should spend maturing in oak barrels to be able to use terms such as Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva. The ageing

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legislation for individual DOs may be stricter than the national legislation, but they cannot specify lower minimum ageing requirements. The national legislation also specifies that the oak vessels must be of a maximum capacity of 330 L; again, the legislation for individual DOs can differ in this respect. Red wines Category

Minimum total ageing time (months)

Generic

White and Rosé wines

Minimum time spent in barrel (months)

Minimum total ageing time (months)

Minimum time spent in barrel (months)

No ageing requirement

Crianza

24

6

18

6

Reserva

36

12

24

6

Gran Reserva

60

18

48

6

The legislation purely specifies minimum ageing periods and has been variously criticised both for being too prescriptive but also not prescriptive enough. On one hand, it automatically suggests a hierarchy of excellence, setting an expectation that Gran Reserva will be the highest quality wine and hence that the highest quality wines will be those aged for the longest periods of time in oak and bottle. This may be a true reflection of the wines from many producers yet it is not necessarily appropriate for all styles of wine. On the other hand, no quality requirements are specified for the wines in each category (beyond standard regulations of the denomination), the age or origin of oak is not specified and only a minimum ageing requirement is given (many producers age for far longer than the minimum). The ageing categories therefore provide very little indication of style, quality or value for the consumer. A number of producers have decided not New and older barrels in Ribera del Duero. to use these terms on their wine labels, either because they choose not to meet the criteria of the labelling terms (e.g. ageing their wines in larger vessels than specified, not meeting the minimum time required) or simply because they believe the terms will not benefit the selling potential or marketing of their wine. Although such decisions are made by individual producers, there are some regions where the ageing categories are more commonly seen (e.g. Rioja, Ribera del Duero) and some where they are not (e.g. Bierzo, Priorat). The term roble (the Spanish for oak) is increasingly used, mainly for

Spain

wines, typically red, that have been matured in oak for an unspecified duration, usually less than the requirements for Crianza. The term joven may also be used to denote wines that are released young, often with no or minimal oak ageing. Many regions in Spain traditionally use American oak, originally due to strong trading relationships with America and the fact that it was relatively cheap compared to French oak. American oak is still widely found but the use of French oak has grown, and is particularly prevalent in DOs such as Penedès, Priorat and Ribera del Duero. Generally, winemakers will choose to use one or the other, or to use a blend, depending on the profile of flavours they want in their wines. Rosé wines (rosado) are made in a number of Spanish regions. Similar to red and white wine production, much is inexpensive and sold in bulk. However, especially in recent years, Spain has produced a number of very good quality rosés at mid- and premium price points. A better understanding of vineyard management and harvesting times, improvements in winemaking and a focus on market trends has led to a move away from high alcohol wines with over-ripe, jammy flavours. Classically, Spanish rosés have been deep in colour. The number of pale rosés, made in the style of Provence, has increased in recent years in line with consumer preferences, but there are still many producers who continue to make deeper coloured, fruity rosés, which are made through longer periods of skin contact. Most commonly, Spanish rosés are fermented in stainless steel and bottled soon after, although the most expensive wines may be fermented and matured in oak or stored on their lees to enhance texture and complexity. A small number of producers make rosé in a traditional style, most notably Bodegas López de Heredia. These wines are typically made from a mixture of black and white grapes (mainly black) that are macerated (sometimes beyond the beginning of fermentation), pressed and then fermented together. Often, these wines are matured in oak vessels, sometimes for a long time, which leads to a reduction in fruit flavours but a greater texture and increased complexity from secondary and tertiary flavours. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS In common with other European Union countries, Spain follows a PDO and PGI system for its wines. DO and DOCa/DOQ – Denominación de Origen (DO) is the Spanish term for PDO wines. There are 70 DOs in Spain, and they make up the vast majority of vineyard plantings. Rioja and Priorat are the only two wine regions that have the status of Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa) / Denominació d’Origen Qualificada (DOQ) (the latter term being in Catalan). To apply to be a DOCa/DOQ, the DO must have been established for a minimum of ten years. All wines must also be bottled at the producer’s own property and the denomination must have various quality regulations in place including a tasting assessment by an external panel and a process to audit these extra restrictions and regulations. VP – Vino de Pago (VP) is a category that applies to a small number of single estates with high reputations. The majority are in Castilla-La Mancha, with others in Navarra, Valencia and Aragon. Approved estates may only use their own grapes, which must be vinified and matured on their estate. These wines are also within the PDO category. They should not be confused

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with the Grandes Pagos de España, an association of prestigious estates of which only some are qualified to label their wines as Vino de Pago. VT – Vino de la Tierra (VT) is the term commonly used for PGI wines. There are around 40 VTs in Spain, the largest being Castilla. Vino – This term is used for wines without a geographical indication. The regulations of each denomination are generally set and controlled by their specific Consejo Regulador. This includes maximum yields, permitted grape varieties, vineyard practices such as irrigation, and winemaking regulations (including minimum ageing requirements). Packaging regulations are also specified by each Consejo Regulador. Bottling within the region is specified for the DOCa/DOQs of Rioja and Priorat and the majority of DOs, but not for some others, such as La Mancha, which allows their wines to be shipped in bulk. WINE BUSINESS Typical of a country of many producers with tiny landholdings, production is dominated in many regions by co-operatives, although negociants (who own some land but also buy in grapes) are also common in some regions. Wine estates that are entirely reliant on their own vineyards tend to produce relatively small volumes. The largest wine businesses for still, unfortified wines are J. García Carrión, Félix Solís Avantis, Pernod Ricard Groupe, Miguel Torres SA and Bodegas Martín Códax SA, and many of them have wineries within several regions throughout Spain. Compared to many other major wine producing countries, domestic consumption is low (10.2 million hL per annum).5 In recent years, there has been a trend towards drinking higher quality, higher priced wines, for example, those of DO status, with falling sales of wines without a designation of origin. Spain exports a significant proportion of its wines and is the world’s largest exporter of wine in terms of volume (21 million hL in 2018).6 However, the average price per litre is the lowest of any major exporting country (under half that of Italy and one fifth of that of France). This reflects the large proportion of inexpensive wines produced. Spain is the world’s largest exporter of wine in bulk and, in 2018, this constituted 56 per cent of total exports, with some value within the supply chain consequently going to the foreign bottler than remaining with the Spanish producer.7 Relatively speaking, Spain produces only a handful of super-premium wines and generally the most expensive wines from a region’s leading producers sell at lower prices than those from France and Italy. Unlike those two countries, Spain has not become fashionable on the investment market despite the quality of the top wines. The main export markets in terms of volume are France and Germany, with France making up 24 per cent and Germany 17 per cent of the export market. Both of these markets are important sources for selling inexpensive wines. By comparison, the UK, the USA and China are the next largest markets for volume (yet import a fraction of the volume of France and Germany), but are important markets for higher priced wines, with the USA in particular having a high value to volume ratio.8 Foods and Wines from Spain is the promotional body for the entire country, and aims to increase awareness of the diversity and quality of Spanish products (both food and wine)

Spain

through information, education and promotional activities. Individual DOs and VTs have their own Consejos Reguladores that also play a role in marketing their region’s wines.

20.1. Galicia

The autonomous community of Galicia is located in the north west of Spain. Its proximity to the Atlantic mean many of its wine regions experience cool and wet weather to a greater or lesser extent. RÍAS BAIXAS DO Rías Baixas is the largest DO in Galicia with a production of approximately 250,000 hL per year,9 a considerable growth since 1991 when around 3,500 hL were produced.10 The DO has just over 4000 ha of vines, farmed by around 5,500 grape growers. There are around 170 wineries, ranging from small to very large producers, with co-operatives dominant, of which Bodegas Martín Códax, working with over 300 growers, is the largest producer. After phylloxera, much of the vineyard land was replanted with hybrid varieties and highyielding Palomino vines, and many vineyards were tiny plots of land whose owners would sell on their grapes to local producers; this small-scale grape growing continues across the region today. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, incentives to grow indigenous varieties and modernize winery equipment led to significant improvements in the quality of the wines. Able to provide quality wines, in a desirable style (fresh and fruity) and at an affordable price point, the wines of Rías Baixas quickly became popular, firstly in Spain and latterly within export markets. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Spain’s most westerly DO bordering the Atlantic ocean, Rías Baixas has a distinctly maritime climate. The Atlantic moderates annual temperatures, giving warm summers and mild winters. Annual rainfall is high at an average of 1,700 mm, which falls throughout the year. This means that fungal diseases and rain just prior to harvest are key hazards that can lead to significant vintage variation. Fortunately, with so much rain, the soils (sand over granite bedrock) are free draining, helping to ensure that the roots are not sitting in water. Over 95 per cent of production is from the Albariño grape.11 This grape variety is well suited to the damp climate, having thick skins that make it less prone to damage from rot. It is early to mid-ripening, and hence, with a warming climate and improved viticultural understanding and practices, can become fully ripe in most years. It produces wines that are high in acidity, with medium (–) or medium body, medium levels of alcohol and aromas and flavours of apple, lemon, grapefruit and peach, sometimes with a floral note. In Rías Baixas, Albariño is usually made as a single varietal wine. Other grape varieties permitted, with which it is sometimes blended, include Loureira (early ripening, medium (+) acidity, aromatic citrus, pear, floral and herbal notes), Treixadura (mid-ripening, low acidity, apple and peach flavours) and Caiño Blanco (late ripening, high acidity, citrus flavours). Small volumes of local black grapes, such as Sousón (the same as Vinhão in Vinho Verde across the Portuguese border), Caiño Tinto, are planted for red wines but form only one per cent of production.

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Unusually for a DO, Rías Baixas is made up of five non-contiguous subzones. Val do Salnés is the oldest subzone and has the greatest plantings and concentration of wineries. It is located directly on the coast and is therefore the coolest and wettest area, generally producing the wines with the highest acidity. O Rosal lies along the River Miño as it reaches the ocean. Unsurprisingly, given its position on the border of Portugal (and the Portuguese wine region, Vinho Verde), its wines are often blends of Albariño, Loureira, Treixadura and Caiño Blanco. With south-facing sites on the north bank of the river, it is warmer than Val do Salnés. These factors mean that the wines are slightly lower in acidity with primary flavours depending on the blend of grapes. Condado do Tea is inland from O Rosal and hence even warmer. It tends to produce wines that are riper in style with more peach fruit and slightly lower acidity, hence being easy to drink when young. Ribeira do Ulla is the newest subzone and, as yet, tends to produce inexpensive and mid-priced wines, and Soutomaior is the smallest subzone. In general terms, the white wines from Rías Baixas tend to be high in acidity, with medium (–) or medium body, medium alcohol and aromas and flavours of peach, melon and lemon. They range from good to very good, with some outstanding examples, and mid-priced to premium. Producers known for their quality include Pazo de Senorans and Palacio de Fefiñanes. The pergola (here called parral) remains a popular trellising system, often using granite stone supports in the humid atmosphere. This system was originally used to allow the growth of other agricultural crops underneath. However, the additional benefit for grape growing is

Backyard grape growing using a pergola in Val do Salnés.

Spain

VSP trellising in Val do Salnés. that, when trained relatively high, this system also promotes air circulation under the canopy, reducing the likelihood of fungal diseases. Many of the bigger growers now use VSP trellising, which allows for mechanisation. Winemaking Winemaking is generally protective to retain fresh fruit flavours. The white grapes may be macerated for a few hours to enhance the intensity of the flavours and provide greater texture. Cool fermentation in stainless steel is typical and some producers may encourage at least partial malolactic conversion in cool years to reduce malic acidity rather than to introduce overtly buttery notes. Inexpensive wines may be released early from the winery. More expensive examples are often stored on lees (sobre lias); one to two years being typical, but some wines being stored for longer. Usually, the lees are not stirred (or only occasionally), which could introduce oxygen, and the effect is mainly to the body and texture of the wine although some light creaminess may be evident. A few producers ferment their most expensive wines in oak. The use of oak may vary from entirely large, old oak vessels purely giving texture, to a proportion of new oak, giving toasty, vanilla notes. Wine Business On average, just over a quarter of sales come from exports, a proportion that has increased significantly over the last couple of decades (in 2000, only around one tenth of sales came from exports). The USA is the biggest market, followed by the UK.

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OTHER GALICIAN WINE REGIONS Galicia has a number of other DOs with smaller production volumes than Rías Baixas but which are gaining increasing recognition on international markets. Further from the Atlantic coast, these DOs have less temperate climates with warmer summers and less rainfall than Rías Baixas. They all grow a range of local grape varieties, including those found in nearby Rías Baixas, but Godello and Mencía are arguably the two that are most recognised on export markets. Ribeiro DO Ribeiro DO is the most westerly of these DOs, situated just to the east of southern Rías Baixas. Although slightly more sheltered than Rías Baixas, it still has a maritime climate with temperate conditions and high rainfall. It produces mainly white wines; Treixadura is the most planted variety and made either as a single variety or as the lead component in a white blend with other Galician varieties. It is not unusual for producers to ferment or mature their most expensive wines in oak. Ribeira Sacra DO Further inland, Ribeira Sacra DO follows the valley of the River Miño northwards and of the River Sil eastwards from their confluence. The climate is mainly continental but, depending on the exposure of the site, there can be maritime influences. Many of the vineyards are situated on very precipitous and deep valley sides at various altitudes and aspects. The stony slopes

Vineyards in Ribeira Sacra with the River Sil in the background.

Spain

provide good drainage and conduct heat during the day but make viticulture extremely labour intensive. The most important grape variety for red wines is Mencía (for more details, see Bierzo below). They tend to show red cherry and raspberry fruit, medium body and tannins, and medium (+) acidity. The majority are mid-priced and made in a fresh, early drinking style. Valdeorras DO Valdeorras DO is located further up the River Sil. It is the most easterly of the Galician DOs and has a continental climate, though still plentiful rain (700–1,000 mm per annum). The vineyards are planted at altitudes of approximately 300 m. Despite being renowned for slate mining, the region’s vineyards are planted on a diverse range of soils. Valdeorras has gained a reputation as a producer of good and very good quality Godello, the wines showing citrus and stone fruit, sometimes with a herbal or wet stone character, and generally medium (+) acidity. Premium versions are often fermented and/or matured in oak to lend texture and a toasty, spicy complexity. Mencía is the most important black variety here but relatively little is planted compared to Godello. Monterrei DO Monterrei DO is located some way south of Ribeira Sacra, on the border of Portugal. Being inland and sheltered from ocean influence by the Sierra de Larouca mountains, it has a continental climate with hot summers and relatively low rainfall. Much of the production is inexpensive wine sold in bulk, but the region is starting to make some good quality Mencía, usually in a riper style than those of Ribeira Sacra, and some fruity Godello.

20.2.  Castilla y León

The autonomous community of Castilla y León covers a vast area in the north of Spain. It is made up of a high-altitude plateau (the northern part of the meseta) with mountains to the north and south. As a result, many of its wine regions have continental climates, though with some maritime influences towards the west. Within its boundaries is a number of internationally recognised DOs as well as the large Castilla y León VT. BIERZO DO Until fairly recently Bierzo made rather rustic wines for the local market. It was the arrival of Alvaro Palacios and his nephew Ricardo Pérez in the late 1990s, attracted by the slate slopes in the area (similar to the vineyards that had made their reputations in Priorat), that first demonstrated to the international market that Bierzo could make high quality wines and gave Bierzo winemakers and growers the confidence to strive for quality and higher prices. The Growing Environment, Grape Growing and Winemaking Bierzo is located in the north west of Castilla y León. It is climatically similar to some of the Galician wine regions but, being still further inland, it has warmer summers, cooler winters and lower but still adequate rainfall. The region has mountains or hills on three sides but opens to the west, allowing some maritime influence. Some years can be cool and rainy whereas others can be warm and dry, leading to a marked vintage variation.

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Similar also to some more easterly Galician regions, Mencía is the key black grape, making up 75 per cent of all plantings, with some Godello and other white Galician varieties also grown.12 Mencía is an early to mid-ripening grape variety and can lose its characteristic medium (+) or high acidity and quickly accumulate sugar, resulting in high alcohol wines if picked too late. It can produce wines that range from light bodied and fruity with medium tannins, to more concentrated examples with fuller bodies and higher tannins, depending on the growing conditions and winemaking practices. Mencía must contribute a minimum of 70 per cent to any red wine blend, with Alicante Bouschet (a red-fleshed variety giving deep colour, and red and black berry fruit, also grown in Castilla La Mancha and Galicia) making up the difference. However, only 2 per cent of plantings in Bierzo are Alicante Bouschet and so many wines are made from 100 per cent Mencía.13 The flat plain in the middle of the DO and the lower slopes of the mountains have fertile silty loam soils and tend to be the source of inexpensive or mid-priced wines grown at relatively high yields. These wines are often medium (–) in body and tannins with flavours of red fruits such as raspberry and cherry. They are made for early consumption and sometimes made by carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration. They are usually not matured in oak. These wines are often good quality and mid-priced. The best vineyards are generally considered to be located on the hillside slopes at 500–850 m that have good drainage, and this, together with the shallow, poor slate soils, limits vigour. The altitude of the vineyards is a cooling influence and this, and a large diurnal

A sloped vineyard of bush vines in Bierzo.

Spain

range, helps to slow sugar accumulation and retain acidity while flavours and tannins develop. The steepness of the slopes and the age of some vineyards means that bush vines are most common. The area has a significant proportion of old vines, with around 80 per cent of vineyards in the entire DO estimated to be over 60 years old.14 This, together with poor soils, means that average yields are low and the overall costs of production are high. The wines from the slopes tend to show more concentration than those from the plain, with medium to medium (+) body and tannins, higher alcohol and ripe red cherry and plum fruit, sometimes with a floral or herbal note. They are often matured in oak contributing a spicy character, but care has to be taken not to mask some of Mencía’s more delicate aromas. These wines are often very good to outstanding in quality and are mid-priced to premium, with some super-premium examples. Significant producers include Descendientes de J. Palacios and Raul Perez. Wine Law and Wine Business There can be significant differences in volume produced each year, the annual average over the last 10 vintages being approximately 96,000 hL.15 Almost 3,000 ha is planted, and tended by just over 2,000 growers, many with very small plots. This means that tending or harvesting vineyards by machine is very rare. Almost half of the growers are associated with one of the region’s co-operatives. The region has 75 wineries, a significant proportion of which have been established in the last 10–15 years. In 2017, the Consejo Regulador recognized new classifications within DO Bierzo, based on specific geographic characteristics, that will be used to designate wines sourced exclusively from villages and vineyards of particular note, with significant restrictions on yields compared to the DO. This is similar to the classifications recently introduced in DOQ Priorat.16 TORO DO The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Toro is located in the west of Castilla y León, the River Duero (River Douro in Portugal) running through the region. Located far inland, it has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters which, combined with its altitude (620–750 metres), means that the region has a large diurnal range, with cool nights that help maintain acidity in the grapes. However, without any moderating influences, spring frosts can be a problem. The main grape is Tinta de Toro, considered by some to be a form of Tempranillo that has adapted to the local climate17 and by others to be a separate autochthonous variety of Toro.18 In either case, due to the intensity of the sun, Tinta de Toro is thought to have thicker skins than Tempranillo grown elsewhere in Spain, which results in wines with greater colour and higher tannin levels. Red wines must be a minimum of 75 per cent Tinta de Toro, with the remainder being Garnacha. Rosé (from either Tinta de Toro or Garnacha) and white wines (from Malvasía or Verdejo) can also be made. Rainfall is low and irrigation is not permitted from June until after harvest. To manage the limited water, many vineyards are planted at low density with a low number of bunches per vine (the maximum permitted density of vines is a low 2,700 per hectare). Bush vines make up the vast majority of plantings. Sandy soils in the region mean that phylloxera has not been a problem and many vines are ungrafted. Around one fifth of vines are over 50 years old and there are a number of vines over 100 years old.19

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Sandy soils and low-density planting in Toro. The warm growing season, intense sun and low yields all contribute to producing wines that are deep in colour, full-bodied, often have high alcohol, with high tannins and ripe flavours of blackberry and blueberry, but the cool nights help to deliver medium (+) or even high levels of acidity. Site selection can be important; cooler sites providing slower ripening can be found at the higher-altitude west of the region and by choosing north-facing aspects. Such care must be taken, as the Consejo permits a maximum alcohol of 15% abv for red wines, and lower levels for whites and rosés. Winemaking Inexpensive and mid-priced wines may have undergone carbonic maceration to boost the fruity flavours and extract less tannin, making an approachable, early drinking style. They tend to be of acceptable to good quality. Premium and super-premium wines, which can be of very good or outstanding quality, are matured in oak; the concentration of fruit in these wines able to balance the flavours of high proportions of new oak. Here, both American or French oak (or a mixture) is used. Examples of producers known for their quality include Teso La Monja and Numanthia. Wine Business Toro has a long history of wine production yet it has been somewhat hampered, when compared to other regions, by its location far away from any major cities or ports. However, as Ribera del Duero became increasingly popular and its land prices rose, many investors began to show interest in Toro, its near neighbour. The number of wineries has increased dramatically over the last 20 years, with eight wineries in 199820 to approximately 50 today.21 Almost 96,000 hL of Toro wine was sold in 2016.22

Spain

Ripening Tempranillo grapes. RIBERA DEL DUERO DO The first winery to be established in Ribera del Duero was Vega Sicilia in the late 19th century, and it is still considered to produce some of the highest quality wine in the region. However, until the 1990s, there were very few wineries in Ribera del Duero, after which the number of vineyard plantings and new wineries has exploded. (There were thought to be around nine wineries at the formation of the DO in 1982, but over 280 today.)23 The winery that sparked the change was Alejandro Fernandez’s Pesquera. After these wines started to win international acclaim in the 1980s, many producers, who were until that point sending their grapes to the local co-operatives, were inspired to vinify their grapes to make wines and bottle it under their own labels. Furthermore, the relative proximity of Madrid meant that it soon became popular amongst Spanish fine-wine drinkers. Much investment has also come from wineries in other regions, particularly Catalunya and Rioja. The investment in the area has undoubtedly been positive and has boosted the status of the region as a whole. However, many relatively newly founded wineries are still finding their feet and, with such a rapid expansion of the vineyard area, there is a potential danger that the overall quality of production from the region could be diluted. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Ribera del Duero lies in the upper valley of the River Duero. It has a similar climate to Toro and Rueda to its west, though summers are slightly hotter, winters colder and the vineyards can be even higher in altitude (750–1,000 m). Frosts are a problem and occur both in spring and in autumn, limiting the time that the grapes can be left on the vine and causing serious loss of yield in some years; heaters, vine spraying with water, and occasionally, helicopters are used

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to combat this. Rainfall is relatively low at 400–600 mm; however, irrigation can be used at certain times of the year but not during the ripening period. As in Toro, there is a range of altitudes and aspects, with the eastern side of the appellation being higher and cooler. As many producers grow only, or predominantly, Tempranillo, here called Tinto Fino or Tinta del País, the use of different sites with slight changes in climate or aspect can be useful in gaining balance, complexity and ensuring consistent yields (for example, flat sites and north-facing sites are most at risk of frost). Around half of the vineyards are planted to bush vines, and around a quarter of vineyard plantings are over 50 years old, with a number of vines over 100 years old.24 Newer vineyards are often planted on trellises as these are quicker to establish. The vast majority of growers have plots of under 1 ha. Winemaking and Wine Law The DO used to permit only red and rosé wines to be produced. However, changes to the legislation in 2019 now allow the production of white wines within the DO. The local white variety, Albillo Mayor, must make up at least 75 per cent of any blend. The vast majority of production is red and these must be a minimum of 75 per cent Tempranillo, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Malbec, Garnacha and Albillo (this white variety is thought to contribute freshness to the blend, but, in practice, is rarely used) also permitted. In reality, many wines are made entirely from Tempranillo. The wines tend to be fullbodied, often with high alcohol and ripe flavours of blackberry and plum, with vanilla and chocolate aromas from new oak. French oak is popular, some wineries use a blend of French and American, and it is not uncommon for premium and super-premium wines to be matured in 50–100 per cent new oak. There is a general trend for less extraction, with less time on skins post-fermentation, and/or less new oak amongst quality-focused producers. Overall, the wines of Ribera del Duero tend to be good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to super- premium. As well as Vega Sicilia, significant producers include Dominio de Pingus and Bodegas Aalto. The ageing categories of Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva are commonly used in Ribera del Duero, with Crianza by far the most produced and Gran Reserva quite rare. The majority of wine is however labelled without an ageing category specified.25 Wine Business In recent years, sales have ranged from approximately 600,000–700,000 hL.26 In 2019, almost 20 per cent of production was exported, with the main markets (by volume) being Switzerland, Mexico, the USA, Germany and China.27 RUEDA DO In marked contrast to Toro to the west and Ribera del Duero to the east, Rueda produces almost entirely white wines. Until around 50 years ago, Rueda produced oxidative fortified wines, a style no longer favoured by consumers (although a few producers continue to make these traditional wines). In the early 1970s, the Marqués de Riscal winery in Rioja correctly considered that the local Verdejo grape could make the fresh, fruity white wines that consumers were starting to demand, if it was handled protectively and fermented in temperature-controlled stainless steel. Their investment in Rueda was the catalyst for

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the region’s transformation, as many other producers followed this lead, and this style of winemaking is now synonymous with the region. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Rueda has a similar climate to Toro and Ribera del Duero, with hot, dry summers, cold winters and low rainfall. The vineyards are at 700–800 m altitude, resulting in cool nights that help to retain acidity in the grapes. The bedrock in the region is limestone, with a sandy clay sub-layer and then a topsoil of stones (though in some areas the topsoil is sand). This tends to be free draining and low in organic matter, reducing the vigour of the vines. The key grape variety is Verdejo. It is relatively drought tolerant and therefore able to withstand the lack of rainfall in the region. It produces wines with medium to medium (+) acidity, medium alcohol and apple, pear and peach characteristics often with a herbal note (fennel) and a slight bitterness on the finish. Sauvignon Blanc is the next most important grape variety and can either be blended with Verdejo or be made as a single varietal wine. New vineyards tend to be VSP trellised. Harvesting at night is desirable, allowing the grapes to be picked and transported at the coolest temperatures, and trellising makes this possible. However, there are also some very old bush vines (including some on sandy soils that predate the outbreak of phylloxera) which account for around 10 per cent of the planted area and have not been grubbed up due to the quality of their fruit.28

A mixture of old bush vines and VSP trellising in Rueda. Winemaking and Wine Law The most inexpensive wines are generally made in a protective way, with cool fermentation in stainless-steel vessels, and are bottled to be sold soon after. As in much of Spain’s white wine production, cultured yeasts are generally used for their reliability and ability to promote the fruity flavours of the wines. Quality levels are generally acceptable to good. Mid-priced wines tend to have undergone a period of lees ageing (from a few months up to one year), often with regular lees stirring, which brings body and texture to the wine, and can often be of

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good quality. Frequently, the most expensive Rueda in a producer’s range, which is usually still mid-priced, is fermented and/or matured in oak, potentially bringing body and texture as well as aromatic complexity from toasty, smoky notes. Malolactic conversion is generally avoided in all styles to retain acidity. These wines are often good or very good in quality; significant producers include Ossian and Bodega Belondrade y Lurton. To be labelled as either Verdejo or Sauvignon Blanc, the wines must contain at least 85 per cent of the named grape variety. However, it is common for wines to be made entirely from the named grape variety. DO Rueda can be used for blends that do not meet the requirements for varietal labelling. However, in reality many producers use DO Rueda, rather than DO Rueda-Verdejo, to denote their least expensive wine even if it could legally be labelled as DO Rueda-Verdejo. A small proportion of red and rosé wines is also produced, mainly from Tempranillo. However, with a number of nearby appellations, such as Ribera del Duero and Toro, producing mainly red wines, local competition is high. Wine Business The vineyard area has seen exponential growth in the last twenty years. From 2000 to 2019, production volumes have almost quadrupled.29 The fruity, crisp early drinking style of the wines, together with an inexpensive price point, has been extremely popular on both the domestic and global markets. However, competition from other regions and countries making this style of wine is high and Rueda producers are increasingly looking to produce wines of higher quality and with more character. Sales of Rueda wines have increased substantially over the last 20–30 years. In the 20 years from 1997 to 2016, sales by value have increased almost seven-fold.30 This has mainly been driven by increased sales in the domestic market but sales in export markets have also grown. In 2018, out of total sales of approximately 616,000 hL, just over 80,000 hL were exported.31 The top export markets (by volume) are the Netherlands, Germany, USA and Switzerland.32 Whilst around 60 per cent of total output is made by producers local to the area, a significant proportion comes from wineries owned by companies based outside the region; for example, a number of Rioja and Ribera del Duero producers have a Rueda as a white wine in their portfolio.33 CASTILLA Y LEÓN VT Castilla y León VT covers the autonomous community of the same name. The land is on the northern part of the meseta and is protected from any Atlantic influence to the north by mountains. It has a continental climate with summer temperatures moderated by altitude. A large number of different grape varieties, both local and international, is permitted. The VT permits producers located outside the DO boundaries to produce wine with a geographical indication. It also allows producers who are located within any DO boundaries to make wines in styles or from grape varieties that are not permitted in their DO. Although the VT covers a large area, the actual vineyard plantings for VT wines is relatively low at almost 9,000 ha, whereas the DO vineyards within its boundaries make up over 63,000 ha. Although many of the wines are inexpensive or mid-priced, there are also some premium examples.

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20.3. Rioja

Rioja is Spain’s most well-known wine region and a significant producer of good to outstanding quality wines at price points from inexpensive to super-premium. There is a large number of globally recognised producers, some of which are mentioned below. (A brief history of Rioja has already been covered in the general introduction to Spain.) THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate and Vineyard Management The Rioja DOCa is located in the north of Spain. It is to the north-east of the main DOs in Castilla y León and is bordered to the east by the DO of Navarra. The DOCa is 100 km long running in a north-west to south-east direction along the path of the River Ebro, and reaches approximately 40 km wide in places. To the north is the Sierra de Cantabria, protecting Rioja from the worst of the Atlantic weather, and to the south, the Sierra de la Demanda (part of the Sistema Ibérico, the mountain range on the north-east edge of the meseta) sheltering the vineyards from weather from the warmer centre of the country. By comparison, the valley of the Ebro, as it flows towards the Mediterranean broadly from the higher north-west to the lower south-east of the region, is relatively open and hence, while Rioja is far from the coast, its eastern side gains some Mediterranean influence. Although the River Ebro is the largest river in the region, it has several tributaries, their valleys providing vineyard sites with varying aspects and soils. Most of Rioja’s vineyards lie in the autonomous community of La Rioja but also with some in the province of Alava in the Basque country and a smaller number in the province of

RR.. Ebro Ebro

42˚30’N 42˚30’N

Á LLAVA AVA Á

RIOJA RIOJA ALAVESA ALAVESA AVARRRRAA NNAVA

RIOJA RIOJA ALTA Logroño Logroño ALTA

A RRIIO OJJAA LL A

42˚30’N 42˚30’N

RIOJA RIOJA ORIENTAL ORIENTAL

RIOJA 42˚00’N 42˚00’N 00

42˚00’N 42˚00’N

20

00

40 20 20

60 60 Km Km 40 40Miles Miles

N N

2000m+ 2000m+

1000-2000m 1000-2000m

200-500m 200-500m

0-200m 0-200m

750-1000m 750-1000m

500-750m 500-750m

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Vineyards in Rioja Alavesa with the Sierra de Cantabria in the background. Navarra. More notably however, Rioja is divided into three zones; Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa and Rioja Oriental (which can now also appear as labelling terms, see Wine Law and Regulations). It is possible to make broad generalisations on the climates of these zones but the topography and soils are generally so varied that it has been suggested that a re-mapping and renaming of Rioja’s zones could be helpful. Rioja Alta – This is the largest zone, lying predominantly to the south of the River Ebro and to the west of the city of Logroño. It is generally continental with some maritime influences. The area around the Ebro is at relatively low altitudes, and hence relatively warm, with a range of alluvial soils. The north west corner of the zone is cooler and wetter and the soils are calcareous clay. The southern part of the zone is at altitudes of 700 m, it is relatively cool and wet and has patches of ferrous clay. Rioja Alavesa – This is the smallest zone and lies to the west of the city of Logroño but to the north of the River Ebro, directly corresponding to the vineyards in the Basque country. It is relatively cool and wet, similar to the north west of Rioja Alta. The vineyards are located up to around 700 m and the soils are calcareous clay. Rioja Oriental – This zone is only slightly smaller than Rioja Alta and lies to the east of the city of Logroño, both north and south of the Ebro. It was originally called Rioja Baja, describing the position of this zone further down the course of the River Ebro, but as it also means ‘low’, this was thought to have negative connotations about the quality of the wines. The northern part of Rioja Oriental around the River Ebro is relatively low altitude and is the warmest and driest area in Rioja. To the south of the zone, vineyards are located at 500–1000 m in altitude and, at the highest altitudes, average temperatures can be just as cool as those in the Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa. Here, soils are a mixture of calcareous clay and ferrous clay.

