CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 Cert Guide [PDF]

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Contents 1. Cover Page 2. About This E-Book 3. 4. 5. 6.

Title Page Copyright Page Contents at a Glance Table of Contents

7. 8. 9. 10.

About the Author Dedication Acknowledgments About the Technical Editor

11. 12. 13. 14.

We Want to Hear from You! Reader Services Credits Introduction 1. Goals and Methods 2. 3. 4. 5.

What’s New in the Exam Who Should Read This Book? Strategies for Exam Preparation Book Features and Exam Preparation Methods

6. Companion Website 7. Pearson Test Prep Practice Test Software and Questions 15. Chapter 1 Welcome to CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ 1. Domain 1.0—IT Concepts and Terminology 2. Domain 2.0—Infrastructure 3. Domain 3.0—Applications and Software 4. Domain 4.0—Software Development Concepts 5. Domain 5.0—Database Fundamentals 6. Domain 6.0—Security

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7. Hardware, Equipment, and Tools 8. Software 16. Part 1: Domain 1.0 – IT Concepts and Terminology 1. Chapter 2 How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Binary Hexadecimal Decimal Data Representation

6. Exam Preparation Tasks 7. Practice Questions for Objective 1.1 8. Your Next Steps 2. Chapter 3 Compare and Contrast Fundamental Data Types and Their Characteristics 1. Foundation Topics 2. Char 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Strings Numbers Boolean Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 1.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

3. Chapter 4 Input, Output, and More: The Basics of Computing and Processing 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Input Processing Output Storage

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6. Exam Preparation Tasks 7. Practice Questions for Objective 1.3 8. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 4. Chapter 5 Explain the Value of Data and Information 1. 2. 3. 4.

Foundation Topics Data and Information as Assets Importance of Investing in Security Relationship of Data to Creating Information

5. 6. 7. 8.

Intellectual Property Digital Products Data-Driven Business Decisions Exam Preparation Tasks

9. Practice Questions for Objective 1.4 10. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 5. Chapter 6 Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed 1. Foundation Topics 2. Storage Units 3. Throughput Unit 4. 5. 6. 7.

Processing Speed Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 1.5 Your Next Steps

6. Chapter 7 Explain the Troubleshooting Methodology 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identify the Problem Research Knowledge Base/Internet, If Applicable Establish a Theory of Probable Cause Test the Theory to Determine the Cause

6. Establish a Plan of Action to Resolve the Problem and Identify Potential Effects 7. Implement the Solution or Escalate as Necessary 8. Verify Full System Functionality and, If Applicable,

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Implement Preventive Measures 9. Document Findings/Lessons Learned, Actions, and Outcomes 10. Exam Preparation Tasks 11. Practice Questions for Objective 1.6 12. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 17. Part 2: Domain 2.0 – Infrastructure 1. Chapter 8 I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces 1. Foundation Topics 2. Networking 3. 4. 5. 6.

Peripheral Devices Graphic Device Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics

7. Define Key Terms 8. Practice Questions for Objective 2.1 9. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 2. Chapter 9 Connecting and Configuring Peripherals 1. Foundation Topics 2. Devices 3. 4. 5. 6.

Installation Types Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 2.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

3. Chapter 10 Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Motherboard/System Board Firmware/BIOS RAM CPU

6. GPU

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7. Storage 8. Cooling 9. 10. 11. 12.

NIC Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 2.3 Your Next Steps

4. Chapter 11 Internet Service Types 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fiber Optic Cable DSL Wireless

6. 7. 8. 9.

Comparing Internet Services Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 2.4 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

5. Chapter 12 Compare and Contrast Storage Types 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Volatile vs. Nonvolatile Local Storage Types Local Network Storage Types Cloud Storage Service

6. 7. 8. 9.

Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.5

10. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 6. Chapter 13 Compare and Contrast Common Computing Devices and Their Purposes 1. Foundation Topics 2. Mobile Phones 3. Tablets

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4. Laptops 5. Workstations 6. 7. 8. 9.

Servers Gaming Consoles IoT Exam Preparation Tasks

10. Practice Questions for Objective 2.6 11. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 7. Chapter 14 Explain Basic Networking Concepts 1. Foundation Topics 2. Basics of Network Communication 3. Device Addresses 4. 5. 6. 7.

Basic Protocols Devices Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 2.7

8. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 8. Chapter 15 Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network 1. 2. 3. 4.

Foundation Topics 802.11a/b/g/n/ac Best Practices Exam Preparation Topics

5. Review Topics 6. Practice Questions for Objective 2.8 7. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 18. Part 3: Domain 3.0 – Applications and Software 1. Chapter 16 Explain the Purpose of Operating Systems 1. Foundation Topics 2. Interface Between Applications and Hardware 3. Disk Management 4. Process Management/Scheduling

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5. Application Management 6. Memory Management 7. 8. 9. 10.

Device Management Access Control/Protection Types of Operating Systems (OSs) Exam Preparation Tasks

11. Practice Questions for Objective 3.1 12. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 2. Chapter 17 Operating Systems 101: Features, Processes, UI, and Management 1. Foundation Topics 2. File Systems and Features 3. Features 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

File Management Services Processes Drivers Utilities Interfaces Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 3.2

12. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 3. Chapter 18 Purpose and Proper Use of Software 1. 2. 3. 4.

Foundation Topics Productivity Software Collaboration Software Business Software

5. 6. 7. 8.

Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.3

9. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 4. Chapter 19 Getting Apps From Source to Your Device

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1. Foundation Topics 2. Application Delivery Methods 3. 4. 5. 6.

Application Architecture Models Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 3.4 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

5. Chapter 20 Configuring and Using Web Browsers 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Caching/Clearing Cache Deactivate Client-Side Scripting Browser Add-Ons/Extensions Private Browsing

6. 7. 8. 9.

Proxy Settings Certificates Popup Blockers Script Blockers

10. 11. 12. 13.

Compatible Browser for Application(s) Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms

14. Practice Questions for Objective 3.5 15. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 6. Chapter 21 Compare and Contrast General Application Concepts and Uses 1. Foundation Topics 2. Single-Platform Software 3. Cross-Platform Software 4. 5. 6. 7.

Licensing Software Installation Best Practices Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics

8. Define Key Terms 9. Practice Questions for Objective 3.6 10. Your Next Steps (More Certs)

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19. Part 4: Domain 4.0 – Software Development Concepts 1. Chapter 22 Compare and Contrast Programming Language Categories 1. Foundation Topics 2. Interpreted 3. 4. 5. 6.

Compiled Programming Languages Query Languages Assembly Language Exam Preparation Tasks

7. 8. 9. 10.

Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 4.1 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

2. Chapter 23 Using Programming Organizational Techniques and Interpret Logic 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Organizational Techniques Logic Components Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics

6. Practice Questions for Objective 4.2 7. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 3. Chapter 24 Explain the Purpose and Use of Programming Concepts 1. Foundation Topics 2. Identifiers 3. Containers 4. 5. 6. 7.

Functions Objects Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics

8. Define Key Terms 9. Practice Questions for Objective 4.3

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10. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 20. Part 5: Domain 5.0 – Database Fundamentals 1. Chapter 25 Explain Database Concepts and the Purpose of a Database 1. Foundation Topics 2. Usage of Database 3. 4. 5. 6.

Flat File vs. Database Records Storage Exam Preparation Tasks

7. Practice Questions for Objective 5.1 8. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 2. Chapter 26 Compare and Contrast Various Database Structures 1. Foundation Topics 2. Structured vs. Semi-Structured vs. Nonstructured 3. Relational Databases 4. 5. 6. 7.

Nonrelational Databases Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 5.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

3. Chapter 27 Summarize Methods Used to Interface with Databases 1. Foundational Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Relational Methods Database Access Methods Export/Import Exam Preparation Tasks

6. Practice Questions for Objective 5.3 7. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 21. Part 6: Domain 6.0 – Security

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1. Chapter 28 Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability Concerns 1. Foundational Topics 2. Confidentiality Concerns 3. 4. 5. 6.

Integrity Concerns Availability Concerns Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 6.1

7. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 2. Chapter 29 Device Security Best Practices 1. 2. 3. 4.

Foundation Topics Securing Devices (Mobile/Workstation) Device Use Best Practices Exam Preparation Tasks

5. Practice Questions for Objective 6.2 6. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 3. Chapter 30 Summarize Behavioral Security Concepts 1. Foundation Topics 2. Expectations of Privacy When Using… 3. Written Policies and Procedures 4. 5. 6. 7.

Handling of Confidential Information Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 6.3 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

4. Chapter 31 Compare and Contrast Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation Concepts 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Authentication Authorization Accounting Nonrepudiation

6. Exam Preparation Tasks

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7. Practice Questions for Objective 6.4 8. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 5. Chapter 32 Explain Password Best Practices 1. Foundation Topics 2. 3. 4. 5.

Password Length Password Complexity Password History Password Expiration

6. 7. 8. 9.

Password Reuse Across Sites Password Reset Process Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics

10. Define Key Terms 11. Practice Questions for Objective 6.5 12. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 6. Chapter 33 Explain Common Uses of Encryption 1. Foundation Topics 2. Plain Text vs. Cipher Text 3. 4. 5. 6.

Data at Rest Data in Transit Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics

7. Define Key Terms 8. Practice Questions for Objective 6.6 9. Your Next Steps (More Certs) 7. Chapter 34 Explain Business Continuity Concepts 1. Foundation Topics 2. Fault Tolerance 3. 4. 5. 6.

Disaster Recovery Exam Preparation Tasks Practice Questions for Objective 6.7 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

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8. Chapter 35 Final Preparation 1. Advice About the Exam Event 22. Appendix A Answers to Practice Questions 23. Index 24. 25. 26. 27.

Appendix B Memory Tables Appendix C Memory Table Answers Appendix D Study Planner Appendix E Content Tracking to IT Fundamentals Domains and Objectives

28. 29. 30. 31.

Glossary Code Snippets Where are the companion content files? - LogIn Where are the companion content files? - Register

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G-9 G-10 G-11 G-12

924. 925. 926. 927.

G-13 G-14 G-15 G-16

928. 929. 930. 931.

G-17 G-18 G-19 G-20

932. 933. 934. 935.

G-21 G-22 G-23 G-24

936. 937. 938. 939.

G-25 G-26 G-27 G-28

940. 941. 942. 943.

G-29 G-30 G-31 G-32

944. 945. 946. 947.

G-33 G-34 G-35 G-36

948. 949. 950. 951.

G-37 G-38 G-39 G-40

952. G-41 953. G-42

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954. G-43 955. G-44 956. 957. 958. 959.

G-45 G-46 G-47 G-48

960. 961. 962. 963.

G-49 G-50 G-51 G-52

964. 965. 966. 967.

G-53 G-54 G-55 G-56

968. 969. 970. 971.

G-57 G-58 G-59 G-60

972. 973. 974. 975.

G-61 G-62 G-63 G-64

976. 977. 978. 979.

G-65 G-66 G-67 G-68

980. 981. 982. 983.

G-69 G-70 G-71 G-72

984. 985. 986. 987.

G-73 G-74 G-75 G-76

988. G-77 989. G-78

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990. G-79 991. G-80 992. 993. 994. 995.

G-81 G-82 G-83 G-84

996. 997. 998. 999.

G-85 G-86 G-87 G-88

1000. 1001. 1002. 1003.

G-89 G-90 G-91 G-92

1004. 1005. 1006. 1007.

G-93 G-94 G-95 G-96

1008. G-97 1009. G-98

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About This E-Book EPUB is an open, industry-standard format for ebooks. However, support for EPUB and its many features varies across reading devices and applications. Use your device or app settings to customize the presentation to your liking. Settings that you can customize often include font, font size, single or double column, landscape or portrait mode, and figures that you can click or tap to enlarge. For additional information about the settings and features on your reading device or app, visit the device manufacturer’s Web site. Many titles include programming code or configuration examples. To optimize the presentation of these elements, view the e-book in single-column, landscape mode and adjust the font size to the smallest setting. In addition to presenting code and configurations in the reflowable text format, we have included images of the code that mimic the presentation found in the print book; therefore, where the reflowable format may compromise the presentation of the code listing, you will see a “Click here to view code image” link. Click the link to view the print-fidelity code image. To return to the previous page viewed, click the Back

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CompTIA® IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 Cert Guide

Mark Edward Soper

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®

CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 Cert Guide

Copyright © 2019 by Pearson Education, Inc, All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Nor is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein. ISBN-13: 978-0-7897-6041-8 ISBN-10: 0-7897-6041-X Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949198 01

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Trademarks

All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Pearson IT Certification cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this

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book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. Warning and Disclaimer

Every effort has been made to make this book as complete and as accurate as possible, but no warranty or fitness is implied. The information provided is on an “as is” basis. The author and the publisher shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any loss or damages arising from the information contained in this book or from the use of the companion web site. Special Sales

For information about buying this title in bulk quantities, or for special sales opportunities (which may include electronic versions; custom cover designs; and content particular to your business, training goals, marketing focus, or branding interests), please contact our corporate sales department at [email protected] or (800) 382-3419. For government sales inquiries, please contact [email protected]. For questions about sales outside the U.S., please contact [email protected].

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Editor-in-Chief Mark Taub Product Line Manager Brett Bartow Acquisitions Editor Paul Carlstroem Development Editor Eleanor C. Bru Managing Editor Sandra Schroeder Project Editor Mandie Frank Copy Editor Bart Reed Indexer Ken Johnson Proofreader Debbie Williams Technical Editor Chris Crayton Designer Chuti Prasertsith

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Compositor Studio Galou

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Contents at a Glance Introduction CHAPTER 1 Welcome to CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Part 1: Domain 1.0 – IT Concepts and Terminology CHAPTER 2 How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems CHAPTER 3 Compare and Contrast Fundamental Data Types and Their Characteristics CHAPTER 4 Input, Output, and More: The Basics of Computing and Processing CHAPTER 5 Explain the Value of Data and Information CHAPTER 6 Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed CHAPTER 7 Explain the Troubleshooting Methodology Part 2: Domain 2.0 – Infrastructure

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CHAPTER 8 I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces CHAPTER 9 Connecting and Configuring Peripherals CHAPTER 10 Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components CHAPTER 11 Internet Service Types CHAPTER 12 Compare and Contrast Storage Types CHAPTER 13 Compare and Contrast Common Computing Devices and Their Purposes CHAPTER 14 Explain Basic Networking Concepts CHAPTER 15 Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network Part 3: Domain 3.0 – Applications and Software CHAPTER 16 Explain the Purpose of Operating Systems CHAPTER 17 Operating Systems 101: Features, Processes, UI, and Management CHAPTER 18 Purpose and Proper Use of Software CHAPTER 19 Getting Apps From Source to Your

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Device CHAPTER 20 Configuring and Using Web Browsers CHAPTER 21 Compare and Contrast General Application Concepts and Uses Part 4: Domain 4.0 – Software Development Concepts CHAPTER 22 Compare and Contrast Programming Language Categories CHAPTER 23 Using Programming Organizational Techniques and Interpret Logic CHAPTER 24 Explain the Purpose and Use of Programming Concepts Part 5: Domain 5.0 – Database Fundamentals CHAPTER 25 Explain Database Concepts and the Purpose of a Database CHAPTER 26 Compare and Contrast Various Database Structures CHAPTER 27 Summarize Methods Used to Interface with Databases Part 6: Domain 6.0 – Security

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CHAPTER 28 Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability Concerns CHAPTER 29 Device Security Best Practices CHAPTER 30 Summarize Behavioral Security Concepts CHAPTER 31 Compare and Contrast Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and NonRepudiation CHAPTER 32 Explain Password Best Practices CHAPTER 33 Explain Common Uses of Encryption CHAPTER 34 Explain Business Continuity Concepts CHAPTER 35 Final Preparation APPENDIX A Answers to Practice Questions Index Online Elements: APPENDIX B Memory Tables APPENDIX C Memory Table Answers APPENDIX D Study Planner APPENDIX E Content Tracking to IT Fundamentals Domains and Objectives

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Glossary

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Table of Contents Introduction Chapter 1 Welcome to CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ What the ITF+ Exam Is Designed to Do Who Benefits from Taking the ITF+ Exam? What the Exam Covers Exam Domains Exam Details Domain 1.0—IT Concepts and Terminology Domain 2.0—Infrastructure Domain 3.0—Applications and Software Domain 4.0—Software Development Concepts Domain 5.0—Database Fundamentals Domain 6.0—Security Hardware, Equipment, and Tools Software Part 1: Domain 1.0 – IT Concepts and

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Terminology Chapter 2 How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems Foundation Topics Binary Powers of Two Hexadecimal Hex Color Values IPv6 Addresses Decimal Data Representation ASCII ANSI Code Pages Unicode Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 1.1 Your Next Steps

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Chapter 3 Compare and Contrast Fundamental Data Types and Their Characteristics Foundation Topics Char Strings Numbers Integers Floats Boolean Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 1.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 4 Input, Output, and More: The Basics of Computing and Processing Foundation Topics Input Processing Output Storage Exam Preparation Tasks

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Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 1.3 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 5 Explain the Value of Data and Information Foundation Topics Data and Information as Assets Importance of Investing in Security Relationship of Data to Creating Information Intellectual Property Trademarks Trademarks, Service Marks, and Registered Trademarks Copyrights Copyright Terms and Conditions/Terms of Use Copyright Infringement Patents Digital Products Data-Driven Business Decisions Data Capture and Collection Data Correlation

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Meaningful Reporting Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 1.4 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 6 Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed Foundation Topics Storage Units Bit Bits Byte KB MB GB TB PB Capacity Comparison Throughput Unit bps Kbps

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Mbps Gbps Tbps Processing Speed MHz GHz Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 1.5 Your Next Steps Chapter 7 Explain the Troubleshooting Methodology Foundation Topics Identify the Problem Gather Information Duplicate the Problem, If Possible Question Users Identify Symptoms Determine if Anything Has Changed

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Approach Multiple Problems Individually Research Knowledge Base/Internet, If Applicable Establish a Theory of Probable Cause Question the Obvious Consider Multiple Approaches Divide and Conquer Test the Theory to Determine the Cause Once the Theory Is Confirmed (Confirmed Root Cause), Determine the Next Steps to Resolve the Problem If the Theory Is Not Confirmed, Establish a New Theory or Escalate Establish a Plan of Action to Resolve the Problem and Identify Potential Effects Implement the Solution or Escalate as Necessary Verify Full System Functionality and, If Applicable, Implement Preventive Measures Document Findings/Lessons Learned, Actions, and Outcomes Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics

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Define Key Terms Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Practice Questions for Objective 1.6 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Part 2: Domain 2.0 – Infrastructure Chapter 8 I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces Foundation Topics Networking Wired Telephone Connector (RJ-11) Ethernet Connector (RJ-45) Wireless Bluetooth NFC Peripheral Devices USB FireWire Thunderbolt Bluetooth RF Graphic Device

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VGA DVI HDMI DisplayPort Mini DisplayPort Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.1 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 9 Connecting and Configuring Peripherals Foundation Topics Devices Printer Scanner Keyboard Mouse Camera Connecting a Webcam

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Connecting a Digital Camera External Hard Drive Speakers 3.5mm Mini-Jack HDMI S/PDIF Display Connecting VGA Connecting DVI Connecting HDMI and DisplayPort Configuring Multiple Displays Installation Types Plug-and-Play vs. Driver Installation Other Required Steps IP-based Peripherals Web-based Configuration Steps Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 10 Explain the Purpose of Common

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Internal Computer Components Foundation Topics Motherboard/System Board SATA Ports Port Cluster Expansion Slots Laptop Motherboard Firmware/BIOS RAM CPU ARM Mobile Phone Tablet System on a Chip (SoC) 32-bit Processors Laptop Workstation Server 64-bit Processors Laptop Workstation Server GPU

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Storage Hard Drive SSD Cooling NIC Wired vs. Wireless Onboard vs. Add-on Card Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.3 Your Next Steps Chapter 11 Internet Service Types Foundation Topics Fiber Optic Cable DSL Wireless Radio Frequency Satellite

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Cellular Comparing Internet Services Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.4 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 12 Compare and Contrast Storage Types Foundation Topics Volatile vs. Nonvolatile Local Storage Types RAM Hard Drive Solid State Spinning Disk (HDD, SSHD) Optical Windows Drive Letter Assignments Flash Drive Local Network Storage Types NAS

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File Server Cloud Storage Service Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.5 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 13 Compare and Contrast Common Computing Devices and Their Purposes Foundation Topics Mobile Phones Tablets Laptops Workstations Servers Gaming Consoles IoT Home Appliances Home Automation Devices Thermostats Security Systems Modern Cars

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IP Cameras Streaming Media Devices Medical Devices Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.6 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 14 Explain Basic Networking Concepts Foundation Topics Basics of Network Communication Basics of Packet Transmission DNS URL to IP Translation LAN vs. WAN Device Addresses IP Address MAC Address Basic Protocols HTTP/S

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POP3 IMAP SMTP Devices Modem Router Switch Access Point Firewall Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.7 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 15 Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network Foundation Topics 802.11a/b/g/n/ac Types of Wireless Hardware Older vs. Newer Standards

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802.11b 802.11a 802.11g 802.11n 802.11ac Speed Limitations Interference and Attenuation Factors Interference Attenuation Best Practices Change the SSID Change the Default Password Unencrypted Open Captive Portal Encrypted WEP WPA WPA2 Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 2.8

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Your Next Steps (More Certs) Part 3: Domain 3.0 – Applications and Software Chapter 16 Explain the Purpose of Operating Systems Foundation Topics Interface Between Applications and Hardware Disk Management Process Management/Scheduling Kill Process/End Task Application Management Microsoft Windows macOS Linux Android iOS Memory Management Windows macOS Linux Device Management Windows

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macOS Linux Access Control/Protection Types of OS Mobile Device OS Android iOS Windows Mobile Workstation OS Windows macOS Linux Server OS Windows Server macOS Server Linux Server Embedded OS Firmware Hypervisor (Type 1) Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.1

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Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 17 Operating Systems 101: Features, Processes, UI, and Management Foundation Topics File Systems and Features File Systems NTFS FAT32 HFS and HFS Plus Ext4 Features Compression Compression in NTFS Compression in HFS Plus Creating Archive Files Encryption NTFS Encryption with EFS BitLocker Encryption HFS Plus Encryption with FileVault 2 ext4 Encryption Permissions NTFS Permissions

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HFS Plus Permissions Ext4 Permissions Journaling Limitations Naming Rules FAT32 File Naming Rules FAT32 and NTFS File Naming Rules NTFS File Naming Rules HFS and HFS Plus File Naming Rules Ext4 File Naming Rules File Management Folders/Directories Windows Folder/Directory Commands Linux/macOS Folder/Directory Commands File Types and Extensions Windows File Types and Extensions Linux File Types and Extensions macOS File Types and Extensions Services Viewing and Managing Services in Microsoft Windows Viewing and Managing Services in

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macOS Viewing and Managing Services in Linux Processes Viewing and Managing Processes in Microsoft Windows Viewing and Managing Processes in macOS Viewing and Managing Processes in Linux Drivers Obtaining Drivers for Microsoft Windows Obtaining Drivers for macOS Obtaining Drivers for Linux Utilities Windows Utilities macOS Utilities Linux Utilities Task Scheduling Interfaces Console/Command Line GUI Exam Preparation Tasks

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Review All Key Topics Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 18 Purpose and Proper Use of Software Foundation Topics Productivity Software Word Processing Software Spreadsheet Software Presentation Software Web Browser Visual Diagramming Software Collaboration Software Email Client Conferencing Software Instant Messaging Software Online Workspace Document Sharing Business Software Database Software

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Project Management Software Business-Specific Applications Accounting Software Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.3 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 19 Getting Apps From Source to Your Device Foundation Topics Application Delivery Methods Locally Installed Local Network Hosted Cloud Hosted Application Architecture Models One Tier Two Tier Three Tier N-Tier Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics

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Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.4 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 20 Configuring and Using Web Browsers Foundation Topics Caching/Clearing Cache Google Chrome Microsoft Edge Mozilla Firefox Microsoft Internet Explorer Deactivate Client-Side Scripting Google Chrome Mozilla Firefox Microsoft Edge Microsoft Internet Explorer Browser Add-Ons/Extensions Add Enable/Disable Remove Private Browsing Proxy Settings

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Certificates Valid Invalid Popup Blockers Script Blockers Compatible Browser for Application(s) Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.5 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 21 Compare and Contrast General Application Concepts and Uses Foundation Topics Single-Platform Software Cross-Platform Software Compatibility Concerns Licensing Single Use Group Use/Site License Concurrent License Open Source vs. Proprietary

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Subscription vs. One-Time Purchase Product Keys and Serial Numbers Software Installation Best Practices Reading Instructions Reading Agreements Advanced Options Exam Preparation Topics Review Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 3.6 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Part 4: Domain 4.0 – Software Development Concepts Chapter 22 Compare and Contrast Programming Language Categories Foundation Topics Interpreted Scripting Languages BASIC Perl JavaScript Python

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Ruby PowerShell Scripted Languages Markup Languages HTML XML Compiled Programming Languages C C++ COBOL Java VBA Query Languages SQL XQuery Assembly Language Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 4.1 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 23 Using Programming Organizational

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Techniques and Interpret Logic Foundation Topics Organizational Techniques Pseudocode Concepts Flow Chart Concepts Sequence Logic Components Branching Looping While Loop For Loop Do…While Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 4.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 24 Explain the Purpose and Use of Programming Concepts Foundation Topics Identifiers Variables

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Constants Containers Arrays Vectors Functions Objects Properties Attributes Methods Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 4.3 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Part 5: Domain 5.0 – Database Fundamentals Chapter 25 Explain Database Concepts and the Purpose of a Database Foundation Topics Usage of Database Create Import/Input Query

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Reports Flat File vs. Database Multiple Concurrent Users Scalability Speed Variety of Data Records Storage ACID Data Persistence Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 5.1 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 26 Compare and Contrast Various Database Structures Foundation Topics Structured vs. Semi-Structured vs. Nonstructured Structured Data Semi-Structured Data

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Non-Structured Data Relational Databases Schema Tables Rows/Records Fields/Columns Primary Key Foreign Key Constraints Nonrelational Databases Key/Value Databases Document Databases Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 5.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 27 Summarize Methods Used to Interface with Databases Foundational Topics Relational Methods Data Manipulation

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Select Insert Delete Update Data Definition Create Alter Drop Permissions Database Access Methods Direct/Manual Access Programmatic Access User Interface/Utility Access Query/Report Builders Export/Import Database Dump Backup Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 5.3 Your Next Steps (More Certs)

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Part 6: Domain 6.0 – Security Chapter 28 Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability Concerns Foundation Topics Confidentiality Concerns Snooping Eavesdropping Wiretapping Social Engineering Dumpster Diving Personally Identifiable Information Integrity Concerns Man-in-the-Middle Attack Replay Attack Impersonation Unauthorized Information Alteration Availability Concerns Denial of Service Power Outage Hardware Failure Destruction Service Outage

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Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.1 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 29 Device Security Best Practices Foundation Topics Securing Devices (Mobile/Workstation) Antivirus/Anti-Malware Host Firewall Changing Default Passwords Enabling Passwords Safe Browsing Practices Patching/Updates Microsoft Windows Android iOS Device Use Best Practices Software Sources Validating Legitimate Sources Researching Legitimate Sources OEM Websites vs. Third-Party Websites

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Removal of Unwanted Software Removal of Unnecessary Software Removal of Malicious Software Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.2 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 30 Summarize Behavioral Security Concepts Foundation Topics Expectations of Privacy When Using… The Internet Social Networking Sites Email File Sharing Instant Messaging Mobile Applications Desktop Software Microsoft Store App Store (macOS) Linux

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Business Software Corporate Network Written Policies and Procedures Handling of Confidential Information Passwords Personal Information Customer Information Company Confidential Information Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.3 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 31 Compare and Contrast Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation Concepts Foundation Topics Authentication Single Factor Multifactor Examples of Factors Password

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PIN One-Time Password Software Token Hardware Token Biometrics Specific Location Somewhere You Are Security Questions Single Sign-On Authorization Permissions Least Privilege Model Role-Based Access User Account Types Rule-Based Access Mandatory Access Controls Discretionary Access Controls Accounting Logs Tracking Web Browser History Nonrepudiation Video

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Biometrics Signature Receipt Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.4 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 32 Explain Password Best Practices Foundation Topics Password Length Password Complexity Password History Password Expiration Password Reuse Across Sites Single Sign-On Password Managers Password Reset Process How to Reset Your Password in Windows How to Reset Your Password in macOS How to Reset Your Password in Linux How to Change Your Passcode in iOS

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How to Change Your PIN in Android How to Set Up a BIOS/UEFI Password Password Policy Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.5 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 33 Explain Common Uses of Encryption Foundation Topics Plain Text vs. Cipher Text Data at Rest File Level EFS (Windows) macOS Linux Disk Level Windows MacOS Linux Mobile Device Data in Transit

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Email Windows macOS Linux HTTPS VPN Mobile Application Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.6 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 34 Explain Business Continuity Concepts Foundation Topics Fault Tolerance Replication Redundancy Data RAID Arrays Network Power

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Backup Considerations Data File Backups Critical Data Database OS Backups Location Stored Locally Cloud Storage On-Site vs. Off-Site Contingency Plan Disaster Recovery Data Restoration Prioritization Restoring Access Exam Preparation Tasks Review All Key Topics Define Key Terms Practice Questions for Objective 6.7 Your Next Steps (More Certs) Chapter 35 Final Preparation Advice About the Exam Event

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Think About Your Time Budget Versus Numbers of Questions Miscellaneous Pre-Exam Suggestions Exam-Day Advice Reserve the Hour after the Exam in Case You Fail Take Practice Exams Advice on How to Answer Exam Questions Study Suggestions after Failing to Pass Other Study Tasks Final Thoughts Appendix A Answers to Practice Questions Index Online Elements: APPENDIX B Memory Tables APPENDIX C Memory Table Answers APPENDIX D Study Planner APPENDIX E Content Tracking to IT Fundamentals Domains and Objectives

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Glossary

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About the Author Mark Edward Soper has been working with PCs since the days of the IBM PC/XT and AT as a salesperson, technology advisor, consultant, experimenter, trainer, technology writer, and content creator. Since 1992, he has taught thousands of students across the country how to repair, manage, and troubleshoot the hardware, software, operating systems, and firmware inside their PCs. He has created many versions of his experimental computer known as “FrankenPC” for this and previous books. Mark earned his CompTIA A+ Certification in 1999 and has written several A+ Certification books for Pearson imprints. Mark is also the author of The PC and Gadget Help Desk: A Do-It-Yourself Guide To Troubleshooting and Repairing. Other books Mark has authored or co-authored include three editions of Easy Windows 10, Easy Windows 8.1, Easy Windows 8, Easy Microsoft Windows 7, and Sams Teach Yourself Microsoft Windows 7 in 10 Minutes, books on computer troubleshooting, home networking and broadband Internet, home automation, Raspberry Pi single-board computers, and digital photography.