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Low altitude, flat vineyards in the northern part of Rioja Oriental. Over the last few decades, climate change has made high altitude vineyards more viable, whereas previously grapes would struggle to ripen. The area most at risk from climate change is thought to be the low altitude vineyards in Rioja Oriental, which is already warm and suffers from drought. Vintage variation can be marked, as, in any year, parts of Rioja may receive more or less influence from the Atlantic (bringing cooler, wetter weather) and the Mediterranean (bringing warmer, drier weather). However, it is difficult to generalise any vintage characteristics over such a large and varied region. Some producers aim to produce consistent products year on year, where blending can be an important part of attaining such consistency, whereas other producers look to make wines that represent the vintage. There are currently just over 64,000 ha of vineyards, an increase of 50 per cent compared to plantings in 1990, and a figure that is still growing gradually. Production is around 3 m hL.34 When Spain joined the EU, funds became available for restructuring of vineyards and now a significant proportion are trellised with VSP, making mechanisation more viable. However, Rioja also has considerable plantings of old bush vines, some being over 100 years old. Black Grape Varieties Rioja is dominated by plantings of black grape varieties (almost 90 per cent).35 Tempranillo – This is by far the most planted grape, making up 88 per cent of plantings of black grape varieties. Its dominance is a relatively recent phenomenon as, 50 years ago, there was greater diversity in the grape varieties planted, with similar sizes of plantings of Tempranillo and Garnacha. However, Tempranillo’s ability to reliably produce larger yields (especially if quantity rather than quality is the focus) meant many Garnacha vines, especially in Rioja Oriental, were replanted with Tempranillo. The legalisation of irrigation compounded this action, as Garnacha’s suitability to drought conditions became less important. Nowadays, quality-minded

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producers in Rioja Oriental have begun to replant Garnacha, which is considered to be better suited to the warm, dry conditions than early ripening Tempranillo. By comparison, Tempranillo is well suited to the Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa, where it is generally able to ripen even in cooler, high altitude sites with cool clay soils. It is the dominant component in most red Rioja, providing raspberry and black plum fruit with medium to medium (+) levels of tannins and acidity. Some producers choose to make single varietal Tempranillo Rioja rather than blend it with the other permitted grapes. Garnacha – This is the second most planted grape variety, but only makes up around 8 per cent of plantings of black grape varieties. As noted previously, it is particularly well suited to the warm, dry conditions of Rioja Oriental. In blends it provides ripe strawberry fruit, with lower tannins and a fuller body than many of the other grape varieties. Graciano – This is a late ripening grape variety. It is drought resistant, but only produces small yields and is susceptible to fungal diseases. It contributes high acidity and tannin and fresh black fruit flavours to a Rioja blend. It is occasionally produced as a single varietal wine. It makes up just over 2 per cent of plantings of black grape varieties. Mazuelo – Also called Cariñena and, outside of Spain, Carignan (for more details, see South of France). In Rioja, it can be used to contribute high acidity to the blend. As with Graciano, it makes up just over 2 per cent of plantings of black grape varieties and is very occasionally produced as a single varietal wine. Maturana Tinta – Also called Trousseau (for more details, see Jura). Maturana Tinta became a permitted variety in Rioja in 2009 and plantings are tiny but increasing. It contributes a deep purple colour, high acidity and fresh cranberry and blackberry flavours to the blend. Cabernet Sauvignon is also permitted but plantings are very small. White Grape Varieties A range of local and international grape varieties is permitted in the production of white Rioja. The most important are: Viura – Also called Macabeo in other areas of Spain, and Macabeu in Roussillon. Viura is the most planted white grape in Rioja, making up around 70 per cent of plantings of white grape varieties (equating to around 6.5 per cent of total plantings in Rioja). It is late budding, late ripening and susceptible to botrytis and therefore is best suited to warm, dry sites. It is a relatively neutral grape variety and can make a broad range of styles. When grown at high yields and fermented in stainless steel it can produce simple whites for early consumption. However, when grown for lower yields and matured in oak vessels, it can produce concentrated, complex wines with long ageing potential. Tempranillo Blanco – This white mutation of Tempranillo was first discovered in 1988 and became a permitted variety for Rioja in 2004. Plantings have risen quickly and it now makes up approximately 13 per cent of white plantings, making it the second most planted white grape variety in Rioja. It produces wines with high acidity and flavours of lemon, grapefruit and pineapple.

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Malvasía and Garnacha Blanca are typically used as blending components to add a greater diversity of flavours (and acidity in the case of Garnacha Blanca), generally in oak-matured mid-priced and premium wines. Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc are made either into single varietal wines or lend aromas to blends with Viura typically in inexpensive unoaked styles. WINEMAKING Winemaking for Red Wines Rioja makes a variety of styles of red wine, made possible through the blending of different grape varieties, the selection of different vineyard areas, and the use of differing winemaking techniques, in particular for extraction and maturation. Ageing regulations have had a significant impact on the styles of Rioja available on the market and continue to do so. The presence of such regulations led to a standard branding hierarchy with young wines at the bottom (least expensive and supposedly of lowest quality) and the oldest wines at the top (most expensive and supposedly of highest quality). The regulations of the Rioja Consejo not only specify minimum ageing to be labelled Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva but also that only 225 L barriques can be used. However, the regulations for these age categories only specify ageing requirements, whilst practices in the vineyard and winery that may be conducive to quality are not stipulated. Therefore, even though two producers’ Gran Reserva wines will have been aged in barriques for a minimum of two years, and in bottle for a further three years, they can still be very different in style, quality and price.

Barriques in Rioja.

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In the 1990s, a handful of producers launched premium wines, labelling them without an ageing category, and so fitting into the category of ‘generic wine’ which does not specify any ageing requirements. Low yields and selected parcels of vines were used to make very ripe-fruited, concentrated and structured wines that had been aged in new French oak. These wines, often termed vinos de autor, were a significant step away from many of the wines made in the previous decades that did not focus so much on concentration and extraction and underwent long ageing (often much longer than the minimum ageing requirements) in American oak, resulting in wines with aromas of dried fruit, mushroom, cured meats, vanilla and coconut. Whilst these two stylistic camps still exist in Rioja today, the majority of wines could be said to sit somewhere between these two extremes. The common trend is to highlight the characteristics and quality of the grapes. This is achieved by producers in various ways including selection of harvest dates (often earlier), more gentle extraction, use of older and/ or larger oak vessels or other vessels such as concrete tanks or amphorae, and shorter maturation periods. Producers choose whether to follow the ageing regulations and release their wines labelled within an ageing category or not. French oak is now more common than American oak, though there are still some producers who use only American oak and even more that may use a proportion of American oak in a blend. Due to the structure of the industry, with many small growers, relatively few wineries and a large number of co-operatives, blending parcels of grapes from various parts of the DOCa has long been a feature of winemaking in Rioja, and remains a necessity especially for large producers. Often, blending of grapes or wine from different zones is desirable to create a certain style and quality; Garnacha is arguably best suited to growing in Rioja Oriental whereas Tempranillo is often of higher quality from Rioja Alta and Alavesa, and hence very good and outstanding Tempranillo-Garnacha blends may often be made from grapes across the DOCa. However, there are many producers who make wines from a single grape variety (usually Tempranillo) and a number that make at least one single vineyard wine. With new regulations allowing the name of a vineyard, village or zone to appear on the label (see Wine Law and Regulations), it remains to be seen what the reaction of the producers and the market will be. Winemaking for White Wines It is perhaps easier to categorise white Rioja into different styles, though outliers do exist. Much inexpensive white Rioja is made in a simple, unoaked style for early drinking. It is handled using protective winemaking techniques, fermented to dryness at cool temperatures in stainless steel, and then bottled soon after. Wines made from high yields of Viura can be relatively neutral with medium acidity, but grape varieties such as Verdejo, Tempranillo Blanco and Sauvignon Blanc, either in a blend with Viura or as single varietal wines, can provide more flavour intensity and acidity. These wines tend to be of acceptable to good quality. Mid-priced and premium white Rioja tends to be made in an oaked style. Until relatively recently, many of these wines were made in an oxidative style and, without much fruit or fresh acidity, these wines did not appeal to modern consumers. However, in the last five to ten years, these wines have dramatically changed. Oak maturation is still used but these wines are now more balanced and fresher. Viura is the main grape variety, often grown at lower yields to give more concentration and body. More minor varieties such as Malvasía and Garnacha Blanca are sometimes blended in, giving a greater range of flavours. The wines tend to have

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medium (+) body and acidity, with subtle citrus fruit and some smoky and nutty complexity from oak. They are generally of good or very good quality, though outstanding wines exist. Two wineries release very old bottlings of white wines in the classic oxidative style, namely Castillo Ygay from Marqués de Murrieta and Viña Tondonia Gran Reserva from López de Heredia. These wines sell for super premium prices and are of outstanding quality, with intense, complex tertiary notes of nuts, honey and dried fruits balanced by high acidity. Winemaking for Rosé Wines Rioja makes a small volume of rosé wines, but some of these are amongst the highest quality and most expensive in Spain. They tend to be made from Tempranillo or Garnacha and are made in all of the styles described within Winemaking in Introduction to Spain. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS Rioja’s wine laws have undergone a number of changes in recent years. Rioja had long been a PDO without further geographical delimitations. Although the sub-zones of Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa and Rioja Oriental may be familiar to wine enthusiasts, these terms could not be mentioned on Rioja’s wine labels. Single vineyards or villages could also not be named. Growing discontent with this situation amongst a number of producers caused the Consejo Regulador to address the situation. For instance, renowned producer Artadi had left the DOCa at the end of 2015 and, just after, the Basque Asociación de Bodegas de Rioja Alavesa (ABRA) proposed the creation of a separate classification of Viñedos de Alava. This prompted the Consejo Regulador to review their regulations; new legislation was approved in 2017 and published in 2018, meaning that producers who meet the new specifications can now label their wines with any of the following: Vino de Zona – All grapes must be sourced from the single zone named (Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa or Rioja Oriental). One exception is that 15 per cent of the grapes may come from a vineyard outside the zone, providing that vineyard borders the zone mentioned and the producer can provide evidence that they have been sourcing grapes from the vineyard for 10 consecutive years. Vinification, ageing and bottling of the wine must take place within the zone. Wine labels may indicate the zone of production. Vino de Municipio – All grapes must be sourced from the municipality (such as a village or group of villages) named, with a similar 15 per cent rule allowing grapes to be sourced from a municipality that borders the named municipality, if grapes have been sourced from there for 10 consecutive years. Vinification, ageing and bottling of the wine must take place within the named municipality, meaning that a producer must have a winery in that municipality for wines to be labelled in this way. This differs from, say, Burgundy where the wines of many different communes can be vinified in the same winery. Wine labels may indicate the municipality of production, with the option of the zone of production. Viñedo Singular (Single Vineyard) – All grapes must be sourced from particular vineyards or estates that constitute the formal Viñedo Singular. Vinification, ageing, storage and bottling must take place within the same winery. The producer must have owned the vineyard for a minimum of 10 years, the vineyard must be a minimum of 35 years old, and yields must respect specified maximum levels. The vineyard must be hand harvested and treated in a sustainable

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way, with some restrictions on pruning during the growing season. Checks on traceability will be carried out and the wine must be authorised by a tasting panel. Wine labels may indicate the municipality and zone of production as well as the vineyard/ estate and the phrase Viñedo Singular. It is too soon to tell whether such legislation will be a success, both with producers and with consumers. These geographical delimitations sit alongside the traditional ageing categories. In Rioja, the required period of time in oak vessels must take place in barrels of 225 L (barriques). Red wines Category

Minimum total ageing time (months)

Minimum time spent in barrel (months)

Generic

White and Rosé wines Minimum time spent in bottle (months)

Minimum time spent in barrel (months)

No ageing requirement 24

12

none

Reserva

36

12

Gran Reserva

60

24

Crianza

Minimum total ageing time (months)

(from 1st October of year of harvest)

24

6

6

24

6

24

48

6

(from 1st October of year of harvest)

(There is no stipulation for minimum time spent in bottles for white and rosé wines.) WINE BUSINESS Similar to many other Spanish regions, Rioja is largely made up of small vineyard plots. Over 50 per cent of the surface area is made up of vineyards of 1 ha or less and over 75 per cent of the surface area is made up of 2 ha or less.36 Almost 15,000 grape growers farm the 64,841 ha of vineyard land and over 40 per cent of these grape growers sell wines to one of the co-operatives in the region.37 Much wine made in co-operatives is sold on to merchant businesses although some co-operatives sell at least a proportion of their wine under their own brand. In terms of wine production, Rioja has wineries of all sizes. There is a handful of very large producers (the top 10 producers make up over 40 per cent of sales of the region) and yet around 80 per cent (287) of producers sell small volumes, constituting just 12 per cent of the sales.38 Many producers are also merchants, perhaps owning some of their own vineyards, but mainly buying in grapes and newly made wine. Total sales of Rioja wines are generally slowly increasing. Whilst the domestic market has remained relatively constant, growth has come from export markets.39 Exports made up approximately 37 per cent of sales volumes in 2018 and the key export markets were the UK, Germany and the USA.

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On the Spanish market, Crianza is the most popular style of red wine, whereas more Reserva and Gran Reserva wines are sold on export markets, with large quantities of ‘generic’ wines are sold on both. Sales of white and rosé wines are rapidly growing, particularly on export markets, albeit from a small base. The average bottle price of Rioja wines is substantially higher than the average bottle price of Spanish DO wines in general. However, the average prices for Rioja are much below those for wines from the most prestigious regions in France and Italy. With relatively cheap vineyard land and cheap prices for grapes grown on some of the warmer, flatter areas of the region, there is much good value, inexpensive Rioja. There are many Rioja wines selling at premium prices, but few at super-premium prices, and there is a relatively small investment market. The Consejo Regulador puts strong emphasis on the marketing of Rioja wines, using PR companies in local markets to organise Rioja-focused tastings for trade and consumers and ensure media listings. The key message is to highlight Rioja’s value for money as well as its diversity. A few producer groups have formed to better promote the wines of like-minded producers and highlight the diversity of Rioja’s wineries and wines. Bodegas Familiares de Rioja is a group of around 40 small and medium-sized producers who promote their wines under this heading and campaign on issues that particularly effect small producers, such as the minimum stock holding (22,500 L) for wineries registered to age wine for release as Crianza, Reserva, Gran Reserva. Rioja ’n’ Roll is a group of relatively small, first- generation producers who are focused on quality wines from particular vineyard sites, working in collaboration to promote their wines and a different perspective of Rioja. A further group based in Alava, in the Basque country, are leading a campaign to break away from La Rioja.

20.4. Navarra

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The autonomous community of Navarra is situated directly to the north-east of La Rioja. The wine region, Navarra DO, covers around half of this area, extending 100 km southwards from Pamplona, although actual vineyard plantings are much lower than those of Rioja at 11,000 ha.40 Its location and size mean there are many climatic influences including both the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea and the Pyrenees to the north east. The DO has five sub-regions. In the north of the DO, the hilly sub-regions of Baja Montaña, Valdizarbe and Tierra Estella run east to west. These are the cooler and wetter areas with influences from the Atlantic in the north west (though diffused somewhat by mountains to the north of Navarra) and from the Pyrenees in the north east. Ribera Alta in the middle of the region and Ribera Baja is in the south of the region are progressively warmer, drier and flatter. GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND WINE STYLES When compared to many other Spanish regions, Navarra grows a wide range of grape varieties. This is a relatively recent trend as, until around 40 years ago, by far the most planted grape variety was Garnacha, generally used to produce deep-coloured rosé wines. On the back of a government-funded research programme in the 1970s, it was decided that the DO should promote red wines made from Tempranillo (now the most planted grape), and later, in

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the 1980s, the Consejo Regulador permitted international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay. Of these varieties, Tempranillo is often made as a single varietal wine whereas Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are usually part of a red blend with Tempranillo and sometimes Garnacha. A range of styles are made from fruity, lighter-bodied, early drinking wines to fuller- bodied, more concentrated wines that will typically be matured in oak barrels for a year or more; the ageing categories of Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva are widely used. Both French and American oak are common, with French more typical for Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and American more usual for Tempranillo. Chardonnay is the principal white grape and tends to show citrus and peach fruit, medium alcohol and medium to medium (+) acidity, being made in both unoaked and oaked styles. Moscatel de Grano Menudo (Muscat Blanc à Petits Vineyards in the Tierra Estella subregion. Grains), Sauvignon Blanc, Viura and Malvasía are also grown. Views are mixed on whether such diversity is a benefit or whether Navarra should focus on a signature grape. A number of critics and producers feel that Garnacha is the grape with the highest quality potential in Navarra, especially from old bush vine plantings. When made as a single varietal red wine, Garnacha is able to make lighter bodied wines with red berry fruit and medium (+) acidity in the cooler Baja Montaña, Valdizarbe and Tierra Estella to fullerbodied, more tannic examples in the warmer Ribera Baja. Significant volumes of medium to deep coloured, dry rosé wines are still produced from Garnacha, sometimes in a blend with Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, with the grapes sourced mainly from the cooler, more northerly sub-regions. Navarra DO wines must be made by a short maceration on the skins; direct pressing is not permitted. This maceration may typically last for 3–4 hours for paler-coloured wines and 6–12 hours for more deeply coloured versions. Most rosé is fermented in stainless steel and bottled soon after to retain red berry fruit flavours. Some producers choose to ferment and/or mature their wines in barrels. Overall, the wines of Navarra range from good to very good quality, and occasionally outstanding. Without having the same prestige as the DO/DOCa wines of Rioja and Ribera del Duero, prices tend to be inexpensive to mid-priced, with some premium wines. Significant producers include Domaines Lupier and Bodegas J. Chivite. As with neighbouring Rioja, this is a region of small vineyard holdings (although nothing like as small as found in Rías Baixas) and many growers sell their wines to co-operatives.

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20.5. Aragon

There are four principal wine regions in the autonomous community of Aragon. Cariñena, Campo de Borja and Calatayud are in the west of Aragon, relatively near to the city of Zaragoza, whereas Somontano is to the north-east, close to the border of Catalunya and with a very different climate. CARIÑENA DO, CAMPO DE BORJA DO AND CALATAYUD DO Located far inland, these three DOs have warm continental climates with hot dry summers; maximum annual rainfall tends to be 450–500 mm. The vineyards are generally located on high altitude plateaus and slopes that moderate the daytime temperatures somewhat; 500– 900 m for Calatayud, 400–800 m for Cariñena, and 350–700 m for Campo de Borja. The altitude also gives a high diurnal range and helps to retain acidity in the grapes. A cold wind called the cierzo blows from the north, which further moderates temperatures and leads to slower ripening. All three DOs mainly produce red wines, with each having substantial plantings of old Garnacha vines, the principal variety. A lack of precipitation and rocky free draining soils means vineyards are generally made up of bush vines planted at low densities. The dry and windy conditions mean pests and diseases are rarely problematic; however, spring frosts can be an issue, reducing yields in some years. Vineyard holdings are small and the number of wineries low, with co-operatives being the major producers. The majority of production is of high volume, inexpensive red wines for early drinking, which tend to be fermented at moderate temperatures in stainless steel and bottled soon after. The wines are generally medium to full-bodied with high alcohol, medium tannins and ripe red and black fruits. However, a handful of small, quality focused wineries making very good wines from old-vine Garnacha are helping to transform the image of these DOs. These producers generally aim to showcase the quality of fruit from their vines and therefore, even for premium wines, the time in oak will be relatively limited, and larger barrels/vessels (500 L and bigger) or high proportions of old oak may be used. These wines often show concentrated raspberry and plum fruit, with subtle spicy notes from oak, medium (+) acidity, medium to medium (+) tannins and high alcohol. They are usually mid or Bush-vine Garnacha in Calatayud. premium priced.

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SOMONTANO DO Set apart from the other Aragon DOs, Somontano is located at the foot of the Pyrenees. It has a warm continental climate, but rainfall is slightly higher than that in Cariñena, Campo de Borja and Calatayud and more evenly spread throughout the year. The vineyards are generally found at 350–650 m, the altitude of the highest vineyards slightly lowering daytime temperatures and giving a large diurnal range. Cold breezes coming down from the Pyrenees further moderate temperatures. Somontano grows a wide range of grape varieties, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay being the most planted. Unusual for a Spanish wine region, there are also significant plantings of Gewürztraminer. External investment has been important for the development of Somontano. Until around 40 years ago there was only a handful of producers but now there are over 30.41 The first investment came from a local bank which created a modern, high-technology winery, now known as Viñas del Vero. It is the largest producer in the region, and since 2008 owned by González Byass of Jerez. Barbadillo, also a Sherry producer, now own a major share of the co-operative. The majority of wines from Somontano tend to be mid-priced, and are good or very good examples of the grape varieties from which they are made. The issue continues to be competition from the large number of other, perhaps better known regions across the world that also produce wines from the same grape varieties.

20.6. Catalunya FRANCE FRANCE PP

yy

rr

MEDITERRANEAN MEDITERRANEAN

ANDORRA ANDORRA

ee

nn

SPAIN

ee

ee

SEA SEA

ss

42˚N 42˚N

COSTERS COSTERS DEL DEL SEGRE SEGRE

42˚N 42˚N

Lleida Lleida

CATALUNYA CATALUNYA DO DO PENEDÈS PENEDÈS

RR.. EEbbrroo

MONTSANT MONTSANT 41˚N 41˚N

Barcelona Barcelona

CATALUNYA

Tarragona Tarragona

41˚N 41˚N

PRIORAT PRIORAT 00 00

2000m+ 2000m+

1000-2000m 1000-2000m

100-200m 100-200m

0-100m 0-100m

500-1000m 500-1000m

20 20

40 40 20 20

60 60 40 40

200-500m 200-500m

80 80

100 100 Km Km 60 60 Miles Miles

N N

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The autonomous community of Catalunya is located in the north east of Spain. Its eastern border is the Mediterranean coast and this proximity to the sea along with altitude inland are the major influences on the region’s climate. Similar to Somontano and Navarra nearby, Catalunya grows a higher proportion of international varieties (generally coming from nearby France) than many other areas of Spain. It has also been at the forefront of changes to and innovations in grape growing and winemaking in the last few decades. Barcelona provides a large local market for the wines. Catalunya has a total of 11 DOs and one DOQ, the most important of which are described below. Catalunya also has its own scheme for exceptional wines from single estates. Providing strict specifications are met, including a restriction on yields and a minimum length of time for the wine to be established in the market, these wines may be labelled Vi de Finca. CATALUNYA DO Catalunya DO applies to grapes grown anywhere in the autonomy of Catalunya. It is widely used, especially by the largest producers for their inexpensive and mid-priced wines (for example, Torres Viña Sol). Not only does it allow more freedom than other smaller DOs in terms of where grapes can be sourced and the range of international and local grape varieties that are permitted, but also Catalunya is a more widely recognised name in export markets than, for example, Penedès. PENEDÈS DO Penedès DO covers a diverse area of land stretching from the Mediterranean coast, just down from Barcelona, to the mountains inland and makes a range of various wine styles, including the sparkling wine, Cava. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Overall, Penedès has a warm Mediterranean climate. However, the DO can be broadly divided into three zones with different topography and climatic influences. This climatic diversity allows the wide assortment of grape varieties permitted by the DO to be grown. White grape varieties make up around 80 per cent of plantings.42 Xarel-lo, Macabeo and Parellada are the most planted grape varieties of either colour and are used both for Cava, other local sparkling wine and for still white wines, often blended together. There are also sizeable plantings of Chardonnay and smaller amounts of many different varieties including Moscatel (both Muscat of Alexandria and Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains), Sauvignon Blanc, Gewurztraminer and Riesling. Merlot is the most planted black grape variety, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo, Pinot Noir, Syrah and other permitted varieties. The three climatic zones, running from the Mediterranean to further inland, are: •

•

Penedès Marítim lies between the sea and the coastal range of hills. Due to the low altitude and proximity to the sea it has a warm climate without temperature extremes. It is typically a source of full-bodied red wines from late ripening varieties such as Monastrell. Some Xarel-lo, Macabeo and Parellada is also grown here, generally for inexpensive still wines. Penedès Central lies on the relatively flat plains, known as the Pre-Coastal Depression, between the coastal range and the inland mountains. The vineyards are still at moderately

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Trellised and bush vine vineyards in Penedès.

•

high altitudes compared to Penedès Marítim, reaching up to around 500 m, providing some cooling influence. Large plantings of Xarel-lo, Macabeo and Parellada are found here, as well as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo and Chardonnay. Penedès Superior is located at altitudes of 500–800 m in the inland mountains (between Montserrat and the Montmell). The altitude provides a cooling influence during the day and a high diurnal range but spring frost is often a problem. The cool conditions mean that white grape varieties such as Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc, as well as small amounts of Riesling and Gewürztraminer, are grown here, becoming ripe while retaining acidity. Pinot Noir is also grown in this area.

Rainfall is around 500 mm per annum with the driest period in the summer. Irrigation can be used if vines are suffering from lack of water but authorisation must be gained from the Consejo Regulador. The soils are generally loamy with some calcareous components, and generally can store enough water through the ripening period. A number of vineyards, particularly the largest, are trellised allowing mechanisation, but there are also many plots of bush vines. Winemaking Penedès was one of the first places in Spain to modernise its wine production practices in the 1960s and 70s, led by the example of Dijon-educated Miguel Torres (as described in the introduction to Spain). The introduction of temperature-controlled fermentation in stainless

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steel meant Penedès quickly became known as a source of clean, fruity wines, both aromatic white wines and fruity, early- drinking reds. More expensive red wines and some Chardonnay will often be matured in oak, usually French. The wines are usually good to very good in quality, and inexpensive to mid-priced, with a number of premium wines. Wine Law and Wine Business In the last few years, Penedès, like a number of other Spanish DOs, has introduced more precise zoning of its vineyard area and ten sub-zones have been mapped based on geographical and cultural parameters. Wine producers are able to label their wines with a subzone providing certain specifications are met, for example, 100 per cent of the grapes used must come from vineyards in the sub-zone and have been grown organically. Almost 30 per cent of the wines from Penedès DO are exported; the largest markets are Germany, Canada, Switzerland, China and the USA.43 Sales in Catalunya make up around 90 per cent of domestic market sales. Nearby Barcelona provides a major source of consumers as well as a hub from which wine tourists can easily visit the region. PRIORAT DOQ Priorat has a long history of winemaking, with Carthusian monks starting to plant vineyards and make wine in the 12th century. However, it is only in the last few decades that Priorat wines have received international recognition. A lack of easy access, challenging topography and some extremes of weather have always made viticulture in Priorat difficult and, at the end of the 19th century, the outbreak of phylloxera and growth of the textile industry in Catalunya caused many vineyards to be abandoned as local workers moved to find jobs nearer the cities. Wines only continued to be produced by the local co-operative and a couple of estates. However, in 1989, a local producer, René Barbier, formed a small group of viticulturists and winemakers to collaboratively re-invigorate several specific vineyards and produce wines, blending in Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Merlot with Priorat’s local varieties, Garnacha and Cariñena. Using French-inspired winemaking techniques, such as maturation in French oak barriques, their wines (Clos Mogador, Clos Dofí, Clos de L’Obac, Clos Martinet and Clos Erasmus) had received, by the mid-1990s, much critical acclaim from some of the world’s most esteemed critics, and were being sold at premium and super-premium prices. From the late 1990s, the number of estates in Priorat increased dramatically, with about 50 wineries by the mid-2000s.44 In 2009, Priorat was promoted from a DO to a DOQ. The Growing Environment and Grape growing Priorat has a warm continental climate. The region is protected from cold winds by the Serra de Montsant in the north and from much Mediterranean influence by the Serra de Llaberia to the south. The summers are hot, but with a high diurnal range giving cool nights, and the winters are very cold such that spring frosts can be a problem. Rainfall is typically 500–600 mm, falling mainly in heavy storms in the winter and spring, with summers being dry. Irrigation is permitted in the driest years and for the establishment of new vineyards. The River Siurana runs through the region and the winding valleys carved by the river and its many tributaries give a broad range of altitudes (100–750 m) and aspects. The topography is extremely rugged and although the DOQ covers an area of around 17,600 ha, just under 2,000 ha are planted with vines, well below the area under vine before the phylloxera outbreak.

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Many vineyards are on slopes, known as costers, ranging in gradient from 5 per cent to 60 per cent. Narrow terraces are also a common feature, helping to reduce soil erosion and allow rainwater to better infiltrate the soil, as surface run-off is reduced. In neither case can machines access the vineyards and therefore, in many vineyards, all operations are done by hand, increasing production costs. The soils in the region are varied, largely poor and stony but with some outcrops of clay. The more common slate-based soils, known locally as llicorella, are thin, rocky and lacking in nutrients, with characteristic particles of mica reflecting both light and heat back onto the vines. The bedrock of slate splits into vertical layers and means that vine roots can grow deep in search of the limited water available. The low nutrient and water levels lead to low yields per vine, even more so for the many old vines in the area. Old vineyards are generally planted to low density with bush vines, whereas newer vineyards are often VSP trellised where the terrain makes it possible to do so; however, large areas of high-density plantings are rare, in general. Overall, average yields can be as little as 5–6 hL/ha, although the maximum permitted yield is 39 hL/ha.44 Such small yields necessarily have an implication on production costs and the price of the wines. The traditional local grape varieties of Garnacha and Cariñena still make up the majority of plantings (around two thirds of the plantings of black grape varieties), with Garnacha being the most planted.45 Both Garnacha and Cariñena are well suited to the hot days and dry conditions, with Cariñena particularly suited to harsh conditions and generally grown in the warmest sites. Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Merlot make up the majority of the rest of the plantings. The popularity of these international varieties has begun to fall, and some producers use only Garnacha and/or Cariñena. White varieties, predominantly Garnacha Blanca and Macabeo, make up just 6 per cent of plantings, and are used to make a small amount of white wine.46

Terraced vineyards in Priorat.

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Winemaking Winemaking ranges from very traditional, using old basket presses and large oak fermentation vats, to modern, with stainless steel tanks and optical sorting machines. Cultured yeasts are often used as the high levels of potential alcohol in the grapes means fermentation with ambient yeasts can be slow and last many weeks. The red wines are typically matured in oak, often French, usually for 1 to 2 years. Quality-focused winemakers are typically aiming for freshness in terms of fruit character and acidity. With such warm conditions and low yields, it is not uncommon for the wines to be 14.5% abv and more, but in very good and outstanding wines, the high alcohol is balanced by concentrated, ripe, but not jammy, fruit with medium (+) acidity giving freshness. Wines Law, Regulations and Wine Business The local Consejo Regulador sets legislation regarding various grape growing and winemaking parameters. There are four classifications available are based on where the grapes are grown: • •

• •

Vi de Vila – Grapes must come from one of Priorat’s 12 sub-zones. The name of the subzone and then ‘Vi de Vila’ appear on the label. Vi de Paratge – This category corresponds to grapes grown within a single paratge or named site, equivalent to a lieu dit in France. There are 459 paratges noted for their terrain, geology and microclimate. They cover the entire area of Priorat DOQ. Vinya Classificada – A wine from a single vineyard of particular merit within a Paratje, equivalent to a cru. Gran Vinya Classificada – A wine from a single vineyard of exceptional merit within a Paratje, equivalent to a grand cru.

To qualify for any of the specific classifications (Vi de Vila, Vi de Paratje, Vinya Classificada, Gran Vinya Classificada) producers must own the vineyard from which the grapes came or have rented the vineyard for a minimum of seven years. The classifications each have their own regulations in terms of the minimum proportion of Garnacha and Cariñena in the blend, vine age and maximum yields. Wines classified Vinya Classificada or Gran Vinya Classificada involve critical ‘recognition’ (as an outstanding wine brand) over a minimum of five years. The Consejo Regulador also certify the use of the term ‘old vines’ providing the grapes come from vineyards that are a minimum of 75 years old or were planted before 1945. MONTSANT DO The Growing Environment and Grape Growing Montsant DO forms almost a complete ring around Priorat DOQ. The majority of the vineyards are in the south of the region where the land flattens out to the lower valley of the River Ebro. The climate has a more Mediterranean influence here than in Priorat due to proximity to the coast (although the Serra de Llaberia does provide some shelter) and hence temperatures in both the summer and winter are not so extreme. Summers are generally warm and dry, with most rain falling in the winter and spring. There are also some vineyards in the more mountainous north of the region, with higher altitudes (300–700 m) and generally cooler temperatures.

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A mixture of soils can be found, ranging from clay-based to sandy. There are some patches of llicorella particularly towards the south, whereas in the north and east, soils tend to have higher limestone content. In general, the soils are slightly more fertile than those of Priorat, and yields of grapes tend to be higher. Montsant’s vineyards are easier to work than those of Priorat. The topography is less extreme, particularly towards the south. A number of vineyards on slopes are terraced, which reduces erosion and helps to better retain water, as also practised in Priorat. Trellised vineyards are relatively common permitting mechanisation, though there are also vineyards planted to bush vines. Grape Varieties and Winemaking As in Priorat, black grape varieties dominate with 94 per cent of plantings, with two-thirds of those being Garnacha and Cariñena.47 Unlike Priorat, Tempranillo is the next most planted grape, but there are also significant plantings of Syrah, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. Although many of the wines from the area are blends, single varietal wines from Garnacha and Cariñena are not uncommon. It is typical for red wines to be matured for one to two years in French or American oak barrels. The style of wine depends on the grape varieties used, area of production and the producer, but generally the wines, particularly from the south, tend to be ripe, fruity and full-bodied with high alcohol. Medium (+) levels of acidity can provide freshness in wines made from grapes from the coolest areas and sites. Wines tend to be good to very good in quality and mid-priced with some premium and even super-premium examples. Significant producers include Espectacle and Celler de Capçanes. A small proportion of white wine is made, generally from Garnacha Blanca and Macabeo. Wine Business Montsant has around 1,900 ha of vineyards, farmed by around 700 grape growers,48 with wines produced by around 60 wineries.49 Co-operatives account for the majority of production. Montsant was awarded DO status in 2001 and since then, the number of individual producers has grown considerably. A number of wine producers based in Priorat have ventures here, attracted by similar climatic conditions but cheaper land. Forty-five per cent of production is exported, with Germany, United States, France, Switzerland and the United Kingdom being the most important export markets.50 COSTERS DEL SEGRE DO Costers del Segre is situated further north than other Catalunya DOs and currently consists of seven not entirely contiguous sub-zones. Relatively far from the Mediterranean coast, it has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Average annual rainfall is low at 400 mm. The region was first planted in the early 1900s by Manuel Raventós, who owned Cava producer Codorníu, but decades of establishment work were needed before the semi-arid land could support vines. The saline soils in the area were gradually improved and irrigation channels were installed. The Raventós’ winery, Raimat, produced its first commercial vintage in 1978 and, based on the success of their first few vintages, the DO was established in the mid1980s. The region varies in altitude from 200–700 m, cooler sites at the highest altitudes are used for producing grapes for Cava, but also white varieties and early-ripening black varieties

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for still wines. The soils are generally sandy and free draining and this, with the low annual rainfall, means irrigation is needed in most vineyards. A wide range of both international and local varieties are permitted, including Macabeo, Parellada and Xarel-lo (much of which is used in Cava production), Chardonnay, Garnacha Blanca and Sauvignon Blanc for white wines, and Garnacha, Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot for red and rosé wines. Single varietal wines can be found but blends, often using a combination of international and local varieties, are common. The wines are generally made in a fresh, fruity style for early drinking. The red wines and some Chardonnay wines may be aged in French or American oak, and producers are tending to use less new oak than in the past. The wines are usually mid-priced with a few premium examples. The DO is made up of around 4,000 ha of plantings,51 with Raimat owning around a third of the land.52 There are now around 40 wineries. Aside from Raimat, significant producers include Castell d’Encus. The region has its own sustainability program concerned with social, environmental and economic parameters; in 2016–17, over 40 per cent of the region’s wineries were adhering to the programme, accounting for over 70 per cent of the region’s production.53

20.7.  Valencia and Murcia

The autonomous communities of Valencia and Murcia are located on or close to the eastern to south-eastern coast of Spain. Depending on their exposure to the coast, the wine regions have either Mediterranean or continental climates, all with hot summers and low rainfall. Given the climate, many vineyards are planted with bush vines at low density, but there are also some vineyards trellised with VSP. A large proportion of inexpensive wine, often sold in bulk, comes from the area. However, there is an increasing number of producers making very good quality wines that can sell at premium prices. VALENCIA DO Valencia DO is the largest DO in the autonomous community of Valencia. The vineyard area is split into two non-contiguous areas and includes a number of smaller sub-zones. It produces around 500,000 hL per annum. In general, the area has a warm Mediterranean climate, with cooling influences that either come from altitude or proximity to the coast. Rainfall is low at 450 mm and irrigation is widely used. The Alto Turia sub-zone is located in the southern foothills of the Sistema Ibérico mountain range in the upper valley of the River Turia. At altitudes of 700–1100 m, it is the coolest area and almost exclusively produces white wines, most notably from Moscatel de Alejandría and Merseguera. When its high vigour is not controlled, Merseguera makes wines with low intensity aromas and is often found blended with other, more characterful varieties. Wines made from dry farmed vines grown at high altitudes in VP El Terrerazo (owned by Bodega Mustiguillo) can show more concentration and texture, particularly when matured in oak. At altitudes of 200–650 m, the Valentino sub-zone is warmer than Alto Turia, but is cooled somewhat by sea breezes. This sub-zone grows a diverse range of local and international varieties, such as Garnacha Tintorera (Alicante Bouschet), Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon and Monastrell for red and rosé wines, and Merseguera and Macabeo for white wines. A similar range of grape varieties is also grown in the Clariano sub-zone to the south of Valencia,

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Moscatel vines in Valencia. whereas the Moscatel sub-zone, just inland from Valentino, concentrates on producing the sweet wine Moscatel de Valencia and vino de licor (unfermented grape must that has been fortified with grape spirit) from Moscatel de Alejandría grapes. The vast majority of the wines are made by local co-operatives in a fruity style for immediate consumption. They tend to be acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive in price. A number of individual producers, whether owning their vineyards or buying in grapes, are producing good and very good quality wines, that tend to be mid-priced. A few producers are working with little-grown local varieties that can provide a point of difference on both the domestic and export markets. UTIEL-REQUENA DO Utiel-Requena is located inland from the northern part of Valencia DO, with its western limit bordering La Mancha. It comprises 34,000 ha and has a continental climate with hot summer days and very cold winters. The average altitude is relatively high at 750 m, and this promotes cooler summer nights, but also the risk of spring frost. Rainfall is low at around 450 mm. Approximately 87 per cent of the vineyard area is planted to black varieties.54 The most planted grape variety is Bobal, with over 70 per cent of plantings, many of which are over 40 years old. This grape variety is well suited to the region, being mid- to late budding (and therefore usually avoiding spring frosts), very drought tolerant and, despite the hot climate, able to retain acidity. However, it can ripen unevenly and hence the lack of ripeness in some bunches, can mean its tannins can be a little grippy, even firm. Bobal can be vigorous and high yielding, but this is kept in balance by producers looking to make high quality wines. It also gives high levels of colour and, for this reason, it has been, and still is, used as a blending component in inexpensive wines that lack concentration.

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Bobal’s high acidity and fruity nature means that it was originally best known for rosé wines although, nowadays, it is mainly used to produce red wines. These range in style from relatively light-bodied, medium-tannin styles, often made by semi-carbonic maceration, to concentrated wines, with medium (+) tannins, medium (+) to full body, high acidity and flavours of blackberry, black cherry and often notes of chocolate. The latter are often made from old vine fruit and matured in oak to increase complexity. The wines are usually acceptable to very good in quality, and inexpensive to mid-priced. ALICANTE DO Alicante is a non-contiguous DO and the most southerly one in the autonomous community of Valencia, located near the coast around the city of Alicante. It is the smallest of Valencia’s DOs with around 9,000 ha under vine.55 However, wine from grapes from some vineyards within neighbouring Jumilla and Yecla in Murcia are permitted to be labelled DO Alicante. Generally, the region has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers and cold winters. The growing season is extremely dry with an average of 250 mm of rainfall per annum. The main centre of production is the zone of Vinalopó to the west of the DO, which stretches from the coast inland to vineyards at around 500 m near the Sierra de Salinas. The main grape here is Monastrell. In the north east of the region, on the coast, the zone of Marina Alta experiences humid breezes and receives most rain (around 500 mm per annum). Moscatel de Alejandría is the key grape variety here, producing both dry and sweet wines. Like Bobal in Utiel Requena, Monastrell is also well suited to the hot, dry climate being late ripening, able to retain acidity and drought tolerant (see The Rhône Valley: Mourvèdre for more details). It constitutes 75 per cent of plantings in the DO.56 Vineyards tend to be planted at low density with bush vines. Red wines labelled Alicante DO must include at least 80 per cent of Monastrell in the blend. Other varieties typically blended are Alicante Bouschet, Garnacha and Bobal. The general style is full-bodied, dry wines with high alcohol, high tannins and ripe black fruit flavours. Maturation in oak, usually American, is common. Some producers are aiming for fresher fruit characters and lower or medium levels of alcohol. The wines are generally good to very good in quality and mid-priced, with some premium examples. Fondillón is a historic wine style, protected by the DO, and still made by a few producers. It is a medium-sweet red wine, with a maximum of 40 g/L residual sugar, made from lateharvested Monastrell; this is possible due to low rainfall, even in autumn. The minimum alcohol level is 16% abv and this should come solely from the grapes with no fortification allowed. It must be matured for a minimum of 10 years in oak, often in traditional old oak vessels of 1,200 L. Wines can either be añada, the product of one year, or, more typically, made by a solera system, blending younger and older wines. The wines tend to be oxidised in character, showing flavours of dried fruit and nuts. JUMILLA DO Jumilla is located in Murcia on an area of flat plains and wide valleys between Alicante in the east, and La Mancha in the west. It has a warm continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Altitude ranges from 400–800 m, providing a cooling influence and large diurnal range in the highest sites. There are around 25,000 ha of vine plantings.

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Bush-vine Monastrell planted on sandy topsoil in Jumilla. Annual rainfall is extremely low, between 250–300 mm. However, the soil, generally sand over a layer of limestone, which aids the retention of ground water, makes grape growing viable and many vineyards are not equipped with irrigation. The dominant grape here, Monastrell, making up around 80 per cent of plantings, is also well suited to low rainfall and extreme heat.57 During most of the 20th century, Jumilla was solely a producer of inexpensive wines sold in bulk. However, in 1989,58 the region was devastated by phylloxera, and after that, a significant proportion of vines were grubbed up and replanted. This was a chance to use virus-free vines and higher-quality clones of Monastrell than had been previously planted, and this together with improved vineyard management and winemaking techniques (including earlier harvesting and cooler fermentation temperatures), has led to a steady improvement in quality. There is still a proportion of old vines that were not affected nor grubbed up and can produce low yields of high-quality fruit. Red wines from Monastrell are generally full-bodied with high alcohol and flavours of ripe blackberry and cherry fruit and spice from maturation in oak. In very good examples, ripe concentrated fruit is balanced with medium (+) acidity. Other black grape varieties permitted in the DO are Cencibel (Tempranillo), Garnacha Tintorera (Alicante Bouschet), Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and Petit Verdot. They are often blended with Monastrell to lower the wine’s tannin levels. The DO also makes rosé wines, often from Monastrell, and a very small proportion of white wine. The region is made up of 2,000 grape growers and approximately 40 wineries, including co-operatives. High volumes of inexpensive wines form the majority of production in the DO, though made to a better quality now than in previous decades. There are also several producers focused on making wines of very good quality that sell at premium prices. Examples include those from Bodegas El Nido and Casa Castillo. The majority of wines from the DO, and certainly the most expensive ones, are sold on export markets.

Spain

YECLA DO Yecla is located between Jumilla and Alicante, with around 6,000 ha under vine. It has a very similar climate to Jumilla, though with slightly more moderation from the Mediterranean. Altitude is also a cooling influence here, with vineyards from 500–900 m. Rainfall is low at around 300 mm per annum. The soils are also similar, a mixture of sand with limestone, helping to retain water. Likewise, the same black grape varieties are permitted, with Monastrell the dominant variety planted. Wines are made in a similar style to Jumilla, are generally good to very good quality and are inexpensive to mid-priced, with some premium examples. Making both bulk and bottled wines, one co-operative is responsible for around 60 per cent of the DO’s total output.59 Approximately 95 per cent of the Yecla’s production is exported.60

20.8.  Castilla-La Mancha

Castilla-La Mancha is a large autonomous community to the south and south east of Madrid. The region is totally landlocked and is located on southern part of Spain’s meseta (plateau) giving an extreme continental climate. LA MANCHA DO At 158,000 ha, La Mancha is the largest DO in Spain, and largest PDO in Europe. It is located on the large, relatively flat meseta at 500–700 m altitude. The climate is continental with extremely hot summers and maximum temperatures up to 45°C (113°F). Winters are very cold and can reach down to –20°C (–4°F). Rainfall is low at 300–400 mm. Limestone and chalk within the soils can help in the retention of water but drip irrigation is relatively common, with an estimated 40 per cent of vineyards being irrigated.61 Planting densities are low, sometimes as little as 1,000 vines per ha for bush-trained vines without irrigation. Irrigated, trellised vineyards are planted at around 3,000 vines per ha. The grape variety with the largest vineyard area is Airén, with around 90,000 ha. This neutral white grape variety is usually fermented in stainless steel to make a low-intensity, medium-acidity white wine for early consumption. However, much of its production is transported south for distillation into Brandy de Jerez. Tempranillo, here called Cencibel, is the most planted black grape variety. It is made most often in a fruity style with short contact with oak, though Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva wines can be found. There are almost 15,000 grape growers and 250 wineries.62 Co-operatives make up the majority of production; Virgen de las Viñas in Tomelloso is not only the largest co-operative in La Mancha but in all of Spain, with 2,000 members farming 20,000ha. The wine produced is sold as bulk or bottled, with approximately 40 per cent exported.63 In terms of bottled wine, exports to the Chinese market have grown rapidly over the last few years and it became the largest export market in 2016. Germany, Russia and the Netherlands are the next largest export markets. VALDEPEÑAS DO Valdepeñas is located to the south of La Mancha, and has a similar continental climate with hot, dry summers. It is mainly known as a source of red wines from Cencibel (Tempranillo),

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with ripe red fruit, soft tannins, medium acidity and spice from oak. The wines tend to be good quality and inexpensive or mid-priced. VINO DE PAGO Castilla-La Mancha is home to nine of Spain’s 18 Vinos de Pago (VP). The first in Spain, and perhaps the most well-known in the region, is the Dominio de Valdepusa, producing wines from Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Petit Verdot. CASTILLA VT This Vino de la Tierra covers a vast area of the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha. It encompasses both La Mancha DO and Valdepeñas DO as well as some others, which cover around half of its area. Climate and soil are similar to these two DOs. A large range of local and international grapes are permitted, wider than allowed in the DOs. The wines are generally inexpensive to mid- priced.

20.9.  Other Spanish Regions

THE BASQUE COUNTRY The autonomous community of the Basque Country (also known as Euskadi or País Vasco) stretches along much of the north coast of Spain. The main vineyard areas are split in two by the Cantabrian cordillera. In relatively sheltered conditions to the south are the vineyards of Rioja Alavesa (see Rioja). In the north, around Bilbao and San Sebastián, are the three DOs that make Txakoli. Unsheltered from the influences on the Atlantic, the Txakoli (or Chacoli) DOs have a moderate, maritime climate. Rainfall can be as high as 1600 mm per annum, and hence keeping the canopy well ventilated is a major concern to avoid fungal disease. The main white grape variety for dry wines is Hondarrabi Zuri. Fermented cool in stainless steel and bottled and released a few months later, these wines have high acidity, medium (–) body, often low alcohol and fresh apple, pear and lemon flavours, sometimes with a slight spritz. Some producers are making examples with more texture and complexity, either using

VSP trellising aids air circulation in the canopy reducing the risk of fungal disease.

Spain

lees contact, oak maturation (usually old wood or only a small proportion new) or bottle ageing before release. Although the vast majority of production is dry white wines, rosado, red, sweet whites and sparkling wines are all made. SIERRA DE GREDOS The Sierra de Gredos is the mountain range to the west of Madrid. It does not have its own denomination of origin for wines and, depending on the location of the vineyard, the wines may be labelled as Vinos de Madrid DO, Mentrida DO (within Castilla-La Mancha), Cebreros DO or Castilla y León VT. The area used to produce inexpensive, high volume wines until relatively recently, but a number of new producers have since set up, focused on quality rather than quantity. The wines are mostly made from old vine Garnacha, at altitudes of 600–1200 m. Located in the centre of the country, the climate is continental but altitude provides a cooling influence and the diurnal range is high, helping to retain acidity and fresh fruit flavours. The style of Garnacha is notably different from many of those made in Aragon; lighter in tannin, with medium (+) acidity and fresh strawberry and cherry fruit. Given the sunny, warm days, alcohol levels can still be high. Many of the wines are made in a low intervention manner, using ambient yeasts and low levels of sulphur dioxide. They are typically good to very good in quality and are mid- to premium priced. The most common white grape variety is Albillo Real, producing full-bodied wines with citrus and floral notes and medium to medium (+) acidity. Fermentation techniques vary, some wines being fermented and/or matured in oak, others fermented on their skins. THE ISLANDS Although better known as popular tourist destinations, in recent years both the Balearic and Canary Islands have become recognised as sources of high-quality wines from local grapes little seen elsewhere in the world. The Balearic Islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza and Formentera) are located around 60 miles (95 km) from the eastern coast of Spain. The island of Mallorca has two DOs, with a number of VTs spread amongst the other islands. The key local grapes include Manto Negro (light coloured, high alcohol, red fruit flavours) and Callet (medium to medium (+) acidity, medium alcohol, red fruit flavours). Monastrell, Tempranillo and Malvasía are also commonly found, as are international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and Chardonnay. Blends of grape varieties are common. The Canary Islands are located off the coast of Morocco, and around 500 km south of the island of Madeira. At a latitude of 28°N, there is a tropical influence on the climate, with hot and humid conditions in the growing season. Many of the islands are mountainous and vineyards can be found at altitudes up to 1,500 m, leading to cooler days and wide diurnal ranges. The topography is rugged, making mechanisation impossible. The range of altitudes and aspects means a variety of white and black grape varieties can be grown, without the need for grafting as phylloxera is not present here. Each island has its own DO and Tenerife, the largest island, has five. Here, the most common grapes are Listan Negro, Malvasía and Listan Blanco (Palomino), though a wide variety of Iberian grapes is grown and field blends are common. Listan Negro is light

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to medium bodied, with medium tannins and flavours of raspberry and plum. Carbonic maceration is often used on Listan Negro to make fruity, early-drinking wines, but some undergo traditional fermentation and may be aged in oak. The viticulture of Valle de Orotava DO in Tenerife is very distinctive, with several vines twisted together to form long ‘ropes’, trained on low wires and growing up and down the hillsides. The island of Lanzarote has growing conditions dissimilar to those of the other islands. Here, the topography is relatively flat, and the land is covered with a layer of dark volcanic ash. Grape growers plant vines in craters dug into the ash and partially surrounded by stone walls to protect the vines from winds and to capture any moisture available. This leads to very low-density planting and low yields. Malvasía is the dominant grape variety and is made in both dry and sweet styles. References 1. 2018 data. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market April 2019, OIV (retrieved 19 March 2020) 2. Five-year average taken from 2013–2017 data. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market April 2019, OIV (retrieved 19 March 2020) 3. Encuesta de Viñedo 2015, p12, Spanish Ministry of Agriculture (retrieved 19 March 2020) 4. Data from the Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. Personal communication, Foods and Wines from Spain, email, April 2020 5. Five-year average from 2014–2018. Spanish Wine in figures, Foods and Wines from Spain (retrieved 19 March 2020) 6. As above 7. As above 8. 2019 data. Data from Estacome, elaborated by Foods and Wines from Spain. Personal communication, Foods and Wines from Spain, email, April 2020 9. The DO in Data, DO Rías Baixas (retrieved 19 March 2020) 10. As above 11. As above 12. Grape varieties, CRDO Bierzo (retrieved 20 March 2020) 13. As above 14. Centelles, F., 2017, Bierzo Explained JancisRobinson.com (retrieved 20 March 2020). Subscription required. 15. All data from Statistics, CRDO Bierzo (retrieved 20 March 2020) 16. La DO Bierzo inicia el proceso de zonificación con la aprobación del nuevo etiquetado, Bierzo DO (retrieved 20 March 2020) 17. Centelles, F., 2017, Toro – some real finds JancisRobinson.com (retrieved 20 March 2020). Subscription required. 18. Tinta de Toro, D.O. Vino de Toro (retrieved 20 March 2020) 19. Centelles, F. (2017) Toro – some real finds JancisRobinson.com (retrieved 20 March 2020). Subscription required. 20. Radford, J. 2004, The New Spain, London, Octopus Publishing Group Ltd. 21. History, DO Toro (retrieved 20 March 2020) 22. Press kit, DO Toro (retrieved 20 March 2020) 23. Centelles, F., 2016, Ribera del Duero Analysed (retrieved 20 March 2020) Records of vineyard plantings also show that vineyard area increased from around 6,500 ha in 1985 to 20,000 ha in 2005 (Superficie de Viñedo, DO Ribera del Duero (retrieved 20 March 2020)). 24. Superficie de Viñedo, DO Ribera del Duero (retrieved 20 March 2020)

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25. Evolución de entrega de contraetiquetas, DO Ribera del Duero (retrieved 20 March 2020) 26. As above 27. Personal communication, DO Ribera del Duero, email, March 2020 28. Personal communication, DO Rueda, visit to region, November 2017 29. Statistics, DO Rueda (retrieved 20 March 2020) 30. As above 31. As above 32. As above 33. Personal communication, DO Rueda, visit to region, November 2017 34. Annual report 2018, Control Board of the Rioja Designation of Origin, Rioja Denominación de Origen Calificada (retrieved 20 March 2020) 35. All grape variety planting statistics taken from Annual report 2018, Control Board of the Rioja Designation of Origin, Rioja Denominación de Origen Calificada (retrieved 20 March 2020) 36. As above 37. As above 38. As above 39. As above 40. DO Navarra, Vinos D.O. Navarra (retrieved 20 March 2020) 41. Our Wineries, DO Somontano (retrieved 20 March 2020) 42. 2013 data. Vineyard Statistics, DO Penedès (retrieved 12 April 2019) 43. 2017 data. This includes data for non-Cava sparkling wines. Sales data 2016–2018, DO Penedès (retrieved 12 April 2019) 44. Priorat, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 45. DOQ Priorat website (retrieved 03 March 2019). Note DOQ Priorat have updated their website and this information is no longer available. 46. As above 47. Dossier, DO Montsant (retrieved 20 March 2020) 48. Centelles, F., 2014, Montsant – half-price Priorat? (retrieved 20 March 2020) 49. Dossier, DO Montsant (retrieved 20 March 2020) 50. Qui Som, DO Montsant (retrieved 20 March 2020) 51. Our numbers, The DO, Costers del Segre DO (retrieved 20 March 2020) 52. Costers del Segre, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 53. Graphs and Statistics, Costers del Segre DO (retrieved 20 March 2020) 54. Variedad Uva, DO Utiel Requena (retrieved 20 March 2020) 55. DO Alicante (retrieved 12 April 2019). DO Alicante have updated their website and this information can no longer be found here. 56. Varieties: Monastrell, DO Alicante (retrieved 20 March 2020) 57. The Vineyard, DO Jumilla (retrieved 20 March 2020) 58. Some sources say 1988 59. Wine Export, La Purisma (retrieved 20 March 2020) 60. DO Yecla, CECRV (retrieved 20 March 2020) 61. La Mancha, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 62. Mapa y estadísticas, La Mancha DO (retrieved 20 March 2020) 63. As above

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21

Portugal

Portugal is the most westerly country of continental Europe, bordered on the west and south sides by the Atlantic, and on the north and east sides by Spain. Although Portugal is famous for its fortified wines (particularly Port and Madeira), most grapes are made into unfortified wines. More red wines are made in Portugal than white and, although international grapes such as Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon are grown in a number of regions, Portugal boasts a wide variety of indigenous grapes capable of making high quality wines. Grapes for wine have been cultivated in Portugal for many centuries. Historians believe wine was made in the Tagus and Sado valleys as far back as 2000BCE, with vines planted by the Tartessians, who originated in what is now Andalucía in south-west Spain. Phoenicians brought more vines, and grape growing and winemaking were further advanced by the Greeks, then the Romans. In more recent history, Portugal has had an alliance with England for over 600 years, and became a major supplier of wine to England after the Treaty of Windsor, signed in 1386, and,

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Second map to show topography within the regions. more recently, the Methuen Treaty of 1703. Through several centuries of on-off wars with France, England turned to Portugal when supplies of French wine were forbidden or taxed at punitive rates. The light, astringent reds from what is now the Vinho Verde region in the northwest corner of Portugal were eventually followed by Port from the Douro Valley, and then later the wines from around Lisbon. However, events in the 19th and much of the 20th centuries dealt a number of blows to the Portuguese wine industry. Wine production was negatively affected during the Peninsular Wars and the Portuguese Civil War and around the same time French and Spanish wines started to become increasingly popular in the markets of Europe. From 1867, phylloxera devastated the industry and many Portuguese regions found it difficult to recover. The 40year rule of prime minister Antonio de Oliviera Salazar, from 1932, also did little to promote quality wine production. Co-operatives were given preferential rights, leading to over 100 co-operatives being founded in the 1950s and ‘60s. However, the co-operatives were badly equipped and run and generally made high volumes of poor-quality wines, tarnishing the reputation of Portuguese wine. That said, two incredibly successful brands were launched within this period; Mateus Rosé in 1942 and Lancers Rosé in 1944. In the late 1980s, Mateus

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Rosé, together with a white version, made up over 40 per cent of Portugal’s still, unfortified wine exports.1 It does not have anywhere near the same dominance today. The Carnation Revolution and a return to democracy in the mid-1970s followed by Portugal’s accession to the EU in 1986 signalled the start of a new era. Restrictions on production and trade ceased and low-interest loans and grants encouraged many producers to make and market their own wines, generally to a much higher standard than those of the co-operatives. Without government protection, co-operatives were forced to adapt their practices, and a number closed. Finance from the EU enabled the modernisation of Portugal’s infrastructure, the initiation of research programmes and training, and investment in modern grape growing and winemaking equipment, such as temperature-controlled stainless-steel tanks. In recent years, focus has been on export markets. To help the country recover from its recent debt crisis, the 2011–2014 bailout by the EU and IMF resulted in an austerity programme that made the further development of export markets imperative. Fortunately, Portugal’s ability to provide ripe red wines and fresh white wines at inexpensive and midprices, whilst offering more engaged consumers a range of grape varieties that are rarely found elsewhere, has meant the wines have found a place on the world stage. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate and Soils The west of the Portuguese mainland is strongly influenced by the Atlantic, which brings cool, rainy weather particularly to the north west. Ranges of mountains protect many of the more inland northerly wine regions which, with a continental climate, enjoy warmer, drier growing seasons. In the warmer, drier south, the topography is characterised largely by rolling hills and plains. The local climate and significant variations in soil composition can have an impact on the grape varieties grown and the styles of wines produced. Schist or granite are commonly found in mountainous regions, such as Vinho Verde, Douro and Dão, and on hilly outcrops in Alentejo. The wine regions further south near the coast such as Bairrada, Lisboa, Tejo and Península de Setúbal, have more varied soils: some areas have clay soils with a high limestone content, whereas other areas have sandy soils. There are also some fertile alluvial soils around riverbanks, for example in Tejo. Vineyard Management The area of vines planted in 2018 was 190,000 ha, representing a reduction of 85,000 ha over the last 30 years.2 A substantial number of high-producing vineyards on the most fertile alluvial soils, especially in Tejo, but also in Vinho Verde/Minho, have been grubbed up since Portugal joined the European Union in 1986. Replanting has been focused on higher quality planting material and sites (and has been restricted to avoid surpluses). With a warm, sunny and dry climate together with a flat topography allowing mechanisation, Alentejo in particular has seen significant investment and vineyard growth. EU funds and the recruitment of consultant winemakers meant that Alentejo started to produce quality wines, in a soft, ripe style that was quickly popular on both domestic and export markets. This in turn encouraged further planting and investment. Compared to many Portuguese regions that are made up of many growers with small holdings, Alentejo has a

Portugal

high number of estates with large, relatively young, vineyard holdings. Given its proximity to Lisbon, many of these estates are set up for tourism. Over 99 per cent of wine production takes place on mainland Portugal, the remainder from the islands of Madeira and the Azores (these islands will not be discussed further in this chapter). Over the last decade, production of wine has varied between 560 million litres to 710 million litres depending on the weather.3 With climate change, drought has been a notable factor in recent years, especially in continental, inland regions such as the Douro, Dão and Alentejo. Extreme weather events can also be an issue in some areas and in some years; for example, the Douro has suffered from hail and storms in recent years and in 2017 yields in Dão were reduced by wildfires. Wet weather in the more coastal regions can increase the risk of poor fruit set and, later in the season, fungal disease. As in many other grape growing countries, the trunk disease esca and the vineyard pest European grapevine moth are common issues. The majority of vineyards are pruned and trained to either cordon or replacement-cane, and VSP trellised. A significant number of old bush vines can be found in the Douro and certain areas of Alentejo, with a much smaller proportion found in Dão and Bairrada. These are usually planted in varietally mixed vineyards, producing ‘field blend’ wines. The vast majority of modern vineyards (established from the 1980s) are planted to one variety or in varietal blocks. In the past, all regions required authorisation to irrigate but this is now not generally required. A degree of regulation may still exist at a regional level; for example, Douro producers must notify the IVDP (Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto) when they irrigate. Generally, irrigation is only to be used in scenarios where lack of water could jeopardise quality and cannot be used for boosting yields. Around 2,700 ha of vineyards, farmed by approximately 500 growers, are certified organic. This is a low proportion compared to some EU countries; however, a number of growers/wine producers tend their vineyards using organic methods but feel that the benefits of certification are not worth the cost. Production of organic wines is expected to grow in coming years with a number of vineyards in the process of conversion. Grape Varieties Portugal grows a wide variety of grapes, most of which are Portuguese in origin. Many of the grape varieties are grown in multiple wine regions around the country. However, the plantings for any grape variety may be concentrated in a particular wine region (e.g. Castelão is mainly grown in Península de Setúbal, but also to a lesser extent in Lisboa, Alentejo and Tejo). Certain international varieties are allowed in some regions, such as Tejo, Alentejo, Bairrada, and in some sub-regions of Lisboa and Península de Setúbal, but not in the Douro, Dão or Vinho Verde. However, whereas, in the recent past, Alentejo, Lisboa and Tejo heavily relied on international varieties as part of their export strategies, now there is now a growing tendency to return to Portuguese varieties and some small, ‘artisanal’ producers are reviving native grapes that had fallen out of fashion. More details on each grape variety can be found under the relevant wine region section. The majority of wines, both red and white, are blends of grape varieties, with relatively few exceptions; for instance, Baga in Bairrada, Encruzado in Dão and Alvarinho in the Monção e Melgaço sub-region of Vinho Verde.