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Mark is also the creator of Building and Repairing PCs (Que Video). Mark has also written many blog entries and articles for MaximumPC.com and Maximum PC magazine. He currently teaches Microsoft Office for the University of Southern Indiana and Ivy Tech Community College in Evansville, Indiana, and also has taught A+ Certification and other technology-related subjects at Ivy Tech Community College. See Mark’s website at www.markesoper.com for news and information about upcoming projects.

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Dedication For Kate, Ed, Ian, and Jeremy.

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Acknowledgments After more than 19 years as a full-time technology content provider, I realize more than ever how richly I have been blessed by God in my family and in the team of technology experts I get to work with. Thanks first and foremost to Almighty God, who created the laws of Nature that enable us to create technology and use it to help each other. Thanks also to my family, PC and Mac users alike, who agree to disagree about the best technology, but work and play well with each other. Thanks especially to Cheryl for her love and patience. As always, Pearson’s put together an outstanding team for this edition. Thanks very much to Mark Taub, Brett Bartow, and Paul Carlstroem for heading up the team, editors Ellie Bru, Mandie Frank, Sandra Schroeder, and Bart Reed for transforming rough text into a polished book, and technical reviewer Chris Crayton, who provided many outstanding recommendations for content and approach. Thanks also to Cindy Teeters and to the rest of the team: Ken, Debbie, Chuti, and Louisa at Studio Galou.

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About the Technical Editor Chris Crayton is a technical consultant, trainer, author, and industry-leading technical editor. He has worked as a computer technology and networking instructor, information security director, network administrator, network engineer, and PC specialist. Chris has authored several print and online books on PC repair, CompTIA A+, CompTIA Security+, and Microsoft Windows. He has also served as technical editor and content contributor on numerous technical titles for several of the leading publishing companies. He holds numerous industry certifications, has been recognized with many professional and teaching awards, and has served as a state-level SkillsUSA final competition judge.

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We Want to Hear from You! As the reader of this book, you are our most important critic and commentator. We value your opinion and want to know what we’re doing right, what we could do better, what areas you’d like to see us publish in, and any other words of wisdom you’re willing to pass our way. We welcome your comments. You can email or write to let us know what you did or didn’t like about this book— as well as what we can do to make our books better. Please note that we cannot help you with technical problems related to the topic of this book. When you write, please be sure to include this book’s title and author as well as your name and email address. We will carefully review your comments and share them with the author and editors who worked on the book. Email: [email protected]

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Reader Services Register your copy of CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0U61 Cert Guide at www.pearsonitcertification.com for convenient access to downloads, updates, and corrections as they become available. To start the registration process, go to www.pearsonitcertification.com/register and log in or create an account*. Enter the product ISBN 9780789760418 and click Submit. When the process is complete, you will find any available bonus content under Registered Products. *Be sure to check the box that you would like to hear from us to receive exclusive discounts on future editions of this product.

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CREDITS Figure 4-1a Courtesy of fotovampir/123rf.com Figure 4-1b Courtesy of Ralf Kleemann/Shutterstock Figure 4-1c Courtesy of Yes Man/Shutterstock Figure 4-1d Courtesy of StockPhotosArt/Shutterstock Figure 4-1e Courtesy of REDPIXEL.PL/Shutterstock Figure 4-1f Courtesy of florin oprea/Shutterstock Figure 4-5a Courtesy of Viktorus/Shutterstock Figure 4-5b Courtesy of dencg/Shutterstock Figure 4-5c Courtesy of Maksym Dykha/Shutterstock Figure 4-5d Courtesy of Bob Mawby/Shutterstock Figure 12-18 Courtesy of White78/Shutterstock Courtesy of Shutterstock Figure 12-19 Courtesy of Sashkin/Shutterstock Courtesy of Shutterstock Figure 14-2a Courtesy of Norman Chan/Shutterstock Figure 14-2b Courtesy of Scanrail1/Shutterstock Figure 14-2c Courtesy of Norman Chan/Shutterstock

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Figure 14-2d Courtesy of You can more/Shutterstock Figure 13-1 Courtesy of Denis Rozhnovsky/Shutterstock Figure 13-2 Courtesy of Tatjana Brila/Shutterstock Figure 13-3 Courtesy of Sashkin/Shutterstock Figure 13-4 Courtesy of kjekol/123rf.com Figure 13-5 Courtesy of texelart/123rf.com Figure 13-6 Courtesy of Macrovector/Shutterstock Figure 13-7 Courtesy of Chesky/Shutterstock Figure 13-8 Courtesy of aimage/123RF Figure 13-9 Courtesy of Constantine Pankin/Shutterstock Figure 13-10 Courtesy of Denys Prykhodov/Shutterstock Figure 13-11 Courtesy of Andrey Suslov/Shutterstock Figure 15-1 Courtesy of chaistock/Shutterstock Figure 19-2 Courtesy of S.john/Shutterstock Figure 31-2 Courtesy of robert8/123rf.com Figure 31-3 Courtesy of Gary James Calder/Shutterstock Chapter Opener images Courtesy of Getty Images; Charlie Edwards/Photo disc/Getty Images

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Cover image Courtesy of Gorodenkoff/ShutterStock

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Introduction CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ is designed to be the gateway to help you decide which paths to follow in your information technology (IT) career. Whether you are planning to specialize in PC or mobile device hardware, operating systems, applications support, software development, database management, or security, the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam measures the fundamental knowledge you need to begin your journey toward greater responsibilities and achievements in IT. CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ is designed to be a “vendor-neutral” exam that measures your knowledge of industry-standard technology.

GOALS AND METHODS The number-one goal of this book is simple: to help you pass the 2018 version of the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 exam. Although IT Fundamentals+ is an entry-level exam with a single type of question, multiple choice, our goal is to help you apply the terms and facts you learn to problem solving and reasoning tasks. We want to help you master and understand the required objectives for each

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exam. To aid you in mastering and understanding the IT Fundamentals+ objectives, this book uses the following methods: The beginning of each chapter defines the topics to be covered in the chapter; it also lists the corresponding CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ objective numbers. The body of the chapter explains the topics from a hands-on and a theory-based standpoint. This includes in-depth descriptions, tables, and figures that are geared to build your knowledge so that you can pass the exam. The chapters are broken down into several topics each. The key topics indicate important figures, tables, and lists of information that you should know for the exam. They are interspersed throughout the chapter and are listed in table format at the end of the chapter. Each chapter covering an objective has a list of practice questions. The correct answers are found in Appendix A, “Answers to Practice Questions.” Key terms without definitions are listed at the end of each chapter. Write down the definition of each term and check your work against the complete key terms in the glossary. At the end of each chapter covering an objective, you will find a section called “Y our Next Step (More Certs).” The certification descriptions and links in this section help you go deeper into the topics covered in that chapter.

WHAT’S NEW IN THE EXAM

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WHAT’S NEW IN THE EXAM If you had been considering taking the FC0-U51 IT Fundamentals exam, you might be wondering what’s new in this one. The new FC0-U61 exam is hugely improved. Here are just a few reasons why: The U51 exam has five domains: software, hardware, security, networking, and basic IT literacy; the U61 exam has six domains: IT concepts and terminology, infrastructure, applications and software, software development, database fundamentals, and security. The U51 exam was basically a condensed version of the CompTIA A+ Certification exams; the U61 exam provides a broader range of coverage of IT career paths. The U51 exam has no information about how software is created, little about cloud computing, no information about privacy issues, and no information about database features or uses; the U61 exam provides plenty of coverage of these topics. In our book we provide many ways to experiment with software and database development and use.

For more information about how the IT Fundamentals+ certification can help you plan your career, or to download the latest official objectives, access CompTIA’s IT Fundamentals+ web page at https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/itfundamentals.

WHO SHOULD READ THIS BOOK?

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WHO SHOULD READ THIS BOOK? The CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ U61 exam is “intended for candidates who are advanced end users, considering a career in IT, and interested in pursuing professionallevel certifications, such as A+.” (source: fc0u61_objectives.pdf, available from CompTIA website). This book is also aimed at the reader who wants to acquire additional CompTIA certifications such as A+, Network+, Security+, and so on as well as third-party certifications. The book is designed in such a way to offer easy transition to future certification studies.

STRATEGIES FOR EXAM PREPARATION Strategies for exam preparation will vary depending on your existing skills, knowledge, and equipment available. Of course, the ideal exam preparation would consist of trying lots of apps and operating systems on a PC. Chapter 1, “Welcome to CompTIA IT Fundamentals+,” contains an overview of the exam, a list of the computers, tools, parts, and components you should use for study, and a cross-reference of these items and the chapters where they are discussed. If you can take a hands-on approach to study, it will really help to reinforce the ideas and concepts expressed

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in the book. However, not everyone has access to this equipment and software, so the next best step you can take is to read through the chapters in this book, jotting notes down with key concepts on a separate notepad. Each chapter contains a quiz that you can use to test your knowledge of the chapter’s topics. It’s located near the end of the chapter. After you have read through the book, have a look at the current exam objectives for the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 certification exam, available at https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/itfundamentals. If there are any areas shown in the certification exam outline that you would still like to study, find those sections in the book and review them. When you feel confident in your skills, attempt the practice exam. As you work through the practice exam, note the areas where you lack confidence and review those concepts or configurations in the book. After you have reviewed the areas, work through the practice exam a second time and rate your skills. Keep in mind that the more you work through the practice exam, the more familiar the questions will become. After you have worked through the practice exam a second time and feel confident with your skills, buy a voucher for the real CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0U61 exam at

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https://store.comptia.org/product/CompTIAITFund and schedule it by visiting http://www.pearsonvue.com/comptia/. To prevent the information from evaporating out of your mind, you should typically take the exam within a week of when you consider yourself ready to take the exam. Table I-1 provides an overview of the exam chapters and highlights some of the special features in each chapter. For complete content, see the Table of Contents. Appendix D, “Study Planner,” tracks the content and matches it to the objectives. Table I-1 CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 Exam Topics

Chapter

Chapter Title Special Features

1

Welcome to CompTIA IT Fundamentals+

CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Exam Objectives Covered None

Exam domains Exam objectives Hardware, equipment, tools Software 2

How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems

Objective 1.1

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Number system tables Character set figures 3

Compare and Contrast Fundamental Data Types and Their Characteristics

Objective 1.2

Examples of char, strings, more 4

Input, Output, and More: The Basics of Computing and Processing

Objective 1.3

Figures of input, processing, output, and storage devices 5

Explain the Value of Data and Information

Objective 1.4

Compare, contrast trademark, registered trademark, copyright, and patent Examples of turning data into information 6

Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed

Objective 1.5

Comparison tables and charts showing speeds of Internet access, storage device throughput and capacity, and processor speeds 7

Explain the Troubleshooting Methodology

Objective 1.6

The CompTIA eight-part troubleshooting method, device

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subsystems and how to use them for troubleshooting, examples of applying troubleshooting method steps 8

I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces

Objective 2.1

Details of common I/O device standards, from Bluetooth and USB to VGA and HDMI, and more Figures, comparison tables 9

Connecting and Configuring Peripherals

Objective 2.2

Figures illustrating computer ports, connecting cables for devices (printer, mouse, display, more), operating system settings Steps for IP, web-based, and other installation types 10

Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components

Objective 2.3

Figures illustrating components inside computers and mobile devices from storage and video to CPUs and cooling fans Wired and wireless connection speed comparison 11

Internet Service Types Figures illustrating different Internet service types Comparisons of speeds, advantages,

Objective 2.4

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disadvantages

12

Compare and Contrast Storage Types

Objective 2.5

Figures illustrating RAM, hard drive, USB and card flash drives, optical drive, file server, network-attached storage, and cloud storage 13

Compare and Contrast Common Computing Devices and Their Purposes

Objective 2.6

Figures of common computing devices Tables comparing features of common computing devices Internet of Things (IoT) feature comparisons 14

Explain Basic Networking Concepts

Objective 2.7

Figures illustrating packet transmission of data, network devices Protocols and commands 15

Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network

Objective 2.8

Figures illustrating typical wireless network hardware Wireless network standards Wireless channel overlapping Best practices for encryption and

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security 16

Explain the Purpose of Operating Systems

Objective 3.1

Figures illustrating disk management, process management, application management, virtual memory, device management, and virtual machines Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS 17

Operating Systems 101: Features, Processes, UI, and Management

Objective 3.2

Figures illustrating operating system features in Windows, macOS, and Linux Tables comparing file types and extensions 18

Purpose and Proper Use of Software

Objective 3.3

Figures illustrating many types of software Software examples for major operating systems and cloud-based (browser) environments 19

Getting Apps From Source to Your Device Comparing local, network, and cloud application delivery; multitier architectures

Objective 3.4

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20

Configuring and Using Web Browsers

Objective 3.5

Comparing Edge, Internet Explorer, Chrome, and Firefox features, user interfaces, certificate error messages, and more (text and figures)

21

Compare and Contrast General Application Concepts and Uses

Objective 3.6

Figures illustrating installation processes in Windows, macOS, and Linux Licensing issues 22

Compare and Contrast Programming Language Categories

Objective 4.1

Comparisons of actual program code Online programming environments you can try Command and syntax references 23

Using Programming Organizational Techniques and Interpret Logic

Objective 4.2

Examples of pseudocode, flowchart, sequence diagram; branching, looping, and do-while program logic 24

Explain the Purpose and Use of Programming Concepts

Objective 4.3

Examples of variables, constants;

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discussions of arrays, vectors, functions, and objects 25

Explain Database Concepts and the Purpose of a Database

Objective 5.1

Figures illustrating database creation, importing data into the database, querying, and reports SQL examples; storage issues 26

Compare and Contrast Various Database Structures

Objective 5.2

Figures illustrating structured and semi-structured data, spreadsheets JSON database, SQL statements, and code 27

Summarize Methods Used to Interface with Databases

Objective 5.3

Figures illustrating queries, database dumps SQL data definition commands, report builders, and backup methods 28

Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability Concerns CIA triad figure Confidentiality concerns (eavesdropping, wiretapping, and so on) Integrity concerns (man-in-themiddle, impersonation, and so on) Availability concerns (DoS, DDoS, data

Objective 6.1

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destruction, and so on) 29

Device Security Best Practices

Objective 6.2

Figures illustrating malware removal, app updates, safe browsing, and more for Windows, Linux, and macOS

30

Summarize Behavioral Security Concepts

Objective 6.3

Figures illustrating metadata and metadata removal Discussions of various types of privacy threats, app permissions, handling confidential information, and more 31

Compare and Contrast Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation Concepts

Objective 6.4

Figures illustrating authentication methods, file permissions, access controls, logs Discussions of nonrepudiation, access control methods, location tracking, and authentication 32

Explain Password Best Practices

Objective 6.5

Figures illustrating password creation and management Discussions of password expiration, password history, password length, and password complexity

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33

Explain Common Uses of Encryption

Objective 6.6

Illustrations of a simple cipher text, operating system encryption methods, and full-disk encryption Encryption methods for Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, and Android Protecting email with encryption

34

Explain Business Continuity Concepts

Objective 6.7

Figures illustrating redundancy, RAID, and backup Types of fault tolerance, hot-warmcold sites, backup methods, and business restoration 35

Final Preparation How to prepare for the exam How to register for the exam What to do if you need to retake the exam to prepare for success the next time

BOOK FEATURES AND EXAM

(None)

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BOOK FEATURES AND EXAM PREPARATION METHODS This book uses several key methodologies to help you discover the exam topics on which you need more review, to help you fully understand and remember those details, and to help you prove to yourself that you have retained your knowledge of those topics. Therefore, this book does not try to help you pass the exams only by memorization but by truly learning and understanding the topics. The book includes many features that provide different ways to study so you can be ready for the exam. If you understand a topic when you read it, but do not study it any further, you probably will not be ready to pass the exam with confidence. The features included in this book give you tools that help you determine what you know, review what you know, better learn what you don’t know, and be well prepared for the exam. These tools include the following: Foundation Topics: These are the core sections of each chapter. They explain the protocols, concepts, and configuration for the topics in that chapter. Memory Tables: Y ou can find these on the book’s companion website within Appendixes B and C. Use them to help you memorize important information. Exam Preparation Tasks: The “Exam Preparation Tasks” section lists a series of study activities that should be done after reading the “Foundation Topics” section. Each chapter includes the

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activities that make the most sense for studying the topics in that chapter. The activities include Key Topics Review: The Key Topic icon appears next to the most important items in the “Foundation Topics” section of the chapter. The “Key Topics Review” activity lists the key topics from the chapter and their page numbers. Although the contents of the entire chapter could be on the exam, you should definitely know the information listed in each key topic. Review these topics carefully. Definition of Key Terms: Although certification exams might be unlikely to ask a question such as “Define this term,” the IT Fundamentals+ exam requires you to learn and know a lot of terminology. This section lists some of the most important terms from the chapter, asking you to write a short definition and compare your answer to the glossary. End of Chapter Review Questions: Confirm that you understand the content you just covered.

COMPANION WEBSITE Register this book to get access to the Pearson IT Certification test engine and other study materials plus additional bonus content. Check this site regularly for new and updated postings written by the author that provide further insight into the more troublesome topics on the exam. Be sure to check the box that you would like to hear from us to receive updates and exclusive discounts on future editions of this product or related products.

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To access this companion website, follow these steps: 1. Go to www.pearsonITcertification.com/register and log in or create a new account. 2. Enter the ISBN: 9780789760418 3. Answer the challenge question as proof of purchase. 4. Click on the “Access Bonus Content” link in the Registered Products section of your account page, to be taken to the page where your downloadable content is available.

Please note that many of our companion content files can be very large, especially image and video files. If you are unable to locate the files for this title by following the steps, please visit www.pearsonITcertification.com/contact and select the “Site Problems/ Comments” option. Our customer service representatives will assist you.

PEARSON TEST PREP PRACTICE TEST

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PEARSON TEST PREP PRACTICE TEST SOFTWARE AND QUESTIONS The companion website includes the Pearson Test Prep engine—software that displays and grades a set of examrealistic multiple-choice questions. Using the Pearson Test Prep practice test software, you can either study by going through the questions in Study Mode, or take a simulated exam that mimics real exam conditions. You can also serve up questions in a Flash Card Mode, which will display just the question and no answers, challenging you to state the answer in your own words before checking the actual answers to verify your work. The installation process requires two major steps: installing the software and then activating the exam. The website has a recent copy of the Pearson Test Prep practice test software. The practice exam (the database of exam questions) is not on this site. Note The cardboard sleeve in the back of this book includes a piece of paper. The paper lists the activation code for the practice exam associated with this book. Do not lose the activation code. On the opposite side of the paper from the activation code is a unique, one-time-use coupon code for the purchase of the Premium Edition eBook and Practice Test.

Install the Software

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Install the Software The Pearson Test Prep practice test software is a Windows-only desktop application. You can run it on a Mac using a Windows virtual machine, but it was built specifically for the PC platform. The minimum system requirements are as follows: Windows 10, Windows 8.1, or Windows Microsoft .NET Framework Client Pentium-class 1 GHz processor (or equivalent) 512 MB RAM 650 MB disk space plus 50 MB for each downloaded practice exam Access to the Internet to register and download exam databases

The software installation process is routine as compared with other software installation processes. If you have already installed the Pearson Test Prep practice test software from another Pearson product, there is no need for you to reinstall the software. Simply launch the software on your desktop and proceed to activate the practice exam from this book by using the activation code included in the access code card sleeve in the back of the book. The following steps outline the installation process: 1. Download the exam practice test engine from the companion site. 2. Respond to Windows prompts, as with any typical software installation process.

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The installation process will give you the option to activate your exam with the activation code supplied on the paper in the cardboard sleeve. This process requires that you establish a Pearson website login. You need this login to activate the exam, so please do register when prompted. If you already have a Pearson website login, there is no need to register again. Just use your existing login. Activate and Download the Practice Exam Once the exam engine is installed, you should then activate the exam associated with this book (if you did not do so during the installation process), as follows: 1. Start the Pearson Test Prep practice test software from the Windows Start menu or from your desktop shortcut icon. 2. To activate and download the exam associated with this book, from the My Products or Tools tab, click the Activate Exam button. 3. At the next screen, enter the activation key from paper inside the cardboard sleeve in the back of the book. Once this is entered, click the Activate button. 4. The activation process will download the practice exam. Click Next and then click Finish.

When the activation process completes, the My Products tab should list your new exam. If you do not see the exam, make sure that you have selected the My Products tab on the menu. At this point, the software and practice exam are ready to use. Simply select the exam and click the Open Exam button.

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To update a particular exam you have already activated and downloaded, display the Tools tab and click the Update Products button. Updating your exams will ensure that you have the latest changes and updates to the exam data. If you want to check for updates to the Pearson Test Prep practice test software, display the Tools tab and click the Update Application button. You can then ensure that you are running the latest version of the software engine. Activating Other Exams The exam software installation process, and the registration process, only has to happen once. Then, for each new exam, only a few steps are required. For instance, if you buy another Pearson IT Certification Cert Guide, extract the activation code from the cardboard sleeve in the back of that book; you do not even need the exam engine at this point. From there, all you have to do is start the exam engine (if not still up and running) and perform Steps 2 through 4 from the previous list.

Assessing Exam Readiness

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Assessing Exam Readiness Exam candidates never really know whether they are adequately prepared for the exam until they have completed about 30% of the questions. At that point, if you are not prepared, it is too late. The best way to determine your readiness is to review the foundation and key topics presented in each chapter. It is best to work your way through the entire book unless you can complete each subject without having to do any research or look up any answers. Premium Edition eBook and Practice Tests This book also includes an exclusive offer for 70% off the Premium Edition eBook and Practice Tests edition of this title. Please see the coupon code included with the cardboard sleeve for information on how to purchase the Premium Edition.

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Chapter 1 Welcome to CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ This chapter introduces you to the new CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ FC0-U61 (ITF+) certification exam domains and objectives. In this chapter, we discuss what the exam is designed to do, who would benefit from taking the exam, where to register for the exam, what to expect on the exam, and the tools and software you should use to prepare for the exam. What the ITF+ Exam Is Designed to Do If you’re wondering whether a career in information technology (IT) is right for you, or if you want a broader understanding of IT, the ITF+ exam is designed to provide the guidance you need. Here’s why: CompTIA ITF+ is the only certification designed for pre-career professionals, whether students or career changers. Y ou don’t need to commit to an IT career to take it. Instead, it helps you decide if IT is the right career for you and it shows you more facets of IT than you might know about.

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ITF+ is the only single certification that covers all major IT foundational topics, so it’s perfect for non-technical users who want to know more about IT. ITF+ is also designed for middle school and high school students who need an IT education framework.

Who Benefits from Taking the ITF+ Exam? Many different types of people will find ITF+ useful, including the following: Students (middle school, high school, tech school, and college age) who are thinking about an IT career Professionals who need a broad understanding of IT to prosper in their chosen fields Non-technical staff (marketing, sales, operations) in IT-based organizations

What the Exam Covers The exam is designed to certify that the successful candidate knows enough and has the skills needed to identify and explain the following IT basics: Computing IT infrastructure Software development Database use

The candidate will also demonstrate knowledge of the following: Installing software

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Establishing basic network connectivity Identifying/preventing basic security risks

The candidate will also need to have knowledge of troubleshooting theory and preventive maintenance of devices. Exam Domains CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Certification Exam FC0U61 has six different domains. These are listed in Table 1-1, along with the percentage that each domain has of questions on the exam.

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Table 1-1 IT Fundamentals+ Exam FC0-U61 Objectives

Domain Number

Domain Name

Percentage of Examination

1.0

IT Concepts and Terminology

17%

2.0

Infrastructure

22%

3.0

Applications and Software

18%

4.0

Software Development Concepts

12%

5.0

Database Fundamentals

11%

6.0

Security

20%

Total

100%

Exam Details The FC0-U61 exam contains 75 multiple-choice questions. Sixty minutes is the time limit, and the passing score is 650 out of 900. Although no prior experience is necessary, you’ll be glad you’re reading this book as part of your test preparation! For information on registering for the exam and exam

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preparation, see Chapter 35, “Final Preparation.”

DOMAIN 1.0—IT CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY IT Concepts and Terminology questions represent 17% of the questions on the exam. There are six objectives in this domain, as listed in Table 1-2. Table 1-2 Objectives in Domain 1.0

Objective Number

Domain Name

Chapter Number

1.1

Compare and contrast notational systems

2

1.2

Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their characteristics

3

1.3

Illustrate the basics of computing and processing

4

1.4

Explain the value of data and information

5

1.5

Compare and contrast common units of measure

6

1.6

Explain the troubleshooting methodology

7

The details of each objective are listed at the beginning of each chapter.

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DOMAIN 2.0—INFRASTRUCTURE Infrastructure questions represent 22% of the questions on the exam. There are eight objectives in this domain, as listed in Table 1-3.

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Table 1-3 Objectives in Domain 2.0

Objective Number

Domain Name

Chapter Number

2.1

Classify common types of input/output device interfaces

8

2.2

Given a scenario, set up and install common peripheral devices to a laptop/PC

9

2.3

Explain the purpose of common internal computing components

10

2.4

Compare and contrast common Internet service types

11

2.5

Compare and contrast storage types

12

2.6

Compare and contrast common computing devices and their purposes

13

2.7

Explain basic networking concepts

14

2.8

Given a scenario, install, configure, and secure a basic wireless network

15

The details of each objective are listed at the beginning of each chapter.

DOMAIN 3.0—APPLICATIONS AND

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DOMAIN 3.0—APPLICATIONS AND SOFTWARE Applications and Software questions represent 18% of the questions on the exam. There are six objectives in this domain, as listed in Table 1-4. Table 1-4 Objectives in Domain 3.0

Objective Number

Domain Name

Chapter Number

3.1

Explain the purpose of operating systems

16

3.2

Compare and contrast components of an operating system

17

3.3

Explain the purpose and proper use of software

18

3.4

Explain methods of application architecture and delivery models

19

3.5

Given a scenario, configure and use web browsers

20

3.6

Compare and contrast general application concepts and uses

21

The details of each objective are listed at the beginning of each chapter.

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DOMAIN 4.0—SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS Software Development Concepts questions represent 12% of the questions on the exam. There are three objectives in this domain, as listed in Table 1-5. Table 1-5 Objectives in Domain 4.0

Objective Number

Domain Name

Chapter Number

4.1

Compare and contrast programming language categories

22

4.2

Given a scenario, use programming organizational techniques and interpret logic

23

4.3

Explain the purpose and use of programming concepts

24

The details of each objective are listed at the beginning of each chapter.

DOMAIN 5.0—DATABASE FUNDAMENTALS Database Fundamentals questions represent 11% of the questions on the exam. There are three objectives in this domain, as listed in Table 1-6.

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Table 1-6 Objectives in Domain 5.0

Objective Number

Domain Name

Chapter Number

5.1

Explain database concepts and the purpose of a database

25

5.2

Compare and contrast various database structures

26

5.3

Summarize methods used to interface with databases

27

The details of each objective are listed at the beginning of each chapter.

DOMAIN 6.0—SECURITY Security questions represent 20% of the questions on the exam. There are seven objectives in this domain, as listed in Table 1-7.

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Table 1-7 Objectives in Domain 6.0

Objective Number

Domain Name

Chapter Number

6.1

Summarize confidentiality, integrity, and availability concerns

28

6.2

Explain methods to secure devices and best practices

29

6.3

Summarize behavioral security concepts

30

6.4

Compare and contrast authentication, authorization, accounting, and nonrepudiation concepts

31

6.5

Explain password best practices

32

6.6

Explain common uses of encryption

33

6.7

Explain business continuity concepts

34

The details of each objective are listed at the beginning of each chapter.

HARDWARE, EQUIPMENT, AND TOOLS

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HARDWARE, EQUIPMENT, AND TOOLS As you prepare to take the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam, you will find it very useful to set up a training lab and use as much of the following equipment as you can buy or borrow. Table 1-8 provides an annotated list of recommended CompTIA hardware and equipment items, along with the chapters where the items are discussed. Table 1-8 Recommended Hardware, Equipment, and Tools

Item

Recommended Uses

Chapter(s)

Workstation— unpackaged workstations (desktop PCs)

Learn external ports and internal components; experiment with assembly/disassembly; create a small network.

7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14

Wireless router

Set up a wireless network.

7, 11, 13, 14, 15

Cable modem (and broadband Internet service)

Connect to the Internet; if cable Internet not available, substitute other broadband service (DSL, fiber optic, satellite) and suitable modem.

7, 11, 13, 14, 15

Laptop

Learn external ports and internal components (prefer a model that allows RAM and hard drive

7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14

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upgrades); create a small network.

Basic printer

Learn print configuration; can also use basic multifunction (print/scan) device.

7, 8, 9

External (USB) hard drive

Prepare for use (format, partition, file systems); use for backup.

7, 8, 9, 12

External (USB) flash drive

Prepare for use (format); use to test USB ports.

7, 8, 9, 12

External (USB) solid-state drive (SSD)

Prepare for use (format, partition, file systems); use for backup.

7, 8, 9, 12

Tablet/smartphone

Use with wireless network; connect to app store; learn basic mobile device security and configuration.

7, 13, 14, 15, 17

Power strip/UPS

Power protection; power multiple devices from a single outlet.

7

Physical networking devices

Add-on wired or wireless network card (NIC) for workstation/desktop; USB wired or wireless adapter for workstation/desktop or laptop. Learn TCP/IP configuration.

7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15

Display

Can connect to HDTV if PC display is not available.

8, 9, 10

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Cables

USB 2.0, 3.0, Type C; SATA; VGA, DVI-I, DVI-D, DisplayPort, Lightning, and so on. Select as needed for equipment purchased.

7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15

Electrostatic discharge (prevention) wrist strap (ESD)

Protects computer internals from damage.

7

Computer tool kit

Enables disassembly of desktop or some laptop computers to view internal parts; might include an ESD prevention wrist strap

7

SOFTWARE As you prepare to take the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam, you will find it very useful to set up a training lab and use as much of the following software as you can. Table 1-9 provides an annotated list of recommended operating systems, apps, and utilities for the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam. Most of the software listed in Table 1-9 can be downloaded free of charge from the sources given in various chapters. Table 1-9 Recommended Software

Item

Recommended Uses/Notes

Chapter(s)

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Linux operating system media

Install, configure, and use Linux apps and commands (many are similar to macOS commands). To find download links for most Linux distributions, go to https://www.linux.org/pages/download/.