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Portugal: Most planted grape varieties (ha) 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000

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Source: Instituto da Vinha e do Vinho.4 Note that substantial plantings of Tinta Roriz, Touriga Franca and Touriga Nacional will go into the production of Port. WINEMAKING Admission to the EU led to substantial modernisation of winemaking practices and equipment in Portugal. Protective winemaking techniques and the use of stainless steel tanks with easy temperature control helped to produce fruity wines, especially leading to improvements in white wines. De-stemming equipment led to significant improvements in tannin management for red wines, as did the introduction of French oak for maturation. This remains the primary type of oak (when used) for both red and white wines, though there is some American. A small proportion of producers have retained some traditional techniques and in the last decade, have been joined by other producers keen to experiment with less widely used techniques. In the past, large (3,000–6,000 L) Portuguese oak and Brazilian hardwood toneis were commonly used and the tradition has been maintained by some highprofile wineries mainly in Bairrada. In line with worldwide trends, producers have become more restrained in their use of oak than in past decades, reducing the amount of new oak and/or time in wood and ageing wines in larger Traditional toneis in Bairrada. format oak. There has been a niche revival of

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toneis-sized wooden vessels, though producers are typically buying new foudres (sizes vary, but typically around 2,000–2,500 L) and wooden fermenters from France, Italy and Austria. There is also a little experimentation with Portuguese oak and chestnut barrels (both commonly used in the past). Though associated with Port winemaking, fermenting and foot-treading in lagares (shallow fermenters often made from local material (schist, granite, marble), or now easy-to-clean stainless steel, is regularly practised among producers up and down Portugal. Fermenting and/or ageing wine in clay vessels has risen in popularity across the country and fermenting wines on skins (red and white) in clay has even been enshrined with its own DOC Vinho de Talha in Alentejo, (‘talha’ being the local name for a clay amphora).5 A degree of pre-fermentation skin contact is not uncommon with premium Portuguese white wines (for texture and flavour intensity) and there has also been a revival of interest in fermenting white wines on skins. Natural wines have also seen some growth. In general today’s winemakers are typically more widely travelled and outward looking, which has paid dividends in terms of winemaking, packaging and marketing, whilst developing a keen appreciation for Portugal’s strengths, especially its native varieties and traditional techniques. WINE LAW AND REGULATIONS As a member of the EU, Portugal follows a PDO and PGI system of geographical indications to protect its wine regions and wine styles. DOC/DOP – Both the traditional term Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) and the more modern Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP) are widely used for PDO wines. There are 31 DOCs in Portugal. Each DOC has its own regulations on grape growing and winemaking and all wines must be officially tested, tasted and approved. VR – Vinho Regional (VR) is the widely used traditional term for PGI wines. There are 14 VRs in Portugal and their regulations are less stringent than those for PDOs. They often permit international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, whereas some PDOs do not, and in general allow a wider selection of grape varieties. Vinho – This term is used for wines that are not of PDO or PGI status. WINE BUSINESS Grape growing in Portugal represents 35 per cent of the total national agricultural output, the highest in the world.6 The average total production in recent years has been 6.4 mhL, including fortified and sparkling wine, and it can be estimated that the average production of still, unfortified wine is approximately 5.5 mhL.7 Historically, Portugal has been and, to a significant extent, remains a land of small holdings, where grape growing was but one element of subsistence farming. The average size of vineyards in the Dão, Vinho Verde and Douro is still tiny today. Until the Carnation Revolution in 1974, growers had a ready market for grapes (and wines). They were sold to negociants and the co- operatives who produced bulk wine, which was shipped to Portugal’s former colonies in Africa, Angola and Mozambique. High-volume wine

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brands like Mateus Rosé and Lancers and big brand Vinho Verdes like Casal Garcia are still largely sourced from growers who are divorced from the business of making and selling wine. However, especially following access to EU subsidies and funding, negociants have themselves acquired vineyards in a move to diversify, increase quality and compete in nontraditional export markets. The most extreme example of this is Sogrape which, since the 1980s, has acquired leading Port brands and estates in Vinho Verde, the Douro, Dão, Alentejo and Lisboa. It is the biggest wine company in Portugal, with an annual revenue that exceeds the total of the next seven biggest producers combined. Conversely, increasing numbers of growers have sought to add value to their grapes and become producers with their own estate (Quinta/Herdade) brand, especially in the Douro, Alentejo, Dão, Vinho Verde and on a smaller scale in Bairrada, Lisboa and Tejo. Co-operatives have, correspondingly, reduced in number, though Portugal still has 73 active co-operatives. A new, small but influential trend is the rise of small-volume winemakers who own no vineyards. They carefully select vineyards, often old and neglected, in overlooked regions, or planted to unfashionable native varieties, to source their grapes. Overall, Portugal is currently the 12th largest wine producing country, but 9th largest exporter of wine.8 Portugal exported 2.3 mhL of unfortified wine in 2018 (total of 3 mhL if including all types of wine). DOC wines made up 27 per cent of this volume but 40 per cent in value.9 Steady growth both in volumes and value per unit volume has been seen over at least the past two decades for unfortified wines. The largest export markets by volume (includes fortified and sparkling wines) are France, Angola, Germany and the UK, with France, the USA, the UK, and Brasil being the largest by sales value. The promotional body Wines of Portugal was founded in 2010 with a focus on promoting and educating consumers and trade in export markets on Portuguese wines. Domestic sales have also gradually increased over the last few years, caused by growth in average income compared to the years of recession before, and a significant rise in tourism to the country.

21.1.  Vinho Verde

Vinho Verde DOC is in the north-west corner of Portugal. The region is bounded by the Atlantic on the west, by the River Minho forming the border with Spain (and Rías Baixas in Galicia) to the north, and by the mountains of Peneda-Gerês National Park to the east. It extends just beyond the River Douro in the south. The DOC covers over 16,000 ha and is split into nine sub-regions.10 (The Vinho Regional is called Minho and has identical boundaries to the DOC, though its production is much smaller.). THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate and Soils Vinho Verde has a moderate maritime climate thanks to its Atlantic coast and a network of river valleys that funnel Atlantic winds inland. As the land gradually rises to the east, soils become poorer and the climate becomes more continental. Here warmer, drier sub- regions, such as Baião and Monção e Melgaço, lend themselves to later ripening grape varieties such as Avesso, and produce wines with more body and alcohol, notably Alvarinho. Rainfall is high, with as much as 1,500 mm falling throughout the year. Vintage variation can be marked, having

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Vineyards in Vinho Verde overlooking the River Minho. implications for ripening and yield (production was around 936,000 hL in 2017, falling to 731,000 hL in 2018, and rising slightly to 788,000 hL in 2019; depending on the vintage either Vinho Verde or Port are the largest DOC producers).11 Much of the vineyard land is on granitic bedrock with a shallow topsoil of decomposed granite with a sandy texture, providing good drainage. The natural fertility of the soil is low and therefore fertilisers, such as manure, are commonly needed. Vineyard Management With rainfall throughout the year, fungal diseases including rot and mildew are a problem. The traditional method of training vines was up trees to benefit from better air circulation. Some growers with small land holdings still have vines trained up trees, or on trellises over terraces, but most modern vineyards are now planted in rows, either single or double Guyot (replacement-cane) with VSP, or lyre system. All are trained relatively high from the ground to increase air circulation and reduce chance of rot. Summer pruning techniques are used, such as removal of lateral shoots, leaf removal and green harvesting for productive varieties, to enhance fruit ripening and improve air circulation through the canopy. Grape Varieties Large changes have been seen over the last few decades. In the late 1960s, over 80 per cent of production was red wines; in 2008, 70 per cent of the wine was white, and by 2019 proportions had moved to 81 per cent white, 14 per cent red and 5 per cent rosé.12

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Cordon-trained vines supported by posts made from the local granite. The most widely grown grape variety is Loureiro (Loureira in Spain’s Rías Baixas). It is grown throughout the region, but predominantly towards the coast. It is mid-ripening and produces wines with medium (+) acidity and citrus, pear, floral and herbal aromas. The second most widely grown is Alvarinho (Albariño over the border in Spain’s Rías Baixas), which has citrus, peach and sometimes tropical flavours, often with medium (+) body and medium (+) to high acidity. Traditionally, it had been grown almost exclusively in the north of Vinho Verde, in a sub-region just south of the Spanish border, Monção e Melgaço. Now, recognition of Alvarinho’s high quality has led to more plantings in other parts of the region and the admission of Alvarinho as a named grape variety on the wine label from 2016 onwards. The third most planted grape variety is Pedernã (the local name for Arinto). It is midripening and produces wines that are more neutral than Loureiro or Alvarinho, with subtle citrus and apple fruit and high acidity. Other grapes varieties include Avesso and Trajadura. Avesso is a late-ripening grape and can fail to ripen fully unless weather conditions are relatively warm and dry. It tends to be grown inland in the south of the region, particularly in the sub-region of Baião, benefitting from the slightly warmer, drier conditions here. Avesso is lower in acidity than some of the other varieties, can be relatively full-bodied and displays citrus and stone fruit. Trajadura (called Treixadura in Rías Baixas in Spain) is low in acidity with apple and peach flavours. It is usually blended with varieties that have higher levels of acidity.

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Vinhão (called Sousão in the Douro and Sousón in Galicia across the Spanish border) is by far the most planted black grape variety, producing deeply coloured wines with cherry fruit and characteristic high acidity. WINEMAKING AND WINE LAW Inexpensive, high-volume wines may use fruit sourced from across the region and a blend of varieties. The wines are made with protective methods and cool fermentation in stainless steel. Most Vinho Verde is bottled for release soon after the end of fermentation and carbon dioxide is often added at bottling to give a light spritz. The white wines are typically low in alcohol and medium (+) to high in acidity with apple, citrus and/or peach flavours, depending on the grape varieties used. Some wines may have a small amount of residual sugar. They are usually of good quality and are made by one of the region’s co-operatives or large merchants. Higher priced wines, often from smaller, boutique producers, tend to be still and there is a growing number of single varietal and single sub-region wines. A few producers use ambient yeasts, (mostly) old oak for fermentation and/or maturation and may choose to keep the wine on its lees for a few months to enhance complexity and texture. These wines are often midpriced to premium and are generally of very good quality. The name of the sub-region may appear on the label. The wine must have a minimum alcohol of 9% abv (rather than the standard of 8% abv for wines that do not mention the subregion). Single varietal Alvarinho from Monção e Melgaço must be made to lower maximum yields than those for wines from Vinho Verde in general and have a minimum alcohol level of 11.5% abv. Legislation permits only the sub-region of Monção e Melgaço to name Alvarinho on their labels as a single variety. From 2016, wines from other sub-regions may name Alvarinho on the label alongside the names of other grape varieties within the blend, providing that Alvarinho accounts for at least 30 per cent of the blend. Producers from subregions other than Monção e Melgaço must declassify their wine to Minho VR if they wish to label their wine as a single varietal Alvarinho. WINE BUSINESS Ownership of vines in Vinho Verde is very fragmented. About 17,250 grape growers cultivate 1,588 ha, so on average every grower owns less than a tenth of a hectare. Most growers deliver their grapes to co-operatives or large merchants. There are only 400 growers who bottle their own wines. Significant producers include Anselmo Mendes and Quinta de Soalheiro. Exports have gradually grown. In 2019, approximately 35 per cent of production was exported.13 The key markets by volume are Germany, the USA, Brazil and France, with the USA leading in terms of value of sales.

21.2. Douro

As well as being the best-known region in Portugal, the Douro region makes more wine than any other. Around 38,000 ha are registered for the production of DOC wines, either Porto DOC for fortified wines or Douro DOC for unfortified wines. The fortified wine, Port, has the greater historic renown, as its high alcohol and residual sugar enabled it to survive better when shipped to international markets. There had always

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been unfortified wines from the Douro wine region, but Douro DOC was only established in 1982. The first ambitious Douro red was made by Fernando Nicolau de Almeida, who worked at the time as a winemaker at Ferreira Port. Following a visit to Bordeaux, de Almeida returned to Portugal convinced that high quality unfortified wine could be made from Douro grapes. In 1952, he made the first vintage of Barca Velha, cooling the fermentation tanks with ice brought upriver from Matosinhos (the fishing port west of Porto city). He experimented with different grape varieties, different fermentation vessels and different types of oak for ageing the wine. Finally, he settled on Tinta Roriz (called Aragonez in other parts of Portugal or Tempranillo in Spain) to provide the majority of the blend, with local Portuguese grapes making up the rest. Barca Velha was not popular when it was first released, but now commands super-premium prices and can be ten times the price of good vintage port. Despite de Almeida’s efforts, production of high-quality Douro unfortified wine did not get underway generally until Portugal joined the European Community (now EU) in 1986, bringing the necessary finance to invest in modern winemaking equipment such as stainless-steel tanks with temperature control. A few Douro estate owners brought a court case to be allowed to export port from the estates (quintas) in the Douro. Up until then, all port wine had to be exported from Vila Nova de Gaia, where the major port shippers had their warehouse and bottling lines. The case succeeded, and kickstarted the development of a modern generation of unfortified Douro wines, many of which are estate (single quinta) wines. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate, Soils and Vineyard Management The demarcated region follows the course of the Douro river over around 100 km, starting as the river turns west at the border with Spain, and finishing just west of Mesão Frio (which is around 100 km inland from Oporto). It is divided into three sub-regions, the Douro Superior (Upper Douro) in the east, the Cima Corgo in the centre, and the Baixo Corgo in the west. The western limit of the region is marked by the Serra do Marão, 1,415 metres at its highest point. This mountain shields the Douro region from the worst of the cooler, damper Atlantic weather, and means that overall the region has a warm continental climate. However, site location is important. Generally, being westernmost (with more Atlantic influence), the Baixo Corgo is the coolest and wettest region (900 mm per annum), the Cima Corgo warmer and drier (700 mm per annum) and the Douro Superior is hot and arid (450 mm per annum). However, the Douro and its tributaries provide valley sides with a variety of aspects and altitudes, resulting in a huge range of microclimates. The bedrock in the region is schist on top of which there is a shallow topsoil mainly made up of decomposed schist. Low in organic matter and stony in texture, the soil stores little water, however, because the schist bedrock splits into vertical layers the vine roots can break through it in search of water. This is particularly important given many of the Douro’s hillside vineyards are not set up for irrigation and the dry, increasingly drought-prone climate. In 2019, the IVDP relaxed the regulations about irrigation which was not previously permitted except in extreme circumstances. Today, when hydric stress jeopardises quality (as distinct from quantity) and the vineyard is located in an area where irrigation is authorised, producers need only notify the IVDP if they irrigate.

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Vineyards in the Douro Superior. The vineyard layout and vineyard management techniques are the same as those used in Port production; see the Port chapter of D5: Fortified Wines for details. Grape Varieties Douro wines are usually blends of grape varieties. Single varietal wines, typically of Touriga Nacional or Tinta Roriz, can be found but are relatively rare. The most common grapes are similar to those used in Port production; Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Barroca and Tinto Cão. For more details on the characteristics of each see the Port chapter of D5: Fortified Wines. Touriga Franca and Touriga Nacional, which tend to retain acidity well and tend to give ripe but not jammy flavours of black fruits, are popular lead grapes in blends. Touriga Franca tends to produce wines with medium body, medium alcohol and red and black fruits often within some floral character. Touriga Nacional has a high level of colour and tannins with black fruit flavours and floral notes, such as violet, rose or orange blossom. Plantings of Sousão have increased in the last few years (both for Port and Douro wines); its high acidity bringing freshness even in warm years. The DOC permits a large range of other Portuguese varieties. The grapes used for Douro DOC white wine are traditional Portuguese varieties, many native to the Douro Valley. These include Viosinho (full-bodied with floral notes and stone fruit, but can lack acidity), Rabigato (high acidity, citrus and floral), Gouveio (called Godello in Spain, medium (+) acidity, citrus and stone fruit) sometimes with Moscatel Galego Branco (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains) to enhance the intensity of aromas. They tend to be grown in

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vineyards at the highest altitudes, providing cooler day and night-time conditions that help retain acidity. Douro wines tend to be made from grapes blended from a range of sites, though some producers do make wines from a single vineyard plot. Producers are generally aiming for ripe but not over ripe grapes, and a blend of sites (along with a blend of grape varieties) can help achieve this aim despite variances in weather year on year. Aspect, altitude and distance from the coast can all influence site climate, with north facing aspects, higher altitude sites and vineyards to the west of the region all giving cooler conditions which can be advantageous in hot years. WINEMAKING AND WINE STYLES Douro DOC wines can be made as still red, rosé or white wines, or as sparkling wines. By far the largest proportion is red (over 70 per cent of sales).14 These wines range from inexpensive, good quality wines for early drinking to premium and sometimes super-premium priced wines that are very good and outstanding in quality with much greater intensity and complexity, sometimes from field blends of old vine (vinhas velhas) fruit. Now virtually all the Port houses make dry wines. Significant producers include Prats & Symington and Quinta do Vale Meão. The grapes are usually destemmed as the high tannin levels in many Douro grape varieties means that additional tannin is rarely needed and producers do not want to risk green, unripe flavours. Fermentation tends to take place in stainless steel tanks that permit easy temperature control. Temperatures are relatively low for red wines (24–28°C / 75–82°F) to allow greater control over tannin extraction. Some producers still have wide shallow lagares (more typically used for Port) and may blend in a small proportion of wine fermented in lagares or start the fermentation in the lagares. The influence of fermenting wine in lagares may differ from producer to producer depending on what cap management is carried out and whether the lagar is temperature controlled. A benefit of fermentation in lagares is that is can be easier to monitor the level of extraction in an open lagar than a closed tank. Wines for early drinking may be pressed off the skins once fermentation is complete. Post-fermentation maceration can be carried out on wines for longer ageing to further extract and soften tannins. Maturation traditionally took place in large oak vessels often made from Portuguese oak but, in modern times, smaller vessels such as barriques have become common, with French oak being preferred. Similar to winemaking trends in other parts of the world, winemakers in the Douro are now increasingly using larger vessels (e.g. 400– 500 L) and less new oak so as not to overpower the fruit flavours in the wines. Douro whites account for just over a quarter of sales.15 Inexpensive, fresh Douro white wines are fermented at cool temperatures in stainless steel and bottled for sale soon after. They tend to have light to medium aromas and flavours, medium to medium (+) acidity and tend to be of good quality. Moscatel Galego Branco is often used in these wines to enhance aroma intensity. Conversely, premium whites tend to be produced from grapes from old vines and are often fermented and matured in oak (new or old). These tend to have a greater intensity and variety of aromas and flavours plus greater body and texture. They are often very good quality with some outstanding examples. A small volume of dry rosé wine is made, by limiting the maceration time on skins. These are mostly simple and for drinking young.

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WINE BUSINESS Although Port accounts for over 60 per cent of the region’s total production, the amount of Douro DOC wine has grown from 330,000 hL in 2008 to 515,000 hL in 2017 (386,000 hL in 2018 due to smaller harvests overall, a result of rainy weather during flowering), and is over 30 per cent of the region’s total DOC production. The VR Duriense produces much lower volumes (just over 6,000 hL in 2018) but is an option for producers who choose to use nonlocal varieties such as Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah.16 There is a large choice of premium wines, many of which are made from estate-grown grapes and named after the quinta. Many of the well-known Port producers, including Symington, Quinta do Noval and Niepoort, make a range of Douro wines. The top wines often come from select estates or parcels, which have been earmarked for wine (as opposed to Port) production. Inexpensive, high volume wines are often sourced from different quintas (which may belong to growers) and may be made by one of the region’s 23 co-operatives. Port production volumes and prices for grapes are controlled by the Beneficio (for more details see the Port chapter in D5: Fortified Wines). Such a control does not exist for Douro DOC wines, whose prices are influenced by the market. In any given vintage the prices grape growers receive for Douro DOC grapes is substantially below those earned for Port grapes. In years of surplus, prices drop even further, often to below the cost of production. Some producers and critics argue that artificial prices for Port grapes are subsidising the growing of grapes for unfortified wines. In 2019, the domestic market accounted for 64 per cent of sales by volume. The main export markets by volume were Canada, Brazil and the UK.17

21.3. Dão

Dão DOC is located further south than Vinho Verde and the Douro, and inland from Bairrada. The VR Terras do Dão is not commonly used. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The region is surrounded by mountains, protecting it from cool maritime weather conditions from the west, and warmer, more arid conditions from the east and the south. Overall, Dão has a Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and mild winters. Rainfall is relatively high (1,600 mm per annum in the west of the region, 1,100 mm in the east) but mainly falls in the autumn and winter. The DOC covers a large area, of which only approximately 5 per cent are planted with vines (around 20,000 ha); the majority of the land is home to pine and eucalyptus forests, which are thought to bring a signature note to the wines. The region itself has a mixed topography with a number of hills, valleys and mountain sides, giving a range of

High altitude vineyards in the Serra da Estrela subregion of Dão.

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aspects and altitudes. Most vineyards are located at around 400–500 m (but some are as low as 200 m and, in the easternmost Serra da Estrela subregion, as high as 900 m) providing a moderating influence on day-time temperatures and a high diurnal range. The soils are mainly weathered granite with a sandy or loamy texture. They are low in organic matter and free draining, constraining vigour and meaning water stress can be an issue during ripening. Other hazards include hail during the summer, and spring frosts in flat, low-lying vineyards where mountain air descends and settles on the plains below. Many vineyards are on gentle slopes, and although bush vines were traditional, most modern plantings are double or single Guyot (replacement-cane pruned) or cordon-trained with VSP trellising. Harvest sizes vary significantly based on the weather during the growing season. A high of almost 255,000 hL of DOC wine was produced in 2017, whereas a ten-year low of only 155,000 hL was produced in 2018.18 GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING Around 80 per cent of production is red wine.19 The key black grape varieties are Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Jaen and Alfrocheiro, often blended. Touriga Nacional has deep colour, high tannins and acidity and black fruit and floral or herbal notes. Tinta Roriz ripens earlier and has deep colour, medium to medium (+) tannins and a full body. Both can make single varietal wines which are capable of bottle ageing or are used to lend structure to a red blend. Jaen (called Mencía in Spain) produces wines with moderate acidity and flavours of raspberry and blackberry. As a single varietal wine, it sometimes made by carbonic maceration to produce a fruity wine for early consumption. Alfrocheiro has medium tannin and body with strawberry and blackberry flavours. As a single varietal, it usually made in a soft, fruity style for early consumption, and is sometimes used for rosé production. Both Jaen and Alfrocheiro can soften and lend ripe fruity flavours to red blends. Overall, red wines from Dão tend to be less full-bodied and intense than those from the Douro, often with fresher flavours and higher acidity. The red wines used to be excessively astringent and lacking in fruit from long periods of maceration followed by extensive maturation in old oak. Now, shorter maceration and ageing in oak is common. Use of new oak is typical, but some producers have started to reduce the proportion of new oak that they use. Dão red wines can range from good to outstanding in quality, and are typically mid-priced to premium, with a few super-premium examples. Encruzado is the key white grape variety for high quality wines. It has medium to medium (+) acidity, can be full-bodied and has lemon and peach fruit sometimes with a floral note. It can either be fermented in neutral vessels to retain its fruit flavours or fermented and matured in oak vessels, sometimes with lees ageing and stirring, for texture. Oak-fermented examples in particular are capable of ageing well in bottle and can develop nutty characters. The wines are usually good to very good in quality, with a few outstanding examples, and mid- to premium priced. Other common white grapes, often blended together or with Encruzado, include Malvasia Fina (the same as Boal in Madeira), Bical and Cercial (for characteristics, see Bairrada). WINE BUSINESS Dão is an area of small vineyard holdings farmed by around 30,000 grape growers.20 Over 90 per cent of vineyards have an area of less than 0.5 ha.21 After accession to the EU and the

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overturning of legislation that favoured co-operative production, Sogrape (Portugal’s largest wine producer) led the way in producing higher quality wines at all price points. There is now a growing number of quality-focused private companies (merchants and estates) in the region making premium wines, including a number of young winemakers attracted by the quality of fruit Dão can produce. Significant producers include Vinha Paz and Quinta da Pellada. Only between 15 and 20 per cent of Dão wine is exported, with the principal markets being Canada, Brazil, the USA and China.23

21.4. Bairrada

Bairrada is located to the west of Dão. Its proximity to the coast means that it has a maritime climate. Annual rainfall for much of the region is 800–1,200 mm (although some areas can experience up to 1,600 mm), mainly falling in the spring and autumn and this can be problematic for late-ripening grape varieties such as the local Baga. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING As in many number of other Portuguese wine regions, the DOC boundaries are much larger than the planted area, which is around 10,000 ha. There are fertile alluvial soils in the west, from river estuaries that have silted up, and limestone-clay slopes. In Cantanhede, an unofficial subregion in the warmer south, limestone-clay soils have attracted particularly intensive planting of Baga vineyards. Vineyards were traditionally planted to high-trained, individually staked bush vines. However, recent plantings are trellised with the Guyot system (replacement-cane pruned) with VSP being the most common. GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING Red Wines Red wines make up around two thirds of production. Baga is the dominant black grape. It has high acidity and tannins with a medium body and cranberry, cherry and plum fruit. It can be astringent when young but becomes softer and more complex with bottle ageing. Throughout much of the 20th century, Baga was grown at high yields and sold to co-operatives; the wines lacked fruit concentration and were unpleasantly astringent. Valued for its fresh acidity, a significant amount of Baga grown at high yields was also sold, and still is, for the production of Mateus Rosé. In the last 30 years, private companies have made wine with a focus on quality. Much greater understanding of how to treat Baga in the vineyard and winery has led to the production of very good and outstanding wines. Baga is late ripening and productive, meaning that careful site selection and limiting yields are required to ensure full ripeness. The warmest sites are often those with southfacing aspects and protected from cool north winds by eucalyptus and pine forests. Baga is also thought to ripen best on the limestone-clay soils which provide the optimum balance of water retention and drainage to ensure that the vine has enough water to continue ripening throughout the growing season (photosynthesis can stop in drought conditions) but not so much as to become overly vigorous. These light-coloured soils (especially in Cantanhede, whose vineyards are strewn with white limestone pebbles and rocks) also reflect solar energy back onto the vines, aiding the ripening process. By comparison, the sandy soils are too dry and are often better suited to the grape varieties listed below. Green harvesting may also be

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Limestone rocks in the vineyards of Bairrada. carried out to enhance the ripening of the remaining bunches (the fruit removed is sometimes used in sparkling wines which are relatively common in the region). Traditionally, Baga wines were fermented on stems, which contributed to their reputation of wines best drunk after long ageing in bottle. Most modern producers de-stem, although there has been a return to using a proportion of whole bunch or adding back a proportion of stems to the ferment. This can be to give a fresher fruit character and enhance aromas (whole bunch) or give greater structure (use of stems) for wines that are designed to undergo long ageing. Fermentation vessels are mixed from stainless steel tanks to open concrete vats to traditional lagares. Maturation is most commonly carried out in large barrels (500–650 L) of French oak. Traditional producers still use large toneis often made from Portuguese oak or Brazilian hardwood. Other producers who choose to mature their wines in large vessels are using foudres made from French, Italian or Austrian oak. The DOC also permits a range of other Portuguese varieties including Touriga Nacional, Alfrocheiro, Jaen and Camarate (a local variety producing full-bodied, medium tannin wines with red fruit flavours). It also permits some international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, which are well-suited to the maritime climate and soils that drain efficiently. These are often used in a blend with Baga to soften the tannin profile of the wine and bring more body. Wines labelled Baga Clássico must contain a minimum of 50 per cent Baga, and a minimum of 85 per cent of any blend of Baga, Alfrocheiro, Touriga Nacional, Jaen and Camarate. Black grapes may also be used in the production of rosé wines.

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White Wines Producers’ interest in making white wines is growing. Maria Gomes (called Fernão Pires in other parts of Portugal), Bical, Arinto and Cercial are the key white varieties. Maria Gomes is the most planted white grape variety in Portugal. It is early ripening, which is favourable in Bairrada’s damp climate, and can produce high yields. Its wines display citrus and floral aromas. Bical is also early ripening, and the wines have peach and sometimes tropical fruit. Both Maria Gomes and Bical can have medium (+) acidity if picked relatively early, but lose acidity quickly if left on the vine longer. Arinto and Cercial both have apple and citrus flavours and may be used in blends to add acidity. A number of international varieties are also allowed including Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Inexpensive wines are usually sourced from the parts of the region with sandy soils and are fermented at cool temperatures in stainless steel with bottling for sale soon after. Mid-priced and premium wines are often sourced from the parts of the region with clay-limestone soils and may be fermented and matured for a short time in oak. Quality levels for the white wines of Bairrada are generally good with a few very good examples. Significant producers include Quinta das Bágeiras and Filipa Pato & William Wouters. Bairrada is also the lead producer of traditional method sparkling wines in Portugal, which account for around 10 per cent of Bairrada’s production. Both local grapes and Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are used. WINE BUSINESS The wine region is farmed by around 2,000 growers, and co-operatives and merchants are both common.23 A small group of producers, called Baga Friends, have grouped together to promote high-quality wines made entirely from Baga. In 2018, Bairrada’s production was around 52,000 hL (not including sparkling wines), a large drop from the 2017 volume (around 92,000 hL).24 The local VR, Beira Atlântico, produced 25,000 hL. Its boundaries extend beyond those of Bairrada and therefore it can be used by producers who have vineyards outside the DOC. Others, notably Luis Pato and Filipa Pato, have used the Vinho Regional label because, although their vineyards fall within Bairrada DOC demarcation, they objected to the extension of the DOC to international varieties.

21.5. Alentejo

The large Alentejano region extends over much of south-eastern Portugal, with the Spanish border to the east and the Algarve’s mountains to the south, with a total planted area of around 23,000 ha. The DOC, Alentejo, is made up of eight non-contiguous sub- regions. Covering the same land, the Vinho de Talha DOC was introduced in 2010 for wines fermented on skins in talha (amphora), a traditional production method that is undergoing a renaissance.25 The Vinho Regional, Alentejano, is commonly used by producers sourcing grapes from outside the eight sub-regions of the DOCs. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The climate is Mediterranean, with hot dry summers and mild winters; the most inland parts of the region have the most extreme temperatures. Annual rainfall is around 500 mm in the

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A high altitude vineyard of bush vines in Portalegre. south to 800 mm in the north, mainly falling in autumn and winter. With long periods of dry weather, drip irrigation is widely used. The landscape is generally made up of plains and gentle slopes though there are mountains in the north, south and east of the region. There is a wide range of soils, including granite, schist and limestone with textures that range from sand to clay. Most vineyards are trained and trellised to double cordon with VSP. Replacement-cane systems are gradually declining, due to the greater need for skilled labour during pruning; Alentejo is one of the most sparsely populated areas of Portugal. Alentejo DOC comprises eight sub-regions with varying microclimates and soils. Generally speaking, the northernmost sub-regions in the Alto (Upper) Alentejo are less hot and dry. Within this part of the DOC, the sub-region of Portalegre has vineyards planted over 800 m, and the altitude together with its more northerly location means it is cooler than the rest of Alentejo, producing wines with fresher fruit and higher acidities. Unlike most of Alentejo, Portalegre’s vineyards tend to be small, even orchard and garden-sized, and it retains a significant number of old field blend vineyards. GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING A wide range of grapes are permitted in the DOC. For white and red wines, single varietal wines are the exception rather than the rule. Black grape varieties make up just over 75 per cent of plantings. The key black grape varieties are Aragonez (Tinta Roriz in other parts of Portugal and Tempranillo in Spain), Alicante Bouschet and Trincadeira, often produced as a

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blend. Harvesting time is important for Aragonez; as an early ripening variety, if left on the vine it can become extra ripe, and it is thought that it best grows in cooler areas and sites. Alicante Bouschet is a red-fleshed grape contributing deep colour, acidity, tannins and red and black berry fruits to red blends. Trincadeira is very susceptible to rot but grows well in the dry climate in Alentejo. It tends to produce high yields, which need to be limited if it is to fully ripen its grapes reliably. It has medium tannins and acidity and blackberry and spice flavours. Touriga Nacional is sometimes used in a blend with one or more of these grape varieties, generally bringing tannin and acidity. Some international grape varieties are also permitted, and out of these Syrah is the most commonly used; Cabernet Sauvignon seems to be waning whilst plantings of Petit Verdot, which contributes colour, spice and tannin, are increasing. Wines range from inexpensive and fruity for early consumption to super-premium wines with concentrated fruit flavours, spice from maturation in new oak and the structure to age for a decade or more. Significant producers include Cartuxa and Mouchão. Roupeiro is the most planted white grape variety. It retains acidity well and is susceptible to rot, both of which make it well suited to the warm, dry Alentejo. In youth, its wines have flavours of citrus and stone fruit, but they can lose their primary flavours quickly with age. Arinto (called Pedernã in Vinho Verde) is also grown and used in blends for its ability to retain acidity. Antão Vaz is tolerant of drought and so is well suited to Alentejo’s dry climate. It is made in a range of styles including early picked fresh wines; later picked, fuller- bodied wines (often oaked) with tropical fruits; and talha wines with evident skin contact influence. It can lack acidity in the warmest sub-regions of Alentejo (unless picked early) and therefore is sometimes blended with grapes with higher levels of acidity such as Roupeiro and Arinto. Chardonnay and Viognier are also permitted, as are many other Portuguese and international grapes, with Alvarinho on the increase. White wines may either be fermented in stainless steel for fruity wines for early-consumption, or in barrels for wines with greater texture and longer ageing. Quality generally ranges from good to very good, with most wines inexpensive to mid-priced. WINE BUSINESS Commercially, Alentejo has larger sales in Portugal than any other Portuguese wine region, with 37 per cent of the domestic market by volume and 40 per cent by value. Alentejo wines also claim 20 per cent of total Portuguese wine exports. The main markets are Brazil, Angola, the USA, Switzerland and Canada.26 In 2017, the production of Alentejo DOC was around 510,000 hL, rising to 592,000 hL in 2018, the reverse of trends seen in the north of Portugal. Likewise, the production of Alentejano VR also increased from 414,000 hL in 2017 to 480,000 hL in 2018.27 Compared to many other Portuguese wine regions, Alentejo is an area of larger land holdings. With its high sunshine hours, dry summers, relatively flat topography and expansive plains and estates, Alentejo was seen as well suited to cost-effective, high-volume, mechanised viticulture and E.U. funding enabled producers to pursue this model. In 1995, there were 45 producers and 13,500 ha,28 whereas in early 2019 there were 285 producers and almost 22,000 ha.29 Vineyards tend to be relatively young and sizeable. Given its close proximity to Lisbon, the region is strongly focused on wine tourism. A number of estates having designer wineries with large cellar doors and often producing a

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range of other products on site such as olive oil and Iberian ham, a model pioneered in the 1990s by highly successful businessmen such as José Roquette of Esporão and João Portugal Ramos.