17

Windows operating system media

Install, configure, and use Windows apps and commands. Free trial of Windows 10 Enterprise available from https://www.microsoft.com/enus/windowsforbusiness/windows-10enterprise. Download Windows 7 from https://www.microsoft.com/enus/software-download/windows7 (you can use it as a trial version for up to 30 days).

17

Unconfigured OS images

After you install an OS, use imaging software to make a copy. Y ou can then restore the image faster than a full installation.

17

Antimalware software

Protect and test your test computers and your production computers. This author recommends that you use Malwarebytes (https://www.malwarebytes.com/) along with your preferred anti-malware software. For a list of free providers (some of which also have Linux or macOS versions), see https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/18900/consumer-antivirussoftware-providers-for-windows.

29

Productivity

Download and use OpenOffice or other

19, 29

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software

open source apps.

Collaboration software

Download and use an open source app.

19, 29

Browser software

Use browsers provided by the operating system and third-party vendors.

20, 29

Backup software

Use to make backups of your test and production systems; backup software is available from many sources, including free third-party products, operating system utilities, apps bundled with external storage, and commercial products/services.

34

Database software

Use to experiment with databases and SQL.

25, 26, 27

Software development packages (IDE)

Use to experiment with writing code; can be downloaded or used online.

22, 23, 24

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Part 1: Domain 1.0 – IT Concepts and Terminology

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Chapter 2 How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems If you don’t understand notational systems and character mapping, you’ll be baffled when dealing with network configurations, color settings, drive sizing, and most other IT topics. This chapter covers CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast notational systems: binary, hexadecimal, and decimal notational systems, and data representation including ASCII and Unicode character mapping.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS BINARY Binary notation is the fundamental building block of all computer operations and data storage. Binary uses only two digits: 0 (off) and 1 (on). Binary notation is also known as base 2 notation. Each character in a binary number equals a bit (binary digit). To count in binary, use the example shown in Figure 2-1.

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Figure 2-1 Decimal Values from 0 to 15 and Their Binary

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Equivalents

Powers of Two If you examine the binary equivalents for decimal 1, 2, 4, and 8, you will note that with each doubling of a value, an additional binary digit is used. This pattern continues with the binary equivalents for decimal 16, 32, 64, and so on. As a shortcut to representing values with pure binary values, which can become very long and hard to read, you can use decimal numbers with powers of two exponents (2) instead. Table 2-1 compares decimal and binary values from 2 to 1024 (decimal), the equivalent power of two, and the formula represented by the power of two.

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Table 2-1 Decimal 2 to 1024 in Binary and Power of Two

Decimal

Binary

Power of Two (Exponent)

2

10

2

4

100

2

8

1000

2

16

10000

2

32

100000

2

64

1000000

2

128

10000000

2

256

100000000

2

512

1000000000

2

1024

10000000000

2

Power of Two (Multiplication)

1

2

2

2×2

3

2×2×2

4

2×2×2×2

5

2×2×2×2×2

6

2×2×2×2×2×2

7

2×2×2×2× 2×2×2

8

2×2×2×2× 2×2×2×2

9

2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2

10

2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2

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Note Decimal values based on powers of two are used to describe the size of memory and storage devices. See Chapter 6, “Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed,” for more information.

HEXADECIMAL Hexadecimal (hex) notation, also known as base 16 notation, uses the following digits: 0–9 (equivalent to values 0–9 in decimal notation) and a–f or A–F (equivalent to values 10–15 in decimal notation), for a total of 16 digits. Figure 2-2 shows a representation of this.

Figure 2-2 Decimal Values from 0 to 15 and Their Hexadecimal Equivalents

Each single hex digit is equivalent to four bits (a nibble) in binary notation. Thus, a very long binary value can be represented by a much shorter hex value. Table 2-2

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compares decimal, binary, and hex values.

Table 2-2 Decimal 2 to 1024 in Binary and Hexadecimal

Decimal

Binary

Hexadecimal

2

10

2

3

11

3

5

101

5

9

1001

9

15

1111

F

16

10000

10

32

100000

20

33

100001

21

64

1000000

40

65

1000001

41

128

10000000

80

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129

10000001

81

255

100000000

FF

256

100000000

100

511

111111111

1FF

1024

10000000000

400

There are many places in computer programming, applications, and networking in which hex values are used. Here are just a few of them: Expressing color values in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and X Window System Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) addresses Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for networking devices

Note For a useful tool to practice converting decimal to binary and even hex, see https://www.rapidtables.com/convert/number/decimal-to-binary.html?x=2.

Hex Color Values

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Hex Color Values Display colors (RGB) are expressed in three groups of two hex digits. The first group represents red color values, the second green, and the third blue. For example, use the color code #FF0000 for red (maximum red, no green, no blue). Blue is #0000FF (no red, no green, maximum blue). White is #FFFFFF (maximum red, maximum green, and maximum blue); when all colors of light are mixed together, the result is white. Black is #000000 (no red, no blue, and no green). Orange is a mixture of red and green: #FFA500. Note For illustrations of these and many other color codes, see https://www.computerhope.com/htmcolor.htm.

IPv6 Addresses Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), which is replacing the older Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), uses hexadecimal numbering for its IP addresses in place of much longer and harder-to-read binary values. An IPv6 address is 128 bits long, comprising eight 16-bit sections. Table 2-3 provides an example of what an IPv6 address would look like in binary, and Figure 2-3 shows the normal hexadecimal notation used.

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Table 2-3 IPv6 Address (Binary)

Binary Blocks Block 1

Block 2

Block 3

Block 4

0010000000000001

0000000000000000

0011000110011000

1100111011110001

Block 5

Block 6

Block 7

Block 8

0000000001011001

0000000000000001

0000000000000000

1111101011111100

Figure 2-3 The Hexadecimal (Default) Representation of the IPv6 Address from Table 2-3

DECIMAL The normal numbering system used in everyday life is decimal, also known as base 10. Base 10 uses the following digits: 0–9. As you have seen in earlier sections of this chapter, computers use decimal, binary, or hexadecimal numbering systems to identify or size different components. One of the most common places to see decimal values is when viewing the size of a storage device in a management interface such as the Windows Properties sheet for a drive. In Figure 2-4, the size of a hard drive

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and a USB flash drive in bytes are listed using decimal numbering.

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Figure 2-4 Capacities for a Hard Drive (Left) and USB Flash Drive (Right), Given in Bytes (Decimal) and Binary GB by Windows 10’s

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Drive Properties Sheets

Note In Figure 2-4, you might have noted that the GB (gigabyte) sizes listed appear to be smaller than the number of bytes divided by 1 billion. That’s because binary gigabytes are based on multiples of 1024 (powers of 2) rather than 1000 (powers of ten). To learn more, see Chapter 6.

DATA REPRESENTATION In addition to data storage, how data is represented is an important concept to understand. Text is stored as numeric codes, but these codes must be mapped to characters to make them understandable. There are two broad categories of character sets that have been used in computer storage: ASCII Unicode

The following sections compare and contrast the features of these character sets.

ASCII

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ASCII

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a 7-bit character set that includes 128 characters, of which 97 are printable. These include uppercase and lowercase English alphabet, numbers 0– 9, and punctuation marks. Note The remaining 31 characters were set aside for device control sequences to control the teletype (TTY) machines that were used for transmitting and receiving data when ASCII was developed (early 1960s).

ANSI To enable a broader range of characters to be displayed, the ASCII character set has been extended to include characters such as trademark, copyright, currency symbols, additional mathematical symbols, and foreignlanguage characters with accents. The 255-character extended ASCII character set is sometimes referred to as the ANSI character set. Figure 2-5 illustrates a few of these extended characters.

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Figure 2-5 A Few of the Extended ASCII (ANSI) Characters and the Keystrokes That Can Be Used to Enter Them

To enter an ASCII or ANSI character directly from the keyboard, press and hold down an Alt key and type the character’s number on the keypad (you cannot use the numbers at the top of the keyboard). Code Pages The problem with both standard and extended ASCII character sets is that they cannot display characters used by languages that don’t use the Latin alphabet (A– Z). To enable operating systems to work with non-Latin alphabets or with languages that use Latin alphabets with accents, operating system and printer vendors developed code pages, which are language-specific collections of characters mapped to codes. When you install an operating system, you are asked to select your region and language. Based on your answer, the operating system selects the correct code page for

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your region and language. Unicode

Unicode has replaced ASCII and extended ASCII character sets because it enables operating systems and printers to display and print characters in any language. Unicode supports ASCII, extended ASCII, and both Latin and non-Latin alphabets and special characters. Note ASCII and Unicode character encoding enable computers to store and exchange data with other computers and programs. For example, applications such as Windows Notepad and Microsoft Office make use of ASCII for formatting purposes. For more information, see https://www.asciitable.com/.

How many more characters does Unicode support? Here’s an example: The standard Windows font Segoe includes 216 printable/displayable characters when using the Windows: Western character set (extended ASCII). However, when you select the Unicode character set, the same font includes 576 printable/displayable characters. Unicode enables a single font to make both Latin and non-Latin characters available. For example, the OpenType Myriad Hebrew font includes characters in

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the following alphabets when the Unicode character set is used: Hebrew, Latin standard and accented, Hangul (Korean) characters, Katakana (simplified Japanese), Khmer, Buginese (used in Indonesia), Mongolian, Glagolitic (Slavic), CJK (unified Chinese, Japanese, Korean ideographs), Yi (related to Tibetan), and others. Figure 2-6 illustrates a portion of these characters available through the Windows Character Map utility.

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Figure 2-6 A Small Portion of the Characters Available in the OpenType Myriad Hebrew Unicode Character Set. The Highlighted Character Is a CJK Ideograph.

To add a character from an extended character set, you might use one or more of the following methods: Press and hold the Alt key and enter the code for the character. For example, to add the cent sign symbol from the Verdana character set in Windows, press and hold Alt, then enter 0162 from the number pad. Use a character-mapping utility to choose the character visually. Windows includes the Character Map utility shown in Figure 2-6. MacOS includes the Character Viewer. Linux distros that include the GNOME desktop typically include Gucharmap, while distros using KDE typically include the KCharSelect utility. Y ou can also use the Java character map.

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 2-4 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 2-4 Key Topics for Chapter 2

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 2-1

Decimal values from 0-15 and their binary equivalents

13

Figure 2-2

Decimal values from 0-25 and their hexadecimal equivalents

15

Table 2-2

Decimal 2 to 1024 in binary and hexadecimal

15

Figure 2-4

Capacities for a hard drive and USB flash drive are given in bytes (decimal) and binary GB by Windows 10’s drive Properties sheets.

17

Paragraph

ASCII

18

Paragraph

Unicode

19

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work.

Define Key Terms

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Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: ASCII binary decimal hexadecimal Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) Unicode

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 1.1 1. Which of the following characters is not in the standard ASCII character set? 1. Z 2. ! 3. ¢ 4. $

2. Which of the following statements is true about the relationship between ASCII and Unicode? 1. Unicode contains fewer characters than ASCII. 2. All fonts contain the same number of Unicode characters. 3. Y ou can only use Unicode if you are not using a Latin alphabet. 4. Unicode contains all ASCII characters.

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3. Decimal 15 is equivalent to which of the following in binary? 1. 01 2. 1101 3. 15 4. 1111

4. 25 equals which of the following in decimal? 1. 16 2. 32 3. 64 4. 24

5. Choose the smallest hex value from the following list. 1. CA 2. 3D 3. AC 4. D3

6. Choose the largest hex value from the following list. 1. AF 2. DA 3. FA 4. AD

7. Which of the following represents a pure blue color in hex? 1. #00FF00

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2. #FFFF00 3. #0000FF 4. #00F0FF

8. An IPv6 address contains how many bits? 1. 32 2. 128 3. 64 4. 256

9. Which of the following statements is true about the value 10 in decimal, hex, and binary? 1. 10 hex is equal to 10 decimal. 2. 10 binary is equal to 10 hex. 3. 10 binary is larger than 10 decimal. 4. 10 decimal is larger than 10 hex.

10. Which of the following is closest to 350,000,000,000? 1. 350GB (binary) 2. 326GB (binary) 3. 350MB (binary) 4. 365GB (binary)

11. Which of the following statements is true about the relationship of ASCII to Unicode? 1. ASCII and Unicode are identical. 2. Unicode is used only for non-ASCII characters. 3. Unicode is used for ASCII and non-ASCII characters. 4. Unicode contains only characters for one language.

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12. To add a character that is not on the keyboard using Windows, which of the following methods can you use? 1. Use KCharSelect. 2. Hold down the Ctrl key and enter the code from the number pad. 3. Use Character Viewer. 4. Use Character Map.

13. The cent sign character is not available in which of the following character sets? 1. ANSI character set 2. ASCII character set 3. Unicode 4. Character Map

14. You get a call from a novice web programmer who wants to know how to specify RGB colors on a web page. Which of the following is correct? 1. Use hexadecimal values for red, green, and blue. 2. Use percentages for red, green, and blue. 3. Use binary values for red, green, and blue. 4. Use hexadecimal values for cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.

15. You are creating a web page and need to specify white as the font color in RGB. Which of the following is correct? 1. #FFFFFF 2. #000000 3. #WHITE 4. #AABBCC

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16. Which of the following statements is correct about IPv6 addresses? 1. They are 64 bits long, with eight groups of eight bits each. 2. They are 128 bits long, with 16 groups of eight bits each. 3. They are 128 bits long, with eight groups of 16 bits each. 4. They are normally expressed in decimal octets.

17. Which of the following is a correct statement about base 10 numbering? 1. Base 10 uses decimal values (0–9). 2. Base 10 uses hexadecimal values (0–9, A–F). 3. Base 10 uses binary values (1 and 0). 4. Base 10 uses decimal values (A–I).

18. Which of the following is the correct binary value equal to 5 decimal? 1. 111 2. 010 3. 011 4. 101

19. If 24 is equal to 16, what is 27 equal to? 1. 512 2. 128 3. 1024 4. 64

20. Which of the following characters is found in an ANSI or Unicode character set, but not an ASCII character set?

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1. ~ 2. | 3. ^ 4. +/-

YOUR NEXT STEPS What’s next? If you have a knack for converting between number systems, you might find programming a good fit. Before making a decision, check out the chapters on programming in this book. For Java programming certifications (Oracle), see the following resources: Java SE: http://education.oracle.com/pls/web_prod-plqdad/ou_product_category.getPageCert?p_cat_id=267 Java EE and Web Services: http://education.oracle.com/pls/web_prod-plqdad/ou_product_category.getPage?p_cat_id=264

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Chapter 3 Compare and Contrast Fundamental Data Types and Their Characteristics Whether you’re programming, crunching numbers with spreadsheets, or figuring out binary logic, understanding the fundamental data types used by Information Technology is foundational. In this chapter, you learn about IT Fundamentals+ Objective 1.2: Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their characteristics: char, strings, numbers (integers and floats), and Boolean.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS CHAR Char is an abbreviation for character. Many programming languages use char as a reserved keyword, including Visual Basic, SQL, Java, C languages, and others. Char is a data type that refers to a single character or a single-character variable. For example, each of the following is a char data type: 1 2 A Z x # ! A char is equal to 1 byte.

STRINGS

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STRINGS

A string is a series of characters that is interpreted literally by a script, such as “Abraham Lincoln” or “THX1138.” Computer programs usually connect a string to a variable. For example: Click here to view code image $string = "This is a string" Print "The value of $string is " $string Output: The value of $string is This is a string

In this example, the variable $string is assigned the value "This is a string". Then, the second line prints “The value of $string is This is a string” when the script is run. Note If a string is composed of only numbers, such as 1138, it is usually classified as an integer.

The amount of space set aside for a string can be variable (enabling strings of various lengths) or fixed. If a string has a length of 11 characters, but you attempt to enter more than 11 characters, the last characters will be left off. This is called truncation. Figure 3-1 illustrates

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an example of this problem.

Figure 3-1 Example of a Truncation

When data entry systems are designed to use fixed-size strings, watch out for truncation like this example. Data entry designers need to take into account both typical and larger examples of proper names or other data when sizing data entry fields.

NUMBERS

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NUMBERS The common data types used for numbers include the following: Integers Floats Integers

An integer (also known as int) is a positive or negative whole number (a number with no decimal points or fractions). For example, the following are positive integers: 3, 4096, and 65535. The following are negative integers (–2, –64, and –98765). What about 0? It’s also an integer. The INT function in most programming languages drops the decimal or fractional value of a number such as 3.6 and leaves only the whole value (in this case, 3). This can be useful to obtain a whole number value after randomizing a range of numbers. The following example is written in Perl: Click here to view code image my $randnum = int(rand(100)); # int(rand(100)) discards decimal portion of randomized number print "Here's a random number between 0 and 100: $randnum\n";

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Floats

A float (also known as floating-point number) is a number that contains up to seven digits and has at least one decimal place. For example, the following are floats: 5.56 .0275687 3.14159 .303 A float is a single-precision, floating-point, 32-bit value. Floats can also be expressed using powers of ten or powers of two. This way, a fixed number of digits can be used to express a very wide range of numeric values. Here are some examples: 93.1×105 = 9,310,000 93.1×10-5 = 0.000931 93.1×1016 = 931,000,000,000,000,000 93.1×10-16 = 0.00000000000000931 47.67×212 = 47,670,000,000,000 47.67×2-12 = 0.00000000004767

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Note Numbers with floating-point decimals that contain more than seven digits, up to 15 digits total, are known as doubles, or double-precision floatingpoint numbers. A double is a 64-bit double-precision data type. Some examples of doubles include the following: 3.141592653589 2468.13579 54.4098760

Singe-precision and double-precision floating point numbers are actually approximations of the true value of a number because of the rounding that takes place when non-integer numbers are used. The floating-point calculator at https://www.exploringbinary.com/floatingpoint-converter/ demonstrates this fact.

BOOLEAN

Boolean values are used in Boolean logic, which evaluates whether a given condition is true (1) or false (0). These values are binary. In computers and other electronic devices, Boolean logic is used to determine if a circuit is charged or on (1) or not charged or off (0). Boolean logic can be used for searches. Boolean logic includes the following comparisons: AND, OR, NOT, and XOR, among others. AND, OR, NOT, and XOR are used to compare two

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values. AND: If both values 1 and 2 exist in a statement, the statement is TRUE. If only value 1 or value 2 exists in a statement, the statement is FALSE. OR: If either value 1 or 2 exists in a statement, the statement is TRUE. NOT: If neither value 1 nor 2 exists in a statement, the statement is TRUE. If either or both exist, the statement is FALSE. XOR: If either value 1 or value 2 exists in a statement, the statement is true. If both exist, or if neither exists, the statement is FALSE.

Note For examples of using AND, OR, NOT, and XOR in Microsoft Excel, see https://www.pcworld.com/article/2985015/software-productivity/excelboolean-logic-how-to-sift-spreadsheet-data-using-and-or-not-and-xor.html. For examples of using Boolean login to analyze a sentence’s contents, see https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/b/boolean.htm.

Boolean logic is often used in performing searches online and elsewhere. Here are the results of a search of a local library’s book and media holdings: railroad – 244 titles steam – 273 titles railroad AND steam – 2 titles railroad OR steam – 347 titles railroad NOT steam – 240 titles Boolean algebra applies Boolean logic to solve

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equations, such as the following: If x=1 AND y=1: x AND y=1 If x=1 OR y=0: x OR y=1 x=0: NOT x=1 Boolean logic can be visualized using Venn diagrams. Figure 3-2 illustrates how a Venn diagram can be used to show the product lines of three major component manufacturers: Intel, AMD, and NVIDIA.

Figure 3-2 An Example of a Venn Diagram

The Venn diagram in this figure shows that Intel makes SSDs, whereas AMD does not make SSDs. Both Intel and AMD make motherboard chipsets and CPUs. Both AMD and NVIDIA make graphics processors (GPUs).

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NVIDIA does not make SSDs, chipsets, or CPUs. Intel does not make GPUs.

EXAM PREPARATION TOPICS REVIEW TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 3-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 3-1 Key Topics for Chapter 3

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

Strings

27

Figure 3-1

Example of a Truncation

28

Paragraph

Integers

29

Paragraph

Floats

29

Paragraph

Booleans

30

DEFINE KEY TERMS

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DEFINE KEY TERMS Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: Char strings integers floats Boolean

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 1.2 1. The values 47.67, 8.21, and .7352 are examples of which of the following? 1. Floats 2. Integers 3. Boolean 4. strings

2. Which of the following is true about a float? 1. A float is a 64-bit, single-precision data type. 2. It has at least seven digits. 3. It has at least one decimal point. 4. It cannot be expressed using powers of two.

3. When multiplying a number that is greater than zero (0) by a negative exponent, which of the

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following is correct about the result? 1. The result is a negative number. 2. The number of decimals equals the number in the exponent. 3. The result is a positive number. 4. The digits in the original value are never present in the answer.

4. You are creating a Boolean search that is looking for information that matches both of your search terms. Which of the following do you use between the terms? 1. AND 2. LIKE 3. OR 4. NOT

5. Which of the following equations is correct? 1. IF x=4 OR y=4, then x4 2. IF x=0 AND yy 3. IF a≠b OR b≠c, then a=c 4. IF NOT a=b, then b=c

6. Which of the following is true about the char data type? 1. It can only be used for calculation. 2. It can represent a variable. 3. It cannot be used for calculation. 4. It can occupy more than one byte.

7. You are attempting to enter the phrase “wide world of sports” into a data entry field that can only accept

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12 characters. Which of the following is what you will see when you enter this text? 1. wide world o 2. ld of sports 3. wide sports 4. de world of

8. Which of the following is an int? 1. Lincoln 2. 3.14159 3. 84 4. 4/3

9. Which of the following orders would you use at the Boolean Hamburger stand if you want to get a burger with pickle and ketchup but no mustard or onions? 1. Burger AND pickle AND ketchup OR mustard OR onions 2. Burger AND pickle NOT ketchup OR mustard OR onions 3. Burger AND mustard OR onions NOT ketchup OR pickle 4. Burger AND ketchup AND pickle NOT mustard NOT onions

10. You are specifying a data entry system that needs to have enough room for a user to enter a phone number, including area code. The data entry app will automatically put in the parentheses and dashes as needed. Which of the following specifications will allow correct telephone number data entry?

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1. Ten alphanumeric characters 2. Fourteen numeric characters 3. Eleven numeric characters 4. Twelve alphanumeric characters

11. Which data type refers to a single character or a single-character variable? 1. Strings 2. Numbers 3. Char 4. Boolean

12. Which type of logic is used to determine if a circuit is charged or on (1) or not charged or off (0)? 1. Integers 2. Strings 3. Floats 4. Boolean

13. Which of the following can be expressed using powers of ten or powers of two? 1. Boolean 2. Floats 3. Strings 4. Char

14. If a string has a length of 11 characters and you attempt to enter more than 11 characters, the last characters will be left off. What is this called? 1. Truncation

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2. Boolean logic 3. Char overflow 4. Floating-point

15. What are numbers with floating-point decimals that contain more than seven digits and up to 15 digits total known as? 1. Logic gate 2. 64-bit single precision 3. Double or double-precision 4. Boolean algebra

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) If data types excite you, you might be on the road to being a programmer or database designer. Along the way, you might want to pick up the CompTIA A+, Network+, and Security+ certifications. Specific certifications in the database arena are available from IBM, Microsoft SQL, Oracle, and SAP.

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Chapter 4 Input, Output, and More: The Basics of Computing and Processing A computer must perform four major tasks: Input Processing Output Storage

In this chapter, you learn the basics of these essential tasks. This chapter covers CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam Objective 1.3: Illustrate the basics of computing and processing.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS INPUT In technology terms, an input is a command or information that is made available to a computer. Before information can be processed by a computer, it must be input. Any of the following activities can be considered inputs: Typing text or numbers into a computer program Selecting menu options with a mouse, touchpad, or touchscreen Transferring photos or videos from a digital camera, tablet, or smartphone Retrieving a file from a storage device Recording audio Capturing an image with a scanner or a webcam

An input device is a device that is used only for input (some devices are used for both input and output). Input devices include the following: Keyboard Mouse Touchpad Touchscreen Webcam Image scanner

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Barcode reader Microphone or audio-in Digital camera or camcorder

Some of these input devices are illustrated in Figure 4-1.

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Figure 4-1 Some Common Input Devices

Any information a computing device works with began with some type of input. With some types of devices, such as an image scanner, digital camera, or camcorder, the input is in the form of a file. With others, the input must be processed before it can be saved (output). Note Common input/output devices include touchscreens, storage devices, network adapters, all-in-one devices (printer, scanner, copier with optional fax), and sound cards.

Most external input and input/output devices connect to a USB port. Internal storage devices typically connect to a SATA port. Note To learn more about USB ports, cables, and versions, see Chapter 8, “I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces.” To learn more about SATA ports, cables, and versions, see Chapter 10, “Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components.”

PROCESSING

Processing refers to the retrieval and modification of inputs from input devices or storage devices. The components involved in processing include the following:

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Random access memory (RAM). See Figure 4-2. Central processing unit (CPU). See Figure 4-3. Graphics processing unit (GPU). See Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-2 Typical Memory Modules

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Figure 4-3 An Installed CPU

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Figure 4-4 A Typical Video Card

An app and inputs from the user or storage reside in RAM until changes are stored or the app is closed without changes being saved. Changes to the inputs are performed primarily by the CPU, such as calculations made with a worksheet program such as Microsoft Excel or color filters or special effects applied to a photo with a photo editor such as Adobe Photoshop. Changes that involve graphical calculations such as 3D rendering, motion video, or 2D image manipulation may be performed in whole or in part by the GPU. Note Learn more about RAM, CPU, and GPU in Chapter 10.

OUTPUT Output refers to any activity that sends the results of processing to a device so it can be viewed or stored. Typical output devices include displays (such as monitors, HDTVs, projectors, tablet displays, and smartphone screens), printers, and computer speakers (see Figure 4-5).

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Figure 4-5 Some Common Output Devices

Here are some examples of how they work: As you work with an app such as Excel, the data you enter is displayed onscreen thanks to the interaction of the graphics processing unit (GPU) and the display device. If you make a mistake, a beep might be emitted by your computer speakers or by the built-in speakers in an HDTV, monitor, or projector. If you print a worksheet or range of cells, the printer receives the print job and prints the worksheet or selected cells.

Note Learn how to connect a printer or speaker in Chapter 9, “Connecting and Configuring Peripherals.”

STORAGE A storage device is any device that can preserve files or apps for reuse later. Common local storage devices include USB flash drives, internal and external hard drives, and internal solid-state drives (SSDs; see Figure 4-6).

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Figure 4-6 Typical Storage Devices

When you open a file, the act of opening it from storage is input. When you save a file, the act of saving it to storage is output. Storage is where the file is located. Note Learn more about how storage devices work in Chapter 12, “Compare and Contrast Storage Types.”

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 4-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 4-1 Key Topics for Chapter 4

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 4-1

Common input devices

38

List

Components involved in processing

39

Figure 4-5

Common output devices

42

Figure 4-6

Typical storage devices

43

Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary:

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input processing output storage device

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 1.3 1. Which of the following activities is not considered an input? 1. Typing 2. Scanning 3. Printing 4. Recording

2. When a file is changed, saving the file is an example of which activity? 1. Output 2. Processing 3. Input 4. Storage

3. A graphics processing unit (GPU) helps to process information you see onscreen. What other activity does it do? 1. Output 2. Input 3. Storage

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4. No other activity

4. When the user edits a photo, this is an example of which of the following? 1. Input 2. Storage 3. Output 4. Processing

5. Where are the changes to a file located before the changes are saved? 1. CPU 2. RAM 3. Storage 4. GPU

6. A sound card is an example of which type of device? 1. Output 2. I/O 3. Storage 4. Processing

7. You have taken pictures with your digital camera. When you transfer them to your computer directly from your camera, your camera is being used as which of the following types of devices? 1. Output 2. Input 3. Processing

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4. Storage

8. An all-in-one unit contains a printer and scanner. When printing, the unit is an output device. When scanning, the unit is which of the following? 1. Output 2. Storage 3. Input 4. Processing

9. Which of the following devices is an input/output (I/O) device? 1. Multifunction device 2. Scanner 3. Barcode reader 4. Projector

10. The location of a file is referred to as which of the following? 1. Output 2. Processing 3. Input 4. Storage

11. Connecting a microphone to a sound card prepares it to perform which of the following activities? 1. Output 2. Input 3. Storage 4. Processing

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12. A network adapter is an example of which type of device? 1. Input/output 2. Input 3. Storage 4. Processing

13. As you use a barcode reader to check in new products, you are performing ______________. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Processing 2. Output 3. Input 4. Storage

14. The microphone/line-in jacks on a sound card are input devices. The speaker jacks are examples of _______ devices. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Processing 2. I/O 3. Storage 4. Output

15. From the digital camera’s perspective, a USB port is an output device. When you connect the USB cable from the camera to transfer pictures to your computer, the USB port on the computer is a(n) ______ device. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Output

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2. Input 3. Processing 4. Storage

16. A USB flash drive performs all but one of the following functions during use. Which one? 1. Output 2. Storage 3. Input 4. Processing

17. Some multifunction devices have built-in flash card readers. When you insert a memory card and the contents of the card are transferred to your PC, this is an example of ________. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Storage 2. Input 3. Output 4. Processing

18. You are using a video editor to add slow-motion effects to a video. Which of the following tasks is being performed? 1. Output 2. Processing 3. Input 4. Storage

19. You are viewing a 3D rendering on a projector. Which of the following components performed the

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rendering? 1. SSD 2. Projector 3. GPU 4. Printer

20. You select three copies of the second page of a document for printing. You are preparing to perform which task? 1. Input 2. Storage 3. Output 4. Processing

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) Depending on which parts of the computing process you like, there are plenty of ways for you to move forward. First, we’d recommend looking at CompTIA’s A+ certification for more background into the hardware and software that make computers and mobile devices function. After that, get your network understanding up to speed with CompTIA’s Network+ certification. An extensive understanding of networking is essential if you want to dig deeper into storage, as most product-specific storage

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certifications (see http://www.tomsitpro.com/articles/storagecertifications,2-225.html) assume extensive network knowledge. For printers, projectors, and other types of devices, check with the vendors for their brand-specific training and certification programs.

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Chapter 5 Explain the Value of Data and Information In this chapter, we explore CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 1.4: Explain the value of data and information. You’ll learn about data and information as assets, the importance of investing in security, relationship of data to creating information, intellectual property (trademarks, copyright, and patents), digital products, and data-driven business decisions (data capture and collection, data correlation, and meaningful reporting).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS DATA AND INFORMATION AS ASSETS At one time, an organization’s assets were primarily physical: land, buildings, machinery, and raw materials. Today, although these asset categories are still important, data and the information that can be derived from it are also considered assets. In the case of some organizations, data and information are the most important assets they have.