21.6. Lisboa

This long, thin region runs from Lisbon in the south to 150 km further north. A coastal mountain range, the Serra de Montejunto, splits the region into two distinct areas. The total area under vine in 2018 is around 18,000 ha. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The western side of the region runs alongside the Atlantic coast, and wet weather and strong winds make grape growing more challenging, though a number of producers have been attracted to these sites by the climate and clay-limestone soils, wishing to make lighterbodied, fresher styles of wine. The eastern side of the region is more protected and better suited to the production of riper, fuller- bodied wines. GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND DENOMINATIONS A wide range of Portuguese and international varieties are grown and permitted in both the VR and DOCs. Since the major restructuring which followed Portugal’s accession to the EU (in the bid to switch from quantity to quality-focused production), this diverse region is still finding its path. Relative newcomers Touriga Nacional and Aragonez and the historic local white grape Arinto are thought to be the Portuguese grape varieties with the highest potential for quality. Popular international varieties include Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling. Out of the DOCs, Alenquer and Bucelas are the best known, both on the eastern side of the coastal mountains. Alenquer makes full- bodied red wines in this sheltered location often from Touriga Nacional and Aragonez, though many black and white varieties are grown.

Vineyards in Bucelas.

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The wines tend to be good to very good and are usually mid-priced, with a few premium and super-premium wines. Bucelas, a small historic region, makes high acid wines from Arinto, which must be at least 75 per cent of the blend. Some are fermented in stainless steel and bottled soon after. In others, lees contact and/or oak may be used to enhance the texture of the wine. The wines tend to be good or very good and inexpensive to mid-priced. Colares and Carcavelos are much smaller coastal DOCs of great historic importance, having been almost entirely subsumed by Lisbon’s suburbs. The cool, foggy coastal climate and ungrafted old bush vines on the deep, phylloxera-free sandy soils of Colares are of particular interest to new winemakers that have started making fresh, high acidity red and white wines from rarely-seen, local grapes. WINE BUSINESS The vast majority of production comes from Lisboa VR, and, with its history of production of inexpensive wines for sale to Portuguese colonies, a further significant proportion is still sold without a geographical indication. Although there are also nine DOCs in the area (one of which is focused on grape spirit production), producers often choose to use the VR, the regulations allow more flexibility and the name ‘Lisboa’ is more recognisable than the names of the smaller DOCs. In 2017 and 2018, the production of across Lisboa’s DOCs was around 60,000 and 45,000 hL respectively, whereas Lisboa VR produced 877,000 hL and 885,000 hL in the same two years.30 With quality improving as re-structured vineyards are maturing and producers gain experience both in the vineyard and the winery, more wines are being certified (DOC or VR). A substantial proportion of certified wine (around 40 per cent) is made by one producer, Casa Santos Lima, which makes inexpensive and mid-priced brands and private labels for retailers, mostly for sale on the export market.31 Significant producers include Quinta de Chocapalha and Quinta do Monte d’Oiro.

21.7. Península de Setúbal

Península de Setúbal is located between the estuaries of the Tejo and Sado rivers, south of Lisbon. The vineyard area makes up 9,500 ha.32 The general climate is Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Mountains in the south of the region provide cooler sites at higher altitudes on clay-limestone soils. Much of the land in the region is flat and sandy, with more clay and schist further inland. There are two DOCs in the area; Palmela DOC and Setúbal DOC, the latter for sweet, fortified wines from Moscatel varieties. Palmela DOC mainly produces red wines. They must be made from at least 67 per cent Castelão (also known as Periquita). It produces wines that are deep in colour and full-bodied with red berry fruit. It is often matured in oak, which adds hints of spice. For concentrated, age- worthy wines, Castelão is best grown in the warm, sandy vineyards on the plains; on the limestone slopes, it tends to produce lighter wines more suited to early drinking. A variety of black Portuguese and international varieties are also permitted; with many of the international grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah better suited to the cooler, limestone and clay slopes. Whites are also produced; the main grape varieties are Fernão Pires, Moscatel and Arinto, but, again, a large range of Portuguese and international varieties are

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permitted. Overall, the wines tend to be of good quality with some very good examples, and mid-priced. Península de Setúbal VR makes up a larger area including the peninsula and land further south, and encompasses the DOCs. It allows greater flexibility; for example, red wines can be made from a range of Portuguese and international varieties and there is no minimum limit for Castelão. Production of Palmela DOC in 2018 was 171,000 hL compared to 217,000 hL in Península de Setúbal VR (still wines only).33 Two large producers have been major modernising influences in the region, namely José Maria da Fonseca (who created the highly successful Lancers and Periquita brands) and Bacalhôa Vinhos.

21.8. Tejo

Tejo is located inland from the Lisboa region, and is named after the Tejo river (River Tagus) that runs through it. In the past, production was focused on volume and vineyards on the fertile riverbanks were able to provide high yields. Following accession to the EU, a substantial number of vineyards on fertile soils were grubbed up. New plantings of higher quality grapes (see below) have been focused on less fertile soils to the north and south of the region. It is the name of a VR and DOC; the VR covering a wider area, permitting a wider variety of grape varieties and larger maximum yields, and producing substantially more wine than the DOC. There is also considerable production of wine without a geographical indication. Overall, the area has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters (around 750 mm annual rainfall). However, there are variances in climate and soil over the region. The north has slightly higher rainfall with clay-limestone and schist soils and mainly produces red wines. Around the river, fertile alluvial soils mean that vine vigour needs to be carefully managed. This area mainly produces white wines. The south of the region is the driest and hottest and has poor sandy soils; it produces red and white wines. The DOC and VR both allow a range of Portuguese and international varieties, the most common being Trincadeira, Castelão, Aragonez, Touriga Nacional, Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon for red wines, and Fernão Pires, Arinto, Alvarinho, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay for white wines. The majority of wines are made in a fruity style for early consumption; they tend to be acceptable to good in quality and inexpensive to mid-priced, but a growing number of higher quality, premium wines are starting to be produced. Significant producers include Quinta da Alorna and Fiuza & Bright. References 1. Gabay, E. 2018, Rosé, Oxford, Infinite Ideas (p188) 2. Estatística, Instituto da Vinha e do Vinho (retrieved 27 February 2020) 3. As above 4. 2018 data. Estatística, Instituto da Vinha e do Vinho (retrieved 27 February 2020) 5. Vinho de Talha, Vinhos do Alentejo (retrieved 23 April 2019) 6. Anderson, K., Nelgen, S., Pinilla, V., 2017, Global Wine Markets 1860–2016: A Statistical Compendium, University of Adelaide, p2 (retrieved 27 February 2020) 7. Five-year average taken from 2014/15 to 2018/19. Estatística, Instituto da Vinha e do Vinho (retrieved 27 February 2020)

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8. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market April 2019, OIV (retrieved 27 February 2020) 9. Estatística, Instituto da Vinha e do Vinho (retrieved 27 February 2020) 10. Estatísticas, CVRVV (retrieved 27 February 2020) 11. As above 12. As above 13. As above 14. Estatistica: Vendas de Outros Vinhos da RDD, IVDP (retrieved 3 March 2020) 15. As above 16. All statistics from Evolução da Produção Por Região Vitivinícola, IVV (retrieved 3 March 2020) 17. Estatistica: Vendas de Outros Vinhos da RDD, IVDP (retrieved 3 March 2020) 18. All statistics from Evolução da Produção Por Região Vitivinícola, IVV (retrieved 3 March 2020) 19. Dão, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 20. Wine Regions: Dão, Wines of Portugal (retrieved 26 March 2019) 21. Dão, Sogrape (retrieved 26 March 2019) 22. Estatísticas, CVR Dão (retrieved 11 June 2019) 23. Bairrada, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 24. All data from Evolução da Produção Por Região Vitivinícola, IVV (retrieved 3 March 2020) 25. Vinho de Talha, Vinhos do Alentejo (retrieved 23 April 2019) 26. Information & Documents, Vinhos de Alentejo (retrieved 3 March 2020) 27. Evolução da Produção Por Região Vitivinícola, IVV (retrieved 3 March 2020) 28. Personal communication, Sarah Ahmed, original data source Alentejo CVR, email, June 2019 29. Information & Documents, Vinhos de Alentejo (retrieved 3 March 2020) 30. Evolução da Produção Por Região Vitivinícola, IVV (retrieved 3 March 2020) 31. About Us, Casa Santos Lima (retrieved 3 March 2020) 32. Região, Península de Setúbal, Vinhos da Península de Setúbal (retrieved 3 March 2020) 33. All data from Evolução da Produção Por Região Vitivinícola, IVV (retrieved 3 March 2020)

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22

Introduction to the United States of America

The United States of America is now both an important wine producer and importer, the latter due to a recent upsurge in interest in wine, thought to be in its younger adult population. The USA is the world’s fourth largest producer of wine, some way behind Italy, France and Spain yet far in front of the next three countries, Argentina, Chile and Australia. Within the USA, California accounts for over 80 per cent of the wine produced, followed by Washington at around 5 per cent, New York at approximately 4 per cent and Oregon at 1.4 per cent.1 The total area planted to vine is around 430,000 ha,2 spread across more than 30 states, with wine vinified in all 50 states in over 10,000 wineries.3 Europeans voyaging across the Atlantic to settle in the present-day USA have sought to make wine since the late 1500s. None of the native species of vines found there could produce grapes that made wine deemed drinkable and so, from about 1620 onwards, cuttings from European vinifera vines were brought across. Despite cuttings of different varieties and plantings made all across the settled territories, all vines succumbed to indigenous diseases and pests, and climatic conditions to which they were unsuited. By chance, a natural hybrid of a native vine, Vitis labrusca, and a variety of Vitis vinifera, was discovered in Pennsylvania. Named the Alexander, it was the building block for the first successful commercial venture in the early 1800s. Once its hybrid nature, and that of other natural hybrids, was better understood, the potential for producing drinkable wine was there, even though most of these hybrids, such as Norton, Delaware and Catawba, still showed some unusual aromas not typically found in pure V. vinifera. Nevertheless, over the next fifty

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years, an industry of grape growing and winemaking grew up from close to the border with Canada down to Georgia and across west to Missouri, supported by government-funded research, analysis and supply. This included deliberate hybridization to include desirable features or reduce undesirable ones. However, outside the then-US, V. vinifera grapes were thriving in what were the Mexican territories of present-day New Mexico, Texas and California. After the ceding of these lands to the USA in 1848, followed immediately by the explosion in population caused by the California gold rush, the plantings of V. vinifera grew rapidly (a 50- to 100-fold increase from 1860 to 1900) to establish California as the dominant force in US wine production. The formation by the state’s leading producers and retailers of the California Wine Association in 1894 brought trading stability to what could be a chaotic market and developed distribution networks across the states and beyond. Ahead of national prohibition in 1920, the US wine industry was producing around 2 million hL annually. Until its repeal in 1933, commercial production was limited to wine for sacramental and medicinal purposes only although grape juice for home winemaking could be sold. This resulted in an increase of vine plantings but the devastation of industrial winemaking. When prohibition was repealed, the USA was deep into an economic recession and wine was an unaffordable commodity for most people and so it generally fell out of fashion compared to spirits and beer. In the 1940s and 50s, large companies such as Roma Wines of Fresno and Gallo of Modesto emerged in the USA. These large volume companies created strong brands by using European place-named wines such as ‘California Sherry’, ‘California Burgundy’ and ‘Pink Chablis’ to appeal to the post-war consumer. Brands were enhanced using celebrity spokesmen and showing wine as a key component to a modern, elegant lifestyle. Gallo remains today a major brand owner in the US wine market. However, it was not until the late 1960s that the USA saw a revival in public interest in wine, both from makers and consumers. New wineries proliferated, in California broadly doubling in number every 11 or 12 years from 240 in 1970 to nearly 4,000 by 2014. Efforts were made to better match grape varieties to suitable locations and improve winemaking practices so that the portfolios of wines offered were smaller, better quality and more interesting. Consumers reciprocated by investing in their interest, both in the value of sales and acquiring wine knowledge. This boom was equally felt beyond California, in states impacted even more strongly over the past fifty years. Eastern states such as Ohio, New York and Virginia saw both pastures and old vineyards transformed by new plantings of V. vinifera and new French hybrids such as Seyval Blanc, supported by newly developed fungicides and pesticides. Mid-west states like New Mexico and Texas revived and expanded whilst more northern states like Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin discovered an affinity with cold climate varieties such as Riesling and the hybrid Brianna. North of California, Washington’s Yakima Valley and Oregon’s Willamette Valley were the first to attract interest from winemakers keen to make cooler, more elegant styles. Challenges still remain, some being caused by irregular climatic conditions and some by the still restrictive nature of laws in some states regarding the sale of alcohol across state borders. That said, the difference in the last fifty years of US wine production and consumption compared to the previous fifty years is quite remarkable.

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AMERICAN VITICULTURAL AREAS (AVAS) Many of the well-known US wine regions are organized into American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) – designated grape growing regions that have unique geological and geographical features. These areas are proposed via petition by local grape growers and winemakers, and reviewed by the federal government (US Department of Treasury’s Alcohol Tobacco, Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB)). There are no AVA-based regulations on grape growing and winemaking. Most AVAs are located in a single state. A few AVAs overlap into multiple states when the boundaries follow geologic features of rivers and drainage basins. For example, Oregon and Washington State share the Columbia Valley AVA, Columbia Gorge AVA, and Walla Walla Valley AVA. Of the 246 AVAs in the USA, almost 60 per cent (around 140) AVAs are in California.4 It is typical for producers within a larger AVA (usually established 20–30 years ago) to subsequently appeal to the TTB to create smaller AVAs with distinct microclimates or terrain within the larger area. The terms ‘sub-AVAs’ or ‘nested’ AVAs are frequently used interchangeably.5 The US also has Appellations of Origin that are defined by political boundaries, such as the name of a county, state or country, In order for a wine to be designated with an Appellation of Origin defined by a political boundary, federal law requires that a minimum of 75 per cent or more of grapes used to make the wine be from that appellation, and that the wine be fully finished within the state in which the county is located (see more below in Labelling Laws). LABELLING LAWS Federal labelling laws apply to wines sold in the US domestic market. Grape variety and origin may be listed in accordance with certain minimum standards: •

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If the label states a variety, then a minimum of 75 per cent of the wine must be produced from that variety. The appellation of origin must be stated with the variety. Two or more varieties may be stated on the label if the percentage of each variety is listed. If the label states an appellation of origin, then a minimum of 75 per cent of the grapes must come from the stated county, state, or country of origin. Where appellations overlap with neighbouring states, the label must reflect the percentage of the wine derived from each variety from each state. A vintage may only be stated if a minimum of 85 per cent of the wine was produced in the stated vintage. If the label states an AVA, then a minimum of 85 per cent of the grapes must come from that AVA. The wine must be fermented and fully finished in the state where the AVA is located. A vintage may only be stated if a minimum of 95 per cent of the wine was produced in the stated vintage.

Some states have more stringent labelling requirements than the federal government’s regulations. For example, Oregon requires 100 per cent of all grapes to be grown in Oregon in order to list the state as the origin. If an Oregon AVA is listed on the label, then 95 per cent of the grapes must have been grown in that AVA.

Introduction to the United States of America

THE US WINE MARKET TODAY The US is the world’s largest wine market. It has the highest value import sales (5.2 billion Euro) and global consumption by volume (33 m hL) but a low per capita rate (11L).6 It is the 4th largest producer of wine (23.9 m hL) after Italy, France and Spain, but 8th in export volume (3.5 m hL) as the majority of production is consumed domestically.7 There are over 10,000 wineries across the country, with many wine companies each owning a large portfolio of winemaking facilities. However, the fifty largest wine companies in the US represent more than 90 per cent of US wine sold domestically by volume.8 By far the largest are E & J Gallo (70 m cases, 6.3 m hL), The Wine Group (53m cases, 4.8 m hL) and Constellation Brands (35 m cases, 3.2 m hL). Wine is made in all fifty states but those suffering from extreme climatic conditions (usually cold or humidity) are able to buy in grapes or must from other states. With the end of Prohibition, the regulatory control over the distribution and sale of alcohol beverages was transferred from the federal government to the states. The states adopted the three-tier system preventing direct sales between the producer and retailer. The Federal government also ceded control of beverage alcohol sales to the individual states. Drastically different laws over the fifty US states can make importing, distributing and selling alcohol in multiple states very complicated (see the section on The USA’s Three-Tier System in D2: Wine Business for further details). An increasing number of states allow the wine producer to sell directly to the consumer. This can be an important route to market, particularly for small to medium-sized wineries. Hence many wineries have well-equipped cellar doors to encourage such sales, as well as a wine clubs in which consumers pay a certain fee for the opportunity to buy their wines for a reduced price or perhaps buy exclusive wines. References 1. Estimates vary. California makes up 86 per cent of production (2018 data) according to U.S. Wineries – Annual Production (Cases) 2019 Production, Wines Vines Analytics (retrieved 24 March 2020). Whereas The Wine Institute cites a slightly lower figure at 80 per cent (2017 data). California & US Production, The Wine Institute (retrieved 24 March 2020) 2. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market, State of the sector in 2019, OIV (retrieved 24 March 2020). Figure includes vineyards for wine grapes, table grapes and raisins. 3. U.S. Wineries – Annual Production (Cases) 2019 Production, Wines Vines Analytics (retrieved 22 March 2020) 4. Established American Viticultural Areas, TTB (retrieved 24 March 2020) 5. Note that ‘nested’ is not a term used in federal regulations 6. State of the Vitiviniculture World Market April 2019, OIV (retrieved 24 March 2020) 7. As above 8. WBM 50 Largest Wineries: Review of the Industry in Wine Business Monthly (February 2020), p. 34

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23

California

California is the largest producer of wine in the US. It makes over 80 per cent of all US wine, which means that this state alone is still comfortably the world’s 4th largest producer after Italy, France and Spain.1 Vineyards specifically for wine production cover over 250,000 ha and are located throughout the state; along the Pacific coastline, in the interior Central Valley, and up into the Sierra Nevada foothills.2 The state’s AVAs can be grouped into North Coast, Central Coast, Inland Valleys (including the Central Valley), Sierra Foothills and Southern California. Grapes were initially introduced to California by Spanish missionaries who planted grapes at the missions they established along the California coast as far north as Sonoma Valley. Most grapes were used to make altar wine and sweet fortified wine. Plantings increased during the 1849 Gold Rush and its concurrent population increase. By the late 19th century, many of the regions that are important for California wine today were producing wines, and a centre of wine research and education at the University of California (now based in Davis) had been established. Production continued to grow to the extent that, in the 1890s, overplanting led to a significant drop in grape and wine prices, making it difficult for wine producers to survive. This was shortly followed by Prohibition, from 1920 to 1933, which stopped the manufacture, transportation, sale and possession of alcohol beverages and hence devastated the USA’s winemaking industry. From the 1930s to the 1960s, the California wine industry rebuilt itself. In the mid-20th century, consumer preferences were mainly for medium-sweet or sweet wines and many of the wines were named after famous European wine regions such as ‘Chablis’, ‘Burgundy’ or ‘Rhine’, though the style of these wines often bared no resemblance to the European wines they were named after. (Established brands are still able to use such names on their wines if sold in the domestic market, and this is seen on some inexpensive, high- volume brands.) As the US wine trade evolved, wines started to be labelled with descriptions such as ‘red table wine’ and then, promoted heavily by quality-focused vintner Robert Mondavi, with the name of a grape variety and a specific origin. Within the mid- to late 20th century, Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon plantings grew rapidly and they quickly became the two predominant grape varieties. During the same period, significant improvements were made in grape growing and winemaking, many of which were pioneered by leading winemaker and consultant André Tchelistcheff, such as temperature-controlled fermentation, better winery hygiene and techniques to prevent various diseases and frost damage. In 1976, a France versus California blind tasting was held in Paris, at which two California wines received top scores – 1973 Stag’s Leap Wine Cellars Cabernet Sauvignon and 1973 Chateau Montelena Chardonnay, bringing new attention and growth to the California wine trade. More vineyards were planted, many using the new AXR1 rootstock, which could give vines with higher yields than the traditional rootstocks. However, AXR1, which had some V. vinifera ancestry in its DNA, quickly proved to be unsuitable when phylloxera started to attack California vineyards in the 1980s. Large-scale planting was required, however, from this

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came the opportunity to re-evaluate site selection, choice of planting material and canopy management, in many areas with a focus on quality rather than quantity. The 1990s saw the rise in deeply coloured, highly concentrated and high alcohol red wines in response to both consumer demand and critical acclaim. Whites similarly tended to be made in a very ripe style with high levels of new oak. This trend has now largely passed, and in recent years California’s wine production has arguably been more diverse and of higher quality than ever before. There is greater concentration on matching grape variety to the regional or site climate and soil, a higher number of professionally trained winemakers that have experience of winemaking elsewhere in the world, a highly-regarded local wine research

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centre located in Davis and an ever-greater interest in experimenting with a wide range of grape varieties, winemaking techniques and wine styles.

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING Climate Two key influences on climate in California are the cold Pacific Ocean and the ranges of mountains that run along the length of the state. In the case of the ocean influence, a combination of the California current, bringing water from the north, and upwelling (the process whereby deep cold water rises to the surface) along the west coast of the USA means coastal waters are much colder here than those along the east coast. Vineyards without exposure to the ocean due to mountain protection are warm or even hot, whereas those with most exposure gain a significant cooling influence. The topography of the land is much more influential than the degrees latitude, with some of the coolest areas also being some of the most southerly. In general, the Coast Ranges, that start in the far north of the state and run down to Santa Barbara County, provides some shelter from the ocean, however, gaps within these ranges, usually where river valleys break through, mean that ocean influence can reach further inland. As the land warms during the day, the air above it rises and pulls in cooler air from the coast during the afternoons and evenings, giving a high diurnal range. This air movement cools the vineyards, reduces risk of fungal diseases and frosts, and in some places can be strong enough to cause the vines’ stomata to close and slow ripening in this way (as well as by lowering temperatures). Fog can form in the afternoons and often can last into the morning, cooling but also reducing exposure to sunshine in those areas that are most affected. California’s latitudes

Fog reduces sun exposure in Sonoma Coast.

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are relatively low for a wine region (approximately 32–42°N) meaning when the fog burns off, sunlight is intense. Altitude can be a cooling influence in some areas. In the majority of cases, these vineyards are situated above the layer of fog, so although altitude may lead to lower temperatures, these areas do gain long hours of intense sunlight which can lead to greater levels of colour and tannins in black grapes. Areas without the influence of the coast or altitude can be much warmer. The largest of these areas are in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, often termed the Central Valley, where much of the grapes destined for inexpensive, high-volume wines are grown. The overall climate could be described as Mediterranean without the marked contrasts in seasonal temperatures of a continental climate. The growing season in most of the regions is relatively dry. Dry autumns can extend the viable growing season, helpful in the coolest regions. Vineyard Management The 1990s saw large-scale vineyard replanting, caused by the presence of phylloxera, Pierce’s disease and increased understanding of vineyard management. Many vineyards changed from a relatively uniform way of planting and training – generally low-density, high-yielding vines pruned and trained either to replacement-cane or cordon – to be replanted with different densities, training and trellising techniques and a variety of planting materials (with greater attention paid to matching rootstock to the growing environment and grape growers’ needs). Attention to the site and the vine has increased even further in the 21st century with increased focus on precision viticulture. Traditionally, California has benefitted from plentiful, skilled Mexican labour. However, ongoing federal policies on illegal immigration and work permits have led to a reduction in this labour force over recent years. Although vineyards in certain areas, such as the Central Valley, have long been set up for mechanization, an increasing number of vineyards throughout the state are now using machinery where topography allows. Lack of rainfall during the growing season means that irrigation is installed in many vineyards. Drought has been a problem in recent years and has seen groundwater supplies dramatically decrease, leading to tensions between various agricultural businesses as well as residents in certain areas. Spurred by the drought, local water sustainability agencies have

Variations on vine training in different sites in the Napa Valley.

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been put in place to create and enforce water management schemes, leading to greater monitoring and regulation of water use. Low growing season rainfall and breezes from the coast can reduce the risk of fungal diseases. However, bacterial Pierce’s disease, spread by leafhopper insects called sharpshooters, is a serious threat. Most associated with southern California and areas of the Central Valley, it has also affected more northerly areas, such as Sonoma and Napa in recent years.3 Various weather hazards can also be a challenge for grape growing. Spring frosts can be problematic, with sprinklers and wind machines being typical methods of combatting them. Warm, dry weather means wildfires are a serious threat, which may damage vines and winery buildings in their path, but also lead to risk of smoke taint in the grapes over a much broader area. Sustainable grape growing, winemaking and business practices are a key focus in the state, and several sustainability programmes have been established. The California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance provides a number of resources to aid grape growers and wineries in incorporating sustainable methods, and runs a certification programme, ‘Certified Sustainable’. A number of other certification programmes have been founded within particular counties or AVAs, for example, Napa Green Winery, Sonoma County Winegrowers, and Lodi Rules. Approximately 85 per cent of California wine production comes from wineries that are certified by one of the sustainable certification programmes across the state.4 Organic certifications are less common but growing. In the USA, to be labelled as Organic Wine, there must have been no addition of SO2 in the winemaking process. For this reason, a very small proportion of wines have this certification. By comparison, more wines are labelled with ‘certified organic grapes’, meaning that the grape growing process has been certified. (However, as in several other wine producing countries, some grape growers farm organically but do not see the value in certification.) A smaller proportion of grape growers are certified biodynamic. GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND WINE STYLES California: Key grape varieties, ha 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000

(Source: Grape Acreage Report, 2018 Crop)5

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Around two thirds of grapes grown in California are used for wine, one third are used as table grapes and raisins. The majority of grapes used for wine are black (63 per cent). Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon are by far the most planted grape varieties, each at just under 20 per cent of the state’s wine grape plantings. The vineyard area bearing grapes for Chardonnay is slightly higher than that for Cabernet Sauvignon, but greater plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon in the last few years means that this is likely to change in the next couple of years as these vines start to produce fruit suitable for wine production. Chardonnay California Chardonnay is made in a full spectrum of styles, depending on site climate, winemaking practices and price. Gradually sites that specialise in Chardonnay have become nearer the coast or with coastal influence, or at high altitudes. A number of premium wines are made in a medium (+) to full-bodied styles, often with pronounced flavours of peach and pineapple and secondary flavours from malolactic conversion and new oak. More recently, some producers have been choosing to make fresher, leaner styles, often with less- ripe fruit characteristics (citrus fruits) and less overt new oak. Sometimes lees contact will be managed to give struck match aromas from volatile sulfur compounds. Inexpensive Chardonnays are generally made in a soft, easy-drinking style with medium acidity, sometimes slight residual sugar and are often unoaked or made with oak alternatives. Cabernet Sauvignon Styles of Cabernet Sauvignon also vary markedly. Site can be influential; vineyards with some moderating influence generally giving fresher black fruit and some herbal flavours, less body and lower alcohol. However, vineyard management and harvesting dates are also important, with green-harvesting and long ‘hang times’ (leaving the grapes on the vine well into ripeness and perhaps extra- ripeness) giving very concentrated, very ripe styles of wine, often with a full body and high alcohol. All but perhaps some inexpensive wines will be matured in oak. High percentages of new French oak are common, but maturation times are often shorter than they once were, and generally the balance of fruit and oak is being better managed now than in previous decades. Cabernet Sauvignon, often blended with small proportions of other Bordeaux grapes, produces many of the most prestigious and expensive wines in California. Pinot Noir Pinot Noir plantings have grown rapidly in the last 20–30 years. Like Chardonnay, premium and super-premium wines tend to come from relatively cool sites, whether

New and older barrels in the Napa Valley.

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that be due to coastal influence or altitude. Styles range from those with medium (+) acidity, medium body and alcohol and fresh flavours of red cherry and raspberry, to those with greater body and alcohol, medium to medium (+) acidity and riper flavours, either black fruits or slightly jammy. In general, there is a trend for earlier picking than in the past, and a proportion of whole bunch fermentation or stem inclusion to enhance aroma complexity and give greater tannic structure. Maturation in some new oak, generally French, is common. Zinfandel Zinfandel is often deemed as a signature variety of California, not widely grown elsewhere in the world (except in Puglia). California also has considerable plantings of old-vine Zinfandel, including some plants that are over 100 years old. Zinfandel is prone to uneven ripening which can lead to the combination of medium (+) acidity and some fresh flavours, alongside jammy characters. Premium Californian Zinfandel often has medium (+) acidity, medium to full body, ripe medium (+) tannins and flavours that range from raspberry to blueberry and blackberry. American oak is often used for maturation, the overt vanilla flavours pairing well with Zinfandel’s juicy fruit profile. Inexpensive Zinfandel is usually made in a soft, ripe, often jammy style, possibly with oak alternatives to give some flavours of spice. Zinfandel, usually from the Central Valley, is also commonly made into rosé wine, termed White Zinfandel. These wines are often made with a short maceration on the skins, leading to a medium pink colour, before fermentation in stainless steel at cool temperatures. The fermentation is often stopped early to produce a medium-dry wine, often with low alcohol (around 10.5–11% abv). They tend to have medium acidity and body and flavours of strawberry and fruit candy. These wines, usually sold under some of the highest-volume brand names, are often inexpensive to mid-priced and generally of acceptable to good quality. Merlot Merlot was incredibly popular in the 1990s and early 2000s, but as consumer trends changed, since that time, plantings have declined. Much Merlot is made into inexpensive and mid-priced wines with medium acidity and tannins and fruity plummy character. However, a number of producers make premium wines from the grape, often in areas with a more moderate rather than hot climate, such as Stag’s Leap District and Oak Knoll District in the Napa Valley. Such wines may have higher acidity and tannins, and a greater freshness and complexity of flavours. In these wines Merlot may sometimes be blended with other Bordeaux varieties. Colombard Colombard, called French Colombard in California, is a neutral white grape, also commonly used for IGP wines in South West France. In California, it is generally grown in the Central Valley and used in inexpensive wines. Its name is rarely seen on wine labels, and instead, wines produced from it, generally in a blend with other varieties, are labelled with a description such as ‘fruity white’ or ‘dry white’. Syrah Syrah has risen in popularity over recent years. It often does best in areas with some cooling influence, in which cases it can produce wines with medium to medium (+) body, medium (+) acidity and tannins and fresh plum, blackberry and spice flavours. A small number of

California

producers specialise in Rhône varieties and also produce wines from varieties such as Grenache and Cinsaut, and whites such as Viognier, Marsanne and Roussanne. Pinot Gris plantings have increased in the last couple of decades. Wines tend to be made in a dry but fruity style, with peach, pear and melon flavours. Sauvignon Blanc is generally also made in a fruity style, typically fermented in stainless steel and released early from the winery. Some producers choose to ferment and mature Sauvignon Blanc in oak, giving greater body and texture, with toasty flavours. Sauvignon Blanc is occasionally labelled Fumé Blanc, but this name does not necessarily mean the wine has been fermented or matured in oak. A large number of other grape varieties are grown in various parts of the state including those native to Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal, as well as further French grape varieties. Petite Sirah is particularly noteworthy. This grape variety originated from France, under the name Durif, but there is now far more planted in California (and the USA in general) than anywhere else in the world. As a late ripening variety, Petite Sirah does best in the warm areas of the state, where it produces deeply coloured, full-bodied wines with medium (+) to high levels of tannins and acidity and black fruit and spice flavours. It is also used as blending ingredient to add colour, body, tannins and acidity to other red wines. WINE LAW, REGULATIONS AND WINE BUSINESS California has approximately 140 AVAs. As noted previously, these vary from very large areas, such as North Coast which extends down the coast for around 160 kilometres (100 miles), to incredibly small areas, such as Cole Ranch in Mendocino which totals just a couple of hundred hectares. Where a single grape variety is mentioned, at least 75 per cent of the wine must be from that named variety. A wine labelled with ‘California’ must be made entirely from grapes grown in the state. At least 75 per cent of the grapes must come from any named county, for example, Sonoma County. If an AVA is mentioned, at least 85 per cent of the grapes must come from that AVA. Vineyard names may appear on the label if at least 95 per cent of the grapes are from that vineyard. Rules for labelling wine with a vintage differ according to the geographical indication. At least 95 per cent of the grapes must come from any stated vintage if the wine is labelled with an AVA; this reduces to at least 85 per cent if purely a county or the state is mentioned. Wineries can only use the term ‘estate bottled’ if the vineyards and winery is in the same AVA. This has led to the creation and approval of a number of very large AVAs permitting some of the state’s largest producers that may have vineyards and wineries far apart to legitimately label some of their premium wines as ‘estate bottled’. California is the largest wine producing state in the USA. Total volume sales (both domestic and export) in 2018 were 26 million hL, of which 3.3 million hL were exported.6 California wine production is in the hands of 5,900 grape growers and over 4,800 bonded wineries. Although many wine-producing companies own vineyards, buying in fruit to supplement their own grapes is common (they may also sell some of the fruit from their own vineyards to other wineries). The bought-in grapes may come from a different AVA or even a different county, and can either be blended with other fruit (and labelled with a large AVA such as Central Coast, or simply ‘California’) or be kept separate to make its own wine (for example, a producer based in Rutherford may produce a Chardonnay entirely from Carneros fruit). Estate wineries do exist but tend to be small.