Data and information are also among the easiest assets to steal. Stealing land and property, short of war or revolution, requires legal or financial maneuvering that can take time. Stealing buildings is practically impossible, and stealing machinery and raw materials is a challenge. By contrast, all it takes is some malware or a user in the right place with the wrong motives to make millions of dollars worth of information disappear or be sent to people who have no right to have it.

IMPORTANCE OF INVESTING IN SECURITY

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IMPORTANCE OF INVESTING IN SECURITY Security isn’t just a “nice to have” item in an organization’s IT budget—it’s essential. Without security to protect incoming Internet connections, inbound and outbound email, outbound connections, internal networks, and servers, your information is up for grabs. Hackers could steal your company’s information, take over your company’s identity using phishing and other types of social engineering techniques, and rob your organization of everything that isn’t nailed down. You have three financial considerations to make as you plan security upgrades: Doing a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of the security steps you are considering. Determining the return on investment (ROI) for the security improvements you need to make. Calculating the total cost of ownership (TCO).

When calculating these costs, make sure you also take into account any regulatory requirements for specific security measures you must take in your specific industry. A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) for security estimates the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches you are considering so you can find the best methods to use to achieve security improvements at the lowest cost. For

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an IT-focused look at the considerations to include in a security CBA, see https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/feature/Balancingthe-cost-and-benefits-of-countermeasures. For an infographic examining the CBA of Security as a Service, see https://www.alertlogic.com/resources/infographics/thecost-benefit-analysis-of-security-as-a-service/. Return on investment (ROI) is the percentage comparing the net profit and cost of investment when you make an investment. The higher the ROI, the more efficient an investment is. For example, if a business spends $25 to make $100, the net profit is $75 ($100 − $25) and the ROI is 300%. Calculating the ROI on security is trickier, as it involves determining your organization’s risk exposure and the reduction in risk (risk mitigation) that can be achieved from a particular security measure as well as the loss of ongoing business that the news of a data breach could cause. For a useful discussion of how to calculate these costs, see https://www.csoonline.com/article/3010007/advancedpersistent-threats/how-to-calculate-roi-and-justifyyour-cybersecurity-budget.html. For a step-by-step look at the five steps needed to calculate security ROI, see https://www.securityweek.com/calculating-cybersecurity-roi-enterprises.

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Note ROSI is an abbreviation for return on security investment, which is used as a synonym for security ROI by some organizations.

Security total cost of ownership (TCO) is used to calculate the total cost of the security steps your organization is contemplating. For example, insurance premiums; costs for adding security personnel, hardware firewalls, or hiring a Security as a Service firm; finance costs; and losses without security versus losses with security. The FireEye website has an interactive security TCO calculator that can be used to help you estimate your current TCO for IT threats at https://www.fireeye.com/currentthreats/tco/calculator.html.

RELATIONSHIP OF DATA TO CREATING INFORMATION What is data? What is information? Frequently, the terms are used interchangeably. However, there is a difference: data is raw, and information is processed from data. Another way to put it is that data is composed of facts, and information is useful facts. So, how do we turn data into information? Thomas Davenport and Larry Prusak, co-authors of the book Working Knowledge (HBS Press, 1998) view this process as the “Five C’s”:

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Contextualization – Categorization – Calculation – Corrections – Condensation Data-----------------------------------------------------------------Information Not all data needs to go through all five steps to become information, but most data needs to go through at least part of this process. For example, consider the products listing at eBay. Step 1: Contextualization (why the data was gathered): The listing was created to help buyers and sellers meet online to buy and sell. Step 2: Categorization (the key components of the data): Each product is assigned a category and subcategories (by the seller) to make it easier for potential buyers to find it. Step 3: Calculation (mathematical or statistical analysis): In the example of eBay, this step could be the determination of the number of items that match the shopper’s search. Step 4: Corrections: eBay enables sellers to post corrections to a listing or remove a listing that was in error. Step 5: Condensation (summarizing, graphing, or presenting data in tables): eBay provides brief listings of matching items when a shopper

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performs a search, displaying title, description, pricing, and photos. For more information, the shopper can click on a listing. Without these five steps to make the products on eBay manageable, it would be nearly impossible for buyer and seller to find each other. For more about the creation of information, see the Centre for Digital Media’s article at https://thecdm.ca/news/how-do-we-create-information. Here’s another example for an imaginary company we’ll call Pools that Are Cool, Ltd: RAW data: Total sales Contextualization (Step 1): Pools that Are Cool, Ltd, has sold over 1000 pools in the last 12 months. Categorization (Step 2): Pools were sold in three price ranges: over $7000; $4000–7000; under $4000. Calculation (Step 3): The average pool sale price was $7,980, and 75% of the pools sales occurred between April and July. Pools sold in April and May sold for an average of $9,500 each, whereas pools sold in June sold for an average of $7,495 each, and pools sold in July sold for an average of $3,400 each. There were 15 pools with retails of over $7,000 left in inventory starting August 1 (end of the peak season), four pools with retails of $4,000–

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7000, and only one pool under $4000. Corrections (Step 4): After review of the data, no corrections were needed. Condensation (Step 5): A chart was created showing the percentage of leftover pools to purchased pools in each price range. The information resulting from this process is used to help plan next year’s pool sales in order to sell 95% of pool inventory over $4,000 retail by the end of June and emphasize low-cost pools for the remainder of the season.

Not every situation lends itself to the “Five-C’s” methodology. Most simply put, to turn data into information, an organization needs to: 1. Gather data about its operation. 2. Analyze the data for meaning: patterns of sales, giving, customer flows, or whatever are the most significant data points, taking weather, climate, social trends, the calendar, or other influencers into account. 3. Make decisions influenced by the information that has been derived from the meaning, keeping in mind that data reflects past events and is not always a reliable guide to the future.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

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INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Intellectual property is a creative work or invention that can be patented, copyrighted, or trademarked. Although intellectual property may have physical manifestations such as a book, a movie, a video game, or a computer program, the intangible creation stored in various physical manifestations is what is actually protected by intellectual property rights and laws.

There are several types of intellectual property rights, including trademarks, copyrights, and patents. The following sections cover these rights. Trademarks What is a trademark? A trademark includes various ways that an organization and its products and services are distinguished from other organizations in a similar field. Here are some classic examples of trademarked trade dress and logos:

Duracell’s copper-topped batteries (see https://www.duracell.com/en-us/products) Del Monte’s red emblem with gothic lettering on canned vegetables (see http://www.delmonte.com/)

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Buick’s three-shield trademark, Chevrolet’s bow tie, and other GM vehicle logos (see https://www.gm.com/copyrighttrademark.html) Coca-Cola’s red label/can and script lettering (see https://www.coca-colajourney.com.au/stories/trace-the-130-yearevolution-of-the-coca-cola-logo) BMW’s quartered blue/white circular logo (see http://www.carbrand-names.com/bmw-logo/)

Note To see the trademark details for Epic Games’ FORTNITE, go to https://trademarks.justia.com/854/88/fortnite-85488103.html. To see Microsoft’s trademarks and logos, go to https://www.microsoft.com/enus/legal/intellectualproperty/trademarks/en-us.aspx.

Companies use trademarks, service marks (like a trademark, but used for services) and registered trademarks for their products, services, and features. A superscripted capital TM indicates a trademark (™). A superscripted capital SM indicates a service mark (SM). A capital R in a circle indicates a registered trademark (®). Trademarks, Service Marks, and Registered Trademarks Trademarks, service marks, and registered trademarks are referred to as “trademarks,” but they differ in how they are obtained and the legal issues involved. Let’s start with a trademark.

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You can apply a trademark to any goods you sell and a service mark to any services you provide. Other organizations in the same area cannot infringe on your trademark or service mark. However, if you decide to expand your operation to a different city, a different state, or a different country, you might find another organization using a name, phrase, or design that you have trademarked or service marked, even in the same industry.

A registered trademark is a trademark that has been registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. The process can take up to a year or longer because a trademark must be checked to see if it has been registered by any other entity. After a trademark has been registered, any other entity that uses it would be infringing on that trademark. Note To learn more, see https://www.clickandcopyright.com/blog/tm-vs-r-whichis-right-for-my-trademark/.

Copyrights

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Copyrights What is a copyright? A copyright provides the creator of an original work the right to determine whether and how their work can be used by others. A copyright lasts for a limited period of time. Copyrights and the length of time they last can vary from country to country. However, most countries use the Berne Convention to govern copyrights (see https://www.law.cornell.edu/treaties/berne/overview.html).

Computer software, industrial designs, photographs, and sound recordings are just a few of the forms that can be copyrighted. A copyright need not be registered, but registering a copyright is helpful in determining damages if a copyright is infringed. Both commercial and open source software is copyrighted. The purpose of copyrighting a particular open source program might be to enable provisions of an open source license. An open-source provision that can be enforced through copyright, for example, would enforce permission for the free modification of an original open source app while also permitting the modified version to be also modifiable freely. This type of provision is sometimes referred to as copyleft (see https://www.copyleft.org/ for more information).

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Copyright Terms and Conditions/Terms of Use Organizations that have copyrights, trademarks, and service marks typically specify terms and conditions (terms of use) under which these can be legally used. Some examples include the following: NFL.com Terms and Conditions: http://www.nfl.com/help/terms Microsoft Terms of Use: https://www.microsoft.com/enus/legal/intellectualproperty/copyright/default.aspx and https://www.microsoft.com/en-my/legal/Copyright/Default.aspx Copyright on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/yt/about/copyright/#support-andtroubleshooting Copyright on Instagram: https://help.instagram.com/126382350847838

Copyright Infringement Copyright infringement is the unauthorized use of works (including creative expression and tangible goods) protected by copyright. Infringements can include unauthorized copying of the work or item, unauthorized reselling of the work or item, unlicensed performing of the work, or unlicensed adaptations of the work. Copyright infringement of software, videos, movies, and music is sometimes referred to as “piracy.”

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Note Software piracy is sometimes committed unintentionally by small companies that are not diligent in tracking software licenses and may be turned in by disgruntled former employees. See https://techcrunch.com/2016/05/10/software-piracy-claims-can-ruin-yourbusiness-and-reward-those-responsible/ for some case studies.

The copyright holder (the creator or assignee) has the responsibility of protecting the copyright through negotiations over licensing terms, lawsuits if a settlement cannot be negotiated, online take down notifications (see www.dmca.com/FAQ/What-is-aDMCA-Takedown), or anti-copying technology. Largescale piracy or counterfeiting of goods sometimes is prosecuted in the criminal justice system (see https://www.wired.com/2015/12/6-men-admit-torunning-a-giant-100m-software-piracy-ring/). Increasingly, copyright holders are focusing on stopping indirect copyright infringements by service providers and software distributors that make direct software or content piracy possible. Note To learn more about the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which requires TV and Internet providers to take down infringing content, see http://www.aaronkellylaw.com/dmca-wiki-summary.

Patents

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Patents A patent is an exclusive right to prevent others from the marketing, sale, or use of an invention without the permission of a patent holder for a specified period of time (typically 20 years). Patents are granted by a government agency, such as the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or an intergovernmental body, such as the World Trade Organization. For an invention to be patentable, it must be novel, useful, non-obvious, and perform one or more functions. Software patents have been in existence since the early 1960s in the UK and the early 1970s in the USA. A number of companies deal exclusively or primarily in the business of purchasing rights to software patents and licensing them to companies. Companies that make a living from buying patents and suing other companies they claim are infringing on their patents are sometimes referred to as patent trolls. In some cases, the infringement claims may be questionable, but to avoid expensive litigation, targeted companies may pay to license a patent anyway. However, others may fight back. Note See https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20180815/17254040439/bitmovintakes-scorched-earth-approach-to-patent-troll-who-limps-awayquickly.shtml for examples of patent trolling that triggered countersuits.

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DIGITAL PRODUCTS An increasing number of software products that were once distributed on optical discs are now distributed digitally. For example, Microsoft Office and its apps are available in retail stores but the package contains a key card with a license agreement and serial number, and the program(s) must be downloaded. Microsoft Office 365 and Adobe Creative Cloud are two of the most popular suites that are available only as digital products.

Both commercial and open source apps are available digitally. Software licensing terms, patents, copyrights, and trademarks apply equally to software delivered on a CD, DVD, or flash drive as well as by download. Software licensing terms (also known as end-user licensing agreements, or EULAs), depending on the vendor and software, may be displayed before the software is licensed or during installation. If the EULA is displayed during installation, the installation cannot continue until the end user clicks Accept or Agree. To help ensure that the EULA is read or at least skimmed by the end user, some EULAs do not enable the Accept/Agree button until the end user scrolls through the EULA.

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An EULA specifies how the end user may use the software and might also contain language limiting how disputes are settled (such as binding arbitration, limited warranties, and so on). Note To see the licensing terms for specific Microsoft products, go to https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/useterms. For more about the typical features of an EULA, see https://termsfeed.com/blog/how-write-eulasoftware/.

DATA-DRIVEN BUSINESS DECISIONS The process of using data to inform what a business does is known as data-driven business decisions. This process involves at least three steps:

Data capture and collection Data correlation Meaningful reporting

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Note To learn more about data-driven business decisions, see the following sources: https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2016/06/14/data-drivendecision-making-10-simple-steps-for-any-business/#77945d035e1e https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/data-driven-decisionmanagement-DDDM https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/data-driven-disaster https://www.forbes.com/sites/jonbruner/2012/04/20/five-steps-formaking-data-driven-decisions/#3272d24148de

Data Capture and Collection Data capture and collection is the first part of the process. Before this can take place, though, the question of what the analysis is trying to achieve should be answered. The answer to that question helps determine what to look for and where. By limiting what to look for and where, an organization can prevent being buried in data that might not be meaningful and hides what is really needed. Some of the data needed might already be available, while other data sources need to be developed. Depending on the organization’s existing IT processes, data capture and collection might already be taking place in the form of relational databases. However, methods for dealing with semi-structured or unstructured data may need to be developed to capture and collect the data needed.

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Note To learn more about different types of databases, see Chapter 26, “Compare and Contrast Various Database Structures.”

Data Correlation Data correlation is a statistical association, commonly thought to be a close relationship, between two items. For example, a typical correlation between the income of an automobile purchaser and the price range of the vehicle works like this: the higher the income, the higher the price of the vehicle purchased (see https://prezi.com/eofunrjqyuu3/annual-income-vspurchase-price-of-car/). However, data correlation does not mean causation: In other words, you must make sure that you don’t jump to conclusions when correlating data. BuzzFeed News demonstrated this with an article titled “The 10 Most Bizarre Correlations” (https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/kjh2110/the10-most-bizarre-correlations). It purports to show that the use of the Internet Explorer web browser leads to murder by graphing the market share of IE versus the number of murders in the U.S. from 2006 to 2011 (an almost perfect match when graphed!), among other absurd correlations. Be sure that items that have some relationship to each

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other are being analyzed for correlations. Meaningful Reporting The final result of the data-driven process should be meaningful reporting. What is meaningful reporting? Meaningful reporting provides the information needed to help an organization make an informed decision. In meaningful reporting, less is more. In other words, the report should condense lots of data into concise, meaningful information. Consider the example from earlier in this chapter in the section “Relationship of Data to Creating Information.” Much complex data about a swimming pool business was simplified into a report that led to an informed conclusion about what to stock and when to stock it. If the report had provided full details of the raw data (each item added to inventory and when, when it sold, and so forth), the amount of data would have been overwhelming. The expression “MEGO” (my eyes glaze over) is a powerful reminder that even number- and detail-oriented managers will lose track of the point of a report that has too much data relative to the information needed. It is a slang expression referring to excessive technical information or statistical data that causes readers to stop paying attention. Remember, you can always provide footnotes or

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hyperlinks to provide details for those who need them, but the report needs to answer the business question it was designed to answer as concisely as possible.

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 5-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 5-1 Key Topics for Chapter 5

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

How easily data and information can be stolen

51

List

Data leading to information

54

Paragraph

Types of intellectual property rights

54

List

Well-known trademarks

54

Paragraph

Trademark versus service mark

55

Paragraph

Registered trademark

55

Paragraph

What can be copyrighted

56

Paragraph

Intellectual property rights for digital products

58

List

Steps in data-driven business decisions

58

Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary:

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Data information security intellectual property trademark service mark registered trademark copyright copyleft patent patent troll digital product data capture and collection data correlation meaningful reporting my eyes glaze over

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 1.4 1. Which of the following best expresses the relationship of data and information? 1. Data is the same as information. 2. Information must be gathered to create data.

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3. Data and information are not related. 4. Data is the source of information.

2. In the process of turning data into information, which of the following comes first? 1. Make decisions influenced by the data. 2. Gather data. 3. Analyze data. 4. Ignore data that conflicts with your feelings.

3. Your company has applied for a service mark on a service name. Which of the following marks would be used initially and after the service mark is registered? 1.

SM

,©

2. ™, ® 3. ∫, ® 4.

SM

,®

4. Which of the following describes what copyleft does? 1. Copyleft negates a copyright. 2. Copyleft discourages the adaptation of open source software. 3. Copyleft allows an open source app to be modified, but prevents the modified version from being modified by others. 4. Copyleft allows an open source app and its modified versions to be modified freely by others.

5. Company ABC is suing Company XYZ for patent infringement. If Company ABC’s patents don’t really apply to Company XYZ’s product, what is

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Company ABC doing? 1. Being a patent king 2. Being a copyright infringer 3. Being a trademark violator 4. Being a patent troll

6. Which of the following statements most accurately reflects what data correlation does? 1. Determining how one factor causes another factor 2. Deciding that two types of data are identical 3. Determining the statistical relationship between two types of data 4. Determining that both types of data are caused by a third type of data

7. You receive a memo about a recent report labeled “too much, MEGO.” Which of the following is the best explanation of what needs to be fixed? 1. Add more background detail. 2. Reduce background detail. 3. Add pie charts. 4. Make report longer.

8. Your company has just patented a process it has no intention of producing. Which of the following describes what the company is doing? 1. Enabling other companies to freely use the process 2. Preventing other companies from using the process 3. Becoming a patent troll 4. Filing for a registered trademark

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9. Your company has trademarked “We make sprockets as easy as 1-2-3” for its sprocket business. When the company starts selling sprockets in a different state, the legal department discovers that another business is using the same trademark. Which of the following might best help preserve your company’s investment in the trademark? 1. Try to register the trademark. 2. Abandon the trademark. 3. Change the trademark into a service mark. 4. Sue the other company.

10. Your company has decided to switch from physical distribution of its commercial software to using digital distribution via download. You discover a large company has downloaded your software and figured out how to install the software and make it run without paying for it. Which of the following should your company do? 1. Nothing. Downloadable software is always free. 2. Check to see if the software patent covers downloadable software. 3. Take legal action for copyright infringement. 4. Make sure the download site has a proper trademark.

11. Your supervisor has asked you to generate a document from data that will provide useful information and lead to a data-driven decision. What is this called? 1. Data correlation

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2. Microsoft Word analysis 3. Database mining 4. Meaningful reporting

12. Which of the following represents a statistical relationship between two types of data? 1. Data capture and collection 2. Data correlation 3. Data extrapolation 4. Intellectual data property (IDP)

13. Which of the following is a legal right used to prevent unauthorized parties from copying an invention? 1. Patent 2. Service mark 3. Registered trademark 4. End-user license agreement (EULA)

14. What are inventions, writings, art, photography, computer programs, and other creations of the mind considered? 1. Personal information (PI) 2. Copyrights of the thinkers (CotT) 3. Digital products 4. Intellectual property

15. Which of the following best describes digital security? 1. Encrypted data that has been unencrypted, interpreted, and

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processed to become meaningful for a particular question, situation, or requirement 2. Processes, methods, and attitudes leading to protecting data, information, processes, and personal information held by an organization 3. Information that is stored electronically and can be retrieved or transmitted in a private fashion through cryptographic functions 4. Being safe and comfortable in a controlled environment

16. You have recently developed a new video game and believe it will be the next huge hit. You want to call it “Fortnite: Two-weeks to victory!” Where would you check to see if this name is already taken and if you can even use this title? 1. The Library of Congress 2. Epic Games, Inc. 3. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 4. The Intellectual Property Office (IPO)

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YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) If you’re interested in learning how to turn data into information, you might want to pursue data analyst training, such as a graduate certificate in data analysis. This type of certificate is available from many online universities, such as Colorado State University (https://www.online.colostate.edu/certificates/dataanalysis-certificate/), Cornell University (http://info.ecornell.com/data-analytics), and others. You don’t need to get a law degree to get deeper into intellectual property, although IP is an important legal specialization. Some universities offer an intellectual property professional certificate that can be taken as a continuing education elective. For example, Seton Hall’s Certificate in Intellectual Property Law (https://law.shu.edu/online/graduatecertificates/intellectual-property-law/index.cfm), Suffolk University’s Intellectual Property Certificate and Online Programs (https://www.suffolk.edu/law/admissionaid/study/18266.php), and others. Check with the law schools in your area to see if they offer this type of certificate for non-attorneys.

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Chapter 6 Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed Information technology is always seeking to transmit, receive, store, and locate information as quickly as possible. With the rise of cloud computing, digital photography, and HD video, the need for storage has never been greater. Understanding the units of measure used for storage, throughput, and processing speed is essential in any IT field. This chapter covers CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 1.5: Compare and contrast common units of measure: storage units (bit, byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB), throughput (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, and Tbps), and processing speed (MHz, GHz).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS STORAGE UNITS

Storage units measure the capacity of permanent storage, including magnetic, optical, and flash memory drives; read-only memory (ROM) and random-access memory (RAM, a.k.a. temporary storage). Storage units use two number systems: decimal powers of two and decimal powers of ten. Therefore, it’s important to note which numbering system is being used for a particular device’s storage capacity. Bit The smallest storage unit is the bit. A bit is the 0 or 1 in binary (base 2) numbering. A nibble is equal to four bits. Note See Chapter 2, “How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems,” for more about binary numbering.

Bits

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Bits The term bits (plural) refers to the size of the internal registers in a CPU (processor). A 32-bit processor can process information in 32-bit-wide elements and can also access memory addresses up to 232 (4,294,967,296 or 4GB). A 64-bit processor can process information in 64-bit-wide elements and can also access memory addresses up to 264 (18,446,744,073,709,600,000, or 18 ZB [zettabytes]). Note Make sure you understand the differences between 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit numbers versus RAM and application requirements. The differences between 32-bit and 64-bit operating systems and their memory limits are critical to exam success. For example, if a 64-bit processor uses a 32-bit operating system, the maximum amount of RAM (maximum number of memory addresses) the processor can address is the 32-bit limit (4GB).

Byte A byte is equal to eight bits. A single character in a plaintext file requires a byte to store it. Multiples of a byte are used by all larger units of measure. KB Depending on the device, a kilobyte (KB) is either 1024 bytes (decimal, power of two) or 1000 bytes (decimal, power of ten).

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Note KB, MB, GB, and larger measurements based on powers of two are sometimes referred to as binary measurements, although they use decimal numbering.

MB Depending on the device, a megabyte (MB) is either 1,048,576 bytes (1024 kilobytes using powers of two) or 1,000,000 (one million) bytes (decimal, powers of ten). Typically, RAM (system memory or cache memory) is expressed using the powers-of-two method, whereas the rated capacity of storage drives and media is expressed using decimal measurements. To calculate the binary MB value from a value in millions, divide the capacity in bytes by 1,048,576. In Figure 6-1, the operating system (Windows 10) displays both values using the properties sheet for a partially used CD-R disc. The space used on this CD-R disc is over 166 million bytes, which converts to 158MB using binary (powers of two) MB.

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Figure 6-1 The Properties Sheet for a Partially Used CD-R Disc

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Note Some current hard disk drives have a 64MB disk cache. The disk cache is RAM built in to the drive to improve read/write performance. A 64MB disk cache has a capacity of 67,108,864 bytes (64 binary MB).

GB Depending on the device, a gigabyte (GB) is either 1,073,741,824 (1024 megabytes in powers of two) or 1,000,000,000 bytes (decimal, powers of ten). To add to the potential for confusion, device manufacturers and operating system vendors use both methods to describe capacity. For example, a typical 32GB flash memory card or USB drive has a capacity of 31,880,904,704 bytes (nearly 32 billion bytes), as measured by the manufacturer. However, Windows uses both decimal bytes and binary GB to express drive capacity, so the same drive has a capacity of 29.6GB using the binary (powers of two) measurement system. However, 32GB of RAM (which could be installed as 4×8GB or 2×16GB memory modules) provides a workspace of 34,359,738,368 bytes, because memory is measured using binary GB. To calculate the binary GB value from a value in billions, divide the capacity in bytes by 1,073,741,824. Figure 6-2 illustrates how Windows displays the

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capacity of a single-sided DVD+R disc. This disc is described by the vendor as a 4.7GB disc.

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Figure 6-2 A 4.7-Billion-Byte DVD+R Disc Has a Capacity of 4.37 (binary) GB.

TB A terabyte (TB) is either 1,099,511,627,776 bytes (1024 gigabytes using powers of two) or 1,000,000,000,000 bytes (powers of ten). Storage vendors generally measure their drives using powers-of-ten capacities, whereas operating systems use powers-of-two capacity (binary) measurements. See Figure 6-3 for an example of the capacities of two multi-TB drives.

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Figure 6-3 Capacities of a 4TB Drive and a 3TB Drive as Reported by Windows 10

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PB Depending on the device, a petabyte (PB) is either 1,125,899,906,842,620 (1024 terabytes using powers of two) or 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes (decimal, powers of ten). Petabyte-sized drive arrays are used in cloud storage and backup systems. Capacity Comparison Table 6-1 compares the capacity of binary KB through PB.

Table 6-1 Binary KB–PB Capacity in Bytes

Measurement

Name

Size (Bytes)

1KB

Kilobyte

1,024

1MB

Megabyte

1,048,576

1GB

Gigabyte

1,073,741,824

1TB

Terabyte

1,099,511,627,776

1PB

Petabyte

1,125,899,906,842,620

Ever wonder how much space a digital photo takes? A 3-

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minute MP3 song track? A one-page Microsoft Word file? Table 6-2 compares typical space requirements for common data file types.

Table 6-2 Common Data File Types and Typical Sizes

File Type

Details

Size (Bytes)

Size (Binary KB/MB)

Notes

JPG

Digital photo taken with smartphone

2,981,608

2.84MB

5312×2988 resolution*

CR2

RAW (uncompressed) image file taken with Canon digital SLR (DSLR) camera

29,593,050

28.2MB

5184×3456 resolution*

XLS

Microsoft Excel file (single worksheet), with 500 rows and 12 columns

89,777

86.6KB

DOCX

Microsoft Word file (one page, text with styles)

30,578

28.8KB

DOCX

Microsoft Word file (five pages, including two charts and one

2,246,151

2.14MB

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color photo optimized for printing) PDF

Five-page Adobe Reader file containing text, two charts, and one color photo optimized for printing converted from a DOCX file

448,102

437KB

MP3

Digital music file

13,785,280

13.1MB

5:44** 320Kbps^

MP3

Digital music file

21,161,54

20.1MB

44:04** 64Kbps^

MP3

Digital music file

3,079,105

2.93MB

3:12** 128Kbps^

* number of pixels (horizontal×vertical) in still image ** Duration (minutes:seconds) ^ Quality (compression setting, where lower quality = smaller file size)

THROUGHPUT UNIT

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THROUGHPUT UNIT

Throughput units are used to measure the speed at which data is transferred between endpoints, such as from the Internet to a broadband modem, or from a hard drive to a computer. Throughput units use powersof-ten (decimal) numbering systems. bps Bits per second; divide by 10 to determine Bps (bytes per second). Used mainly to measure the speed of early dialup (analog) modems. Kbps One kilobit per second equals 1000bps. Currently, Kbps is primarily used to measure the speeds of lowperformance DSL Internet connections (256–768Kbps). Figure 6-4 compares the speeds of early Internet access devices.

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Figure 6-4 Dial-up, ISDN, and Early-Version DSL Speeds, Measured in Kbps

Mbps One megabit per second equals 1000Kbps. Mbps is widely used to measure the speeds of high-speed and broadband Internet connections, LAN connections, and I/O devices such as USB 1.1, USB 2.0, and FireWire. Figure 6-5 compares the speed of these connections.

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Figure 6-5 Connection Speeds for Ethernet, Broadband Internet, USB, and FireWire Devices in Mbps

Gbps

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Gbps One gigabit per second equals 1000Mbps. Gbps measurements are primarily used to express the speeds of very fast Internet and LAN connections (Gigabit Ethernet and 10G Ethernet, for example), and the speed of high-performance device interconnects, such as USB 3.1 Gen 1 (5Gbps), USB 3.1 Gen 2 (10Gbps), and SATA Revision 3 (6Gbps). Figure 6-6 compares these devices.

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Figure 6-6 Connection Speeds for Gigabit Ethernet, USB 3.0 and 3.1, 10G Ethernet, and SATA

Tbps

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Tbps One terabyte per second equals 1000Gbps. Tbps is used mainly to measure the speeds of Internet connections between countries and regions. Note If you need to convert a measurement such as Mbps (megabits per second) to MBps (megabytes per second), divide the measurement by 10. For example, 480Mbps (USB 2.0 transfer rate) is the same as 4.8MBps.

PROCESSING SPEED Processing speed (also known as clock speed) measures the number of cycles a processor can perform per second. The processing speed is controlled by a crystal oscillator clock chip on the motherboard. Each combination of a pulse and rest is a clock cycle (see Figure 6-7). Note To learn more about motherboards and other components found inside a computer, see Chapter 10, “Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components.”

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Figure 6-7 A Clock Cycle

When processors with the same internal design but different clock speeds are compared, the processor with the faster clock speed can perform more work in a given amount of time. Note Processors not only vary in their clock speed but in other design factors such as the number of operations that can be performed during a clock cycle and the presence and size of memory caches (which reduce the need to check main memory for the next operation to perform). For these and similar reasons, comparing processors that use different internal designs by clock speed will lead to incorrect conclusions about performance.

MHz

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MHz

One megahertz (MHz) equals 1 million cycles per second. The original IBM PC (1981) had an Intel 8088 processor running at 4.77MHz (4,770,000 cycles per second). By 1986, the Intel 80286 processor ran at 12MHz (12,000,000 cycles per second). By 1999, Intel and AMD processors were running at clock speeds exceeding 500MHz (500,000,000 cycles per second). Note MHz is also used to measure the I/O bus clock rate used by memory modules. To determine the data rate (transfer rate) of common memory modules (DDR, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4), multiply the memory clock rate by 2.

GHz

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GHz

One gigahertz (GHz) equals 1 billion (1,000,000,000) cycles per second. 1GHz is equal to 1000MHz. Almost all processors used in PCs manufactured in the last 15 years have run at speeds exceeding 1GHz. Common speeds for current processors from Intel and AMD exceed 3GHz. The most recent mobile processors used in Android and iOS smartphones and tablets run at speeds exceeding 2GHz. Figure 6-8 compares the clock speeds of typical processors from 1981 to the present.

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Figure 6-8 Clock Speeds for Typical PC and Mobile Processors, 1981–Present

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 6-3 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 6-3 Key Topics for Chapter 6

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

Storage Unit

67

Figure 6-3

Capacaties of 4TB drive and a 3TB drive as reported by Windows 10

71

Table 6-1

Binary KB-PB Capacity in Bytes

71

Table 6-2

Common Data File Types and Typical Sizes

72

Paragraph

Throughput Unit

73

Paragraph

MHz

76

Paragraph

GHz

77

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work.

Define Key Terms

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Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: bit byte KB (Kilobyte) MB (Megabyte) GB (Gigabyte) TB (Terabyte) PB (Petabyte) bps (Bits per second) kbps (kilobits per second) mbps (megabits per second) gbps (gigabits per second) tbps (terabits per second) megahertz (MHz) gigahertz (GHz)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 1.5 1. Which of the following is equal to 1024 bytes? 1. GB 2. Bit

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3. KB 4. MB

2. To calculate the number of binary MB in a decimal number, which of the following formulas should be used? 1. Multiply the value by 1024. 2. Divide the value by 1,048,576. 3. Multiply the value by 1,048,576. 4. Divide the value by 1,000,000.

3. What is the approximate size in binary GB of a DVD+R disc that holds about 4.7 billion bytes? 1. 4.7 2. 4.37 3. 3.48 4. 8.34

4. Choose the largest value from the following list. 1. 1,000,000,000 bytes 2. 950MB 3. 0.78GB 4. 1500KB

5. Choose the largest unit of measure from the following list. 1. MB 2. TB 3. GB 4. PB

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6. Which of the following statements is incorrect? 1. 1024KB = 1MB 2. 1024MB = 1PB 3. 1024GB = 1TB 4. 1TB = 1024MB×1024MB

7. Clock speed measures which of the following? 1. Data transfer rate 2. Memory throughput 3. Device throughput 4. Processor cycles per second

8. Which of the following is the slowest clock rate? 1. 4770MHz 2. 4GHz 3. 2500MHz 4. 2.7GHz

9. Which of the following is a correct statement about clock speed and CPU performance? 1. Any processor with a faster clock speed than another performs tasks more quickly. 2. Internal design has no effect on CPU performance. 3. A processor’s clock speed is one of the factors determining CPU performance. 4. A processor’s clock speed is controlled by the real-time clock chip on the motherboard.

10. You are evaluating two laptop computers. One of them has a faster processor than the other. Which of the following is a correct statement about these

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computers? 1. The computer with the faster processor will perform all tasks faster. 2. The processor has no effect on system performance. 3. The computer with the faster processor has more RAM than the other one. 4. There is not enough information to determine which computer will perform needed tasks faster.

11. You are creating a digital music (MP3) file from a music track on one of your CDs. Which of the following settings is best if you want to create a highquality file? 1. 64Kbps compression. 2. 320Kbps compression. 3. 32-bit compression. 4. Any setting will work because quality is based on the original track, not the MP3 compression settings.

12. You are examining a computer you want to buy. It needs to have at least two USB ports with a transfer rate of 5Gbps. It has two USB 2.0 ports, two USB 3.0 ports, and one USB 3.1 Gen 2 port. Does this computer meet the requirements? (Choose the best answer.) 1. Y es, all five ports are fast enough. 2. No, none of these ports is fast enough. 3. No, only the USB 3.1 Gen 2 port is fast enough. 4. Y es, there are three ports that are fast enough.

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13. You are comparing two photos—one JPG and one a CR2 RAW file. The pictures are the same resolution. Which of the following is a correct statement about these photos? 1. The JPG photo uses more disk space than the CR2 file. 2. The CR2 file uses more disk space than the JPG file. 3. Both files use the same amount of disk space because they are the same resolution. 4. The CR2 file was shot with a smartphone.

14. You need to send a 15MB text and image document created in Microsoft Word to a client. Their email service can only accept 10MB files. Which of the following will create a file the other user can review most easily? 1. Save the file in Rich Text Format and find out if the client can open the file. 2. Save the file as a series of JPG screen captures. 3. Save the file as a high-quality PDF. 4. Edit the file into two or more smaller files and email each separately.

15. Which of the following accurately lists measurements in order from largest to smallest? 1. Megabyte, kilobyte, petabyte 2. Petabyte, gigabyte, terabyte 3. Petabyte, gigabyte, megabyte 4. Gigabyte, kilobyte, megabyte

16. Which of the following accurately lists connection speeds in order from fastest to slowest?

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1. Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, USB 2.0 2. FireWire 1394a, Fast Ethernet, USB 2.0 3. USB 3.1 Gen 1, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet 4. USB 3.0, Gigabit Ethernet, FireWire 1394b

17. A processor clock cycle consists of which of the following? 1. Rising and falling edges of pulse 2. Space between each pulse 3. Pulse and rest 4. Two pulses and space between the pulses

18. Select the correct pairing of binary measurements and size in bytes. 1. 1KB = 1,048,576 2. 1MB = 1,048,576 3. 1GB = 1,000,000.000 4. 1MB = 1,000,000

19. Which of the following is a correct statement about processor type and memory size? 1. A 32-bit processor can manage up to 32MB of RAM. 32

2. A 64-bit processor can manage up to 2

of RAM.

3. A 32-bit processor can manage up to 4GB of RAM. 4. A 64-bit processor can manage up to 64GB of RAM.

20. You are using Windows to determine the amount of space left on a hard disk. Which of the following statements is accurate about how Windows displays the capacity?

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1. Y ou must calculate the binary MB or GB capacity manually from the bytes listed. 2. Windows reports only binary MB or GB capacity; you must calculate the bytes manually. 3. Windows uses a pie chart to display capacity. 4. Windows displays binary MB or GB and bytes.

YOUR NEXT STEPS If you groove on the idea of faster and faster performance, you may be interested in beefing up your PC building and configuration skills. Check out the CompTIA A+ certification as your next step. You’ll learn how to build, configure, troubleshoot, and manage today’s PCs. The skills you learn will help you deal with anything from office-class laptop PCs to fire-breathing gamer towers. For more information on CompTIA A+ certification, go to https://certification.comptia.org/certifications.

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Chapter 7 Explain the Troubleshooting Methodology This chapter explores CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 1.6: Explain the troubleshooting methodology. In this eight-part method, you learn to identify the problem (gather information, duplicate the problem, if possible, question users, identify symptoms, determine if anything has changed, approach multiple problems individually); research knowledge base/Internet, if applicable; establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious, consider multiple approaches, divide and conquer); test the theory to determine the cause (once the theory is confirmed [confirmed root cause], determine the next steps to resolve the problem, if the theory is not confirmed, establish a new theory or escalate); establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and identify potential effects; implement the solution or escalate as necessary; verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures; and, finally, document findings/lessons

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learned, actions, and outcomes. In brief, the eight-step troubleshooting method is as follows: Step 1: Identify the problem. Step 2: Research knowledge base/Internet. Step 3: Establish a theory of probable cause. Step 4: Test the theory. Step 5: Establish a plan of action. Step 6: Implement the solution or escalate. Step 7: Verify full system functionality; implement preventive measures. Step 8: Document findings/lessons learned, actions, and outcomes.

FOUNDATION TOPICS IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM Step 1 in the troubleshooting method is to identify the problem. To identify the problem, use the following procedures as needed:

Gather information.

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Duplicate the problem, if possible. Question users. Identify symptoms. Determine if anything has changed. Approach multiple problems individually.

As you begin the troubleshooting process, keep in mind that computers and computing devices are composed of subsystems. A subsystem is the combination of components designed to do a particular task, and it can include hardware, software, and firmware components. Use Table 7-1 to identify the components in a subsystem and what to test or check.

Table 7-1 Computer and Peripheral Subsystems and Their Components

Subsystem or Process

Hardware

Software (App)

Firmware

Data Files

What to Test/Check

Starting (booting) the computer

Hard drive or SSD, CMOS battery (motherboard)

Operating system startup configuration

BIOS/UEFI startup boot order

(None)

BIOS/UEFI settings, battery (if settings lost), operating system startup files, test system drive.

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Running an office app (word processing, spreadsheet, presentation)

Storage used for app (local or network); storage used for data

App, operating system files, Windows Registry

(None)

Word processing, spreadsheet, presentation data files

Repair app; test system drive; uninstall-reinstall app; research any error messages displayed.

Running a database

Storage used for app (local or network); storage used for data

Database app

(None)

Database tables, queries, reports, indexes

Test data drive, network connection; repair database; repair database app.

Opening a website

Network adapter, storage used for app (local or network)

Web browser

(None)

(None)

Check a different website; refresh website; check wired or wireless connection; research any errors displayed; try a different web browser.

Printing

Printer, cable, USB port (local)

BIOS/UEFI configuration of port

Network connection

Printer driver in the operating system, print spooler

Files being printed, temporary print spooler files

Cable, port, driver, test print, printhead, toner level, ink level.

Scanner or multifunction unit, cable, USB port

Scanner driver in the operating system;

BIOS/UEFI configuration of port

Image or document files created by scanner

Cable, port, driver, test scan, connection to transparency unit;

Scanning

Network configuration on printer

Network

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(local)

scanner app

configuration on scanner

Network connection

test ADF (Automatic Document Feeder).

Display

Graphics card, monitor, cables, port type, motherboard (integrated video), digitizer (touchscreen)

Video drivers in the operating system; 3D games or other apps using display

Video BIOS, BIOS configuration of video type, boot priority

(None)

Clean touchscreen; check cable, video card, video port, drivers, motherboard

Audio

Sound card, speakers, microphone, cables, motherboard (integrated audio)

Audio drivers in the operating system; music recording or playback apps

BIOS configuration of integrated audio

Audio, A/V files created by audio apps or played back

Mute and volume controls, speaker and microphone cables; move speaker positions; reconfigure speakers and mouse settings; swap speaker; swap microphone; try different audio apps.

Webcam

Webcam drivers in the operating system; webcam or IM app

Webcam drivers in the operating system; webcam or IM app

BIOS USB port configuration

(None)

Plug in webcam; adjust microphone; adjust webcam settings for color, brightness

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Mouse and pointing device

Mouse or pointing device, USB port

Mouse driver in the operating system

BIOS port configuration, USB legacy configuration

(None)

Mouse settings (pointer size, speed, color), hardware; swap mouse; try a different USB port.

Keyboard

Keyboard, PS/2 or USB port, ribbon cable (laptop)

Keyboard driver in the operating system, accessibility settings

BIOS keyboard configuration, USB legacy configuration

(None)

Keyboard, devices controlled with the keyboard (Wi-Fi, brightness, etc.).

Touchscreen

Touchscreen cable, USB port (if external)

Touchscreen driver in operating system

USB configuration (if external)

(None)

Swap display; run touchscreen diagnostics; check USB cables (if external); check cable (if internal).

Storage

Drives, data cables, power connectors, USB, SATA, or add-on card ports

Storage drivers in operating system

BIOS drive configuration, BIOS configuration of built-in USB or SATA ports

OS, program, data, temporary file

Drive diagnostics; move drives to other ports and retest.

Power

Power supply, splitters, fans

Powermanagement software in operating system

BIOS powermanagement configuration

(None)

Check voltage in BIOS or with multimeter; replace power supply; replace splitters; check front-panel wires; check outlet

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voltage and wiring. CPU

CPU, motherboard

System devices

BIOS cache and CPU configuration

(None)

Reset CMOS to defaults; swap CPU or motherboard.

Motherboard

Motherboard, add-on cards, CPU, RAM, built-in ports (USB, SATA, etc.)

System devices, drivers for add-on cards

CPU, memory settings, port settings

(None)

Reset CMOS to defaults; swap SATA, USB headers; check front panel wires; swap motherboard.

Cooling

Power supply fan, CPU active heatsink, GPU active heatsink, case fans, power/speed monitoring cables from fans to motherboard or power supply, case vents

CPU throttling driver in the operating system

Fan speed display in BIOS

(None)

Clean fans, case vents; replace power lead extensions/splitters; check fan speeds; adjust temperature alarms; replace power supply, case fans, active heatsinks.

RAM, motherboard

System devices

BIOS RAM configuration

(None)

Swap RAM; run RAM diagnostics; reset CMOS to defaults.

RAM

Fan/temperature alarms in BIOS

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Network (wired)

NIC, motherboard, USB port (for USB devices), network cable, switch, router

Network configuration files and drivers in operating system

BIOS PnP and power management, BIOS configuration of integrated network port or USB port

(None)

Check TCP/IP configuration; check/swap cable; swap NIC or USB network adapter; check router configuration; check switch.

Network (wireless)

NIC, motherboard, USB port (for USB devices), antenna cables (internal), wireless router or access point

Network configuration files and drivers in operating system

BIOS PnP, power management, BIOS port configuration

(None)

Check TCP/IP configuration; swap USB network adapter; check router configuration; check USB port; check internal card connection; check antenna connections on card, router.

You can see from Table 7-1 that virtually every subsystem in the computer has hardware, software, and firmware components and that some processes also save, edit, or manage data. A thorough troubleshooting process will take into account both the subsystem and all its components. Before you make any changes, make sure you safeguard current settings:

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If possible, back up the entire system. On a Windows computer, back up the system Registry using Regedit. Print out or record current firmware/UEFI/BIOS, network, and software settings.

What’s the best way to decide whether a hardware, software, data file, or firmware problem is the most likely cause? Typically, hardware problems are intermittent, whereas software, data files, and firmware problems are consistent. Why? A hardware problem is often the result of a damaged or loose wire or connection; when the connection is closed, the component works, but when the connection opens, the component fails. Gather Information Start the process by gathering information. Some of the information you need may be obtained from log files created by the operating system. You can also compare the current settings for the device to its default settings. Note To learn more about log files for Windows, macOS, and Linux, see “Logs,” Chapter 31, p.650.

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Other information sources include the following:

Printer self-test to display amount of RAM and number of pages printed (laser); firmware version (laser or inkjet) Network logs Current BIOS/firmware settings Hardware information Windows Update history

Use Table 7-1 for additional suggestions. Duplicate the Problem, If Possible If the problem can be duplicated, this can make the discovery of possible causes much easier. Try the same task with the same files and output device(s) that were originally involved. Record any error messages or dialogs that are displayed. Tip Use the system’s built-in screen-capture utility, such as Windows 10’s Snipping Tool (see https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/13776/windows-use-snipping-tool-to-capture-screenshots and https://www.cnet.com/how-to/7-ways-to-take-screenshots-in-windows-10/) or macOS’s screen capture (Shift+Command+3 keys). With Linux, install a screen capture tool (see https://www.tecmint.com/take-or-capture-desktopscreenshots-in-ubuntu-linux/) and save the output files to a separate device (if possible) or use the built-in camera in a smartphone or tablet to record error messages or dialogs. If you install a third-party screen capture app or save captures to the system’s built-in storage, you might change how the system functions. Also, you usually cannot use a screen-capture app before the operating system has loaded.

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Question Users Users of the device, network, or mobile connection can sometimes provide valuable clues, but need to be questioned in a nonthreatening manner if you want to get the facts of the case. Some users might be fearful of possible consequences if they were not using a device or network connection in an authorized manner and may be unwilling to be forthcoming about what they were doing. Be compassionate and understanding, and work to help users understand that your questions are not designed to assign personal blame but are intended to help the device, system, or network to run properly. Some of the ways you can help to develop a good relationship with your clients during the process include the following: Using proper language and avoiding jargon, acronyms, and slang, when applicable Maintaining a positive attitude and projecting confidence Actively listening (taking notes) and avoiding interrupting the customer Using your smartphone only for business-related matters after explaining what you’re doing and why (no social media, personal calls, or personal texts) Avoiding judging the customer Avoiding arguments with the customer

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Asking permission before touching, viewing, or moving printouts or other personal/business items

Identify Symptoms As you review the computing environment and talk to users, you should be trying to identify symptoms. Some possible symptoms might include the following:

Loud noise from inside the computer An unpleasant or unusual odor, which might or might not be accompanied by smoke or fumes An unexpected error message Flickering lights or other signs of a power fluctuation Slower-than-normal system response Inability to connect to network resources Blank screen Software not performing as expected

Table 7-2 lists some of the symptoms that can be caused by different parts of the computer. Note Make sure you turn off the computer, disconnect it from power, and use ESD protection before examining the inside of a computer!

Table 7-2 Computer Subsystems and Symptoms

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Subsystems

Common Symptoms

Most Likely Causes

Motherboards, RAM, CPUs, power

Unexpected shutdowns

Power supply failure.

System lockups

Overheating, power supply.

POST code beeps

Check list of beep codes for BIOS/UEFI for causes.

Blank screen on bootup

Bad RAM, video card.

BIOS/UEFI time and setting resets

Battery on motherboard may be bad.

Attempts to boot to incorrect device

Reset boot order in BIOS/UEFI.

Continuous reboots

Power supply, repair OS boot files.

No power

Front-panel wire from switch to motherboard may be loose, power supply turned off, AC cord not plugged in, bad power supply.

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Overheating

Check case and fan air vents for dirt and blockage, check fans, remove dust and dirt from motherboard and components.

Loud noise

Check power supply, fans.

Intermittent device failure

Disconnect and reconnect power, data cables.

Fans spin, no power to other devices

Disconnect and reconnect power cables to peripherals.

Indicator lights

Look up meaning of lights.

Smoke

Component failed on motherboard, add-on cards, or power supply.

Burning smell

Component failed on motherboard, add-on cards, or power supply.

Proprietary crash screens (BSOD/pin wheel)

Look up error code(s) on OS website.

Distended capacitors

Replace capacitors, if possible, or replace motherboard or other component.

Check power supply voltage.

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Hard drives, SSDs, and RAID arrays (mass storage)

Log entries and error messages

Look up entries and error messages.

Read/write failure

Test drive with OS or drive-vendor app.

Slow performance

Make sure drive is connected to the recommended port type; test drive with OS or drive-vendor app.

Loud clicking noise

Back up drive immediately if not recently backed up; test drive with OS or drive-vendor app.

Failure to boot

Check BIOS/UEFI boot order; use OS boot repair functions.

Drive not recognized

Check power and data cables.

OS not found

Check BIOS/UEFI boot order; use OS boot repair functions.

RAID not found

Check connections to RAID drives; check RAID setup.

RAID stops working

Check connections to RAID drives; check RAID setup; replace failed

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drive.

Video, projector, and displays

Proprietary crash screens (BSOD/pin wheel)

Look up error code(s) on OS website.

S.M.A.R.T. errors

Indicates drive in imminent danger of failure; back up drive and replace.

VGA mode

Restart system in normal mode; reinstall correct video drivers.

No image on screen

Check power and data cables to display; use special display keys on a laptop to display desktop on built-in monitor; check video drivers.

Overheat shutdown

Check GPU fans; check fans in projector; if overclocking GPU, return to standard settings.

Dead pixels

Try gently tapping pixels on display with a pencil eraser; have display replaced.

Artifacts

See overheat shutdown notes.

Incorrect color patterns

See overheat shutdown notes.

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Mobile devices (tablets, smartphones, laptops)

Dim image

Adjust brightness/contrast; if projector, check bulb.

Flickering image

Reset resolution to recommended.

Distorted image

Reset resolution to recommended.

Distorted geometry

Reset resolution to recommended.

Burn-in

Replace display or projector.

Oversized images and icons

System was booted in safe mode (Windows); restart. On any OS, reset resolution to recommended; reset scale and layout to 100% (Windows).

No display

Check power, check brightness.

Dim display

Check brightness, check power saving mode, recharge device.

Flickering display

Loose internal connection, have device serviced.

Sticking keys

Clean keyboard with vacuum or canned air.

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Intermittent wireless

Connect to a stronger network.

Battery not charging

Check charger and charger cable.

Ghost cursor/pointer drift

Accidental finger taps on laptop touchpad.

No power

Check battery, charger, charger cable.

Num Lock indicator lights

Press Num Lock to turn on/off.

No wireless connectivity

Turn off airplane mode, make sure wireless is turned on.

No Bluetooth connectivity

Turn off airplane mode, make sure Bluetooth is on.

Cannot display to external monitor

Check connection to display, mirror or extend desktop.

Touchscreen nonresponsive

Clean touchscreen, may need to service device.

Apps not

Reset app, uninstall and reinstall.

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loading

Printers

Slow performance

Close open apps, uninstall unused apps to free up space.

Unable to decrypt email

Reinstall decryption app.

Extremely short battery life

Switch to low-power mode, replace battery.

Overheating

Close open apps; remove device from case; avoid overcharging battery.

Frozen system

Shut down device and allow to cool off.

No sound from speakers

Check speaker connections (cable or Bluetooth); adjust volume.

GPS not functioning

Enable GPS in settings.

Swollen battery

Battery overcharged; replace battery and charger.

Streaks

For laser, remove and shake toner cartridge. For inkjet, clean printhead, make sure correct paper type chosen.

Faded prints

Check print style. This is normal for

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economy printing. For laser, replace toner cartridge. Ghost images

Check fuser; check toner cartridge/imaging drum. Replace as needed.

Toner not fused to the paper

Check fuser; replace as needed.

Creased paper

Reload paper; check for obstructions in paper path; remove and replace duplex (double-sided) print component.

Paper not feeding

Remove some paper from paper tray; adjust settings on printer for paper thickness; hand-feed thick paper or card stock if possible.

Paper jam

Clear out jam; check for obstructions (torn paper, stickers, labels) in paper path; remove and replace duplex print component.

No connectivity

If wired, check cable to printer; if wireless, check Wi-Fi or Bluetooth setting on printer.

Garbled characters on paper

Check printer driver; check printer cable.

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Vertical lines on page

Dirty rollers; (laser) low toner.

Backed-up print queue

Make sure printer is online and properly connected; open print queue and restart jobs.

Low-memory errors

For laser: Too many fonts or graphics on page; reduce number of fonts or graphics; upgrade printer memory if possible.

Access denied

Printer or network management settings may not give access to user or group at any time or at particular times.

Printer will not print

Shut down printer; restart printer. See “Backed-up print queue.” If no jobs in queue, try printer self-test.

Color prints in wrong print color

Make sure toner or ink cartridges are in correct positions; printer may need to be serviced or replaced.

Unable to install printer

User may not have permission to install a printer.

Error codes

Check error codes (error lights) in printer documentation for answers.

Printing blank

Ask user to review document for a

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Wired and wireless networks

pages

blank page at the end of a document; some printers or network print queues are configured to print a blank page after each job to protect user privacy.

No image on printer display

Printer may be turned off or may be in low-power mode. Turn on printer; wake up printer.

Limited connectivity

Log in to network with proper credentials; disconnect and reconnect as needed; open browser to complete login process on free, public networks.

Unavailable resources

Network resources are not available until you log in to the network.

Internet

Log in to network with proper credentials; disconnect and reconnect as needed; open browser to complete login process on free, public networks. DHCP server on network may have assigned all available IP addresses; try setting up an IP address in the correct range manually.

Local resources

Make sure USB or other cables have not been disconnected.

Shares

For a workgroup network, the device

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with folder or printer share must have account for you to log in to. For a domain (corporate) network, contact manager to have account permissions changed. Printers

For a workgroup network, the device with folder or printer share must have account for you to log in to. For a domain (corporate) network, contact manager to have account permissions changed.

Email

Make sure email settings are correct; make sure network/Internet connection is working.

No connectivity

For wireless, turn off airplane mode; make sure Wi-Fi or Bluetooth is on. Release/refresh IP address lease.

APIPA/link local address

Device could not receive IP address from DHCP server. Release/refresh IP address lease; shut down and restart Wi-Fi connection.

Intermittent connectivity

Cellular-equipped: Device not switching between Wi-Fi and cellular; try turning off Wi-Fi when out of range. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi signal weak in some areas. Add Wi-Fi repeaters.

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IP conflict

IP address set manually is clashing with addresses set by DHCP. Choose an address that is in the same network but not in the range used by the DHCP server. Make sure all devices on the network use the same DHCP server.

Slow transfer speeds

Make sure fastest SSID (wireless network) available is used for connection. Make sure wired network adapter is set to use fastest connection settings available.

Low RF signal

Move Wi-Fi or Bluetooth device to different location to improve signal strength. If a USB Wi-Fi or Bluetooth adapter is used, connect it to a USB extension cable and reposition it for better signal strength.

SSID not found

Wireless router/access point might be out of service. Make sure Wi-Fi device is using correct frequency. If SSID is hidden, select hidden SSID and provide SSID name and password.

Some of these symptoms might still exist when you are talking to users, but others are likely to no longer be evident. How you ask users about symptoms can help you discover the symptoms that took place before the

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reported problem occurred: “Did you hear anything different than usual?” “Do you usually print to a network printer?” “Do you remember what apps were open when the problem happened?” “Have you used the (printer, device, app) before, or was it just installed?”

Keep in mind that you should not limit the conversation to immediate issues. Anything out of the ordinary that occurred earlier on the same day, earlier in the week, or even the previous week could be significant. Determine if Anything Has Changed If you can determine if anything has changed (device settings, upgraded hardware, updated operating system or app, cables, and so on), the change might be the reason for the failure you are trying to troubleshoot. Some of the ways to determine if anything has changed might include the following:

Reviewing operating system and application update logs Comparing the default settings for the device to the current settings Reviewing device driver versions and when they were last updated Reviewing antivirus and anti-malware scan histories

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Reviewing network update logs Checking to see if any device or peripheral cables have been disconnected or connected to different ports than their assigned ports Checking IT department records of system hardware upgrades Checking BIOS/UEFI firmware revisions and updates Checking to see what apps/programs were installed recently Determining if new hardware was installed recently Checking to see what apps/programs were updated recently Determining if there were changes to the database recently (new tables, new data, new queries, old data removed, and so on)

Approach Multiple Problems Individually If multiple problems have been reported, approach each of them individually. It’s possible that multiple problems might have a common cause (for example, a network failure would cause problems with all network operations, including printing, backup, email, and so on), but in most cases, it’s easier to figure out the solution to a single problem.

RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE

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RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE BASE/INTERNET, IF APPLICABLE After you’ve completed Step 1 (Identify the problem), it’s time to move onto Step 2: Research knowledge base/Internet, if applicable. Unless you find a glaringly obvious problem such as a loose or missing cable or physical damage to a device, it’s time for some research. If your organization has its own knowledge base, search that first. However, sooner or later, it’s going to be time to head to the Internet:

Whether you suspect a hardware or software problem, try searching the Internet for the symptoms before going to a particular vendor’s website to search. Use keywords that describe the symptoms or problems. Be sure to include brand, model and operating system information in your search—for example, “HP LaserJet Pro 400,” “Windows,” “Epson ET-4750,” “macOS,” “Microsoft Office 2016 for macOS,” “Office 365 Home and Student for Windows,” “Adobe Photoshop CC 2018,” and so on. Pay attention to the dates of proposed solutions if multiple suggestions are given, as newer suggestions may work better than older suggestions. Note the operating system or app version listed. Sometimes the same solution will work with older or newer versions than the current one. For apps that have cloud or local/network versions, make sure you

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specify the correct version.

Note Don’t be too specific if you are searching for help with a device, operating system, or app that has many variations. For example, HP often has many different model numbers for laptops that are essentially the same (varying by CPU speed, RAM installed, and so on). If you are searching for help with a smartphone or tablet that has different models for different carriers, try searching for the basic model first. If you are searching for help with a software program (app), you might try searching for the name first, then narrow it down by adding the version.

ESTABLISH A THEORY OF PROBABLE CAUSE After you’ve researched problems and symptoms, it’s time for Step 3: Establish a theory of probable cause. The more thorough a job you’ve done in Steps 1–2, the easier it will be to establish a successful theory: that is, a theory that, when tested, solves the problem. Question the Obvious Keep in mind that the obvious answer isn’t always the best answer, and a “solution” that was implemented without understanding the problem can make matters worse. For example, a user reports a loud cooling fan inside a desktop computer. At the prompting of another user, the power to the cooling fan was disconnected. The fan no longer makes any noise, but a temperature alarm inside

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the case is now going off. Fortunately, the user called the help desk and was advised to shut down the computer before the system was damaged or data lost. Another example: A user reports an error message being displayed and the system becoming unbearably slow whenever two apps were being run at the same time. The user decided to run only one app at a time. This made it difficult to get work done as both apps were needed. Fortunately, the user decided to call the help desk and it was determined that both apps needed updates. After the apps were updated, the error message no longer appeared. Consider Multiple Approaches There may be more than one solution to a problem, so consider multiple approaches. Generally, the simplest solution is preferred, especially if it enables the current tasks to be performed without interruption. For example, if a keyboard appears to have failed, plug in a new USB keyboard. USB devices are generally hotpluggable, so the keyboard should be recognized and enabled without specific drivers being installed. This is also a good “quick fix” if a laptop’s keyboard stops working. If an internal component appears to have failed, such as a network adapter, consider using a USB adapter as a

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temporary replacement. A USB adapter can typically be plugged in and used with a driver installation, instead of shutting down the computer and sending it in for repairs. If you suspect a network connection problem, try connecting to a different wireless network or a different physical network. If a problem occurs at certain times of the day, but not others, look for potential interference issues. For example, wired security systems and elevators can interfere with wired networks that use unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling. A microwave oven can interfere with some wireless networks. Try to examine the environment where the problem takes place under similar circumstances to when the problem takes place. Because you’re not familiar with the location, you might notice issues that the occupants don’t. If a problem occurs with software, check the documentation to see if there’s a way to start the misbehaving app in safe mode. An app’s safe mode (when available) turns off features that might cause problems. For example, to start Microsoft Office for Windows apps in safe mode, hold down the Ctrl key while the app starts, or use the Run command and add the /safe option to the command to start the app. Divide and Conquer

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Divide and Conquer As you can see from Table 7-1, most subsystems (and thus, most potential causes for problems) have multiple components. When you propose a solution to try in Step 4, make one change at a time. When you are looking for possible causes, divide the problem into the smallest possible parts. For example, suppose you can’t print to a local printer. The printing subsystem includes the printer, the USB cable between the printer and the computer, the USB port, the printer driver in the operating system, and the application. Each of these could cause the problem. Start by checking the printer itself. Is it turned on? Online? Does is have ink or toner installed? If not, correct the problem and retry. Next, check the USB cable. Is it connected to the printer and to a USB port on the computer? If not, correct the problem and retry. Continue until you have checked each part of the subsystem. By using this “divide and conquer” method, you can find and fix problems in a systematic way. If a problem appears complex, try looking for common features. For example, problems with printing, saving documents, and opening documents could have different causes if only local devices are being used, but

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if a network is used, all of these problems could be traced back to the network. Here’s an example with software: The system locks up when two specific programs are running at the same time. The application subsystem includes the operating system, the storage for the apps, the app files, and the data files created by each app. Each of these could cause the problem. Start by running the first app and opening, editing, and saving some files. Note the app’s version and installed updates. Are there any problems with the app? If not, close it. If there are problems, resolve them. Next, run the second app and open, edit, and save some files. Note this app’s version and installed updates. Are there any problems with the app? If not, close it. If there are problems, resolve them. You have determined that the apps work properly when run separately. By using the “divide and conquer” method with apps, you now know the problem has to do with the combination of these apps running and not a problem with either app by itself.