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This model where many wine producers are acting as either merchants or growermerchants, means that producers can make a wide variety of wines, often beneficial in attracting consumers to taste and buy at the cellar door or join the winery’s wine club. Independent professional grape growers that farm thousands of hectares are a key part of the structure of the business. Grape prices can vary according to supply and demand, and this has often led to the head-grafting of vineyards to keep up with the latest consumer demands. Grapes from vineyards under the management of certain well-known, quality-conscious grape growers are usually in high demand, especially from prestigious vineyards, and sell for a considerable premium. Similarly, grape prices vary dramatically according to region and grape variety, and it is one factor influencing the price of wines. Cabernet Sauvignon can usually command a premium compared to other grape varieties. Napa Valley fruit can be around ten times the price of fruit from Lodi. Wine producers range in size from those producing a few hundred cases to some of the largest wine companies in the world. E & J Gallo was founded in Modesto, California in 1933 and is now the largest wine company in the world, selling around 70 million cases (6.3 million hL) throughout the world in 2018.7 It also owns the world’s largest selling brand, Barefoot Cellars. In contrast, there are also a number of wineries producing very small volumes of wines (of termed ‘cult’ wines) which are in incredibly high demand amongst collectors and some investors, and are among the most expensive and hard-to-obtain wines in the world. Examples include the wines from Screaming Eagle Winery and Harlan Estate. The Wine Institute of California represents the California wine industry and has about one-fourth of the producers as members. Many counties and AVAs also have their own trade associations.

23.1.  North Coast – Mendocino and Lake Counties

The North Coast AVA is the largest AVA in California, running about 160 kilometres (100 miles) down the Pacific Ocean coastline and reaching 80 kilometres (50 miles) inland. It encompasses substantial proportions of Napa County, Sonoma County, Mendocino County and Lake County, and covers over a total of 1.2 million hectares.8 The Mayacamas Mountains run through the North Coast AVA, dividing Mendocino and Lake County, and extending south for over 80 kilometres (50 miles) into Napa and Sonoma, down to San Pablo Bay. MENDOCINO COUNTY Mendocino County runs along the Pacific Ocean to the west, with Lake County to its east, and Sonoma County to its south. Of around 1 million ha, almost 7,000 ha are under vine.9 Vineyards are grouped either in the cooler AVAs closer to the Pacific Ocean or further inland in warmer areas, some of which are planted at altitude. The more coastal AVAs (such as Anderson Valley) tend to specialize in Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and aromatic white varieties. Inland AVAs (such as Redwood Valley) are able to ripen Zinfandel, Syrah, Petite Sirah and Cabernet Sauvignon, though those with vineyards at particularly high altitudes (such as Potter Valley) can produce aromatic whites such as Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling. Mendocino grapes are generally priced lower than those grown in Napa and Sonoma and are often used for multi-regional blends. The county encompasses 13 AVAs.10 The Mendocino AVA which starts at the Russian River headwaters, covers six of the county’s AVAs (Anderson Valley, Yorkville Highlands, McDowell

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Valley, Potter Valley, Redwood Valley and Cole Ranch), and can be used for multi-regional blends between these AVAs. Anderson Valley AVA Anderson Valley is the most well-known of Mendocino’s AVAs. The valley runs from north-west, only a few kilometres/miles from the Pacific, to south-east, which is further inland. Day-time temperatures can be warm but cold air and fog are funnelled inland along the Navarro River, giving cold evenings and mornings. Further inland, the valley becomes narrower and reduces the flow of ocean breezes and fog and conditions are warmer. The valley receives plentiful precipitation ranging from 900–2,000 mm per annum, mostly falling in the winter and spring, with the north-western side of the valley being the wettest. The vast majority of the vineyards are planted on the sloped sides of the valley. Cold nights mean frost can be an issue in the spring particularly in low-lying areas. Just over 1,000 ha are planted.11 Early-ripening Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are the two most planted varieties, and are used in both sparkling and still wines. In terms of still wines, Pinot Noir has become particularly reputed. Style varies depending on site climate, clones used and harvesting times, but the wines generally have fresh raspberry, cherry and plum fruit, medium body and medium (+) acidity. They are generally good to outstanding, and premium priced, with some super-premium examples. Significant producers include Littorai and Williams Selyem. Aromatic Alsace-style white wines from Gewurztraminer, Riesling, Pinot Gris and Pinot Blanc are also successfully produced. There are approximately 85 wineries in the AVA, many of which have cellar doors to take advantage of the tourist trade around the Mendocino coast. The reputation of the AVA for Pinot Noir means a number of wineries from other areas of the state buy Anderson Valley fruit to make appellation-specific (or even vineyard-specific) wines. LAKE COUNTY Lake County is in the rain shadow of the Mayacamas Mountains to the west and the Vaca Range to the east, giving a warm climate. Most of the vineyards are in the southern part of the county around Clear Lake, the state’s largest natural lake. Lake County has 7 AVAs.12 Clear Lake AVA is the largest and has four sub-AVAs. The lake, which takes up around half of the area of the AVA, provides afternoon breezes. Furthermore, many of the vineyards are planted on the slopes and ridges around the lake and, at 400–450 m, benefit from the cooling effects of altitude. Black grape varieties make up the majority of plantings and Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are the two most planted grape varieties. Just over 200 ha are planted. There are a small number of prestigious vineyard sites and wineries in the county. However, much of the inexpensive Lake County grapes are used for multi-regional blends.

23.2.  North Coast – Sonoma County

Sonoma County borders the Pacific Ocean and Mendocino, Lake, Napa, and Marin counties, and encompasses 18 AVAs.13 There are three overarching AVAs – Northern Sonoma AVA, Sonoma Coast AVA, and Sonoma Valley AVA – so large that they overlap with each other and encompass various smaller AVAs with specific climates and geographical features. As mentioned in Wine Laws and Wine Business, these overarching AVAs allow producers to

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use the term ‘estate bottled’ when their vineyards and winery are spread far apart, whilst still permitting the word ‘Sonoma’ to appear on the label (rather than North Coast). If a wine comes from an AVA that sits entirely within Sonoma County, the words ‘Sonoma County’ must appear on the wine label (along with the name of the AVA). Northern Sonoma AVA The Northern Sonoma AVA covers a large area, from the Mendocino border to the north, the Mayacamas mountains to the east, down to Santa Rosa, situated in the middle of Sonoma County. Its vineyards are separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Sonoma Coast AVA. It is further defined by the Russian River, which starts north in Mendocino County and flows through the Northern Sonoma AVA where it fills underground aquifers and provides water for vineyards, before flowing into the Pacific Ocean. It incorporates several smaller AVAs including Alexander Valley, Knights Valley, Rockpile, Chalk Hill, Russian River Valley (plus Green Valley of Russian River Valley) and Dry Creek Valley. Alexander Valley AVA The Alexander Valley AVA is in the northeast corner of Sonoma County. It has a warm climate, which is cooled in the evenings by Pacific air funnelled in from the Petaluma Gap and Russian River Valley to the south. Vineyards are planted both on the valley floor and on west / southwest facing slopes and benchlands of the Mayacamas mountains, at elevations of 100 to 750 m. The aspect and altitude of these vineyards give long hours of bright sunshine, leading to grapes that are high in colour and tannins. The influence of altitude also helps to retain acidity in the grapes. There is a mixture of soils with greater fertility on the valley floor and more low-nutrient, free-draining sand and gravel at higher altitudes, generally leading to less vigour and lower yields. Average rainfall is just over 800 mm per year, but mainly falls in the winter. Cabernet Sauvignon is the most planted variety and produces full-bodied wines with ripe flavours of blackberry, blackcurrant, dried herbs and chocolate. Those from plantings on the valley floor tend to have less tannin, whereas those from grapes on the slopes and benchlands tend to be more structured and concentrated. Alexander Valley Cabernet Sauvignons are typically good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to premium in price, with some super-premium examples. There are also notable plantings of Chardonnay, Merlot, Zinfandel, Petit Verdot and Malbec. Significant producers, among many, include KendallJackson (including the Stonestreet Estate) and Seghesio. Knights Valley AVA The furthest-inland AVA, and separated from the northern end of Napa County by the Mayacamas mountains, the Knights Valley AVA is one of the warmest areas of Sonoma County. It is surrounded by hills and sheltered from any cooling influence of the Pacific Ocean. However, cooler sites can be found by planting at higher altitudes (around 450 m) in the foothills of the Mayacamas. The warm temperatures and warm, free-draining volcanic soils help to produce ripe, full-bodied Cabernet Sauvignon, the most planted grape variety in the AVA. Merlot, Syrah, Zinfandel and some Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are also grown.

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Dry Creek Valley AVA Best known for Zinfandel and Sauvignon Blanc, the Dry Creek Valley AVA is a narrow valley 3 by 26 kilometres (2 by 16 miles) with vineyards planted on both the valley floor and on slopes and benchlands either side of the Dry Creek river, a tributary of the Russian River. Sheltered by coastal mountains to the west, Dry Creek Valley has warm days. However, mountains on either side of the valley funnel cool ocean air and fogs from San Pablo Bay (a tidal estuary, the northern extension of San Francisco Bay). This occurs during the afternoon and evenings, giving much cooler nights and helping to retain acidity in the grapes. There are slight differences in climate throughout the valley. The coastal influence means the south of the valley is generally cooler. West-facing vineyards on the east of the river which are exposed to the warm afternoon sun tend to be warmer than those on the western slopes. Soils are mixed but tend to be gravel sandy loam on the valley floor and gravel red clay loam on the slopes and benches. These gravelly free-draining soils help to reduce vigour and yields. The AVA is particularly known for its Zinfandel and is home to some old vines of over 100 years old. The wines tend to be medium (+) to full-bodied, with medium (+) acidity and ripe flavours of blackberry, black plum and cherry. Those from the west-facing sites and vineyards in the north of the appellation are often riper, with more jammy and dried fruit flavours than the fresher styles from the east- facing vineyards and those within the south of the appellation. Maturation in oak is typical, usually with a proportion of new oak to lend notes of spice; American oak is common. The wines range from good to outstanding and mid-priced to

Old vines in Dry Creek Valley.

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premium. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot and Rhône varieties (Syrah, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Cinsault, Carignan) are also produced. The key white variety is Sauvignon Blanc. Rockpile AVA The Rockpile AVA is located in the northern part of Sonoma County, overlapping with the Dry Creek AVA and extending up to Mendocino County. The vineyards are planted on steep rocky slopes and must be above 800 ft (approximately 244 m) to be within the AVA. A variety of aspects and altitudes (up to around 650 m) leads to a diverse range of growing conditions. The vineyards are heavily influenced by the snake-like Lake Sonoma which surrounds the bottom of the AVA on three sides. The lake helps to create an inversion layer, which keeps the vineyards relatively warm at night (by comparison, Dry Creek Valley has warmer days and cooler nights). The vineyards sit above the fog layer, which stays close to the lake, meaning that they are exposed to long hours of sunshine. The shallow hillside soils hold little water, while windy conditions lead to high evapotranspiration rates. This results in low yields and concentrated, ripe fruit. Grape varieties include Zinfandel, Petite Sirah, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, Petit Verdot, and even Douro varieties. Russian River Valley AVA The Russian River AVA is located in the middle of Sonoma County. It is included in the Northern Sonoma AVA and part of it is in Sonoma Coast AVA. Russian River Valley AVA covers a range of both flat and hilly topography which influences the climate, which generally ranges from moderate to warm. The south and western parts of the AVA are coolest as they receive fog and wind through the Petaluma Gap, a break in the Northern Coast Range. Fog usually arrives in the evening and retreats to the ocean the following morning. During this period it reduces temperatures significantly which leads to a slower accumulation of sugar and greater retention of acidity as aroma and flavour compounds ripen. The most planted grape varieties in this part of the AVA are early-ripening Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Soils vary, ranging from yellow sandstone to rocky sandy clay loam, but are generally free-draining and low in nutrients, controlling vigour and yield. The quality of the fruit (and rising popularity of Pinot Noir) has meant that the boundaries of the AVA have been extended twice (to include further neighbouring areas that are affected by the fog) and plantings have increased from 1,600 ha in the late 1990s to over 7,200 ha in 2013.14 Pinot Noirs tend to be medium to medium (+) bodied, with medium tannin and medium (+) acidity, with ripe strawberry and red cherry flavours with vanilla spice from oak maturation. Chardonnays often have medium to medium (+) body and medium (+) acidity with ripe peach and pineapple flavours and often creamy and spicy flavours from malolactic conversion and oak maturation. For both grapes, wines range from good to outstanding in quality and from mid-priced to super-premium. Significant producers include Rochioli and La Crema. Inland and up to the northeast corner of the AVA, vineyards are sheltered by hills from the fog and breezes, giving warmer conditions, which are best for Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Zinfandel and riper styles of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Russian River Valley contains two sub-AVAs: Green Valley of Russian River Valley AVA and Chalk Hill AVA. Green Valley of Russian River Valley AVA is located next to the Petaluma Gap

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where it gains the first fogs in the afternoon and is the last area to have the fog burn off in the mornings. This leads to some of the coolest conditions in northern California. The majority of vineyards are on free- draining, low-nutrient sandstone soils, limiting vigour and creating small concentrated grapes. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are the most planted grapes and are used for both still and sparkling wines. Styles of wines are similar to those of the wider Russian River Valley but can have higher acidity and fresher fruit flavours. The Chalk Hill AVA is located in the northeast corner of the Russian River Valley AVA and just south of Alexander Valley. It is a hilly area, which blocks some of the Pacific breezes, and relatively far inland, creating a warmer climate than found in the surrounding areas. The soil is white volcanic ash (rather than the chalk suggested in its name) and vineyards are planted from the valley floor up to 500 m. Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are the most notable varieties planted. Sonoma Coast AVA The Sonoma Coast AVA runs from Mendocino in the north, along the Pacific Ocean, down to Marin County and San Pablo Bay to the south. It includes the Sonoma side of Carneros, part of Sonoma Valley, the western part of Chalk Hill, and most of the Russian River Valley AVA; and hence includes a wide variety of climates growing a range of grape varieties. The AVA also includes the Petaluma Gap AVA and Fort Ross Seaview AVA. Vineyards in the west of the AVA can be within a few kilometres/miles of the coast and are extremely exposed to cold ocean winds and fog. Cool, windy conditions in spring mean fruit set is often disrupted and yields are low. Growing conditions are also cool, with limited sunshine hours due to the fog. This means that early-ripening Pinot Noir and Chardonnay dominate, producing relatively light-bodied, high acid styles of wine with medium alcohol. Significant producers include Aubert and Occidental.

Vineyards in Fort Ross Seaview are located above the fogline and gain long sunshine hours.

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The Fort Ross Seaview AVA is located in the northwest of the Sonoma Coast AVA. To be labelled as Fort Ross Seaview AVA wines must be made from vineyards within the AVA boundaries that are over 280 m above sea level. This altitude means the vineyards sit above the fog layer and so gain longer hours of sunshine and warmth compared to the surrounding Sonoma Coast. Coastal winds still provide a moderating influence on temperature. The wines can have riper fruit than those made from grapes below the fog line, but still have fresh, high acidity. Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Syrah are the most planted grapes. Defined by its wind conditions, and one of the newest AVAs, the Petaluma Gap AVA is located in southern Sonoma County and northern Marin County. It extends from the eponymous gap in the Northern Coast Range to San Pablo Bay. Open to the coast at both ends, high-speed coastal winds flow throughout the AVA. The AVA boundaries were defined according to an area that maintains a persistent wind of at least 12 kilometres (8 miles) per hour through the growing season.15 The winds lower temperatures but also are strong enough to cause leaf stomata to close, slowing respiration and photosynthesis. Pinot Noir comprises 75 per cent of all plantings followed by Chardonnay and Syrah.16 The wines tend to have high acidities, fresh fruit flavours and often lower alcohol compared to more sheltered, inland appellations. Sonoma Valley AVA The Sonoma Valley AVA is located in the south eastern part of Sonoma County, bordered on the east by the Mayacamas mountain range and on the west by the Sonoma mountain range, which shelter it from cool Pacific breezes. The southern part of the AVA is the coolest, as it opens straight on to San Pablo Bay. Cold winds flowing northwards from the San Pablo Bay moderate temperatures and lead to slower ripening in the southern part of the valley. Sonoma Valley’s smaller sub-appellations include Sonoma Mountain AVA and Bennett Valley AVA towards the north of the valley, and Carneros AVA towards the south. Sonoma Mountain AVA The Sonoma Mountain AVA is on the western side of Sonoma Valley. Most vineyards are on east-facing, steep slopes within the Sonoma mountain range. Vineyards are planted up to 730 m, above the fog line, exposing the grapes to intense sun and warm daytime temperatures, giving ripe flavours and tannins and deep colour. However, cold air coming down from the mountains can give cool nights, helping to retain acidity. Soils are volcanic in origin and free-draining and low in nutrients, controlling vigour and yields. These features help create concentrated, ripe Cabernet Sauvignon, the most planted variety, Merlot, Zinfandel and Syrah. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Semillon are generally planted on the cooler sites, generally on the west side of the AVA which still has some influence from the coast. Bennett Valley AVA The sub-AVA of Bennett Valley is one of the smallest in Sonoma County. The area is surrounded by hills giving warm sheltered conditions in the day, but cool air and fog flows into the valley through a break in the hills at night. Syrah, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay are the key varieties. Other Rhône varieties such as Grenache and Viognier are also planted. Carneros AVA The Carneros AVA is located between San Pablo Bay to the south and the Sonoma and Napa counties to the north. Proximity to the San Pablo Bay means the AVA is affected by fog and

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cold winds in the morning and evening, though daytimes are usually warm and sunny. It is a relatively low elevation appellation, rising from sea level to inland hills up to around 200 m. Carneros is best known for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, with a portion used for sparkling wine. Wine styles from both grapes can range from medium-bodied, medium alcohol, medium (+) acid and fresher fruit, to fuller-bodied, riper, higher-alcohol styles. They tend to be good to outstanding in quality and mid-priced to super-premium. Carneros also produces Merlot, Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon. Significant producers include Kistler and Tor. Wines from this AVA can either be labelled as ‘Los Carneros’ or ‘Carneros’. The AVA overlaps the border between two counties; Sonoma and Napa. Grapes and wine from the Sonoma side of the AVA may use ‘Sonoma County’ on the label. Similarly, if the grapes and wine come from the Napa Valley side of the AVA, those wines may be labelled as ‘Napa Valley’. If grapes and wine come from both counties, it can only be called ‘Carneros’. Carneros was recognized for its cool to moderate climate back in the 1980s (before many other areas with similar or cooler climates were recognised). Many large companies based elsewhere in Sonoma and Napa own vineyards in the area (and have done so for many decades) or buy in fruit either to bottle as ‘Carneros’ or to provide a higher acid, fresh fruit component in a blend with fruit grown in warmer conditions. There are also wineries based in Carneros and that specialize in the wines from the AVA.

23.3.  North Coast – Napa County

The Napa Valley in Napa County is globally known for high quality wines, particularly from Cabernet Sauvignon. It represents 4 per cent of California’s production but 27 per cent of the retail value of all California wine sold.17 Napa Valley AVA encompasses the whole valley, but the area also has 16 smaller AVAs within it. Conjunctive labelling laws mean that wines that qualify to be labelled with a single specific AVA, e.g. ‘Rutherford’, must also include the words ‘Napa Valley’ on the label. THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT AND GRAPE GROWING The valley is 50 kilometres long by 8 wide (30 by 5 miles) wide, with 18,200 ha under vine, and formed by the Napa River, the Mayacamas mountains to the west and north and the Vaca mountains to the east. Vineyards are found both on the valley floor and on the mountain slopes either side.18 The Mayacamas mountains shelter the valley from the cold Pacific Ocean while the Vaca mountains protect the area from the hot Central Valley. However, the valley is open to the San Pablo Bay in the south. As the vineyards heat up during the day, air rises and pulls cool air and fog from the bay up the valley in the afternoon. AVAs on the Valley Floor The cold air and fog is particularly felt by the valley floor vineyards, which sit under the fog layer giving a high diurnal range. The most affected vineyards are those on the southerly parts of valley floor. In AVAs such as Carneros AVA and Coombsville AVA, but also Oak Knoll AVA situated just to the north of the city of Napa, the fog does not burn off until well into the morning, limiting the hours of warmth and sunlight. The furthest south, Carneros is best known for early-ripening Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Cabernet Sauvignon is the main grape in Coombsville and Oak Knoll, but Merlot and Chardonnay are also widely grown. Due

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The valley floor in Napa with San Pablo Bay in the distance. to relatively cool conditions, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot tend to be lighter-bodied, with fresher fruit than the warmer AVAs. Yountville AVA, Stags Leap District AVA, Oakville AVA and Rutherford AVA are located further north on the valley floor. They have warm climates but nights are still cooled somewhat by the winds and fog from the bay (most in Yountville, the most southerly, less in Rutherford, the most northerly). Cabernet Sauvignon is the predominant grape, with smaller plantings of varieties such as Merlot, Cabernet Franc, and some Zinfandel in Rutherford. Cabernet Sauvignon wines tend to show concentrated ripe fruit, medium (+) to full body and high ripe tannins. They tend to be rounder and more fruity in youth than the more structured wines from the mountains, with juicy blackcurrant, blackberry and plum fruit and often notes of spice (liquorice, cloves) or herbs. Sauvignon Blanc is the main white grape variety, producing ripe, juicy wines with peach and tropical flavours and medium (+) acidity. The most famous vineyard area in Oakville and Rutherford is The Rutherford Bench. This narrow (five kilometres, three miles) stretch of vineyards is located on a gently sloping alluvial fan at the bottom of the Mayacamas range. See more on ‘bench’ soils below. St Helena AVA and Calistoga AVA are located still further north and barely receive any cooling influence from the San Pablo Bay. The conditions are warm to hot. Calistoga gains some cooling influence during the afternoon and night from Pacific breezes that come through the Chalk Hill gap (a break in the Mayacamas). Cabernet Sauvignon is still widely planted, along with Merlot, but there are also plantings of Syrah, Petite Sirah and Zinfandel.

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AVAs on the Mountain Sides The vineyards in the mountains either side of the valley floor are generally above the fog layer and hence can receive longer hours of sunlight than many of those on the valley floor. The cooling influence for these ‘mountain AVAs’ is altitude (sites up to 800 m). Overall, this means that mountain vineyards have less temperature extremes and hence a lower diurnal range. In general, the combination of climate and soils means that wines from the mountain AVAs often have higher levels of tannins and acidity than those from the valley floor. West-facing vineyards (generally those on the east side of the valley) are exposed to the intense afternoon sun, and hence tend to be warmer than those that face east, giving higher alcohols and riper fruit. Temperatures also differ north to south as the most southerly mountain AVAs gain some cooling coastal influence. This means that Mount Veeder AVA on the south west of the valley is the coolest mountain AVA with Cabernet Sauvignon struggling to ripen in some years. Atlas Peak AVA to the south east of the valley is also relatively cool but does gain the afternoon sun. By comparison, Howell Mountain AVA in the north east of the valley is one of the warmest Napa AVAs, producing intensely concentrated, ripe Cabernet Sauvignon with high firm tannins. Spring Mountain District AVA and Diamond Mountain District AVA on the north west side tend to be slightly cooler.

Looking down to the valley floor from Spring Mountain District. Soils Napa Valley has a wide variety of soil types due to tectonic plate and volcanic activity from over 150m years ago. Soils change over small areas and it is possible to find multiple soil types in a single vineyard. Broadly speaking, soils on the mountains tend to be thin and poor in nutrients, restricting vigour and leading to reduced yields of small, concentrated grapes. Soils in the middle and east of the valley floor typically made from silt and clay, formed by the Napa river as it has flooded and shrunk over time. These soils have the highest fertility

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and water retaining capacity, and the wines that they produce tend to be less structured than those from the mountains or alluvial fans. Alluvial fans have been created at the bottom of the mountains, generally on the west side of the valley, caused by the deposition of sediments by mountain streams as they reach the flat valley floor. These alluvial fans are often called ‘benches’ and are deep, rocky and have moderate fertility. The grapes and resulting style of wine is considered to be between that of the mountains and mid-valley floor. Many of the valley floor AVAs have both alluvial fans and fluvial soils in their boundaries. Vineyard Management The Napa Valley Agricultural Preserve, established 1968, awarded tax benefits for people who kept vineyard land rather than building upon it. Today, nearly 90 per cent of Napa County is under high levels of protection from development, meaning that despite its desirable location not far from the San Francisco Bay area, it is not under threat from housing and business construction. However, almost all viable and permitted vineyard land within the Napa Valley has been planted. Legislation prevents land with more than a 30 per cent slope from being converted to vineyard. Instead these areas are generally forested, which helps reduce erosion. The popularity and prestige of Napa Valley wine, along with an inability to expand production, leads to incredibly high grape and land prices. Vines are typically pruned and trained to cordon or replacement spur, with VSP trellising. Mechanisation can be used on valley floor vineyards, whereas tending the vineyard by hand can be the only option on a number of mountain side vineyards. With a dry growing season, drip irrigation is widely installed. Cool night temperatures mean that frost can be problematic in valley floor vineyards, whereas air movement and warmer nights in the mountain AVAs reduce the risk. Napa County has its own sustainability certification programme called Napa Green. Certification is available for both the vineyard and the winery. Currently around 60 per cent of Napa County vineyard land is certified Napa Green.19 WINEMAKING AND WINE STYLES Cabernet Sauvignon accounts for 40 per cent of total production and 55 per cent of crop value, with smaller plantings of Merlot, Pinot Noir, Zinfandel, Petit Verdot, Malbec, Cabernet Franc, Syrah, and Petite Sirah.20 Chardonnay is the most planted white grape, followed by Sauvignon Blanc, and Pinot Gris.21 Styles of wines from Napa have evolved over the last few decades. In the 1980s and 90s, the preferences of the consumer and critics were for full-bodied, intense wines. Grapes were often harvested relatively late (given a ‘long hang time’) giving extra-ripe flavours, high alcohols and lower acidities. Both red and white wines were matured in a high proportion of new oak, giving overt vanilla, coconut and toasty characters. Today, wine styles are far more divergent. The general trend is to pick earlier than in the past, and extra-ripe styles of wine are rarely seen. High proportions of new oak are still common for red wines, though the time spent in oak is often shorter than it once was. Napa wineries are generally well-resourced and equipment may range from optical sorters for selecting the healthiest fruit to concrete eggs that are being trialled or used to provide a different blending component.

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Even if red wines fulfil the requirements for single varietal labelling, they are likely to have a small proportion of other varieties in the blend; typically, a high proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon with small percentages of Merlot, Cabernet Franc and/or Petite Sirah. Blending across different vineyards is also common, which may be within or across different AVAs. This may include vineyards on different soil types, for example those on the alluvial fans with those on more fertile fluvial soils, or the blending of fruit from cooler southerly AVAs such as Carneros or Coombsville with riper fruit from the more northerly AVAs. However, single-vineyard wines can also be found, particularly if the grapes are sourced from a well-known vineyard, such as To Kalon (in the Rutherford Bench area) or Martha’s Vineyard. Styles of Cabernet Sauvignon wines vary up and down the valley, depending on both the site (as explained above) and the choices made in grape growing and winemaking, but they tend to range from good to outstanding in quality and are usually premium or super- premium in price. Significant producers, among many, include Screaming Eagle, Harlan Estate and Stag’s Leap Wine Cellars. Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are the two key white varieties in the Napa Valley. As with the red wines of Napa, the profiles of these white wines are influenced by the site; cooler valley floor AVAs giving higher acidities, warmer valley floor AVAs giving riper fruit characteristics (more stone fruit and tropical rather than citrus) and mountain AVAs typically producing wines with less pronounced fruit. Chardonnay is often fermented and matured in oak, but usually less new oak than in the past. Sauvignon Blanc is usually made in an unoaked style (stainless steel fermentation, early release), but some producers make an oaked style.

23.4. Central Coast

The Central Coast AVA parallels the Pacific Ocean coastline and runs for 450 kilometres (280 miles) from San Francisco to Santa Barbara. It extends about 95 kilometres (60 miles) inland from the coast and is cooled by marine air funnelling through gaps in the coastal hills. It includes multiple counties, each of which have their own smaller AVAs, many of which are detailed below. The Southern Coast Ranges, including the Santa Cruz, Gabilan and Santa Lucia ranges, run north to south, sheltering vineyards to the east from the cool wet fog rolling off the Pacific Ocean. At certain points, and especially in Santa Barbara County’s Transverse Range, the orientation shifts to an east-west direction, funnelling in the cool marine air and cooling down the growing areas. Livermore Valley AVA The Livermore Valley AVA is on the east side of San Francisco Bay in Alameda County. It is subjected to afternoon winds as hot air rises from the inland Central Valley to its east, sucking in cool air from San Francisco Bay. Stony soils are free-draining and help keep vigour low. A variety of grapes are grown including Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc and Zinfandel. Wines tend to have concentrated, ripe flavours and tannins, but with fresh acidity. This AVA is one of California’s oldest wine regions, with initial plantings in the 1760s by Spanish missionaries. In the 1880s, Wente Vineyards was established using Chardonnay cuttings from Meursault, and Concannon Vineyards was founded using Cabernet Sauvignon vines from Margaux. These are some of the oldest, continuously running wineries in the United States, operating even during Prohibition by producing sacramental wine. Today, about

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80 per cent of California Cabernet Sauvignon (Clones 7, 8 and 11) and Chardonnay (Wente clone) are genetically related back to these original cuttings. Santa Cruz Mountains AVA The Santa Cruz mountains are part of the Coast Range that runs down the northern and central California coast. It includes three counties; Santa Clara, Santa Cruz and San Mateo. Many of the vineyards are planted at high altitudes (up to almost 800 m) along a ridgeline, providing a moderating influence on day-time temperatures. At night, cool air slips down the slopes, forcing warm air upward. Nights therefore remain relatively warm and frosts are generally avoided. Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir are the most planted varieties. The AVA’s eastern side, which borders Silicon Valley, is warmer and better suited to Zinfandel, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. Overall, the wines tend to be good to outstanding, and midpriced to super premium. Significant producers include Ridge Vineyards and Mount Eden Vineyards. MONTEREY COUNTY The vineyard areas of Monterey County are based within the large Salinas Valley that runs from Monterey Bay in the north west of the county to the border with San Luis Obispo County in the south, or in the mountain ranges either side of the valley. Monterey AVA Stretching 130 kilometres (80 miles), the Monterey AVA is the largest in Monterey County. The majority of the AVA follows Salinas River Valley, which is moderated by cool marine air funnelled from Monterey Bay. The Salinas Valley opens directly onto Monterey Bay in the north. Due to a deep canyon in Monterey Bay, the water is particularly cold, and that means afternoons and evenings in the Salinas Valley can be particularly cool and windy. The coolest areas, those towards the north of the valley, are planted with Pinot Noir and Riesling; warmer sites further inland are able to ripen Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and Zinfandel. Chardonnay is grown in both cooler and warmer sites and is the main grape variety with over 50 per cent of plantings.22 Soils are sandy loam and gravel and hence are free-draining. Low growing-season rainfall means that irrigation is essential, the water being sourced from the Salinas River. Availability of irrigation water and ease of mechanisation on the large flat valley floor means many of the grapes go into inexpensive and mid-priced high-volume wines, either exclusively from Monterey or into cross-regional blends. Santa Lucia Highlands AVA The Santa Lucia Highlands AVA is an 30-kilometre (18 mile) long area of southeast facing alluvial terraces overlooking the Salinas Valley. Vineyards are planted up to around 350 m. Located relatively near to Monterey Bay, the vineyards are exposed to winds and fogs. Elevated locations take full advantage of the morning sunshine before afternoon maritime breezes cool the vineyards. It can sometimes be so windy that the vines’ stomata close, slowing ripening. The key grape varieties are Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, with Syrah in more sheltered sites, all producing wines with fresh flavours and high acidities.