TEST THE THEORY TO DETERMINE THE

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TEST THE THEORY TO DETERMINE THE CAUSE Have a theory of probable cause? It’s time for Step 4: Test the theory to determine the cause. To test a theory, change what you think is causing the problem. Some examples include the following:

Update device drivers. Uninstall the device and let the operating system reinstall the device. Swap a cable. Move a USB device to a different port. Swap memory modules. Mute audio components. Install updates for the operating system. Install updates for apps. Test drives for errors. Test databases or data files for errors.

See Table 7-1 for additional suggestions. If you swap (replace) parts, be sure to use parts that are compatible and are known to work. A new, untested part could be defective.

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Caution If you don’t record the current configuration of the system’s hardware and software before you make a change to test your theory, you will not be able to reset the system to its previous condition if your first change doesn’t solve the problem.

After you make a single change in the system, retest it to see if the problem is solved. What do you do next? That depends on what you found out. Once the Theory Is Confirmed (Confirmed Root Cause), Determine the Next Steps to Resolve the Problem

If your theory is confirmed, it’s time to decide how to resolve the problem. Let’s look at the specific examples provided in the previous section: Update device drivers. Continue to use the updated device drivers. Uninstall the device and let the operating system reinstall the device. If the device now operates properly, continue to use it. Swap a cable. If the replacement cable is not needed elsewhere, continue to use it. Move a USB device to a different port. If the USB device now works, you must decide if the USB port’s host device (card, motherboard, or hub) needs to be replaced. Swap memory modules. If the replacement memory modules are not needed elsewhere, continue to use them.

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Mute microphone or speakers. If muting either the microphone or speakers solves the problem, determine a permanent solution. Install updates for the operating system. If installing operating system updates solves the problem, plan to implement the solution on other affected systems. Install updates for apps. If installing app updates solves the problem, plan to implement the solution on other affected systems. Test drives for errors. The results of the test determine what the solution should be. Test databases or data files for errors. The results of the test help determine what the solution should be.

If the Theory Is Not Confirmed, Establish a New Theory or Escalate

What should you do if your theory didn’t work? Develop a new theory and test it. If you’re fairly certain you have identified the correct subsystem as the problem, move to the next step in the process of testing the subsystem. For example, if swapping in memory didn’t solve the problem, try the memory you removed from the problem system in a different, but similar, working system. If the other system continues to work, that suggests that the original computer’s memory sockets are dirty or have failed. If you have checked everything in a particular subsystem, you can either look at another subsystem or

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escalate the problem to the next support tier. Tip End users who have some knowledge of basic troubleshooting may grow frustrated if you are following a script that asks whether this, that, or the next thing have been tried and they’ve already tried those steps. Thank them for their efforts, and if you have reached the end of what you can do, escalate it to a more advanced level.

ESTABLISH A PLAN OF ACTION TO RESOLVE THE PROBLEM AND IDENTIFY POTENTIAL EFFECTS Once you’ve discovered the solution in Step 4, it’s time for Step 5: Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and identify potential effects. A plan of action can be as simple as installing a replacement cable. Sometimes a plan of action might be more complex, as in dealing with a failing internal drive in a RAID 10 array, as follows: Step 1: Back up data if data has not been backed up in ___ days (the exact amount of time depends upon how often the data changes; if data changes frequently, a backup might be needed daily). Step 2: Shut down system and disconnect from power. Step 3: Take ESD (electrostatic discharge) precautions and open system.

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Step 4: Remove old drive. Step 5: Check capacity. Step 6: Install new drive of same capacity. Step 7: Reconnect to power. Step 8: Restart system. Step 9: Prepare drive for use (partition, reformat) using RAID firmware. Step 10: Rebuild RAID array. Step 11: Test drive for proper operation using operating system or drive vendor diagnostics. Step 12: Restart system and test functionality. Here’s an example of a plan of action for dealing with a malware outbreak: Step 1: Identify and research malware symptoms. Step 2: Quarantine the infected systems. Step 3: Disable System Restore (in Windows). Step 4: Remediate the infected systems. 4a: Update the anti-malware software. 4b: Scan and use removal techniques (safe mode, pre-installation environment). Step 5: Schedule scans and run updates. Step 6: Enable System Restore and create a restore point (in Windows).

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Step 7: Educate the end user. What are potential effects? Potential effects for any solution can range from nothing (system works immediately, no downtime) to significant (system must be taken offline for repairs) as in the plans of action just described.

IMPLEMENT THE SOLUTION OR ESCALATE AS NECESSARY With the plan of action (Step 5) in hand, it’s time to implement it or escalate it (Step 6). If you are responsible for implementing the plan of action, follow it carefully. Be sure to note any problems with the plan or any additional problems you observe. If you are not responsible for implementing the plan of action, escalate it to the department that is responsible.

VERIFY FULL SYSTEM FUNCTIONALITY

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VERIFY FULL SYSTEM FUNCTIONALITY AND, IF APPLICABLE, IMPLEMENT PREVENTIVE MEASURES After the plan of action is implemented (Step 6), it’s time to verify full system functionality (Step 7). Simply put, make sure the system, peripheral, or device does what it is supposed to do. This step, while vital, is often missed by technicians. Don’t just install something and walk away, hoping it will work.

Here are some examples of testing full system functionality: Connect to a wired network and open a folder, then a file. Connect to a wireless network and open a folder, then a file. Connect to the Internet and view a web page that changes frequently, such as a news aggregator. Print to a local printer. Print to a network printer. Open a file from local or network storage, edit it, and save it under a different name. Scan a document or photograph. Copy a file to a USB drive. Burn an optical disc. Extend the desktop or mirror dual displays (depending on task requirements).

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Scroll through a document with a mouse or pointing device. Pinch zoom a web page with a touchscreen. Run a backup. Run the OS or app update process. Run an app and use it normally (open, edit, save data, close app).

What circumstances require the implementation of preventive measures? Here are some examples:

Data loss due to a lack of backups: Set up a backup schedule and enable automatic backup in supported apps (Microsoft Office, and so on). Malware infection due to outdated malware protection: Update malware protection and set up an update schedule. Malware infection due to lack of real-time protection: Enable real-time protection. Malware infection due to infection from website: Set up realtime protection and enable browser anti-malware features. Malware infection due to phishing emails or social engineering: Set up training to help users distinguish legitimate emails from fakes and to avoid social engineering attempts in person or by phone. Drive failure: Enable S.M.A.R.T. drive self-monitoring, schedule operating system disk testing on a regular schedule, and make sure backups are scheduled. Any problem caused by user error or omission of needed tasks: If possible, automate tasks that should be done and set up user training.

DOCUMENT FINDINGS/LESSONS

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DOCUMENT FINDINGS/LESSONS LEARNED, ACTIONS, AND OUTCOMES

Many IT problems are not one-offs; they are likely to occur again and again. Instead of starting from scratch each time, document the entire process of solving a problem. Follow the eight-step troubleshooting process when you record your findings. Be sure to add any figures (screen captures, diagrams, photos, and so on) that will help you or others solve similar problems the next time. Be sure to record the outcomes. All of these are part of Step 8: Document Findings/Lessons Learned, Actions, and Outcomes. What lessons did you and others in the organization learn? For example, did users learn how to detect phishing emails? When to check for malware? How to tell when a backup drive is becoming full? How to tell that the wireless network is not working? Be sure to record this as well. Here’s an example that shows it might be necessary to make several attempts to solve a problem and that one “solution” can lead to another problem that needs to be solved: Step 1: A user is unable to perform a video chat on a desktop computer. Symptoms included a blank

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screen during video chat and no video device available. Step 2: Research indicated most likely reason was that webcam was not plugged in to a working USB port. Step 3: Theory: Plug in webcam. Step 4: Webcam was plugged in and video responded. However, speakers began to make loud howling and clicking noises. Return to Step 1 to solve newly discovered problem. Return to Step 1: User recalled that webcam was disconnected because of sounds coming from speakers. Step 2: Research indicated that feedback between the webcam and speakers was a possible cause of the problem. Step 3: Theory: Mute microphone in webcam. Step 4: Webcam’s microphone was muted and sound from speakers stopped. However, webcam’s microphone and speakers, rather than a headset, are needed for video chat. Return to Step 1 to look for a permanent solution. Return to Step 1: Speakers are behind webcam and are at same height as webcam (which is attached to the top of a display).

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Step 2: Further research indicated that moving the webcam (microphone) away from the speakers might reduce/eliminate feedback. Step 3: Theory: Place webcam on desk below level of speakers. Step 4: Webcam was moved, unmuted, and feedback stopped. Step 5: Plan of action: Make sure webcams and speakers are not at same height for this user or other user in a similar situation. Step 6: Webcam’s position was adjusted permanently. Step 7: Tested webcam and speakers in video chat. Verified correct operation. Played music and audio with speakers. Verified correct operation. Showed user how to mute/unmute webcam microphone in case future changes in equipment setup would cause problems. Step 8: Wrote up problem and solution. Made available in in-house support documents. Advised all users with similar situations.

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 7-3 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 7-3 Key Topics for Chapter 7

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

List

How to identify the problem

85

Table 7-1

Computer and peripheral subsystems

85

List

Safeguarding current settings

89

List

Information sources for a system or device

90

List

Possible symptoms

91

List

How to identify if anything has changed

98

List

Research tips

99

List

Testing a theory

102

List

Resolving the problem

103

List

Testing full system functionality

103

List

Preventive measures

105

Define Key Terms

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Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: Subsystem hardware software firmware log files knowledge base theory of probable cause plan of action full system functionality preventive measures. Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix B, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix C, “Memory Tables Answers,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 1.6 1. Reviewing operating system and application update logs is part of which troubleshooting step? 1. Establish a theory of probable cause 2. Identify the problem 3. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and identify potential effects 4. Implement the solution or escalate as necessary

2. Setting up staff training to avoid phishing and social engineering is an example of ____________. 1. establishing a plan of action 2. identifying the problem 3. testing the theory 4. preventive measures

3. Resetting the CMOS is not an example of troubleshooting which of the following components? 1. Power 2. RAM 3. Motherboard 4. CPU

4. Which of the following components uses TCP/IP configuration settings?

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1. Network adapter 2. Display 3. Storage 4. RAM

5. How can you capture a BIOS/UEFI/firmware setup screen? (Choose the correct method.) 1. Press the PrintScreen key. 2. Use a screen snipping program. 3. Use your smartphone’s camera. 4. Use Alt+C keys.

6. The scanner driver is an example of which of the following? 1. Software 2. Hardware 3. Firmware 4. Subsystem

7. You are preparing to test an internal SATA hard drive. Which of the following is not part of the storage subsystem? 1. SATA cable 2. BIOS/firmware settings 3. Power connector 4. USB port

8. Identify symptoms” is part of which step? 1. Step 2: Research knowledge base/Internet 2. Step 4: Test the theory

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3. Step 1: Identify the problem 4. Step 6: Implement the solution or escalate

9. Select the correct order for these steps: (a) Test the theory; (b) Research knowledge base/Internet; (c) Identify the problem; (d) Document findings. 1. a, b, c, d 2. c, b, a, d 3. d, a, c, b 4. d, c, b, a

10. A speed monitoring cable is used by which of the following subsystems? 1. Storage 2. Display 3. Power 4. Cooling

11. You have swapped a cable with a brand-new cable, and the device still does not work. Which of the following is the correct conclusion to draw? 1. Something else besides the cable is wrong. 2. The port is defective 3. The replacement cable is not known to be working. 4. The device is defective.

12. In the process of repairing a “dead” computer, you wind up swapping the power supply, the RAM, and the video card, in that order, keeping each of the replacement parts connected as you swapped the

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next one. The computer now works. Which of the following is a correct statement of what happened? 1. The power supply was the problem. 2. The RAM was the problem. 3. All of the replaced parts were defective. 4. We don’t know if the power supply and the RAM are defective.

13. If the theory is confirmed (confirmed root cause), you should determine the next steps to resolve the problem. What should you do if the theory is not confirmed? 1. Establish a new theory or escalate. 2. Question users. 3. Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures. 4. Duplicate the problem, if possible.

14. You are applying the troubleshooting methodology steps in order to fix a user’s laser printer that won’t print. While establishing a theory of probable cause, what should you do first? 1. Duplicate the problem, if possible. 2. Question the obvious. 3. Change the toner cartridge. 4. Approach multiple problems individually.

15. What are the first and last steps of the troubleshooting methodology? 1. Establish a theory of probable cause and implement the solution or escalate as necessary.

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2. Research knowledge base/Internet, if applicable, and verify full system functionality. 3. Test the theory to determine the cause and establish a plan of action. 4. Identify the problem and document findings/lessons learned, actions, and outcomes.

16. You are attempting to identify an operating system application-related problem for a user. Where would be a great place to gather information from? 1. The users Pictures folder 2. The network log 3. The operating system application log 4. A second-tier help desk support technician

17. The user is attempting to open a picture and sees an error message instead. When you have the user open another picture in the same folder, the picture opens normally. Which of the following is most likely the cause? 1. App failure 2. Hardware problem 3. Firmware problem 4. Picture file corrupted

18. You are helping a user with a website that doesn’t want to load. Which of the following troubleshooting actions should be tried first to determine if the website itself has a problem? 1. Open a different website. 2. Disconnect and reconnect the network cable or USB adapter.

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3. Reinstall the web browser. 4. Contact the Internet service provider.

19. A user’s desktop computer won’t turn on. The user reports that a hard drive was just replaced at the user’s work area and the tech didn’t test the computer before leaving. Which of the following should you check first? 1. AC outlet used by computer 2. Switch on surge suppressor 3. Power supply switch and AC cord 4. Front-panel wire from case power switch to motherboard

20. You are sitting in an airport terminal awaiting a connecting flight. A fellow passenger is playing “Angry Birds” but can’t make a phone call. Which of the following should be checked first? 1. Power 2. Airplane mode 3. Bluetooth 4. Wireless

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YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) Troubleshooting is an essential skill, and this chapter is just the first taste of a big part of working in IT. Whatever direction you go in, we’d suggest getting the CompTIA A+ certification next, as it will greatly enhance your ability to troubleshoot hardware, software, firmware, and networks. After that, it’s up to you!

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Part 2: Domain 2.0 – Infrastructure

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Chapter 8 I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces Today’s computers feature more built-in interfaces than ever before, and others can be added with adapter cards. This chapter covers three essential categories of input/output device interfaces: networking, peripheral device, and graphic device. These are included in CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 2.1: Classify common types of input/output device interfaces: networking (wired and wireless), peripheral device (USB, FireWire, Thunderbolt, Bluetooth, and RF), and graphic device (VGA, HDMI, DVI, DisplayPort, and Mini DisplayPort).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS NETWORKING A computer or mobile device is not very useful unless it can connect to other devices or to the Internet. Networking interfaces make it happen. In this section, you learn about two categories of network interfaces: wired and wireless. Wired A wired network interface requires a connection on the device and a connection to the local area network (LAN) or to the Internet. The first type of wired network interface, the Registered Jack Function 11 (RJ-11) telephone connector, connects PCs, printers, and multifunction devices directly to remote computers or to the Internet via the telephone network. The second type of wired network interface, the Registered Jack Function 45 (RJ-45) Ethernet connector, is more versatile: It can connect computers and devices to each other on a LAN or to the Internet. RJ-11 cables generally have two or four wires, whereas RJ-45 cables have eight wires. Figure 8-1 compares RJ-11 and RJ-45 ports to each other. Figure 8-2 compares RJ-11 and RJ-45 cables to each other.

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Figure 8-1 RJ-45 (Top) and RJ-11 (Bottom) Ports Are Similar in Shape, But the RJ-45 Port Is Wider and Taller.

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Figure 8-2 RJ-45 (Top) and RJ-11 (Bottom) Cables Have Locking Clips. The RJ-45 Ethernet Cable Has Multicolored Wires That Are Arranged in Specific Wire Pairs.

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Telephone Connector (RJ-11) The RJ-11 telephone jack connects a device called a dialup modem (analog modem) or a fax device to a telephone line. Before the widespread availability of cable, DSL, and fiber optic Internet connections, dial-up connections were widely used for Internet access. The connecting modem translated digital signals into analog form for transmission over phone lines, and the remote modem reversed the process. Because signals were sent in both directions, both modems translated digital-toanalog signals and analog-to-digital signals. However, dial-up modems, though obsolete for Internet access, are still useful. A dial-up modem with fax capability can be used to send and receive fax data. This capability is common with all types of modems still in use today, including modems built in to add-on cards for desktop computers (see Figure 8-3) and external modems that plug in to a USB port. Some operating systems include fax support, or it can be added with a third-party app.

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Figure 8-3 A PCI Analog Modem Card Installed in a Motherboard. The Unused RJ-11 Port Can Be Used for a Wired Telephone.

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Ethernet Connector (RJ-45) The RJ-45 port (refer to Figure 8-1) is used for all types of copper-wire-based Ethernet networking, including the most common types (Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet). A typical Ethernet cable is shown in Figure 82 (top). The maximum speed of an Ethernet network is based on the standard supported by Ethernet adapters, by other hardware on the network, and by the network cable type used. Table 8-1 lists the recommended cable grade for various types of wired Ethernet. Using a cable grade lower than the one recommended for a particular Ethernet connection speed can result in excessive transmission and reception errors or a reduction in network speed.

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Table 8-1 Ethernet Cable Grade and Supported Networks

Ethernet Speed

Also Known As

Recommended Cable Grade

10Mbps

10Mbps Ethernet

CAT 3 or higher

100Mbps

Fast Ethernet

CAT 5 or higher

1000Mbps

Gigabit Ethernet

CAT 5e or CAT 6

10000Mbps

10G BASE-T Ethernet

CAT 6, CAT 6e, CAT 7*

CAT is short for “category.” *Other types of 10G Ethernet use fiber optic cable.

Note To learn more about other Ethernet hardware (routers, switches, modems, access points, and firewalls), see Chapter 14, “Explain Basic Networking Concepts.”

Wireless Wireless networking enables a computer, smartphone, tablet, or multifunction (print/scan/copy) peripheral to connect with other devices without data cables. The three types of wireless connections you need to understand for the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam are wireless Ethernet (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth, and NFC.

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Note To learn more about wireless Ethernet, see Chapter 15, “Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network.”

In the following sections, we look at two short-range wireless networks: Bluetooth and NFC. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a very flexible short-range wireless network. It can be used to do the following: Connect to wireless speakers, mice, keyboards, printers, and game controllers Transfer files between devices Control home security or automation devices Integrate your smartphone with your car’s audio or navigation system

The process of connecting two Bluetooth devices to each other requires the following settings: Bluetooth must be enabled on both devices. Bluetooth can be turned on or off on computers, tablets, and smartphones (see Figure 8-4). The computer, smartphone, or tablet must be discoverable. Depending on the operating system and device, this option may be turned on automatically when you turn on Bluetooth. The devices must be paired (see Figure 8-5).

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Figure 8-4 An Android Smartphone with Bluetooth and NFC Enabled

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Figure 8-5 A Windows 10 Tablet with Bluetooth Devices Already

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Paired

There are three Bluetooth power classes, as shown in Table 8-2. Most Bluetooth devices use Class 2 radios. Table 8-2 Bluetooth Power/Distance Classes

Device Class

Transmit Power

Intended Range

Class 1

100 mW

100 meters, 328 feet

Class 2

2.5 mW

10 meters, 33 feet

Class 3

1 mW

Less than 10 meters

NFC Near field communication (NFC) is a feature that enables smartphones to be used for payment services such as Apple Pay, Samsung Pay, and others. NFC also enables file transfer between supported devices. NFC must be enabled before it can be used (refer to Figure 8-4). After NFC is enabled, users can run a supported payment app to pay at NFC-compatible pointof-sale devices by moving their smartphone or smartwatch near the point-of-sale device’s sensor. Some implementations of NFC, such as Apple’s iPhone, can only be used for payment services.

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To transfer files between smartphones with NFC, both smartphones must have NFC enabled and an NFC file transfer utility enabled, such as S Beam (Samsung smartphones) or Android Beam (Android smartphones). Tap the phones together to transfer files. NFC can also be used with compatible printers for tap-to-print capabilities.

PERIPHERAL DEVICES

With the rise of laptop computers with few or no internal upgrades available and the need to have peripherals that work with all types of computers, external peripheral devices have become extremely popular. The IT Fundamentals+ exam concentrates on these peripheral device interfaces: USB FireWire Thunderbolt Bluetooth RF

In the following sections, you learn how these work, and what they’re most suited for.

USB

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USB Universal serial bus (USB) is the overwhelming leader in popularity and versatility. USB ports can be used for input devices such as keyboards, mice, and scanners; storage devices such as flash drives, optical drives, and external hard drives; output devices such as printers, multifunction devices, and even displays; and adapters for both wired and wireless networks. A single USB port (also known as a root hub) can connect to multiple devices when a USB hub is connected to the port. USB is available in several versions, as outlined in Table 8-3.

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Table 8-3 Current USB Versions

USB Version

Also Known As

Maximum Speed

Color Marking on Computer*

2.0

Hi-Speed USB

480Mbps

Black

3.0**

SuperSpeed USB

5Gbps

Blue

3.1 Gen 2

SuperSpeed+ USB

10Gbps

Red

*High-amperage USB 3.0 ports for charging tablets are marked in yellow. **Also known as USB 3.1 Gen 1

The now-obsolete USB 1.1 and the current 2.0 standards use the same connectors and ports. The Type A (flat) port is used by computers (see Figure 8-6), whereas the Type B connector is used by peripherals. Thus, a standard USB cable has a Type A connector at one end and a Type B connector at the opposite end.

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Figure 8-6 USB 2.0, USB 3.0, and USB 3.1 (Gen 2) Ports on a Typical Late-Model Motherboard

Some peripherals, such as digital cameras, USB hubs, and some older cell phones, use a smaller version of the Type B connector called the Mini-B connector. USB Type A, Type B, and Mini-B cables are shown in Figure 8-7.

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Figure 8-7 USB 2.0 Cables

A micro-B connector (also known as USB On-the-Go) is used to connect Android smartphones and tablets to USB ports for data transfer (refer to Figure 8-8).

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Figure 8-8 USB 3.x Versus USB On-the-Go Cables

USB 3.0 (USB 3.1 Gen 1) and USB 3.1 Gen 2 use USB cables with more connectors. The USB 3.x Type A cable resembles the USB Type A cable, but has a blue end. The latest connector type, USB Type C, is reversible and can be used for both computers and peripherals. You can use a Type A to Type C cable when needed. Note Type A to Type C cables are also available for connecting the latest Android smartphones and tablets with Type C connectors to computers that have only Type A connectors.

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Check the specifications for a Type C port on a computer to determine if it supports USB 3.1 Gen 1 (5Gbps) or Gen 2 (10Gbps) speeds. Figure 8-8 compares USB 3.1 Type A, USB Type C, and USB On-the-Go (micro-B) connectors. There are two types of Type B (peripheral) connectors for USB 3.x, USB 3.x Type B, and USB 3.x Micro B, as illustrated in Figure 8-9.

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Figure 8-9 USB 3.x Peripheral Connectors

Figure 8-10 compares the most common USB and USB 3.x peripheral ports.

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Figure 8-10 USB Peripheral Ports

Note USB ports are backward compatible with all previous versions. A device plugged in to a faster port runs at the speed it was designed for. For example, a USB 1.1 keyboard can be plugged in to any USB port, but it runs at USB 1.1 speed regardless of the port’s maximum speed.

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When a USB device is plugged in to a computer that has drivers for the device, the device is recognized immediately. If the device is a storage device, the user might be prompted to select an action to take when the drive is connected (see Figure 8-11). If the device is not recognized on a Windows computer, the user is prompted to install a driver.

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Figure 8-11 A Typical Prompt When a USB Storage Device Is Connected to a System Running Windows 10

When you’re connecting a USB peripheral to a USB port, the best performance is obtained when you match the peripheral to the standard. If you plug a faster device in to a slower port, the connection runs at port speed. For example, if you plug a USB 3.0 flash drive (5Gbps) into a USB 2.0 port (480Mbps), data will be transferred at the (10×) lower speed of USB 2.0. Windows 10’s Settings dialog puts USB and Bluetooth devices in the same dialog, but lets you know if you plugged your faster devices into a slower port (see Figure 8-12). To learn more about the various USB standards, visit http://www.usb.org/home.

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Figure 8-12 Windows 10 Displays a Message in Settings If Y ou Plug Faster USB Devices into a Slower USB Port When Y ou Have Both Types of Ports on Y our System.

If you plug a USB device in to a computer running macOS, it just works or it’s ignored, depending on whether macOS can find and install a driver for you. To get the details about the USB devices connected to your MacBook or other macOS computer, click the Apple icon in the upper-left corner of the screen, click About this Mac, and click System Report. Expand the Hardware section and click USB. To see details about a particular device, click its listing (see Figure 8-13).

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Figure 8-13 This MacBook Air Has an HD Pro Webcam Plugged in to One of Its USB 3.0 Ports

FireWire

FireWire was originally designed as a high-speed connection for devices to PCs and Mac computers. FireWire was a popular choice for digital video (DV) camcorders and hard drives in particular. FireWire 400 (also known as IEEE-1394a) runs at up to 400Mbps, making it much faster than its rival USB 1.1 (12Mbps). Even after USB 2.0 was introduced, FireWire 400 continued to be a popular choice, especially on Mac computers. Some Windows PCs also include a FireWire port (Sony refers to its version as i.Link), but FireWire cards like the one shown in Figure 8-14 enable systems without a built-in FireWire port to connect to FireWire devices. In addition to the PCI form factor shown in Figure 8-14, PCIe (PCI Express) FireWire cards are available for the newer PCs and in form factors for laptops that use add-on cards.

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Figure 8-14 A Typical FireWire 400 Add-on Card for PCI Slots

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FireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b, 800Mbps) is an updated version of FireWire 400. It uses a nine-pin connector that is available in two versions: The Beta connection hosts only FireWire 800 devices, whereas the Bilingual connector can host either FireWire 800 or FireWire 400 devices; just use the appropriate cable. DV camcorders use the four-wire version of the FireWire 400 port, whereas other FireWire 400 devices use the original sixwire port. FireWire 400 and 800 cables are shown in Figure 8-15.

Figure 8-15 FireWire 800 and FireWire 400 Cable Connectors Compared

Although the FireWire standard is not being actively developed, you can find technical information at the 1394 Trade Association website at http://1394ta.org. Thunderbolt, covered next, was developed to replace FireWire.

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Thunderbolt Thunderbolt is a high-speed peripheral connection standard originally introduced by Apple for its macOS desktop and laptop computers. Current iMac Pro and MacBook Pro models have Thunderbolt 3 ports. Recent models may have Thunderbolt 2 ports. Thunderbolt has also been adopted by some manufacturers of computers and motherboards that use Microsoft Windows. It was originally known as LightSpeed. Thunderbolt uses the same connection for computers and peripherals, making the cable completely reversible. Thunderbolt is used for high-speed storage, including external drives, network attached storage (NAS), and Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) as well as for high-resolution video. This is possible because Thunderbolt is a development of DisplayPort (covered later in this chapter in the section “Graphic Device”). Thunderbolt, unlike USB, supports daisy-chained peripherals. Many Thunderbolt portable hard drives also have USB 3.0 ports so they can be used with computers that lack Thunderbolt ports. In Thunderbolt, a cable from the computer connects to the first device in the chain. The device has two Thunderbolt ports, so another device is connected to the second port, and so on. If storage and display devices are mixed on a single Thunderbolt daisy chain, the display

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needs to be the last device. Table 8-4 provides a summary of Thunderbolt versions.

Table 8-4 Thunderbolt Versions

Version

Maximum Speed

Connection Type

Thunderbolt 1

10Gbps

Mini DisplayPort*

Thunderbolt 2

20Gbps

Mini DisplayPort*

Thunderbolt 3

30Gbps

USB-C

*The connectors are the same shape, but the cables are not interchangeable.

Note See https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT207443 for more information about matching Thunderbolt and Mini DisplayPort cables with the correct Apple displays

Figure 8-16 illustrates Thunderbolt 1/2 and Thunderbolt 3 (USB-C) cables.

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Figure 8-16 Thunderbolt Cables

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A docking device is a device that uses a single connector to the computer to provide several different types of peripheral connections. The bandwidth of Thunderbolt makes docking devices that can distribute multiple signals from a single Thunderbolt cable input possible. In Figure 8-17, one of the Thunderbolt 2 ports is used to connect the docking device to a computer. The other Thunderbolt 2 port, the USB 3.0 ports, the HDMI audiovideo port, and the Gigabit Ethernet port all share the high-speed signals coming from the Thunderbolt 2 port on the computer.

Figure 8-17 A Typical Thunderbolt 2 Dock

Bluetooth

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Bluetooth As previously mentioned in the “Wireless” section, Bluetooth is a short-range wireless network that is used with both laptop computers and mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. A Bluetooth adapter can be plugged in to a USB 2.0 or faster port to add Bluetooth support to a laptop or desktop computer as needed. To learn more about Bluetooth, visit https://www.bluetooth.com/. RF Radio frequency (RF) is a general term for wireless devices that do not use one of the established standards (Bluetooth or Wireless Ethernet). The major devices that use proprietary RF interfacing are mice and keyboards that do not support Bluetooth. Most of these devices use dedicated transceivers that plug in to a USB 2.0 or faster port. If a wireless mouse and keyboard are bundled together, a single transceiver is provided for both devices. Note A transceiver is a combination transmitter/receiver. It is a device that can both transmit and receive communication signals.

Some vendors support multiple devices using a single transceiver. For example, Logitech’s Unifying

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technology (available on devices marked with a stylized six-point orange star) can support up to six input devices with a single USB transceiver. Unifying software is used to pair devices and transceiver together. Some vendors now support devices that work with both proprietary and industry-standard Bluetooth transceivers.

GRAPHIC DEVICE Graphic device ports are used to connect the graphics processing unit (GPU) on a video card or built in to the processor (CPU) to displays of various types, including flat panel LCD or LED monitors, LED or LCD HDTVs, and projectors. Most monitors, TVs, and projectors can use two or more of the graphic output standards we discuss in this chapter (see Figure 8-18).

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Figure 8-18 Many Video Cards Support Two or More Graphic Device Standards

When you see a computer’s port cluster or video card with two or more graphic device ports, you can connect at least two displays to the system. Because graphic device ports vary in features, choosing

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the right graphic device connection for your needs is important as you specify components for a workstation or set one up. Most of the cables used by the ports in Figure 8-18 are shown in Figure 8-19.

Figure 8-19 HDMI Cable Connectors Compared to DVI and DisplayPort Cable Connectors

Table 8-5 provides a brief summary of the key features of the graphic device ports covered in this chapter.

Table 8-5 Graphic Device Ports

Name

Signal Type

Number of Displays Supported

Recommended Use and Notes

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per Port VGA

Analog

1

When other port types are not supported by a display, or for an additional display.

DVI

Digital (DVID)

1

For displays that support digital connections; can be adapted to HDMI.

Analog/Digital (DVI-I)

HDMI***

Digital*

1

Supports digital audio as well as video; good choice for home theater connections.

DisplayPort**

Digital*

Varies with display resolution

Versions 1.2a and above support 4K Ultra HD home theater; supports digital audio and video; great for multidisplay gaming.

*Powered adapters are available to enable connection to DVI or VGA. **Mini DisplayPort supports all DisplayPort features. ***Mini HDMI port supports all HDMI features.

VGA

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VGA Video graphics array (VGA) was introduced in 1987 for use with now-obsolete cathode-ray-tube (CRT) displays. VGA originally supported 640×480 resolution. Despite its antiquity, VGA continues to be supported by inexpensive LCD and LED displays, most projectors, and many HDTVs. Because it is an analog standard, computers must convert digital video signals to analog before sending them through a VGA port to a display. Because current displays are digital, the VGA signal must be converted back to digital before it can be displayed. This dual-conversion process can lead to display issues. Note Display resolution refers to the number of dots (horizontal and vertical) displayed onscreen. The greater the number of dots, the higher the resolution and the sharper and more detailed the display. Screen resolution can be adjusted in Windows, macOS, and Linux.

VGA can support up to 1080p (full HD) resolution, but the actual limiting factor is the resolutions supported by the GPU on the video card or built in to the CPU. Note If a VGA connection is needed for a display but a VGA port is not available, various types of adapters are available. A common type of adapter connects to a DVI-I port to enable its built-in analog video support to work with a VGA device. To connect a VGA display to an HDMI or DisplayPort port, a powered adapter with a converter chip is used.

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DVI The digital visual interface (DVI) was designed to replace VGA, while also being compatible with VGA signals. The DVI-D port shown in Figure 8-18 sends only digital signals, making it a great match for digital displays and projectors. However, its sibling, the DVI-I port shown in Figure 818, also carries analog signals, enabling it to use a DVIVGA adapter. A third type of DVI connector, DVI-A, carries only analog signals. By using a DVI-A to VGA cable, you can connect a VGA display to a DVI-A port. HDMI Originally developed for use with HDTVs and displays, the high-definition multi-media display (HDMI) port is now a common feature on laptops, desktops, and monitors as well as HDTVs and HD projectors. HDMI, unlike DVI and VGA, also carries audio signals. Thus, you can play back audio from a slide show or movie using the speakers built in to a monitor or HDTV. Because the video signal carried by HDMI is the same as DVI-D, you can use an HDMI-DVI cable to connect devices together. HDMI is available in various versions, and older HDMI cables might not support advanced functions such as 3D

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or resolutions beyond 1080p. Check the feature list if you need to buy a replacement HDMI cable. DisplayPort DisplayPort has similar resolution and audio/video features to HDMI, but with two major differences: DisplayPort is a royalty-free video standard, and DisplayPort 1.2 and later support daisy-chaining of displays. A single DisplayPort (or Mini DisplayPort) connection can drive up to four Full HD (1080p) displays, and displays can be running at different resolutions. If necessary, DisplayPort-to-HDMI adapters can be used for displays that don’t have DisplayPort connections. DisplayPort supports both full-size connections (see Figure 8-19) as well as the Mini DisplayPort connections shown in Figures 8-18 and 8-19. Certified DisplayPort cables support resolutions up to 4K (3840×2160 dots). If you need a cable for a DisplayPort 8K display (DP8K), get one certified for that resolution (7680×4320 dots). Learn more about DisplayPort at https://www.displayport.org/.

Mini DisplayPort

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Mini DisplayPort The Mini DisplayPort connection shown earlier in this chapter supports all of the features of DisplayPort in a smaller form factor. A similar Mini-HDMI connection enables HDMI connections in a smaller form factor. A Thunderbolt port (which uses the same connector as Mini DisplayPort) can also be used with DisplayPort displays because Thunderbolt is based on DisplayPort.

EXAM PREPARATION TOPICS REVIEW TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 8-6 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 8-6 Key Topics for Chapter 8

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 8-1

RJ-45 (Top) and RJ-11 (Bottom) Ports Are Similar in Shape, But the RJ-45 Port Is Wider

116

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and Taller. Table 8-1

Ethernet Cable Grade and Supported Networks

118

List

Bluetooth

118

Figure 8-4

An Android smartphone with Bluetooth and NFC enabled

119

Figure 8-5

A Windows 10 tablet with Bluetooth devices already paired.

120

Paragraph

Peripheral devices

121

Table 8-3

Current USB Versions

121

Paragraph

FireWire

127

Table 8-4

Thunderbolt Versions

129

Figure 818

Many video cards support two or more graphic device standards

132

Table 8-5

Graphic Device Ports

132

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory

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Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work.

DEFINE KEY TERMS Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: RJ-11 (Registered Jack Function 11) RJ-45 (Registered Jack Function 45) Bluetooth Near field communications (NFC) universal serial bus (USB) FireWire Thunderbolt radio frequency (RF) video graphics array (VGA) high-definition multimedia display (HDMI) digital video interface (DVI) DisplayPort Mini DisplayPort

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.1 1. Which of the following statements is correct about RJ-45 ports and Ethernet cables? 1. They are interchangeable with RJ-11 ports. 2. The same cable type is suitable for all Ethernet speeds. 3. There are four wires inside an Ethernet cable. 4. The lowest recommended cable grade for Gigabit Ethernet is CAT 5e.

2. A client is complaining about slow network speeds after upgrading to Gigabit Ethernet. The network cable is marked CAT 5. Which of the following is a likely solution? 1. The wiring is adequate for Gigabit Ethernet; check elsewhere for the problem. 2. Recommend replacing the cable with CAT 6. 3. Recommend adding a second cable and configure the network to use two cables in parallel. 4. Recommend replacing the cable with USB 3.1 Gen 2.

3. Which of the following steps is not needed when setting up a Bluetooth connection? 1. Devices must be paired. 2. Bluetooth must be turned on. 3. Devices must be discoverable. 4. NFC must also be turned on.

4. NFC is used for which of the following tasks? 1. Payment systems

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2. Selecting a football conference 3. Network configuration 4. Checking system configuration

5. If you connect a USB 3.0 flash drive to a USB 2.0 port, which of the following will happen? 1. Error message appears indicating the port is not compatible. 2. File transfer runs at device speed. 3. File transfer runs at port speed. 4. Y ou are prompted to select a transfer rate.

6. A USB port marked in red is designed for which of the following standards? 1. USB 2.0 2. USB 3.1 Gen 2 3. USB 3.0 4. High-amp charging USB port

7. Which end of a USB Type C (USB-C) cable should be connected to the USB-C port on a computer? 1. Either end 2. The end with a USB 3.1 connector 3. The squared-off end 4. The end with an adapter

8. Choose the Thunderbolt 3 cable from those shown.

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1.

2.

3.

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4.

9. You need to connect a display to your laptop so you can extend the desktop. The laptop has an HDMI port and a VGA port, but the display only has a DVID port. Which of the following will solve the problem? 1. Connect a DVI-VGA adapter. 2. Use only the laptop’s built-in display. 3. Use a DVI-HDMI cable. 4. Broadcast the signal wirelessly.

10. Your computer has an HDMI port and a DisplayPort port. You need to connect four Full HD displays to the computer. Which of the following will work? 1. Connect all four displays to the HDMI port. 2. Connect two displays to the HDMI port and two to the DisplayPort port. 3. Connect all four displays to the DisplayPort port. 4. Use a DisplayPort to Mini DisplayPort adapter.

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11. Your computer has only two USB 3.1 Gen 1 (USB 3.0) ports. One is being used by a wireless mouse/keyboard transceiver, and the other is being used by a hard disk drive. There are two USB 2.0 ports that are not in use. You need to connect a flash drive to the computer. The storage devices are USB 3.0 devices. What can you do to make sure they run at full speed? 1. Move the hard disk drive to a USB 2.0 port. 2. Plug the flash drive in to a USB 2.0 port. 3. Move the wireless mouse/keyboard transceiver to a USB 2.0 port. 4. Connect a USB 3.0 hub.

12. You need to connect a FireWire 400 device to a computer with FireWire 800 ports. Which of the following cables do you use? 1. FireWire 400 to 800 Beta cable. 2. Connect the adapter to either FireWire 800 port. 3. Y ou must install a FireWire 400 port. 4. FireWire 400 to 800 Bilingual cable.

13. A FireWire 800 port is faster than which of the following? 1. USB 3.1 Gen 2 2. USB 3.1 Gen 1 3. USB 2.0 4. USB 3.0

14. You are using a MacBook and need to determine

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which devices are plugged in to USB ports. Which of the following will provide this information? 1. Device Manager 2. System Report 3. sudo ifconfig 4. Siri

15. Your client has a video transfer business and needs to connect a DV camcorder to a computer. Which of the following do you need to find out from the client first? 1. Does the computer have a USB 3.0 port? 2. Does the computer have a FireWire port? 3. Does the computer have an HDMI port? 4. Does the computer have a DisplayPort port?

16. You have data on a portable hard drive connected to your MacBook Air. Which of the following connections would you use to connect a typical MacBook-compatible portable drive to a Windows PC? 1. Thunderbolt 2. USB 3.0 3. Lightning 4. DisplayPort

17. A new MacBook Pro computer with a USB Type C connector can also use that connector for which of the following?

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1. Thunderbolt 3 2. FireWire 3. Lightning 4. DisplayPort

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) If infrastructure’s your thing, the next logical step is the CompTIA A+ certification. If digging deeper into home theater interfacing is what drives you, consider getting a CEDIA (Custom Electronic Design and Installation Association) certification. Learn more at https://cedia.net/home.

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Chapter 9 Connecting and Configuring Peripherals Although most peripherals connect via the omnipresent USB port, many peripherals require you to do more than simply plug in the device. Other types of devices, such as speakers and displays, use different interfaces. In this chapter, you learn the major features of CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Infrastructure Objective 2.2: Given a scenario, set up and install common peripheral devices to a laptop/PC. Devices: Printer, Scanner, Keyboard, Mouse, Camera, External hard drive, Speakers, Display. Installation types: Plug-and-play vs. driver installation, Other required steps, IP-based peripherals, Web-based configuration steps.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS DEVICES In your IT career, you may be called upon to connect a variety of devices to a laptop or desktop computer. In the following sections, you learn what to expect. Figure 9-1 shows the locations of peripheral connections on the back of a typical desktop computer. Many desktop computers also have USB and speaker jacks on their front.

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Figure 9-1 USB, PS/2, Sound, and Display Connections on a Rear of a Typical Desktop Computer

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Note Many motherboards no longer include a PS/2 port. Motherboards that are not designed for use with CPUs that have onboard graphics (GPUs) don’t have video or A/V ports. Instead, these ports are located on a video card that contains a GPU.

Laptop computers, unlike desktop computers, don’t have a port cluster where all ports are located. Instead, laptop ports might be located on the left edge, right edge, or back edge. Figure 9-2 provides an example.

Figure 9-2 USB, Sound, and Display Connections on the Left Edge of a Laptop Computer

Printer

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Printer Printers, including multifunction devices (print/scan/copy or print/scan/copy/fax), require specific drivers be installed before the device is connected to enable full use of device features. Although Microsoft Windows has some printer drivers included in the operating system, most of these drivers are for older printers and are limited in function.

The following is the basic procedure for installing a local or network printer in Microsoft Windows. This procedure works with Windows 7 through Windows 10. Step 1. Install the driver files, preferably downloaded from the vendor’s website. Do not discard the driver disc, though. It may be necessary for the installation of bundled software that is not available by download. Choose network driver files if you are planning to connect to the printer via a network. Step 2. Make sure the printer is turned off. Step 3. With a local printer, connect a USB cable to the port on the printer (see Figure 9-3). With a network printer, set it up to connect to your local wired or wireless network. This might be accomplished using the printer’s own control

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panel or during installation.

Figure 9-3 Connecting a USB 2.0 Cable to a USB Device. Most USB 2.0 Devices (Including Printers) Use the Type B Cable Shown Here.

Step 4. If you are installing a local printer, after the driver files are installed, connect the other end of the printer cable to a USB 2.0 or 3.x port (USB 2.0 preferred) on the computer (see Figure 9-4).

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Figure 9-4 Connecting a USB 2.0 Cable to a USB Port on a Computer

Step 5. Open Control Panel (search for cpanel and click the matching program). Step 6. Click View devices and printers (see Figure 9-5).

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Figure 9-5 Starting the Printer Installation Process in Control Panel

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Step 7. Scroll down to the Printers section to view existing printers and multifunction devices. Step 8. Click Add a printer (see Figure 9-6).

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Figure 9-6 Adding a New Printer from Devices and Printers

Step 9. Turn on the printer. Step 10. Windows will search USB and network connections for the printer. Click the printer to select it. Step 11. Click Next to continue (see Figure 9-7).

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Figure 9-7 Selecting a New Printer After It Was Detected by Windows

Step 12. Make sure the Set as the default printer box is checked if you want to use this as your normal

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printer (see Figure 9-8). Step 13. Click Print a test page to make sure the printer is working (see Figure 9-8). Step 14. Click Finish to close the dialog (see Figure 98). Step 15. Click OK to close the printer properties sheet. If your printer is not detected in Step 10, click the The printer that I want isn’t listed link shown in Figure 9-7. This will open the Find a printer by other options dialog shown in Figure 9-9. In this dialog, you can choose from many other ways to connect to a local or network printer.

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Figure 9-8 Finishing Printer Installation

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Figure 9-9 Choosing Another Method to Install a Local or Network Printer

Note Why not use a USB 3.x port for a printer or multifunction device? Printers, multifunction devices, and scanners don’t need the 10× faster speed of USB 3.0/3.1 Gen 1 or 20x faster speed of USB 3.1 Gen 2, compared to USB 2.0. Save the faster ports for mass storage devices.

Scanner

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Scanner An image scanner can convert documents and photos (and sometimes transparencies and negatives) into digital form. If the scanner is part of a multifunction device, the installation process for that device (see “Printer” earlier in this chapter) will also install the scanner. Step 1. Install the driver files, preferably downloaded from the vendor’s website. Do not discard the driver disc, though. It may be necessary for the installation of bundled software that is not available by download. Step 2. After the driver files are installed, connect the scanner to a USB 2.0 or 3.x port (USB 2.0 preferred) and turn it on. Step 3. When the scanner is recognized, the installation program completes the process. Step 4. Be sure to scan a photo or document when prompted or after the installation process is over to verify the scanner is working properly. Here are the steps to install a network scanner:

Step 1. Make sure the scanner is connected to a wired or wireless network.

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Step 2. Install the driver files. Step 3. Start the installation process. Step 4. Choose the option to set up a network scanner. Step 5. Scan a test photo or document. Keyboard A standard keyboard, unlike a printer, multifunction device, or scanner, is a plug-and-play device: It is automatically recognized by the operating system. Caution You can connect a USB keyboard or any other USB device while the system is turned on. However, some computers use the old PS/2 keyboard port. PS/2 devices can be safely connected only when the computer is turned off. Refer to Figure 9-1 for an example of a PS/2 port.

On the other hand, a specialty keyboard made for gaming may require driver software to enable features such as LED light control, game-specific settings, and macros. Here are the steps to follow to install software for a typical gaming keyboard: Step 1. Make sure the computer is turned on and the operating system is loaded. Step 2. Connect the keyboard to a USB 2.0 port. On a desktop computer, the USB 2.0 ports at the top (left) of the port cluster are recommended. Step 3. Download the software from the vendor’s

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website. Step 4. Install the software. If the keyboard is a wireless keyboard, the installation process varies. With a keyboard that includes a proprietary wireless dongle, the process is very simple:

Step 1. Plug the dongle into a USB 2.0 port. Step 2. After installing batteries, turn on the keyboard. Step 3. If the computer is already on, the keyboard will be recognized and can be used in a few seconds. When the computer is turned on, the keyboard will be recognized during the startup process. If the keyboard connects via Bluetooth, follow this procedure: Step 1. After installing batteries in the keyboard, turn it on. Step 2. Turn on the Bluetooth receiver in the computer. Step 3. Start the pairing process. During the pairing process, you might need to press a Connect button on the keyboard or enter a sequence of alphanumeric text on the keyboard. Step 4. When the pairing process is complete, the

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keyboard is ready to use. Note Some keyboards include a dongle designed to support multiple devices. Logitech refers to its version as “Unifying.” To add a Logitech Unifying keyboard to a system that already has a Unifying receiver for a mouse or other input device, run the Unifying software and pair the receiver with the keyboard.

Mouse A standard mouse, unlike a printer, multifunction device, or scanner, is a plug-and-play device, meaning it is automatically recognized by the operating system. However, a specialty mouse made for gaming may require driver software to enable features such as gamespecific settings. To install software for a typical gaming mouse, follow these steps: Step 1. Make sure the computer is turned on and the operating system is loaded. Step 2. Connect the mouse to a USB 2.0 port. On a desktop computer, the USB 2.0 ports at the top (left) of the port cluster are recommended. Step 3. Download the software from the vendor’s website. Step 4. Install the software. For a wireless mouse, the installation process varies. With a mouse that includes a proprietary wireless

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dongle, the process is very simple:

Step 1. Plug the dongle into a USB 2.0 port. Step 2. After installing batteries in the mouse, turn it on. Step 3. If the computer is already on, the mouse will be recognized and can be used in a few seconds. When the computer is turned on, the mouse will be recognized during the startup process. Note Some mice include a dongle designed to support multiple devices. Logitech refers to its version as “Unifying.” To add a Logitech Unifying mouse to a system that already has a Unifying receiver for a keyboard or other input device, run the Unifying software and pair the receiver with the keyboard.

If the mouse connects via Bluetooth, follow this procedure: Step 1. After installing batteries in the mouse, turn it on. Step 2. Turn on the Bluetooth receiver in the computer. Step 3. Start the pairing process. During the pairing process, you might need to press a Connect button on the mouse or move the mouse.

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Step 4. When the pairing process is complete, the mouse is ready to use. Camera You can add two different types of cameras to a desktop or laptop computer: A webcam, which can be used for live video chatting or for recording still photos and videos A digital camera, which can use the desktop or laptop as a permanent storage location for the photos or videos you have already taken

Both types of cameras connect to a USB port. Connecting a Webcam A webcam is a USB Video Class (UVC) device that is supported by most video calling/chatting clients in Windows, macOS, or Linux. Thus, you can connect it to a USB 2.0 port and start using it right away. Some webcams have additional features such as pan, tilt, or zoom; video and photo capture; motion detection; face tracking; background replacement. To enable these features, download and install the software drivers provided by the vendor.

Connecting a Digital Camera

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Connecting a Digital Camera You can connect your camera to your computer to transfer images and videos using this process: Step 1. Connect a USB cable from your camera to a suitable USB port on your computer. Some digital cameras use a proprietary cable that connects to the computer’s USB port, but most recent ones use a mini-USB cable. Some support USB 3.x. Step 2. Turn on the camera. Step 3. Your camera may be recognized automatically. If not, press the playback button on the camera. If you connect a digital camera to a Windows laptop or desktop, you can select how to access it. Click the prompt shown in Figure 9-10a to display a dialog similar to the one shown in Figure 9-10b. The exact apps shown vary with the version of Windows and the photohandling apps installed on your system.

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Figure 9-10 Preparing to Select What to Do When Connecting a Digital Camera (Windows 10)

If you choose File Explorer/Windows Explorer, you can view the pictures on the camera and manually transfer them. If you choose an import app, select the photos or videos to transfer and then the app transfers them for

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you. With a macOS computer, the picture/video import process opens automatically as soon as the camera is connected. Choose the pictures or videos to transfer. External Hard Drive

An external hard drive is a USB mass storage device. In most cases, the operating system will recognize it and install it as soon as you plug it into a USB port. For maximum speed with a USB 3.0 (USB 3.1 Gen 1) drive, plug it into a USB 3.0 (or faster) port. Some vendors also provide diagnostic, backup, or utility software for the drive. Install it as prompted. Note A drive designed for Windows is factory-formatted in a different way from a drive designed for macOS. To use a drive on a different operating system than it was designed for, you must reformat it after backing up any data on the drive.

Speakers Computer speakers can be connected in one of several ways to a PC (refer to Figure 9-1 and Figure 9-11), depending on the computer: 3.5mm (mini-jack)

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HDMI S/PDIF

Most desktop computers use integrated sound, but some use a sound card for higher-quality sound. 3.5mm Mini-Jack The most common method continues to be the analog 3.5mm (mini-jack) array shown in Figure 9-11. The color coding commonly used for audio 3.5mm jacks is as follows: Light blue—Line-in Lime green—Stereo headphone/speaker Pink—Microphone

Some systems add the following to provide support for 5.1/7.1 surround audio: Black—Rear speaker Orange—Center or subwoofer Silver—Side stereo

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Figure 9-11 Analog and Digital Audio Jacks on a System with HighEnd Audio Support

HDMI The HDMI port shown in Figure 9-1 transmits digital audio as well as HD video. Thus, the HDMI port can run speakers built in to an HDTV or a home theater receiver. Note DisplayPort, mini-DisplayPort, and mini-HDMI also support digital audio and video.

S/PDIF

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S/PDIF On older PCs, you might also encounter one or two S/PDIF ports (refer to Figure 9-11). These can transmit digital audio to HDTVs or receivers that have the appropriate port. Figure 9-12 compares a stereo 3.5mm mini-jack, coaxial S/PDIF, and optical S/PDIF cable to each other.

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Figure 9-12 Analog and Digital Audio Cables

Caution Do not bend or fold an optical S/PDIF cable, as this might damage the optical fiber and prevent the cable from working.

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After connecting speakers to your PC, use the audio mixer function in the operating system to select which speaker connection to use. If you switch from the default analog speaker setting to a digital speaker output but don’t update the settings in your audio mixer, you won’t hear sound coming from your preferred speaker. Figure 9-13 illustrates the mixer function in Microsoft Windows 10.

Figure 9-13 Selecting an Audio Playback Device (Windows 10)

Display

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Display There are many ways to connect a display to a desktop or laptop PC, and most recent models offer at least two different ports. You were introduced to these ports in Chapter 8, “I/O: Input/Output Device Interfaces,” but in this chapter we’ll cover how to connect cables to these ports and how to configure displays after they’re connected. Note Desktop computers may have a video card in an expansion slot (refer to Figure 9-14), built-in video ports in a port cluster (refer to Figure 9-1), or both. Generally, when a computer has a video card as well as built-in video, the primary video source is the video card.

Connecting VGA The VGA port (see Figure 9-14) uses a heavy cable that is normally attached with thumbscrews. To connect the cable, follow these steps: Step 1. Turn off the display and the computer. Step 2. If necessary, attach the VGA cable to the display (some use a built-in cable). Step 3. Line up the cable with the VGA port. Step 4. Push the cable into place. Step 5. Attach the cable with the provided thumbscrews if possible.

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Figure 9-14 Connecting a VGA Cable to a Video Card

Connecting DVI

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Connecting DVI The DVI port is available in two variations: DVI-D (digital signals only) and DVI-I (digital and analog signals; can be adapted to VGA). The connector is larger than VGA and, like VGA, should be fastened into place after installation with the included thumbscrews. Figure 9-15 illustrates attaching a DVI cable to a video capture device. The same process is used for attaching the cable to a video card.

Figure 9-15 Connecting a DVI Cable

Follow these steps to connect the cable: Step 1. Turn off the display and the computer. Step 2. If necessary, attach the DVI cable to the display (some use a built-in cable). Step 3. Line up the cable with the DVI port. Step 4. Push the cable into place.

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Step 5. Attach the cable with the provided thumbscrews if possible. Connecting HDMI and DisplayPort HDMI, DisplayPort, and their reduced-size versions do not require thumbscrews, as the cables and connectors are smaller and lighter than VGA or DVI. These cables carry HD video and digital audio. Follow this procedure:

Step 1. Turn off the display and the computer. Step 2. If necessary, attach the cable to the display (some use a built-in cable). Step 3. Line up the cable with the appropriate port. Step 4. Push the cable into place. Figure 9-16 illustrates connecting HDMI and miniDisplayPort cables to a computer.

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Figure 9-16 Connecting HDMI and Mini-DisplayPort Cables

Configuring Multiple Displays Most video cards and systems with built-in video can use two or more displays at the same time. The user can select which display is primary and which one is used as the extended desktop, or whether to duplicate the primary display. The user can also select the desired resolution for each display and, in extended mode, drag different programs to each display. The configuration process is performed through the operating system. Figure 9-17 provides examples of the Windows 10 display configuration dialog.

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Figure 9-17 Duplicate and Extended Displays in Windows 10

INSTALLATION TYPES There are many ways to install devices. The following sections help you understand each method covered on the IT Fundamentals+ exam. Plug-and-Play vs. Driver Installation

A plug-and-play installation takes place when you connect a device and the operating system recognizes it and installs the appropriate drivers. Mass storage, keyboards, and mice generally use plug-and-play installation. If a device cannot be recognized by the operating system (OS) because the OS lacks the correct drivers, the drivers must be installed. Depending on the device, the drivers may be installed before the device is connected or after the device is connected. After a device that requires drivers is installed with the correct drivers, the device is treated as a plug-and-play device when it is reconnected to the device. Figure 9-18 illustrates the Windows 10 Device Manager’s listings for a USB mass storage device and an HD webcam.

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Note To open the Windows Device Manager, search for Devmgr and click the matching program on your system.

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Figure 9-18 Device Manager and Typical Device Driver Information

Other Required Steps When printers, scanners, or multifunction devices are installed, the user is often prompted to connect the device and turn it on to complete the installation process. If the device is located on a network rather than being plugged into a computer, the installation program may prompt the user to browse for the correct device. When a device is bundled with apps, the installation process may prompt the user to select whether to install any or all bundled apps. IP-based Peripherals Many peripherals today are based on the Internet Protocol (IP). That is, they are configured, managed, or use information via the Internet. For these devices to work, you must make sure the device has a working connection to a local area network or the Internet. This might require you to perform the following steps:

Step 1. Connect the device to a working wired or wireless network.

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Step 2. Verify the device can connect to the network. Step 3. Verify the device can connect to the Internet. Step 4. Verify the device can be managed via its Internet connection. Some IP-based peripherals you might encounter include wireless access points (Wireless AP, or WAP), wireless routers, IP security cameras, network print servers, and network printers or multifunction devices. Depending on the device, configuring the device for an IP connection might be performed through a touch panel, via a setup program, or via the device’s embedded (built-in) web browser. A device that is managed through an embedded web browser is referred to as using a web-based configuration.

Web-based Configuration Steps To manage a new device with an embedded web browser, follow these steps: Step 1. Look up the IP address and login information for the device. Step 2. After connecting the device to the network and powering it on, open your web browser and navigate to the device’s IP address.

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Step 3. Enter the username and password to gain access to the device. Step 4. At this point, you can begin the management process. I recommend you use a screen capture utility to document the changes you make. One of the most common web-based devices you are likely to manage is a wireless router. To learn more about this process, see Chapter 15, “Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network.”

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 9-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 9-1 Key Topics for Chapter 9

Key Topic

Description

Page Number

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Element Figure 9.1

USB, PS/2, sound, and display connections on a rear of a typical desktop computer

143

Figure 9.2

USB, sound, and display connections on the left edge of a laptop computer

144

Step List

General procedure for installing a local printer

144

Step List

Procedure for installing a network scanner

150

Step List

Procedure for installing a wireless keyboard

151

Step List

Procedure for installing a wireless mouse

152

Paragraph

External hard drive

154

Figure 9.11

Analog and Digital Audio Jacks on a System with High-End Audio Support

156

Figure 9.14

Connecting a VGA Cable to a Video Card

158

Step List

Procedure for connecting HDMI and DisplayPort

159

Paragraph

Plug-and-play vs. Driver Installation

161

Step list

Procedure for connecting IP-based peripherals

163

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Step List

Web-based configuration steps

163

Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: printer scanner keyboard mouse camera external hard drive speakers display plug-and-play IP-based peripherals

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.2 1. You are responsible for setting up a new wireless network. Which type of configuration will you be performing on the router? 1. Web-based

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2. Driver 3. Plug-and-play 4. Browse for device

2. Your client wants you to install a projector as a second display. The projector needs to show the same information as the first display. You need to set it up with which of the following options? 1. Extended 2. RF 3. IP 4. Duplicate

3. You are connecting a PC to an HDTV. Which of the following connections will provide digital audio? 1. VGA 2. DVI-D 3. S/PDIF 4. DVI-I

4. You are connecting a stereo headset using a 3.5mm mini-jack to a computer. Which of the following connectors do you use? 1. Black 2. Light blue 3. Lime green 4. Pink

5. Your client has asked for a deluxe webcam with pan, tilt, and zoom as a replacement for the existing

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webcam. Which of the following most accurately describes the setup process? 1. Connect the new webcam and use it immediately. 2. Set up the webcam to use the Internet. 3. Install drivers for the webcam. 4. Cut the wire to the old webcam.