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Arroyo Seco AVA Named after the ‘dry creek’ upon which it sits, the Arroyo Seco AVA is located to the south and east of the Santa Lucia mountains. It starts in the Arroyo Seco Canyon, a narrow gorge at the foot of the Santa Lucia mountains, and then opens out onto the Salinas Valley floor. The vineyards within the canyon are more sheltered from coastal influences and are therefore warmer, growing Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Zinfandel. Those on the valley floor are exposed to afternoon breezes and are better suited to Chardonnay and Riesling. Chalone AVA The Chalone AVA is in the eastern part of Monterey in the Gabilan Mountain Range. Vineyards are planted at around 550 m, and so sit above the fog line. Days are warm, with long hours of sunshine, but nights are much cooler, helping to retain acidity. The soils are made up of granite and limestone, and are free-draining helping to produce low yields of concentrated grapes. The AVA is best known for Chardonnay and Pinot Noir but grows a range of varieties including Chenin Blanc, Pinot Blanc and Syrah. Carmel Valley AVA Vineyards within the Carmel Valley AVA are predominantly located within Carmel Valley (a small valley parallel to the wider Salinas Valley) and the Cachagua Valley, which is further inland. Vineyard sites within the Cachagua Valley can be up to 670 m and sit above the fog line. Depending on aspect, these vineyards can be sheltered from coastal influences and hence can be some of the warmest in Monterey. However, altitude and being surrounded by mountains means that night time temperatures are still cool. In this area of the AVA, the most planted grape varieties are Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Nearer the coast, in the cooler sites of Carmel Valley, plantings tend to be Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. SAN LUIS OBISPO COUNTY San Luis Obispo County is between Monterey County and Santa Barbara County on the Pacific coast. The main AVAs are Paso Robles, Edna Valley and Arroyo Grande. Paso Robles AVA Until 2014, Paso Robles was the largest undivided AVA in California at almost 250,000 ha (around three times the size as the whole of Napa Valley).23 The area now has 11 sub-AVAs, which reflect distinct features in the growing environment and are less based on political boundaries than many other California AVAs. To date, Adelaida District AVA, located in the Santa Lucia Mountains in the north west of the wider AVA is probably the best known. These wines may be labelled with the sub-appellation name but must also state ‘Paso Robles’ on the label. The large AVA ranges from valley floors, to rolling hills to mountains with altitudes up to 670 m that can also have a cooling influence. The eastern parts of Paso Robles tend to have a warmer climate that produces full-bodied wines with concentrated, ripe fruit flavours, whereas western areas, nearer the Pacific Ocean, are generally cooler and can produce wines with higher acidity and fresher flavours. The Templeton Gap, on the west side of Paso Robles, is a low point in the Coastal Range that allows the Pacific Ocean’s air to reach further inland, providing a moderating influence on temperatures of the westerly sub-AVAs.

California

Rhône varieties and undulating terrain in Paso Robles. Calcareous soils, which are not widely found in California, are a feature throughout much of the AVA, and in areas where the soil texture is clay (good at retaining water) and annual rainfall is moderate, producers can dry farm. Black grape varieties make up the vast majority of plantings. The most planted grape variety is Cabernet Sauvignon, making up almost 40 per cent of plantings. Merlot, Syrah, Zinfandel are also common, and the area has become known for a wide range of black and white Rhône varieties as well. Much of the region makes inexpensive to mid-priced wines of good quality, but there are a number of producers making very good to outstanding wines at mid- to premium prices. Significant producers include Saxum Vineyards and Tablas Creek. Edna Valley AVA The Edna Valley AVA is known as being one of the coolest AVAs in California. About eight kilometres (five miles) from the Pacific Ocean, the valley lies northwest-southeast and receives cool fog and wind from Morro Bay to the north. Although most known for high quality Chardonnay and Pinot Noir (made into still and sparkling wines), a range of other varieties are planted, such as Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Albariño and Viognier. Arroyo Grande Valley AVA Located south of Edna Valley, the Arroyo Grande Valley AVA is also considered one of the cooler areas in the state. The days are warm and sunny. However, the valley lies northeastsouthwest which funnels in cool Pacific fog and wind up into the valley from the southwest, and cools temperatures at night, resulting in ripe grapes with high acidity. Pinot Noir and

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Chardonnay dominate (again, for both still and sparkling wines), with some Zinfandel and Syrah planted in warmer areas, typically those further inland. SANTA BARBARA COUNTY Santa Barbara County is the most southern part of the Central Coast AVA. Its six AVAs include Santa Maria Valley and Santa Ynez Valley, which includes four sub-AVAs: Sta. Rita Hills, Ballard Canyon, Los Olivos District and Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara. The AVAs are located in the Transverse Ranges – an east-west orientation of the Southern Coast Ranges formed by plate tectonic shifts. Here, the western side of the valleys face the Pacific Ocean and funnel in the cooling breezes and fog eastward into the vineyards, lowering temperatures significantly. The western sides of the AVAs are usually cooler and windier than the eastern sides. Air circulation helps reduce risk of frost and fungal diseases, meaning the grapes can be kept on the vine into the autumn months, which can be needed in the coolest sites. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are the most common grapes in cooler areas. Pinot Noirs often show medium (+) to high acidity, medium to medium (+) body, medium tannins and flavours of red cherry and plum. Alcohol levels can be high. Chardonnays similarly have medium (+) to high acidity, medium to medium (+) body and lemon, grapefruit and peach flavours. Syrah is often grown in warmer sites and produces wines that are medium or medium (+) bodied, with medium (+) tannins and acidity and fresh flavours of blackberry and plum. A range of other grapes are grown, including Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon and Rhône varieties, particularly Grenache and Viognier. Overall, the wines tend to be good to outstanding, and mid-priced to super premium. Significant producers include Mail Road Wines and Sine Qua Non. Legislation in Santa Barbara County prevents wineries from setting up cellar doors on the site of their winery. Any cellar door or tasting room must be in a town or city. Santa Maria Valley AVA The Santa Maria Valley AVA is in the northern portion of the county. The valley runs west to east, consistently funnelling cool Pacific Ocean air east to the vineyards, keeping temperatures cool. Vineyards are planted between around 100–250 m on hillside slopes on sandy clay shale loam. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are the most planted grape varieties, followed by Syrah and Viognier. Santa Ynez Valley AVA Santa Ynez Valley AVA is a large AVA with both cool coastal and warm inland temperatures. It contains four sub-AVAs: Sta. Rita Hills, Ballard Canyon, Los Olivos District and Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara. The Sta. Rita Hills AVA is distinguished by its cool temperatures and calcium-rich soils. Its east-west orientation is framed by the Purisima Hills to the north and the Santa Rosa Hills to the south. It is located at the western edge of the Santa Ynez AVA, closest to the Pacific Ocean, and is the first area to receive the cool Pacific fog and breezes that funnel inland through the Transverse Ranges. The hilly terrain with a diverse mix of soils leads to a variety of different site conditions. Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Viognier and Syrah are all grown.

California

Vineyards in Sta. Rita Hills. Out of all the AVAs in Santa Barbara County, Sta. Rita Hills is particulary known for its Pinot Noir. These wines often show black cherry, black plum, tea leaf and savoury notes combined with medium (+) to high acidity and medium (+) tannins. They command premium and superpremium prices given small supply and strong demand. Ballard Canyon AVA is located further inland. Plantings are relatively small. The canyon runs north to south, sheltering the vineyards from much of the cool breezes from the west. However, the AVA does experience overnight fog giving cooler nights. The warmer growing conditions mean that rather than Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, later-ripening Syrah and Grenache are the two most planted grape varieties. Los Olivos AVA sits on alluvial terraces above the Santa Ynez River, and between the AVAs of Ballard Canyon and Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara. It has warm, sunny days, but without altitude or much fog influence has a relatively low diurnal range. A mix of Bordeaux, Rhône and Italian varieties are grown. The Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara AVA is a small and newly formed appellation. It is located in the eastern-most end of the Santa Ynez AVA, furthest from the Pacific Ocean. It is also where the east-west valley shifts orientation to north-south, and blocks the Pacific coastal breezes, giving warm temperatures. Cooling influences come from high altitude sites and exposure to afternoon winds, both of which can give a high diurnal range. Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are the most planted, along with other Bordeaux varieties, Syrah and Grenache.

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Clear skies at sunset in Los Olivos.

23.5. Central Valley

The Central Valley is entirely inland and covers a large area. It consists of two valleys – the Sacramento Valley makes up the northern half with 6,700 ha under vine,24 while the San Joaquin Valley covers the southern half with around 61,000 ha under vine.25 High yielding vineyards are on flat fertile areas, with daytime temperatures regularly around 35–40°C (95–104°F) resulting in very ripe grapes. Common varieties include French Colombard, Chardonnay, Muscat, Zinfandel and Merlot. The area is historically known for large-scale production, with E & J Gallo Winery and Bronco Wine Company as the area’s largest producers. The majority of wines labelled with the ‘California’ appellation come from the San Joaquin Valley (neither San Joaquin or Sacramento Valley, nor ‘Central Valley’, are AVAs). Lodi AVA The Lodi AVA sits at the northern end of the Central Valley area and 160 kilometres (100 miles) inland from the San Francisco Bay. It is a large area at almost 45,000 ha (around twice the size of the entire Sonoma County). Lodi has a hot Mediterranean climate, which is moderated by cooling afternoon winds both from the San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Flat land in the area with breaks between the North and South Coast Ranges means that breezes off the Bay can travel far inland. Vineyards are on flatlands of free- draining sandy and clay loam soils. Low rainfall means that irrigation is widely used (sourced from the Mokelumne River that flows through the AVA). The windy conditions reduce the risk of fungal diseases and frosts. Vines are usually cordon-trained and VSP trellised as replacement cane systems would require more labour. However, the oldest vineyards are planted to bush vines.

California

High volume production in the Central Valley. The conditions mean that a wealth of varieties can ripen well yet maintain a degree of freshness, including those from the Rhône and South of France (Syrah, Grenache, Cinsault, Mourvèdre, Viognier, Picpoul), Bordeaux (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc), Spain (Tempranillo, Graciano, Albariño), Portugal (Touriga Naçional, Tinta Cão), Germany (Riesling, Gewurztraminer) and Italy (Barbera, Aglianico). Lodi is particularly well-known for Zinfandel, with some vines over 100 years old (sandy soils mean that phylloxera has not been a problem in some areas of the AVA). Styles range from medium to full-bodied, with medium to medium (+) acidity, ripe tannins and flavours of cherry, blueberry and blackberry. Grapes from Lodi may either be part of an inexpensive California blend made by one of California’s large producers, due to the low price of its fruit, or be used in wines made from grapes entirely from the AVA. Wines range from good to very good with some outstanding examples, and prices from inexpensive to premium. The most expensive wines are often from single vineyards of old, dry- farmed bush vines. Significant producers include Michael David and Ravenswood. In 2006, the Lodi AVA was divided into seven sub-AVAs. The Mokelumne River AVA contains the majority of Lodi’s wineries as well as old Zinfandel vines. Wines from these seven sub-AVAs must state ‘Lodi’ on the label as well as the name of the sub-AVA. Lodi Rules, the first sustainability programme in California, was founded in the area. Over 1,000 wineries are currently certified both in California and elsewhere in the world. Around one fifth of Lodi’s vineyards are currently certified sustainable.

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Old bush vines in Lodi. Clarksburg AVA The Clarksburg AVA is southwest of Sacramento, and given its proximity to the SacramentoSan Joaquin Delta, shares a similar climate to that of Lodi with hot days moderated by afternoon breezes. It is most known for Chenin Blanc and Petite Sirah, as well as large plantings of Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier. Relatively few wines are labelled with the Clarksburg AVA and the majority of its grapes find their way into California blends.

23.6.  Sierra Foothills

Sierra Foothills is a region and AVA located 160 kilometres (100 miles) east of San Francisco, in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Vineyards were originally established in the mid- to late 1800s during the California Gold Rush, with vine cuttings from European immigrants-turned gold prospectors. Although many vineyards were abandoned during Prohibition, wine production grew again from the 1960s. The Sierra Foothills AVA is vast, covering just over 1 million ha and encompassing multiple counties as well as a few smaller AVAs. The majority of the plantings are in Amador County’s California Shenandoah Valley AVA and Fiddletown AVA, and in the El Dorado AVA in El Dorado County.

California

Daytime temperatures are hot, up to 35–40°C (95–104°F), but cool air descends from the mountains at night giving a high diurnal range. Planting at altitude also helps to manage sugar levels; up to around 600 m in Amador County and over 1,000 m in El Dorado AVA. The predominant soil type is a sandy clay loam from decomposed granite that retains sufficient water to allow for dry farming. Sierra Foothills is most known for its old vine Zinfandel, with some vines considerably over 100 years old. In addition to Zinfandel, a range of Rhône (Viognier, Roussanne, Marsanne, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Syrah), Italian (Barbera, Sangiovese, Pinot Grigio, Aglianico), and Spanish (Verdelho, Tempranillo) varieties are also planted.

23.7.  South Coast

The South Coast AVA extends from south of Los Angeles to the border with Mexico. It includes a number of sub-AVAs. Many of the vineyards are planted in areas exposed to breezes from the Pacific, though some instead rely on altitude for temperature relief, as the low latitude of the area means that some cooling influence is necessary for quality wine grape production. Grapes were originally planted by Franciscan monks in the 1760s and commercial vineyards were planted in the 1830s. After Prohibition, vineyard land was overtaken by food crops, housing and urban sprawl in general. Pierce’s disease spread through the area in the 1990s. However, this has allowed producers to reconsider their choice of varieties, rootstocks and clones when replanting, with quality rather than quantity as the focus. Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel and Chenin Blanc are some of the most common varieties found here. References 1. USA/California Wine Production, The Wine Institute (retrieved 24 March 2020). Webpage no longer available. 2. California Winegrape Acreage, The Wine Institute (retrieved 24 March 2020) 3. Franson, P., 2015, Huge Outbreak of Pierce’s Disease, Wines Vines Analytics (retrieved 24 March 2020) 4. 2018 data. California Wines Profile, Discover California Wines (retrieved 24 March 2020) 5. Grape Acreage Report 2018 Crop, California Department of Food and Agriculture in cooperation with USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (retrieved 24 March 2020). Figures converted from acres to hectares. Data for bearing acreage only. 6. Wine Statistics, The Wine Institute (retrieved 22 March 2020) 7. WBM 50 Largest Wineries: Review of the Industry in Wine Business Monthly (February 2020), p. 34 8. The Appellations of California Wine – North Coast, The Wine Institute (retrieved 27 April 2019). Webpage no longer available. 9. Press Facts, Mendocino Wine Country (retrieved 27 March 2020) 10. As above 11. AVWA Press Kit, AVWA (retrieved 27 March 2020). Webpage no longer available. 12. Lake County Tasting Rooms & Wineries Map, Lake County Winery Association (retrieved 27 March 2020) 13. The Regions of Sonoma County, Sonoma County Vintners (retrieved 25 April 2019) 14. Sonoma, Oxford Companion to Wine 4th Edition 15. Chukan Brown, E., 2017, Petaluma Gap – Trump’s First AVA, JancisRobinson.com (retrieved 27 March 2020) 16. Trade & Media, Petaluma Gap Winegrowers Alliance (retrieved 27 March 2020: page no longer available)

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17. Press Kit, Napa Valley Vintners (retrieved 27 March 2020) 18. As above 19. 2019 Napa Green Program Update, Napa Green (retrieved 27 March 2020) 20. Napa Valley Grape Varieties, Napa Valley Vintners (retrieved 27 March 2020) 21. As above 22. AVAs: Monterey, Monterey Wine Country (retrieved 27 March 2020) 23. 11 Viticultural Areas, Paso Robles Wine Country (retrieved 27 March 2020) 24. Sacramento Valley, Discover California Wines; The Wine Institute (retrieved 27 March 2020) 25. San Joaquin Valley, Discover California Wines; The Wine Institute (retrieved 27 March 2020)

Oregon

Oregon

24

Oregon is situated in the Pacific Northwest and is the 4th largest wine producing state in the US. It is bordered by Washington to its north and California to its south but has a more marginal climate than either, a factor that may in the longer term be seen as beneficial. Although wine had been made in Oregon with varying success for a century before, often from fruit other than grapes, the first modern vineyard was successfully established with V. vinifera vines in 1961 near Roseburg, somewhat south of most of today’s Oregon vineyards. These plantings brought the state to the attention of others, primarily David Lett who, in 1966, planted 5 ha of Pinot Noir in the Dundee Hills, now an AVA in the northern Willamette Valley. Many planters who quickly followed in his footsteps had learnt their trade in California but were searching for more appropriate sites to make Burgundian style wines. In 1979, Oregon’s potential became obvious when, in the Wine Olympics blind tasting organised by Gault-Millau, Lett’s 1975 Eyrie Vineyards Reserve Pinot Noir was awarded tenth place against other Pinot Noirs from around the world. The Burgundy winemaker Robert Drouhin, of Maison Joseph Drouhin, organized a re-match, at which the 1975 Eyrie Vineyards took second place to Drouhin’s 1959 Chambolle-Musigny. Still, the impressive showing from Eyrie Vineyards led later to Drouhin purchasing land in Oregon and establishing a winery, Domaine Drouhin Oregon, in the Willamette Valley that continues to be run by the family. A number of other Burgundian winemakers have since followed. The complex geology and topography of the vineyard areas (totalling 13,750 ha) have led to the formation of 15 distinct AVAs wholly within the state and four across borders. Unlike California and Washington, the industry in Oregon is dominated by smaller, familyowned businesses, some of which are fifth-generation still farming their ancestors’ original land. The recent expansion in the number of wineries has been remarkable, increasing over five-fold in the last twenty years.

24.1. The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE Most of Oregon’s wine regions are situated in the western part of the state, just inland from the Pacific Ocean. The Coast Range provides some, but not total, protection from Pacific influences. In general, the wine regions have a cool to moderate climate; a combination of being located at 42–46°N in latitude (very roughly equivalent to France’s Mediterranean coast up to Mâcon) and the influence of cold ocean currents and winds from the Pacific Ocean. Long daylight hours in the summer and autumn aid grape ripening. SOILS Free-draining marine sedimentary, volcanic and loess soils are found in most of the growing areas.1 Many of the vineyard areas experience high levels of annual rainfall. However, this mainly falls in the winter, with little rainfall in the summer months. For example, Willamette Valley, the wettest region, gets just over 1,000 mm on average per year, of which only approximately 200 mm falls from April to September.

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VINEYARD MANAGEMENT The wind and dry summers reduce mildew and disease pressure, and enable sustainable grape growing practices. Oregon emphasizes sustainable, organic and biodynamic planting and production; 47 per cent of its vineyards are certified as sustainable, and 52 per cent of all Demeter Biodynamic vineyards in the US are found in the state.2 Other voluntary programmes include Oregon Tilth (organic certifier), Salmon-Safe, LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology) Certified Sustainable and Deep Roots Coalition. GRAPE VARIETIES Oregon grows a wide variety of grapes, but by far the most planted is Pinot Noir, making up 57 per cent of plantings.3 Pinot Gris is the second most planted variety, but plantings are decreasing in favour of Chardonnay. Other common varieties include Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Riesling. Clonal selection is important, especially for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. The traditional Pinot Noir clones in Oregon were Wadenswil and Pommard. The introduction of Dijon clones in the late 1980s permitted increased clonal diversity, better enabling producers to choose clones that suited the climate and soils of their vineyard sites and the style of wine they wanted to make. Wadenswil, Pommard and Dijon clones are all used. Some producers use a selection, whereas others choose to make at least some of their wines from a single clone. For Chardonnay, original clonal selections from California such as Wente and clone 108 proved difficult to ripen in the cooler Oregon climate. The introduction of earlier-ripening Dijon clones, again, has increased clonal diversity and the ability to better match clone to site and wine style. On the back of recent warm vintages, Dijon clones are now ripening a little too early in some sites and some producers are returning to California heritage selections.

24.2. Winemaking

The techniques used to make Pinot Noir vary by winemaker. In general, use of whole bunches has increased over the last few years. Some winemakers choose to use ambient yeasts and are experimenting with alternative fermentation and storage vessels, including amphorae. The majority of wines are matured in oak vessels; the proportion of new oak utilised is decreasing. The wines generally have medium (+) acidity, medium to medium (+) tannins, and often high alcohol. Flavours range from red cherry and raspberry fruit to black cherry and plum. They can be good to outstanding in quality and are generally premium priced with some super-premium examples. Significant producers include Bergström Wines and Evening Land. Pinot Gris is made in both dry and off-dry styles, with a current trend towards drier wines. Winemaking ranges from whole-bunch pressing

Whole bunches are increasingly used in Pinot Noir fermentation.

Oregon

and cool fermentation in stainless steel to create a fruity style, to use of skin contact, old barrels and lees contact to increase complexity and texture. The wines tend to be medium to full-bodied, with medium to medium (+) acidity and have pear, peach and melon fruit sometimes with a nutty or honeyed note. They are often good to very good in quality and mid-priced. Oregon Chardonnay tends to have medium (+) acidity and body, with fruit flavours of lemon and peach. Chardonnay here is often made with whole bunch pressing followed by fermentation and maturation in oak, generally with a high proportion of old oak. Full malolactic conversion and lees contact are common, influencing flavour and texture. The lees are usually left without stirring to encourage low levels of reductive sulfur compounds to develop, giving smoky, struck match aromas. The wines tend to be good to very good and mid- to premium priced.

24.3. Wine Regions

Oregon has 19 AVAs. In the northwest part of the state, Willamette Valley AVA has seven subAVAs and contains 68 per cent of all the state’s vineyards.4 The Southern Oregon AVA has five sub-AVAs and contains 25 per cent of all vineyards.5 Three multi-state appellations cross the

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Oregon-Washington border, namely Columbia Gorge, Columbia Valley and Walla Walla Valley (with 1 sub-AVA), whilst the Snake River Valley AVA crosses Oregon and Idaho. WILLAMETTE VALLEY AVA The Willamette Valley AVA is located south of Portland and spans over 1.3 m ha, of which almost 9,900 ha are under vine, making it Oregon’s largest AVA. Its diverse geographical features have led to the creation of seven AVAs within the larger Willamette Valley AVA, and almost 600 wineries.6 Its proximity to Oregon’s main cities provides easy access to tourists. The Willamette Valley AVA is in the western part of Oregon, and only 80 kilometres (50 miles) from the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered on its west side by the Coast Range mountains, which provide some protection, but nevertheless various parts of the Willamette are affected by cold Pacific winds. The valley as a whole is one of the coolest and wettest areas in Oregon, but still benefits from warm, dry summers with long hours of sunshine. Diurnal range is high during the growing season. Air rises from the warm interior of central Oregon and causes cool coastal air to be pulled inland; this effect is particularly strong earlier in the day in the AVAs of Van Duzer Corridor, Eola-Amity Hills and, to a certain extent, McMinnville. A lack of humidity in the air over the dry growing season means that temperatures can rise and fall quickly. Although summer months are dry, many producers in the Willamette Valley do not use irrigation. Legislation prevents all but the longest-established producers from using water from rivers and, in order to provide water for irrigation, producers would need to build ponds on their property to collect water in winter months. Many of Oregon’s grape growers only own small plots of land and irrigation would be expensive to install and maintain. Hence, where rainfall and water retention properties of the soil will allow, producers will dry farm. A diverse range of soils are found in the area. Fertile loam soils are found on the valley floors (in sites up to around 60 m in altitude) left by floods in the Columbia Gorge that occurred several thousand years ago. These soils are most suited to Pinot Gris and, where Pinot Noir is grown, its vigour must be managed, for example, by large vine training systems such as Scott Henry. At higher altitudes, a mixture of marine sedimentary soils (e.g. sandstone), volcanic basalt and loess soils are found, which are generally lower in fertility. Here, smaller cordon-trained or replacement-cane pruned vines with VSP trellising are more common. This AVA contains seven sub-AVAs: Dundee Hills, Chehalem Mountains, Ribbon Ridge, Yamhill-Carlton District, Van Duzer Corridor, Eola-Amity Hills and McMinnville. In all of the sub-AVAs, and in Willamette Valley AVA in general, Pinot Noir is the dominant grape variety (generally making up between 60–80 per cent of the plantings), with Pinot Gris and Chardonnay also usually planted. Dundee Hills AVA The Dundee Hills AVA is perhaps the most well-known AVA in Willamette Valley and is where the state’s first Pinot Noir vines were planted. The AVA is made up of a series of volcanic hills running north to south with lateral ridges that run east to west. Vineyards start 60 m above the valley floor up to 325 m. This results in vineyards at higher altitudes than the rest of Willamette Valley, helping to retain acidity. The temperature is warmer than other AVAs because it is buffered to the west by the Coast Range and to the north by the Chehalem Mountains, sheltering it from cold wet conditions, and enabling full fruit ripeness.

Oregon

Harvest time in Dundee Hills. The area has the highest proportion of red iron-rich clay formed from volcanic basalt. The clay is important in retaining water during the dry summers (as there is little or no access to irrigation), avoiding vines shutting down, and ensuring grapes become fully ripe. Chehalem Mountains AVA Chehalem Mountains AVA is defined by a ridge in northern Willamette Valley. It is 32 kilometres (20 miles) in length and 8 kilometres (5 miles) in width, stretching from southeast to northwest. It includes several discrete spurs, mountains and ridges. Vineyards are planted between 60 and 305 m, with the highest point of the ridge at almost 500 m serving as a windbreak. The range in altitude, aspects and soil types (loess, volcanic basalt and sedimentary) creates a diversity of vineyard sites, and this is also seen in the wines. It has the most plantings of any sub- AVA and a large number of wineries, including some of the earliest, is located within the area. Ribbon Ridge AVA The Ribbon Ridge AVA is by far the smallest AVA in the Willamette Valley, being an island-like ridge that rises to around 200 m from the Chehalem Valley floor in the west of the Chehalem Mountain AVA. Vineyards are relatively low in elevation and protected from the wind by surrounding ranges creating a consistently warm dry growing area. The sedimentary soil is relatively deep but low in nutrients, which helps to control vine vigour. It also has moderate water-holding capacity which is much needed as water for irrigation is not readily available. All of these factors lead to concentrated ripe grapes.

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Yamhill-Carlton District AVA The Yamhill-Carlton AVA is a south-facing bowl containing a series of horseshoe-shaped eroded hills composed of ancient sedimentary soil. 970 ha are planted and the vast majority is Pinot Noir. Yamhill-Carlton District is in the north west of the Willamette Valley and sits in the foothills of the Coast Range, which forms a rain shadow over the entire area. The south-facing slopes (altitudes 60–300 m), warm free-draining sedimentary soils and sheltered nature of the AVA lead to wines with riper fruit flavours, fuller bodies and lower acidity levels than those of many other sub-AVAs. Van Duzer Corridor AVA The Van Duzer Corridor is towards the south west of the Willamette Valley. Here, a break in the Coast Range funnels in Pacific Ocean winds during the afternoon, cooling the vineyard in what would be the warmest time in the day. The wind has several effects. Early in the season, the winds can disrupt flowering and fruit set, and lead to lower yields. Later in the season, the winds can cause the vine leaf stomata to shut and slow ripening. The cooling nature of the wind also slows the ripening process, helping to retain acidity, slow sugar accumulation while flavours and aromas develop. It also reduces disease pressure. Soils are marine sediment loam and silt, shallow and well-draining.

Vineyards in Van Duzer Corridor. Eola-Amity Hills AVA Eola-Amity Hills AVA is a ridge of north to south hills of shallow rocky volcanic basalt over sedimentary soil. It is located east of the Van Duzer Corridor AVA and, as Van Duzer Corridor is a relatively low-lying area, many of the hillside vineyard sites of Eola-Amity (sitting at 75–250 metres) are influenced by the same cool ocean winds, leading to slower ripening. However,

Oregon

due to a range of aspects and altitudes within the AVA, there is greater variation in how much vineyards are affected by the winds, and hence there are some warmer, more sheltered sites. McMinnville AVA Located between the Yamhill-Carlton AVA to the north and Van Duzer Corridor AVA to the south, the McMinnville AVA is influenced by both areas. Some sites are protected by the Coast Range rain shadow, whereas areas to the south are more influenced by the cool winds from the Van Duzer Corridor. SOUTHERN OREGON AVA The Southern Oregon AVA is Oregon’s second largest growing region. It covers a large area just south of Willamette Valley down to the California border; within that area, 3,265 ha are planted. Its more southerly latitude means the area is warmer than the Willamette Valley, but cooling influences come from mountains (both the altitude of sites and cool air descending at night) and river valleys that channel cool breezes during the afternoon and evenings. This means that diurnal ranges in the region are high. Similar to Willamette, the vast majority of the annual rainfall occurs in the winter and the growing season is dry. Soils are a mixture of marine sedimentary soils, volcanic soils (both with a high proportion of clay helping to retain water) and alluvial soils (which are more free-draining). The warmer climate and lower rainfall mean irrigation is essential here. Many growers in the area were ranchers in the past and hence are permitted to irrigate with river water. Those vineyards that are dry farmed are usually planted to Rhône varieties rather than Pinot Noir.

Irrigation installed in a vineyard in Umpqua Valley.

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Southern Oregon grows a wide range of grape varieties and is better able to ripen a range of black grape varieties than Willamette Valley. Although Pinot Noir is still the most planted variety, it is less dominant here than in Willamette Valley, making up just over 40 per cent of plantings. Pinot Gris is the second most planted variety, followed by Syrah and Tempranillo. The Southern Oregon AVA encompasses the Umpqua Valley AVA (including the Elkton Oregon AVA and Red Hill Douglas County AVA) and the Rogue Valley AVA (including the Applegate Valley AVA). Umpqua Valley AVA The Umpqua Valley AVA is in the northern part of Southern Oregon. It sits at the confluence of the three mountain ranges; the Coast Range, the Cascade Range and the Klamath Mountains. The Umpqua River and its many tributaries also flow through the region. Together, this creates a diverse range of vineyard sites with different altitudes (around 50 – 400 m), aspects and soils. The northern area is relatively cool for Southern Oregon (though still slightly warmer than Willamette Valley) due to its northerly location and cool afternoon breezes that blow through the Umpqua River gorge. It mainly produces Pinot Noir and white varieties such as Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer and Riesling. The central and southern areas of Umpqua Valley are warmer and produce red wines from Syrah, Merlot and Tempranillo. Rogue Valley AVA The Rogue Valley AVA is further south and encompasses the Applegate Valley sub-AVA. It is closest to the California border and has the warmest and driest conditions of all Oregon’s growing areas. However, cooling influences can come from altitude (250 to almost 950 m) provided by the Klamath Mountains and Cascade Range, and cool afternoon and evening breezes drawn in from the Pacific through the Rogue River Valley. The warm temperatures mean a range of black grapes are grown, namely Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Tempranillo and Pinot Noir. MULTISTATE APPELLATIONS Multistate appellations extend into a contiguous state. Oregon has three multistate AVAs on its northern border that extend into Washington – Columbia Gorge, Columbia Valley, and Walla Walla Valley. On its western border, the Snake River Valley AVA extends into Idaho. They all account for a very small proportion of Oregon’s vineyards; Walla Walla Valley AVA and then Columbia Gorge AVA are the largest. Walla Walla Valley AVA While the majority of the Walla Walla Valley AVA lies in Washington, about one-third of the AVA extends into eastern Oregon. Far from the coast, it has an arid continental climate with hot dry summers that enable black grapes to fully ripen. Nearly 40 per cent of its total production is Cabernet Sauvignon, with Merlot and Syrah the next most planted varieties.7 The Rocks District of Milton-Freewater sub- AVA is located on a distinct area of basalt stones and graveled silt loam; the warmth radiated from the stones leading to extra ripeness in the grapes.

Oregon

Columbia Gorge AVA The Columbia Gorge AVA covers a 64-kilometre (40 mile) stretch along the Columbia River, which forms the border between Oregon and Washington. Regardless of whether the vineyards are located within Oregon or Washington, the western part of the AVA closest to the Pacific Ocean has a cooler, wetter climate whereas the eastern part of the AVA is warmer and drier. Cooling influences come from altitude (sites up to 600 m) and winds funneled by the gorge. Given the wide range of growing conditions, a number of varieties can be grown throughout the AVA. Columbia Valley AVA The vast majority of the acreage of this AVA is located in Washington State. Within Oregon, this AVA includes the two smaller AVAs of Columbia Gorge and Walla Walla Valley and the land in between them. For more details on the climate, grape varieties grown and styles of wine made see Wine Regions in Washington State.

24.4.  Wine Laws and Wine Business

Origin labeling is stricter in Oregon than federal requirements by requiring 100 per cent of the grapes to be grown in Oregon and 95 per cent of the wine to be from the stated appellation. Wine produced in multi-state appellations may follow either state’s labelling laws, but 100 per cent of the wine must come from these two states. If a variety is stated on the label, it must comprise a minimum of 90 per cent of the wine; the remaining 10 per cent does not need to be listed on the label. In contrast, California and federal regulations only require 75 per cent of the named variety. Wine labelled as ‘estate-bottled’ must be made from 100 per cent of grapes that were grown in the winery’s AVA and fully finished at the estate. Oregon is the fourth largest producer of wine by volume, after California, Washington, and New York. The total production varies from year to year, with 3.6m cases in 2017 and 4.6m cases in 2018, from approximately 800 wineries; this is about 1.4 per cent of total US production, from 8 per cent of all US wineries.8 Most of the producers (75 per cent) are small family-owned wineries producing fewer than 5,000 cases per year.9 Many wineries own their own land, with 52 per cent of wine made from estate-grown fruit. The last two decades has seen considerable growth, from 139 wineries in 2000 to 793 in 2018.10 Some of this growth has come from investment from wine businesses in other states, such as California and Texas, or countries, such as France. Just under a quarter of production is sold direct-to-consumer, via tasting rooms (14 per cent), wine clubs (6.5 per cent), and web/phone orders (2 per cent).11 A further 16 per cent is sold in state (via retail and hospitality) and around 60 per cent elsewhere in the US, with approximately 2.5 per cent exported,12 the top three export markets by volume being Canada, the UK and Japan.13

References 1. The Full Story, Oregon Wine Board (retrieved 25 March 2020) 2. Environmental Stewardship, Oregon Wine Board (retrieved 25 March 2020) 3. 2018 Oregon Winery & Vineyard Report, Oregon Wine Board (retrieved 25 March 2020) 4. The Full Story, Oregon Wine Board p.9 (retrieved 25 March 2020)

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5. As above 6. About the Valley, Willamette Valley Wine (retrieved 25 March 2020) 7. Walla Walla Valley, Oregon Wine Board p.5. (retrieved 25 March 2020) 8. Winery Statistics, Wines Vines Analytics (retrieved 26 March 2020) 9. The Full Story, Oregon Wine Board (retrieved 26 March 2020) 10. As above 11. 2018 Oregon Winery & Vineyard Report, Oregon Wine Board (retrieved 26 March 2020) 12. As above 13. As above

Washington State

Washington State

25

Washington, in the extreme north-west of the mainland United States, is second only to California in the volume of wine produced from V. vinifera. The majority of its vineyards are located within the boundaries of the Columbia Valley AVA in the eastern part of the state. Here, the Cascade Mountains block the wet Pacific weather and create dry, warm conditions. A smaller number of vineyards and wineries are located to the west of the Cascade Mountains, in the cooler, wetter climate of Puget Sound AVA. Washington’s first grapes were planted at Fort Vancouver by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1825, the beginning of a concerted effort to cultivate wine grapes in the state. As early as 1854, hybrid varieties had arrived in nurseries in the Puget Sound region and, by 1860, wine grapes were growing in the Walla Walla Valley. Large-scale irrigation, from meltwater off the Cascade Mountains, began in eastern Washington in 1903, unlocking the dormant potential of the land and its sunny yet arid climate. Immigrants from Italy and Germany planted homeland varieties in the Yakima and Columbia Valleys and wine grape acreage expanded rapidly with the first annual Columbia River Valley Grape Carnival held in 1910. Five years after Prohibition was repealed, there were already over 40 wineries across the state but the first commercial-scale plantings didn’t begin until the 1960s. Perhaps the biggest leap forward came when, in 1969, the Washington legislature passed House Bill 100, ending over thirty years of protectionism and allowing the import of wines from outside the state, notably California and overseas. Faced with such an economic threat, the industry quickly needed to improve and was aided by advice from the legendary Californian winemaker André Tchelistcheff, who was already advising Ste. Michelle Vintners on producing premium wines from V. vinifera. This company, founded in 1934, became Chateau Ste. Michelle in 1976 and now accounts for well over half of the state’s production. Other significant producers include Quilceda Creek and Cayuse Vineyards. GRAPE VARIETIES, WINEMAKING AND WINE STYLES Washington grows a wide range of grape varieties (almost 70 different varieties are planted), without one being particularly dominant. It produces slightly more black grapes (58 per cent of weight harvested) than white. The top five grape varieties are Cabernet Sauvignon (26 per cent of grape harvest), Merlot (18 per cent), Chardonnay (17 per cent), Riesling (17 per cent) and Syrah (8 per cent). Warm, sunny, dry conditions throughout most of the grape growing regions, yet with cold nights lead to wines with ripe fruit flavours and sometimes high alcohol but often with medium (+) to high acidity. The wines often have high proportions of new oak, though a number of producers are using older or larger oak vessels, particularly for Syrah. A proportion of whole bunch fermentation or stem inclusion may also be used for Syrah. Riesling was the most planted variety but gradually plantings are decreasing. The general style is off dry, with around 10–15 g/L residual sugar. In recent years, there has been the confidence to experiment more with drier styles and with sweeter styles, either botrytised

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or made like an ice wine. Although cool fermentation in stainless steel is standard practice, producers use a variety of additional techniques including skin contact, ambient yeast, lees ageing and/or old oak vessels.

25.1.  Wine Regions WASHINGTON WASHINGTON

CANADA CANADA

00

Bellingham Bellingham

50 50 25 25

100 100Km Km 50 50Miles Miles

RR aa nn g g ee

00

48˚N 48˚N

CCoolu lu m m bia . bia RR.

Seattle Seattle

NN

W TON WASHING ASHINGTON

IDAHO HO IDA

CC aa ss c c aa dd e e

48˚N 48˚N PPuuggeett SSoun oundd

440

COLUMBIA COLUMBIA VALLEY VALLEY

PUGET PUGET SOUND SOUND

WAHLUKE WAHLUKE SLOPE SLOPE Yakima Yakima

PACIFIC PACIFIC OCEAN OCEAN

RATTLESNAKE RATTLESNAKEHILLS HILLS

R. biiaa R. mmb

CCoo lulu 46˚N 46˚N

YAKIMA YAKIMA VALLEY VALLEY HORSE HORSEHEAVEN HEAVEN HILLS HILLS

COLUMBIA COLUMBIA GORGE GORGE

RED RED MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN Kennewick Kennewick

WALLA WALLAWALLA WALLA VALLEY VALLEY

46˚N 46˚N

Vancouver Vancouver

OREGON OREGON 2000m+ 2000m+

1000-2000m 1000-2000m

500-1000m 500-1000m

120-500m 120-500m

0-200m 0-200m

COLUMBIA VALLEY AVA Columbia Valley AVA is a very large cross-border AVA that covers approximately one third of Washington State (spanning 3.5 million ha in Washington, 4.5 million ha in total). Within its boundaries are 99 per cent of Washington’s vineyard plantings.1 It encompasses several smaller AVAs of which Yakima Valley, Red Mountain, Horse Heaven Hills, Wahluke Slope, Rattlesnake Hills and Walla Walla Valley have the largest plantings. Although many vineyards fall within a sub-AVA, the Columbia Valley AVA can be used by producers who either have vineyards outside of a sub-AVA or wish to blend across different sub-AVAs. The shelter provided by the Cascade Range creates an arid desert-like area which receives around 150–250 mm of rainfall per annum. The climate is continental with hot summers, rapid cooling in the autumn and cold winters. With a latitude of around 45–48°N, daylight hours during the growing season are long – on average one hour longer each day than many California vineyards. Sugar accumulates rapidly in the grapes during the summer but much cooler autumn temperatures allow flavours and tannins to develop as sugar accumulation slows. High diurnal range helps to retain acidity. Given the hot summer

Washington State

temperatures, climate change is a concern and grape growers are beginning to look for cooler sites. The complex soils of basalt bedrock with sandy, silty loess and alluvial topsoils are a result of several cycles of Missoula flood events, volcanic activity, and glacial movement. In south-central Washington, a number of ridges (anticlines) can be found where the bedrock rises towards the surface creating sloped sites with variations in aspect and altitude. Many of the sub-AVAs are based on these topographical features. The soils are free draining and low in nutrients. With such little rainfall, irrigation is essential in the vast majority of sites. Water is sourced from the Columbia River and its tributaries, together with deep underground aquifers. Drip irrigation is most common, with some using overhead spraying. Low phylloxera risk due to sandy soils provide the potential for growers to plant vines Basalt bedrock, Walla Walla Valley. on their own roots. Low disease and pest pressure, due to the arid conditions and very cold winters, reduces use of pesticides in many areas. Frosts and winter freeze are the main hazards, with vineyards planted on slopes less at risk due to the drainage of cold air. Cabernet Sauvignon is the most planted grape variety, followed by Merlot, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah. Yakima Valley AVA The Yakima Valley AVA is Washington’s oldest appellation. It is also the largest sub-appellation in the Columbia Valley AVA, and, with over 7,600 ha under vine, it supplies over one-third of the state’s production.2 Yakima’s general climate and soils are the same as that of the wider Columbia Valley. However, spread over a large area, it includes a number of cooler sites most suited to white varieties, and warmer sites more suited to black varieties. The most planted variety is Chardonnay, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Riesling. Frosts and winter freeze can be hazardous in valley floor sites and, for this reason, many vineyards are planted on slopes. The area encompasses three sub-AVAs – Red Mountain, Rattlesnake Hills, and Snipes Mountain, which all have vineyards on elevated ridges that enable air drainage and reduce freeze and frost events. Red Mountain AVA in the east of Yakima Valley has the largest plantings of these subAVAs. It is a relatively small AVA, but one of the most densely planted areas in the state. Vines are planted on a south-west facing slope and the climate is amongst the warmest in Washington. The soils are poor in nutrients and this, together with careful irrigation, produces low yields of concentrated fruit. Black grape varieties dominate, particularly Cabernet

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A vineyard at springtime in Red Mountain. Sauvignon, and produce ripe, full-bodied wines, often with high levels of alcohol. However, a large diurnal range helps to retain acidity. Rattlesnake Hills AVA also has sizable plantings. Vineyards are located on the southfacing slopes of the Rattlesnake Hills at higher altitudes than much of the surrounding land in Yakima, and temperatures here are more temperate. Riesling is the most planted grape, followed by Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. Horse Heaven Hills AVA Horse Heaven Hills AVA sits between the Yakima Valley AVA to the north, and the Columbia River and Washington-Oregon border to the south. With 6,500 ha planted to grapes, it represents 25 per cent of Washington’s total grape production.3 Black grapes, especially Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah, comprise about 66 per cent of vines planted.4 Chardonnay and Riesling are the most planted white grapes. With many vineyards planted on south facing slopes, conditions are warm and sunny and lead to ripe, full-bodied red wines, often with high alcohol levels. White wines also tend to show ripe fruit (e.g. stone fruit in Riesling). The sloped topography together with the Columbia River at the southern border of the AVA both cause strong winds, which protects the vines from spring and autumn frosts, extending the potential growing season, and further reduces disease pressure. Wahluke Slope AVA Wahluke Slope, broadly in the centre of the Columbia Valley AVA, has some of the warmest and driest conditions in the state. There are currently 3,600 ha under vine.5 All the vineyards sit on a gentle south-facing slope maximizing sun exposure. Due to the warm conditions the AVA mainly produces red wines, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah. Soils are sandy and free-draining and water availability to the vine is almost entirely controlled through irrigation. The sloped landscape and proximity to the Columbia River ensures adequate air flow, reducing risk of frost and winter freeze.

Washington State

Walla Walla Valley AVA The Walla Walla Valley AVA is the fastest growing AVA. It is a multistate AVA located in southeast Washington, with almost half of its area in Oregon. On the Washington side, 705 ha are planted to grapes, and over 100 wineries are located in the area.6 Many vineyards are located in the northeast corner of the AVA in the Blue Mountain foothills. With altitudes up to 600m, the eastern side of the appellation is cooler and wetter compared to the warmer, drier western side. The differences in climate within the AVA allow a wide range of varieties to ripen. The topography of the land, however, doesn’t permit cool air to drain properly from the Blue Mountain foothills and so spring and autumn frosts can be a risk. While the area supports a range of Italian, Spanish, and Rhône varieties, the most planted are Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Cabernet Franc and Malbec, as well as Chardonnay, Viognier and Semillon. The region has a wine growers alliance dedicated to sustainable practices called Vinea.

Cabernet Sauvignon vines in Walla Walla Valley. AVAS OUTSIDE COLUMBIA VALLEY Columbia Gorge AVA See Wine Regions in Oregon. Puget Sound AVA Located in the northwest corner of Washington, Puget Sound is the only AVA west of the Cascade Mountain range. Its boundaries are large, as it runs along the Pacific Ocean, from Canada down to Olympia but only 42 ha are planted to grapes.7 The climate is warm and dry in the summer, with mild, relatively wet winters, receiving up to 1,500 mm of rain per year. Although hybrids predominate (Madeleine Angevine, Muller Thurgau, Siegerrebe), Pinot Noir and Riesling are the most planted V. vinifera varieties.

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25.2.  Wine Business

Washington State is the 2nd largest wine producer in the USA, with a yearly volume of approximately 1.4–1.6 million hL.8 Over the last 40 years, Washington wine has evolved from growing mostly Riesling to now producing a range of Bordeaux and Rhône varieties. From 10 wineries in 1975 and approximately 200 in 2000, today there are over 1,000 wineries.9 The area under vine has doubled since 2000 to over 23,000 hectares. Production is dominated by one large company, Ste. Michelle Wine Estates, which sells approximately 74 million L annually.10 Most of Washington’s production is sold in state, with only the largest wineries and more iconic labels receiving nationwide distribution yet covering all 49 other states. Exports account for only a very small percentage of production, with mature markets being Canada, the UK and Japan. Cellar door is an important route to market and many producers located in eastern Washington have cellar door facilities, office or winery facilities close to Seattle to be nearer to customers. References 1. Columbia Valley, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 2. Yakima Valley, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 3. Horse Heaven Hills, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 4. As above 5. Wahluke Slope, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 6. Walla Walla Valley, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 7. Puget Sound, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 8. Stats and Facts, Washington State Wine (retrieved 26 March 2020) 9. As above 10. WBM 50 Largest Wineries: Review of the Industry in Wine Business Monthly (Feb 2020), p. 34

New York State

New York State

26

New York State is situated in the north-eastern corner of the USA, bordering the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence river to the north and west and down to a small Atlantic coastline around Long Island in the south-east. Although annual temperatures are generally cool, different parts of the state experience very different climatic influences. New York is the 3rd largest producer of V. vinifera wines by volume in the USA, and by some way the largest producing state on the east coast. Early settlers near to the coast experimented unsuccessfully with vines brought over from Europe but viticulture only re-started in the state in the mid-1800s, using native American vines. Due to the severe continental climate upstate, plantings were made where large bodies of water would have a moderating effect, namely along the Hudson river, on the lands bordering the Finger Lakes and along the southern shoreline of Lake Erie. Following the repeal of Prohibition, winemaking in the state was dominated by a few large wineries operating in the Finger Lakes with locally grown native vines and made wines brought in from California. Years of failure had led to the general belief that V. vinifera vines could not withstand the area’s long and tough winter conditions but, in 1957, Dr Konstantin Frank, after years spent experimenting with Riesling and Chardonnay scions grafted onto the hardiest of rootstocks, succeeded in over-wintering his own vines whilst native and hybrid vines succumbed to the cold. To emphasise the point, he bought land, planted vineyards and opened his own winery, Vinifera Wine Cellars. The state’s Farm Winery Act of 1976 allowed grape growers to open wineries and sell directly to the public, after which many new, small wineries were established, growing a mixture of native, hybrid and vinifera vines. Vineyards sprang up in previously unplanted regions of the state, such as the eastern forks of Long Island, now a significant AVA. There are 10 AVAs in the state, of which the most important producing areas are the Finger Lakes AVA and the Hudson River Region AVA as well as Long Island. Currently, New York state has just over 400 wineries, of which two-thirds have been established since the Farm Winery Act, producing of order 1.1–1.4 million hL of wine a year.1

26.1.  Wine Regions

FINGER LAKES AVA The Finger Lakes AVA is located in western upstate New York, sitting below Lake Ontario and the Canadian border. It is the largest wine-producing region in New York State with 3,800 ha under vine.2 It is one of the coldest AVAs in the USA. Growing Environment and Grape Growing The region has a continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The AVA covers 11 finger-shaped lakes, without which winters would be too cold for V. vinifera grapes. Although these lakes are not particularly large, they are extremely deep (the deepest, Seneca Lake, is almost 200 m deep) and can fail to freeze during the winter. The lakes have several effects:

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CANADA CANADA

Lake Lake Ontario Ontario

44˚N 44˚N

FINGER FINGER LAKES LAKES

NEW NEWYORK YORK

HUDSON HUDSON RIVER RIVER

42˚N 42˚N

42˚N 42˚N

cc 40˚N 40˚N

hh

nn i iaa

ss New NewYork York

UU SS AA

AA pp pp aa ll a a

446

NEW NEWYORK YORK STATE STATE 00

Washington WashingtonD.C. D.C.

1000m+ 1000m+

•

• • •

500-1000m 500-1000m

ATLANTIC ATLANTIC OCEAN OCEAN

LONG LONG ISLAND ISLAND

00

200-500m 200-500m

100 100

5050

200 200Km Km

100 100Miles Miles

NN

0-200m 0-200m

The topography of the region, with slopes around the lakes, enables cold air to drain towards the water. As it reaches the lake, the air warms and rises creating a vacuum that draws more cold air off the land. The lakes can generate their own lake-effect snow, which can also help insulate vines during the winter. The lakes provide a warming influence in the autumn enabling the grapes to ripen over a longer period and reducing the risk of autumn frosts. In the spring, cool air from the lake delays budburst reducing chance of damage in spring frosts.

Most of the vineyards are located around Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca, and Cayuga lakes (the latter two are independent sub-AVAs). Most vineyards are sited on the steeper areas, where cold air flows down towards the lake, rather than in the cold air pockets in the flat bench areas. Fertile soils and sufficient rainfall throughout the year means that many vineyards are planted with low densities of large vines. Training and trellising systems such as Scott Henry are common, in which grape growers split the canopy either vertically or horizontally to allow greater air circulation (reducing fungal disease) and light penetration. Although snow can help insulate the vines during the winter, many growers further protect the vines from winter freeze by hilling up the soil to cover the graft union. The Finger Lakes area supported only cold-hardy hybrids such as Concord, Niagara, Cayuga, and Vidal, until Dr. Konstantin Frank came to the Cornell University Geneva Experiment station in 1951 where he introduced grafted cool climate V. vinifera. A key consideration when

New York State

Snow providing insulation for vines in the Finger Lakes. selecting grape varieties is the ability to withstand cold winter temperatures and this property has led to Riesling and Cabernet Franc being the most planted white and black grape varieties respectively. Ability to ripen sufficiently in the growing season is also important, particularly for black grape varieties. Grape Varieties, Winemaking and Wine Styles Riesling is the most planted and most reputed V. vinifera grape variety from the Finger Lakes. A number of producers make multiple Riesling wines often at different levels of sweetness from dry to sweet, though the majority are dry to medium-dry. The wines have high acidity, medium (–) to medium body and fresh flavours of apple, lemon and peach. Alcohol levels range from low to medium depending on style made (sweeter wines often have lower alcohols). The wines are made using protective techniques and fermented at cool temperatures in stainless steel. Some producers choose to use a few hours of skin contact before pressing to enhance flavour and texture or keep the wines on the lees after fermentation, also to enhance texture. Wines with residual sugar may be achieved by lateharvesting, botrytis and/or stopping fermentation early. Finger Lakes Rieslings tend to be good to very good in quality, with some outstanding examples, and mid- to premium priced. Chardonnay is also widely planted and used in still and sparkling wines. The still wines are usually medium bodied, with medium (+) to high acidity and citrus flavours. They are often fermented and matured in oak to add texture and toasty flavours.

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Cabernet Franc is the most planted V. vinifera black grape. Mid-ripening and winter hardy, it is able to produce adequate yields of ripe grapes in most years. Producers are using less new oak than in the past, and a number of producers make at least one Cabernet Franc without any oak maturation. Oak tends to be French or Hungarian, both of which tend to give subtler flavours than American oak, which could overwhelm the wines. The wines tend to have medium (–) to medium body and tannins with flavours of red cherry, cranberry and black plum, sometimes with a herbaceous note. They are often good to very good and mid-priced. Other popular varieties include Pinot Noir, Gewurztraminer, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Pinot Gris. Significant producers include Hermann J. Wiemer and Forge Cellars. A significant proportion of hybrids and American vine species are also grown. The production of many of them is used in grape juice and jellies/jams, but some are also used for wines. These varieties are generally used to produce inexpensive wines, partially because they are easier to grow than V. vinifera varieties and also because the quality of the wines that they produce does not match that of the V. vinifera varieties grown in the region. However, some hybrids, such as Traminette (Gerwurztraminer-like aromas, with higher acidity and lower alcohol) and Vignoles (susceptible to noble rot, high acid, used for non-dry styles), have the potential to make good quality wines. As found in Ontario across the Canadian border, Vidal is used in ice wine production. LONG ISLAND AVA Long Island extends from Manhattan eastward into the Atlantic Ocean. The Long Island AVA covers a large area at the easternmost end of the island, where it splits into two peninsulas – the North Fork and the Hamptons sub-AVAs. Just over 1,000 ha are planted with vines. Although these sub-AVA’s contain the most vineyards and wineries, the larger Long Island AVA captures the wineries located outside of the sub-AVAs. Growing Environment and Grape Growing The Long Island AVA is surrounded by water – the Atlantic Ocean, Peconic Bay, and Long Island Sound. This feature creates a maritime climate and long growing season because the water bodies slowly release the accumulated summer heat into the autumn and harvest period. As a result, this area is able to ripen black Bordeaux varieties, with Merlot in particular as the signature variety of the region, but also grows a range of other grape varieties including Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. High humidity means that fungal diseases are problematic, although windy weather in coastal sites can alleviate this. Management options

Coastal vineyard locations on Long Island.

New York State

include spraying, leaf removal to improve air circulation around the grapes, and sorting grapes in the vineyard or winery. Organic grape growing is difficult in such a climate but there are a number of local sustainable certification bodies. The North Fork is slightly warmer and more protected from the Atlantic Ocean’s weather events, and contains the majority of the vineyards (about 60 wineries in contrast to the six wineries in the Hamptons).3 The North Fork has sandy soils whereas the Hamptons’ vineyards are on silt loam soils. Both soil types are free-draining and low in fertility, which limits vine vigour. Vines are generally trained and trellised to VSP (vigour is not as high here as in the Finger Lakes). Grape Varieties, Winemaking and Wine Styles The majority of red wines are matured in oak, mostly French, but some Hungarian and American may also be used. A proportion of new oak is common to add vanilla and clove characters to Bordeaux varieties such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc, either made as single varietal wines or as blends. Whites, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Pinot Gris (made in a dry, light-bodied style), are often fermented at cool temperatures in stainless steel, made in a fruity, unoaked style for early consumption. Chardonnay may be made in an unoaked style or fermented and matured in oak, often also with malolactic conversion and lees ageing, creating a fuller-bodied, creamy, toasty style; medium (+) acidity balances the best examples. In general, the wines range from good to very good in quality, and are mid-priced to premium. Significant producers include Wölffer Estate and Channing Daughters. Many wineries make a large range of wines, including rosés, sparkling wines and sweet wines. As in the Finger Lakes, cellar door is a key route to market, especially given the proximity to Manhattan and the popular holiday destination of the Hamptons. HUDSON RIVER REGION AVA Wine has been made continuously in the Hudson River Region for over 300 years, and contains the first commercial winery (est. 1827) and the oldest active winery in the US (est. 1839). Today, there are about 60 wineries in the area. The Hudson River Region AVA covers a vast area stretching from north of New York City to south of Albany, but vineyard plantings are still small at 64 ha. The river runs north to south and most vineyards are located within a few kilometres/miles of it on glacial deposits of shale, slate, schist and limestone. The climate is continental with warm summers and cold winters. Spring frosts and winter freeze are problems, with grape growers piling soils around the trunks of the vines in the winter. Both hybrids, such as Seyval Blanc and Vidal, and cool climate V. vinifera varieties, such as Riesling, Chardonnay and Cabernet Franc, are commonly planted.

26.2.  Wine Law and Wine Business

If a viticultural area such as an AVA is mentioned on the wine label, at least 85 per cent of the grapes must have been sourced from the designated area. If a vintage is stated, at least 95 per cent of the grapes must be from that vintage and, if a grape variety is mentioned, at least 75 per cent of the grapes must be of that variety.

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Today, there are just over 470 wineries across the state, of which about 120 are in the Finger Lakes AVA, around 66 in the Long Island AVA and about 50 in the Hudson River Region AVA.4 Before the New York Farm Winery Act in 1976, production in New York was dominated by a few large wineries which were producing large volumes of inexpensive wines, often from American vine species. The Act (and an amendment in 1978) allowed wineries to sell wines they had vinified directly to consumers, subject to a maximum of 50,000 US gallons (190,000 L) annually. This law completely changed the dynamics of the industry. Many new wineries, mainly small, were established, now with a viable way to market. These small producers used French hybrids and V. vinifera and raised the quality of wine. With such competition, the larger wineries have either adapted or declined. Most sales continue to be through cellar doors and the vast majority of wine is sold in-state. However, although the market for wine in the New York City metropolitan region is one of the world’s most competitive and demanding, its on- trade has been slow to embrace the state’s wines. Many of the small wineries are now being run by a second generation of winemakers and there are increasing numbers of winemakers that have trained professionally and worked in other wine-producing countries, leading to greater quality and diversity. References 1. U.S. Wineries – Annual Production (Cases) 2019 Production, Wines Vines Analytics (retrieved 27 March 2020) and 2016 New York Wine Guide, New York Wine & Grape Foundation (retrieved 27 March 2020) 2. Quick Facts, Finger Lakes Wine Alliance (retrieved 27 March 2020) 3. Long Island Region, New York Wine & Grape Foundation (retrieved 27 March 2020) 4. New York Wine & Grape Foundation (retrieved 27 March 2020)

Canada

Canada

27

Canada is a relatively small player in the international wine market. Despite being the world’s second largest country by area, the vast majority of the country is unsuitable for viticulture due to high latitude and extremes of temperature. There are around 12,500 hectares under vine. The vast majority of Canada’s wine production comes from two provinces, Ontario and British Columbia, although small amounts of wine are also produced in Nova Scotia and Quebec. In fact, the vast majority of Canada’s wine grapes are grown in Ontario’s Niagara Peninsula and British Columbia’s Okanagan Valley. In the international market, Canada is most famous for its Icewine. Production began in the 1970s with German immigrants wanting to continue their tradition of Eiswein, and Canada is now the world’s largest producer. However, Icewine represents only a small percentage of production and so Canada is looking to build an international reputation for high quality dry and sparkling wines. Commercial wine production in Canada dates back to the early 19th century. The wine was initially produced from American hybrids and later V. labrusca grapes, which could withstand the harsh Canadian winters. In the early 20th century, these were joined by French hybrids, most notably Vidal Blanc, which is still widely used to produce Icewine. The first plantings of V. vinifera only date back to the late 1950s and winemakers only began shifting their focus away from hybrids in the late 1980s. This push for quality was prompted, firstly, by a US-Canada trade deal which opened up the Canadian wine market to American imports and removed subsidies from Canadian growers and, secondly, by the introduction of an appellation system, the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA), in Ontario and British Columbia (see Wine Law and Regulations). Although, Canada experienced Prohibition from 1916 to 1927, unlike the USA, its wine industry was not adversely affected. Wine was exempt from prohibition and the number of licensed wineries actually increased in that period. However, when most of Canada’s provinces repealed their Prohibition laws in the 1920s, a system of provincial liquor boards and government-run monopolies was introduced, which still strictly control the sale and distribution of alcohol in Canada today (see Wine Business).

27.1.  The Growing Environment and Grape Growing

CLIMATE Whilst Canada is generally categorized as a country with a cool climate this is somewhat of an oversimplification. Canada’s two main wine regions are on opposite sides of the country, separated by approximately 4000 km, and even the sub-regions within them have diverse and distinct conditions. Ontario and the inland areas of British Columbia (where most of its vineyards are situated) have an extreme continental climate. In the summer, daytime temperatures can regularly exceed 30°C (86°F), whilst in the winter they can often drop below –20°C (–4°F). As a result, most Canadian vineyards are planted near lakes which moderate temperatures. During the winter, the lake effect reduces the risk of winter freeze. In the

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spring, the water heats up slowly delaying budbreak usually until after the risk of spring frosts has passed (though occasional frosts late in the spring can sometimes be an issue). It then retains summer warmth into the autumn, extending the growing season. The lakes also cause higher levels of humidity, raising the risk of fungal disease. During the winter when the moisture from the lakes evaporates and meets the ambient cold air, it produces precipitation in the form of snow. This usually produces enough snow cover to protect the vines and insulate them from the cold air, although in the coldest areas, such as Prince Edward County, winter freeze is still a concern. Climate change is causing increasingly unpredictable winters and in some years there is minimal protective snow cover. Drought is a regular concern in the inland regions of British Columbia, which lie in the rain shadow of two mountain ranges but it can also be an issue in hotter, drier years in Ontario. Canada’s vineyards are located between 41° and 51°N, stretching towards the northerly limit for viticulture. The northerly latitude, especially in British Columbia, makes for a shorter growing season but this is compensated for by longer daylight hours in the summer than more southerly wine regions, for example, in the USA. VINEYARD MANAGEMENT Despite being a relatively young industry, Canadian viticulture is very advanced. Producers have access to all the most up-to-date technology and vineyard management techniques. With each harvest, wineries are gaining more knowledge about how to get the best from their grapes and there is an increasing awareness of how different soils and microclimates can impact on the vines. Careful canopy management is crucial in humid areas around lakes: the canopy needs to be as open as possible to improve air flow and reduce the risk of fungal diseases such as mildew and botrytis. VSP is therefore by far the most common training system in use, although some growers are experimenting on a smaller scale with other systems such as Geneva Double Curtain, Scott Henry and Lyre. In hotter, drier areas such as in the Okanagan Valley in British Columbia, pests and diseases are less of a concern and growers are increasingly adopting sustainable and organic practices. The main vineyard pests in Canada are insects such as moths, mealy bugs and leafhoppers, birds and animals such as deer and even bears. The growing season is shorter than in many traditional wine regions. Budbreak might be as late as early May with harvest starting in late August. Due to the different varieties grown and styles of wine produced, the harvest can continue into November (and into the following February for Icewine). The weather during harvest can be unpredictable, with rain and autumn frosts, resulting in significant vintage variation. Wineries in regions where drought is a regular concern, such as the Okanagan Valley, have installed irrigation systems with drip irrigation the most common. In areas where the winters can be bitterly cold, such as Prince Edward County, some producers bury their vines to protect them. However, this is time-consuming and labourintensive and therefore can significantly add to production costs. As a result, some wineries are experimenting with geotextiles, fabrics draped over the vines to help protect against winter damage. In the Okanagan and Similkameen Valleys, where winters are not quite so bitter, growers protect their vines by pushing up the level of the soil around grafts to protect them.

Canada

GRAPE VARIETIES Hybrid varieties have dominated Canadian wine production for much of its history. There are still significant plantings in Ontario; hybrids made up around 40 per cent of the harvest tonnage in 2018 (though most are used in International Canadian Blends rather than VQA wines, see Wine Law and Regulations).1 However only very small amounts remain in British Columbia following a vine pull scheme in the late 1980s. By far the most important of the hybrids is Vidal, a French hybrid which produces the majority of Icewine. It can withstand Canada’s harsh winters and its high acidity (though not quite so high as Riesling), slow ripening and thick skins make it particularly suitable for sweet late-harvest wines and Icewine, even if these tend not to have the aromatic complexity and ageing potential of the finest Riesling Icewines. Whether dry or sweet, Vidal produces wines that are high in acidity with stone and tropical fruit flavours such as peach and mango. Since the late 1980s, there has been a significant increase in the number of vinifera plantings, in particular the Bordeaux varieties (Merlot, Cabernet Franc and, to a lesser extent, Cabernet Sauvignon), Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and aromatic white varieties such as Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer and Riesling. Some winemakers are also experimenting with varieties such as Syrah, Viognier and Malbec. The styles produced can vary quite significantly between the cooler climate of Ontario and the hotter areas of British Columbia, such as the southern Okanagan. However, due either to cooler temperatures or a wide diurnal range, Canadian wines all tend to be characterised by relatively high levels of acidity.

27.2. Winemaking

Since the late 1980s, quality has risen considerably as producers have embraced V. vinifera varieties and modern winemaking techniques. Canadian winemakers initially looked to follow the templates of more established regions, particularly those in Europe, but as they have developed their knowledge and expertise, they are increasingly looking to reduce intervention with ambient yeasts, unfiltered wines and more moderate use of new oak or increased use of neutral vessels. In cooler regions and in cooler years, chaptalization is sometimes practised. ICEWINE Canada is the world’s largest producer of Icewine, and within Canada, Ontario accounts for the vast majority of production. Canada’s bitterly cold winters mean that grapes left on the vine will routinely freeze (see the chapter on Specific Options for Producing Wines with Residual Sugar in D1: Wine Production). Production regulations state that the grapes must be harvested at –8°C