6. You are installing an all-in-one (print/copy/scan/fax) device and notice that the copyright date on the driver disc is two years old. The driver on the website is newer. What should you do with the driver disc? 1. Throw it away. 2. Save it as a backup. 3. Install the bundled apps after using the updated drivers online. 4. Install the driver and bundled apps from the disc.

7. You have two USB 3.x ports and four USB 2.0 ports. You have two 4TB external drives. Where should you connect your new scanner? 1. USB 2.0 port 2. Fastest USB 3.x port 3. Slowest USB 3.x port 4. Any USB port

8. Your projector has built-in speakers that you want to use for a presentation. It can accept a variety of connections. Which connection will deliver both audio and video (A/V) signals to the projector?

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1. USB 2. HDMI 3. VGA 4. DVI

9. You are installing a gaming keyboard and you want to change the LED lighting settings. What do you need to do to accomplish this? 1. Change the keycaps. 2. Install a DSL modem. 3. Connect the keyboard to a network. 4. Install drivers.

10. A client calls and is wondering why her new Bluetooth mouse doesn’t work. You need to ask if she went through the ________ process. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Channel-bonding 2. Pairing 3. Driver installation 4. UVC

11. You are connecting your computer to a receiver using HDMI and the audio is still coming from the speakers. The receiver is set correctly. What do you need to do? 1. Change default video source. 2. Change default ISP. 3. Change the default audio source. 4. Mute the onboard speakers.

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12. You need to record audio from a cassette deck so you can turn the sound into an MP3 audio file. Which of the following connectors on your computer do you use? 1. S/PDIF 2. Black mini-jack 3. Pink mini-jack 4. Light blue mini-jack

13. A client is reporting that their VGA display is not working. When you arrive, you notice that the _______ holding the cable in place are not fastened properly. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Retaining clips 2. Thumbscrews 3. Mini-jacks 4. Lock washers

14. You are planning to install an external hard drive, a gaming mouse, and a flash drive on a user’s laptop computer. Which of the following do you need to make sure is available before you go? 1. Optical drive 2. Internet access 3. USB hub 4. IP management

15. Your client has recently switched from Windows to macOS. When the client connects his digital camera

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to the macOS laptop and turns on the camera, what happens? 1. Nothing. 2. The client must select what to do. 3. The import process opens. 4. The client must install the driver for the camera.

16. Your client recently found an outstanding deal on an external hard drive formatted for macOS. However, the client has a Windows computer. The drive cannot be returned. What is the best option for the client? 1. Donate the drive for a tax deduction. 2. Connect the drive to a wireless router and share it. 3. Buy a macOS laptop to use with the drive. 4. Reformat the drive.

17. When you originally connected a new printer to your computer, you had to install the driver software before the printer would work. You lent the printer to a friend for a few days. When you reconnect it to your computer and turn it on, what is most likely to happen? 1. Printer is ready to work. 2. Y ou must reinstall the printer driver. 3. Y ou must update the printer driver. 4. The printer is no longer compatible with your computer.

18. The documentation for a new device states that it

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has a default IP address of 192.168.1.1. This device uses which type of setup? 1. IP-based 2. Driver-based 3. Web-based 4. Plug-and-play

19. A friend has lent you an audio cable for use with your older computer. He cautions you not to bend or crease the cable. Which type of cable is it? 1. HDMI 2. S/PDIF optical 3. Mini-jack surround 4. S/PDIF coaxial

20. Which pair of cables carry both digital audio and digital video signals? 1. S/PDIF coaxial, S/PDIF optical 2. DVI, VGA 3. DisplayPort, HDMI 4. Mini-jack, USB

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YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) We’ve just scratched the surface of all the possibilities there are in connecting and configuring devices. Want to learn more? Make your next certification the CompTIA A+ certification! No matter where you’re heading next in your technology journey, consider joining the IEEE Computer Society. It’s responsible for a lot of today’s technology standards. Learn more at www.computer.org.

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Chapter 10 Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components What’s inside the box? Whether you use a desktop computer, laptop computer, tablet, or smartphone, what’s inside the box has a big impact on how fast your device is, how much it can store, and what it can do. In this chapter, you learn about IT Fundamentals+ Objective 2.3: Explain the purpose of common internal computing components. Component categories include the motherboard (system board), firmware (BIOS), CPU (processor), GPU (graphics processor), storage, cooling, and NIC (network adapter).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS MOTHERBOARD/SYSTEM BOARD The motherboard (system board or mainboard) is the foundation of the computer. Motherboards connect the CPU, memory, storage devices, and input and output devices to each other with a combination of built-in ports, sockets, and cables. Motherboards are used in desktop workstations, servers, all-in-one desktops, and laptop computers. Figure 10-1 illustrates a typical desktop motherboard and its major features.

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Figure 10-1 A Typical Full-Size (ATX Form Factor) Motherboard as Viewed from Overhead. This Motherboard Has Front-Mounted SATA Ports for Storage Devices.

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Note Motherboards for desktop computers come in different form factors (combinations of dimensions and features). ATX is the most popular and largest, whereas microATX has fewer slots. Mini-ITX motherboards have only one slot.

SATA Ports Some motherboards, such as the one in Figure 10-1, have front-facing Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) ports for use with mass storage devices (DVD drives, SATA hard drives, and SSD drives), while others have top-facing SATA ports. Some, such as the one shown in Figure 10-2, feature both types.

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Figure 10-2 A Full-Size (ATX Form Factor) Motherboard with Front-Mounted and Top-Mounted SATA Ports

Port Cluster Desktop motherboards have a port cluster that is visible at the rear of the system. External devices plug into these ports. Figure 10-3 illustrates the port cluster for the motherboard shown in Figure 10-1.

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Figure 10-3 A Typical Port Cluster for a Full-Size Motherboard Has Many Different Types of Ports.

Note Motherboards vary in size (form factors), number and types of card slots, number and types of memory (RAM) modules, the number and types of ports available from the rear of the system, and other features. Some motherboards also feature external SATA (eSATA) ports on their port clusters. For an example of eSATA ports, see Figure 9-6 on p.147.

Expansion Slots

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Expansion Slots Motherboards for desktop computers have at least one expansion slot, and most have three or more. Expansion slots are used to add cards that provide additional ports or replace low-performance ports with higherperformance ports. Figure 10-4 illustrates how typical slots can be used.

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Figure 10-4 Add-on Cards and Matching Expansion Slots

Laptop Motherboard A laptop motherboard, while it provides the same functions as a desktop motherboard, is much different in appearance. Rather than the ports being clustered, they are attached to the edge of the laptop, and ribbon cables are used to connect the display, keyboard, and touchpad to the motherboard. The processor is cooled by a thermal module connected to a fan. A typical laptop motherboard is shown in Figure 10-5.

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Figure 10-5 A Typical Laptop Motherboard with a Built-in Card Reader and Other Ports

FIRMWARE/BIOS

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FIRMWARE/BIOS What enables the different components on (and connected to) the motherboard to work? Software inside a chip. When you first turn on a computer, a special chip called the BIOS (firmware) connected to the motherboard runs programs that activate essential parts of the computer. Later in the startup process, the BIOS/firmware hands responsibility over to the operating system to finish the startup process.

The BIOS is responsible for locating the drive that has the operating system, setting processor and memory speeds, setting ports for drives and external connections, and much more. To change BIOS settings, the user presses a button during the power-on process and uses a menu similar to the ones shown in Figures 10-6 and 10-7 to change settings. Note The term Unified Extensible Firmware Initiative (UEFI) refers to an enhanced type of firmware used on almost all desktop and laptop computers starting in 2014. UEFI firmware can be navigated with a mouse or a keyboard, supports hard drives of 2.2TB and larger, and provides faster system startup as well as additional features.

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Figure 10-6 A Typical Text-Based BIOS Setup Program

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Figure 10-7 A Typical Graphical BIOS Setup Program

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The specific settings used by the BIOS are stored in a separate chip called a CMOS chip, whose contents are maintained by a small battery on the motherboard (see Figure 10-8).

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Figure 10-8 Most Recent Desktop and Laptop Motherboards Use a CR2032 Battery to Maintain BIOS Settings

RAM

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RAM Random access memory (RAM) is the temporary storage used by apps (programs) that are run by the CPU. RAM is also used as the temporary storage for data being used by apps. The contents of RAM vanish as soon as the system is turned off, so changed and new data must be saved to a permanent storage device such as a hard drive. The amount of RAM used by an app varies according to whether the app is idle or is being used to view, create, or modify a file. The larger the memory in a device, the more programs that can be run at the same time and the larger the data files that can be stored in memory. When a system runs out of RAM, excess program code or data can be stored in temporary files on the system’s mass storage device (hard drive or SSD). Adding more RAM to a system that has upgradeable memory is a good way to improve system performance because RAM is much faster than storage devices. To determine the amount of RAM installed in a system, you can use the BIOS setup program or use a reporting utility such as the System properties sheet (included in Windows), I-Nex (Linux), or System Information (included in macOS and in Windows). Figure 10-9 illustrates the System properties sheet for a computer with 16GB of RAM installed.

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Figure 10-9 The Windows 10 System Properties Sheet for a Computer with 16GB of RAM

Desktop and some laptop computers use replaceable memory modules such as the ones shown in Figure 1010, while tablets and smartphones use modules that are soldered to the mainboard or to the CPU.

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Figure 10-10 Typical Desktop and Laptop Memory Modules

CPU The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for running the operating system and apps (programs). Using data connections built into the motherboard, the CPU communicates with storage, I/O devices, and the temporary workspace in RAM to access specific operating system tasks and app functions as well as to save and retrieve files. Figure 10-11 illustrates the relationship the CPU has with other devices connected to the motherboard.

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Figure 10-11 A Simple Representation of How the CPU Connects with the Motherboard and Add-on Devices

The type, speed, and features of the CPU have the biggest impacts on a particular computer’s overall performance. The CPUs covered by the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ exam can be placed into the following

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categories: ARM processors used by mobile phones, tablets, and by small single-board computers such as the Raspberry Pi. Processors that run Windows and macOS use one of the following processor types: 32-bit or 64-bit.

The following sections discuss all of these CPU types. ARM ARM refers to processors that use the architectural design pioneered by Advanced RISC Machines (ARM). RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is a processor architecture that uses instructions that perform simpler tasks than those performed by CISC (complex instruction set computer) CPUs, such as the 32-bit and 64-bit processors used to run Windows, macOS, and Linux. ARM processors are manufactured by several vendors and are used in mobile phones (smartphones), tablets, and small single-board computers such as the Raspberry Pi. Mobile Phone Smartphones that use the iOS and Android mobile operating systems use ARM processors, as do most versions of the BlackBerry smartphone.

Tablet

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Tablet Tablets that use the iOS and Android mobile operating systems use ARM processors. System on a Chip (SoC) One of the reasons why motherboards for desktop and laptop computers are so much larger than ARM-based circuit boards is because an ARM processor actually includes many components that are separate devices on a PC motherboard. When a processor includes a GPU, Wi-Fi, modem, and other components, it is known as a “System on a Chip,” or SoC. SoC chips are extremely small, as illustrated in Figure 10-12, which shows a typical SoC on a Raspberry Pi single-board computer.

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Figure 10-12 The Broadcom ARM SoC on This Raspberry Pi 3 Board Is About the Same Width as an HDMI Port.

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Here are the components included in a typical SoC, the Exynos 7885, which is used in some current Samsung tablets: CPU: dual-core high-speed CPU and slower hexa-core CPU, for a total of eight 64-bit CPU cores GPU: Mali G71 designed by ARM Voice/data modem supporting LTE networks 802.11ac Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and FM radios GPS and other navigation features eMMC flash memory Support for high-resolution cameras (over 20MP) Support for 4K video playback and recording

To learn more about this SoC, see http://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/minisite/exynos/products/mobileproce 7-series-7885/. 32-bit Processors

A 32-bit processor is a CPU that supports 16-bit and 32bit operating systems. Intel-compatible 32-bit CPUs support operating systems such as MS-DOS, PC-DOS, and Microsoft Windows.

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Note A 32-bit Intel-compatible CPU is also referred to as an x86 because it can run the same software as the first 16-bit Intel processor, the Intel 8086.

The first 32-bit processor was the Intel Pentium released in March 1993. Other Intel processors that supported only x86 mode included the Pentium MMX, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and early models of the Pentium 4 and Xeon. The last Intel processors to support only x86 mode were early versions of the Atom. AMD also manufactured a wide range of 32-bit processors, including the AM386/486/5x86, AMD K5, K6 family, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron families (including some Mobile versions). Laptop Laptop versions of 32-bit processors were designed specifically to use less power than those made for desktops, workstations, and servers. They are generally not interchangeable with desktop processors, as they use different sockets and different cooling devices.

Workstation

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Workstation Workstation processors are designed to support one or more CPUs on a motherboard and to be optimized for computer-aided design (CAD) rather than gaming, as with desktop processors. Workstation processors typically have larger memory caches than desktop processors. Intel’s x86 workstation processors included early models of the Xeon, as well as the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition and Pentium 4 Extreme. Server Server processors are designed to perform heavy workloads, and often two or more processors are used on a single motherboard. Server processors typically have memory caches that are larger than workstation processors. Intel’s 32-bit server processors included early models of the Xeon. Processors that support only 32-bit mode have been replaced by 64-bit processors that also run in 32-bit mode.

64-bit Processors

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64-bit Processors

A 64-bit processor (an Intel x86 processor that also runs 64-bit software is known as an x64 or x86-64 processor) supports both 64-bit and 32-bit operating systems and apps. A 64-bit processor supports much larger amounts of RAM than a 32-bit processor and as a consequence can work with much larger amounts of data at the same time. Most 64-bit processors also feature two or more processor cores. Each processor core runs like a separate processor. Consequently, a four-core processor provides performance similar to what four single-core processors with the same clock speed and other features would provide, but at a much lower cost and with only a single processor socket. This leaves room on the motherboard for more RAM, memory modules, and other features. Figure 10-13 helps you visualize the difference between a typical 32-bit CPU accessing 4GB of RAM versus a four-core 64-bit CPU accessing 32GB of RAM. The actual amount of RAM a 64-bit CPU can access depends on the design of the motherboard and the operating system.

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Figure 10-13 Comparing Single-Core 32-bit and Four-Core 64-bit Memory Sizes and Access

Starting with later models of the Pentium 4 in 2004, Intel switched from building 32-bit processors to building 64-bit processors, including Pentium D, Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad, and all versions of the current Core i series, including Core i3, i5, i7, and i9. Processors based on Core i but with fewer features, such as recent

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Celeron and Pentium processor models, are also 64-bit processors. Figure 10-14 illustrates an Intel Core i5 processor and a motherboard using Socket 1151, the socket type used by this processor.

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Figure 10-14 Intel Core i5-6600 and Its Matching Socket 1151

Note To learn more about a specific Intel processor model’s features, go to the Product Specification website at https://ark.intel.com/, select the product type, and search for it.

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AMD’s first desktop 64-bit processors were the Athlon 64 and Athlon 64FX (2003). Starting in 2006, its lowercost Sempron processors also supported 64-bit operations. All subsequent processors, including the current Ryzen CPUs, have been 64-bit. Figure 10-15 illustrates an AMD A10-5800 APU (CPU with integrated GPU) being installed into Socket FM2.

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Figure 10-15 AMD A10-5800 APU and Its Matching Socket FM2

Note To learn more about a current AMD processor’s features, go to the Product Resource Center website at https://support.amd.com. For information about non-current AMD processors, see http://www.cpu-world.com/.

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Laptop Laptop (mobile) processors from Intel and AMD have also supported 64-bit operations for over a decade. Laptop processors typically have smaller memory caches, slower processor clock speeds, and other optimizations for running on battery power, and they fit into different sockets than their desktop counterparts. Laptops are more popular than desktop computers and there are a bewildering variety of laptop processors on the market. Highest-performance laptops use the Intel Core i9 or Core i7 eighth-generation “Coffee Lake-H” processors. These have model numbers such as Core i7-8750H. (8xxx indicates eighth generation, 7xxx is seventh generation, and so on). H series chips (chips ending in H, HK, or HQ) are the fastest processors in the category. G series chips include AMD Radeon graphics, which are better for gaming than the normal Intel integrated graphics. U series chips have slower performance than H and G chips, whereas Y series have ultra-low power processors that don’t require cooling fans but are the slowest Core i-series chips in a processor family. The Pentium, Celeron, and Atom mobile chips are even slower. To learn about the specific features of an Intel CPU model, look it up at ark.intel.com AMD laptops’ Ryzen 7 Mobile processors (Ryzen 7 Pro

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2700U, Ryzen 7 2700U) rival the G and U series Core i7 and Core i5 eighth-generation processors. Ryzen 5 processors are comparable to slower Core i5 eighthgeneration processors. Ryzen 3 processors are comparable to Core i3 eighth-generation processors. Older A-series processors (A12, A10, others) are comparable in performance to older Core i5 and i3 processors. Workstation Most Intel Xeon and all AMD Opteron workstation processors support x64. Compared to 64-bit desktop processors, they are optimized for 3D rendering and CAD support. Systems used for workstations usually feature 16GB or more of RAM, high-end video cards (such as the AMD FirePro and NVIDIA Quadro products) made for accurate rendering, hard drives using Serial Attached SCSI (SASI) or SATA Express, and two or more 27-inch or larger displays.

Server

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Server Most Intel Xeon and all AMD Opteron and EPYC server processors run 64-bit operating systems and apps. These processors are optimized for use in dual-processor or multiprocessor operations and for very high-speed networking. Gigabit or 10G LAN support, RAID array mass storage, and optimization for media streaming and file sharing are typical features.

GPU A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a component that renders display output. Currently, there are two places the GPU is located: Many processors made for desktop computers as well as almost all processors made for laptops and other form factors include GPU functions. For higher performance in gaming, 3D rendering, and CAD, cards with discrete GPUs are used in desktops and workstations and some gaming laptops.

If the GPU is built into the processor, the GPU typically uses a portion of system memory. If the GPU is built into a card, the card has its own memory. Desktop computers that support CPUs with integrated GPUs have video outputs in their port cluster (refer to Figure 10-3). However, these computers can also use graphics cards similar to the one shown in Figure 10-16.

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Graphics cards are also used in computers that do not have integrated GPUs.

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Figure 10-16 A High-Performance Video Card Using Two Fans to Cool Its GPU and Memory and a Double-Width Bracket for Cooling and for Various Video Output Ports

STORAGE The operating system (OS), apps (programs), and most data are stored in an internal drive. Two types of drives are used for system storage in desktops, laptops, and similar computers today: Hard drive Solid-state drive (SSD)

Hard Drive A hard drive (also known as a hard disk drive, or HDD) contains one or more spinning metal or glass platters that are coated with a magnetic substance. Read/write heads move across the platters to read, write, and rewrite data as needed. Typical desktop hard drives are 3.5 inches wide, whereas laptop hard drives are 2.5 inches wide and are also shorter in height. Both types connect to the motherboard via SATA connections. Typical storage capacities range from 500GB to 4TB or larger.

SSD

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SSD

A solid-state drive (SSD) uses one of various types of high-speed flash memory instead of magnetic media. As a consequence, it performs much faster than a spinning hard drive. However, an SSD’s cost per GB is much higher than a hard drive of comparable capacity. An SSD is typically 2.5 inches wide, but some made for very small laptops are available in a 1.8-inch-wide form factor. Some laptops and desktops also use an M.2 form factor SSD (refer to Figure 10-18). Note A third type of drive, an SSHD, combines a small amount of SSD storage with a spinning hard disk. It is less expensive than an SSD but provides faster performance than a spinning hard disk.

Most SSDs, like hard drives and SSHDs, connect to the motherboard with SATA interfaces. Figure 10-17 illustrates front and rear views of a DVD optical drive (5.25 inches wide), a 3.5-inch-wide desktop hard drive, a 2.5-inch laptop hard drive, and a 2.5-inch SSD. Figure 10-18 illustrates an M.2 SSD being installed on a high-performance desktop motherboard. When any type of SSD is used, an internal or external hard drive can also be used to provide additional storage for apps and

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data.

Figure 10-17 Desktop and Laptop Hard Drives, SSDs, and Optical Drives for Desktops All Use the SATA Interface

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Figure 10-18 A 250GB SSD Module Is Large Enough for Windows and Apps.

COOLING

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COOLING

Although most (but not all) desktop computer power supplies have built-in fans, and almost all CPUs have active heat sinks (a fan combined with a finned cooler), most systems should have additional fans installed to adequately cool the motherboard and the components connected to it, such as memory, add-on cards, and drives. Figure 10-19 illustrates a typical active heat sink on an Intel processor. Figure 10-20 illustrates a typical active heat sink on an AMD processor. The fan on an active heat sink usually draws its power from the motherboard and also sends RPM fan data to the system BIOS/firmware via a four-wire cable.

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Figure 10-19 A Typical Active Heat Sink Supplied with Intel Desktop Processors

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Figure 10-20 An Active Heat Sink Supplied with Some AMD Desktop Processors

If a fan built into a power supply fails, the power supply should be replaced. High voltages retained inside the power supply even when power is disconnected can injure or kill anyone who attempts to replace a power supply fan. However, active heat sinks and case fans can be replaced if they fail. Figure 10-21 illustrates adding a fan to the front of a desktop computer case.

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Figure 10-21 Installing a Drive Bay Fan on a Desktop Computer

Fans can also be connected to the power supply rather than to the motherboard if a motherboard fan connector is not available. High-performance systems often use liquid cooling systems in place of conventional active heat sinks on

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CPUs, GPUs, and power circuits on motherboards. A pump moves the liquid from the water block over the component through the computer to a heat exchanger that cools the warm liquid before it is sent back to the water block (see Figure 10-22).

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Figure 10-22 A Liquid Cooling System for a High-Performance CPU

NIC Almost every desktop and laptop computer manufactured in the last decade or more includes a network interface card (NIC) or built-in wired network port. Almost all laptops manufactured in the last decade also include a wireless network card that has antennas built into the frame of the display. Smartphones and tablets also include wireless networking. Wired and wireless Ethernet network adapters can connect to other networks and to the Internet. Wired vs. Wireless A wired Ethernet port, such as the ones shown in Figures 10-3 and 10-23, enables a computer to connect to any Ethernet network. No special configuration is required to connect to an Ethernet network: plug in the cable, and the system is recognized unless the network has been configured to accept connections from only specified devices.

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Figure 10-23 A Gigabit Ethernet Port with Connected RJ-45 Cable on the Rear of a Desktop Computer

The signal lights on the Ethernet port indicate port speed and connection activity. The amber light indicates that the maximum speed signal the port can use is

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present (Gigabit Ethernet on a Gigabit Ethernet adapter; Fast Ethernet on a Fast Ethernet adapter). This is a steady light. The green light, which indicates network activity, blinks on and off as the network adapter sends and receives data. The signal lights do not turn on if a working connection is not attached or if the computer is turned off. Most recent systems with built-in Ethernet ports support Gigabit Ethernet (1000Mbps), which is also backward compatible with Fast Ethernet (100Mbps) and original Ethernet (10Mbps).

Unlike Ethernet, Wireless Ethernet (also known as Wireless Fidelity or Wi-Fi) requires the user to make some configuration settings on the client device: Select the wireless network to connect to (any connection). Provide credentials (if required, either when connecting to the network or on a web page that opens automatically). Agree to conditions to use the network (common on public networks in hospitals, hotels, restaurants, and so on).

Wireless Ethernet is generally slower than wired Ethernet, although the most recent implementation of Wi-Fi, 802.11ac, offers connection speeds that can exceed Gigabit Ethernet, as shown in Table 10-1.

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Table 10-1 Wired Versus Wireless Ethernet Connection Speeds

Connection Type

Standard

Maximum Speed

Wired

Ethernet

10Mbps

Wireless (Wi-Fi)

802.11b

11Mbps*

Wireless (Wi-Fi)

802.11a

54Mbps**

Wireless (Wi-Fi)

802.11g

54Mbps*

Wired

Fast Ethernet

100Mbps

Wireless (Wi-Fi)

802.11n

150Mbps* 450Mbps**

Wired

Gigabit Ethernet

1000Mbps

Wireless (Wi-Fi)

802.11ac

1200Mbps**

*2.4GHz frequency band **5.0GHz frequency band (optional with 802.11n)

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Note Most wireless Ethernet networks use the unlicensed 2.4GHz frequency band. However, because of congestion, the latest standard, 802.11ac, uses the unlicensed 5.0GHz frequency band, which is also used by 802.11a and the optional version of 802.11n. 5GHz has many more channels than 2.4GHz and the channels don’t overlap with each other. 802.11ac hardware (routers, access points, and adapters) also support 2.4GHz networks such as standard 802.11n, 802.11g, and 802.11b.

Wired Ethernet is preferred when a connection with a consistent speed and a secure connection with no user interaction is needed. Wireless Ethernet is preferred when a connection is needed in areas where network cabling cannot be used and support for tablets and smartphones as well as computers is necessary. Most recent systems with built-in wireless Ethernet also include Bluetooth for short-range data interchange with smartphones and tablets and connections to Bluetooth printers, mice, or keyboards.

Onboard vs. Add-on Card

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Onboard vs. Add-on Card

Although almost all desktops and laptops have wired Ethernet ports, many vendors sell replacement NICs. A NIC can provide faster connection speeds than a built-in adapter, and if the onboard adapter is damaged, installing a NIC can enable a computer to continue to be used without a trip to the repair shop. Installing a NIC in a desktop computer is typically a matter of disabling the onboard network adapter with the BIOS setup program, installing the desired NIC into an expansion slot, and installing the necessary drivers. Drivers are files that provide instructions to an operating system for how to use a connected hardware device. Drivers for network adapters are usually provided with an operating system or can be downloaded from the vendor’s website. The easiest way to add a desktop computer to a wireless network is to connect a wireless USB adapter (see Figure 10-24). You can also add a wireless USB adapter to a laptop computer if its built-in wireless adapter becomes damaged or is no longer suitable (too slow or not secure enough).

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Figure 10-24 A Typical USB Wireless Network Adapter Can Also Be Plugged into a USB Extension Cable to Improve Reception.

To add support for Bluetooth printers, keyboards, or mice to a desktop or laptop computer that lacks built-in Bluetooth, connect a Bluetooth adapter to a USB port.

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 10-2 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 10-2 Key Topics for Chapter 10

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 101

A typical full-size (ATX form factor) motherboard as viewed from overhead. This motherboard has front-mounted SATA ports for storage devices.

171

Figure 103

A typical port cluster for a full-size motherboard has many different types of ports.

173

Figure 104

Add-on cards and matching expansion slots.

174

Paragraph

Firmware/BIOS

175

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Figure 108

Most Recent Desktop and Laptop Motherboards Use a CR2032 Battery to Maintain BIOS Settings

177

Figure 109

The Windows 10 System properties sheet for a computer with 16GB of RAM.

178

Figure 1010

Typical desktop and laptop memory modules.

179

Paragraph

CPU categories for CompTIA IT Fundamentals+

180

List

Components included in a typical SoC

182

Paragraph

32-bit (x86)

182

Paragraph

64-bit (x64)

183

Figure 1016

A high-performance video card using two fans to cool its GPU and memory and a doublewidth bracket for cooling and for various video output ports.

187

Paragraph

SSD

188

Figure 1017

Desktop and laptop hard drives, SSDs, and optical drives for desktops all use the SATA interface.

189

Paragraph

Cooling

190

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List

Wireless Ethernet configuration settings

194

Table 10-1

Wired versus Wireless Ethernet Connection Speeds

194

Paragraph

On-board vs. Add-on Card

195

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work. Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: motherboard firmware/BIOS random access memory (RAM) central processing unit (CPU) Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) 32-bit 64-bit solid state drive (SSD)

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graphics processing unit (GPU) network interface card (NIC)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.3 1. Which of the following statements is correct about the motherboard (system board)? 1. The motherboard includes the power supply. 2. Storage devices are not connected to the motherboard. 3. Some motherboards include video outputs. 4. All motherboards include video outputs.

2. Which of the following statements is correct about the port cluster? 1. Port clusters always include the same ports. 2. Port clusters are used for internal storage devices. 3. Port clusters are the same on desktop and laptop computers. 4. Port clusters enable multiple USB devices to be connected to a computer.

3. Three of the following motherboard components work together during the startup and hardwareconfiguration process. Select the one that is not involved in this process. 1. USB port 2. BIOS/firmware 3. CMOS

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4. Battery

4. Which of the following statements is correct about memory? 1. Desktop and laptop memory modules are interchangeable. 2. Smartphones have upgradeable memory. 3. Laptop memory modules are physically smaller than desktop modules. 4. Y ou must open a system and examine the memory to determine how much memory is installed.

5. A System on a Chip (SoC) is not used by which of the following devices? 1. Laptop 2. Smartphone 3. Raspberry Pi 4. Tablet

6. If a power supply fan fails, which of the following is the best response to the problem? 1. Repair power supply. 2. Add case fan. 3. Disconnect power supply fan. 4. Replace power supply.

7. Select the fastest wireless network connection standard. 1. Gigabit Ethernet 2. 802.11c 3. 802.11g 4. 802.11ac

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8. You need to connect a computer to a network with Internet access in an exhibition hall. Your exhibit table is in the middle of the hall. Which of the following is the best way to make the connection? 1. Use Gigabit Ethernet. 2. Use Bluetooth. 3. Use Wi-Fi. 4. Use infrared.

9. You are responsible for selecting a computer that will perform 3D rendering. Which of the following configurations will provide the best performance? 1. 32-bit CPU with 16GB of RAM 2. 64-bit CPU with 16GB of RAM 3. 64-bit SoC with 4GB of RAM 4. 32-bit CPU with 4GB of RAM

10. A Gigabit Ethernet network adapter has a blinking green light and no amber light. Which of the following conditions is being indicated? 1. Network adapter has failed. 2. Gigabit Ethernet connection is present. 3. Gigabit Ethernet connection is not present. 4. Cable fault.

11. A client has asked you to install a liquid cooling system on a CPU. Which of the following is not part of the procedure? 1. Attaching the water block over the CPU

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2. Removing the CPU’s active heat sink 3. Routing the cooling hoses through the system 4. Changing the boot order

12. Your client wants a drive that combines a spinning mechanism with a small amount of SSD storage for better speed. Which of the following do you need to install? 1. SST 2. SATA 3. SSHD 4. eSATA

13. You need to connect a laptop to an HDTV with built-in speakers using only one cable. Which of the following connectors will do the job? 1. DVI-D 2. HDMI 3. DVI-I 4. S/PDIF

14. Your client wants to get a laptop that uses an eighth-generation Intel processor that uses AMD Radeon graphics. Which of the following processor models should be considered? 1. Core i7-8709G 2. Core i7-8650U 3. Core i7-7660U 4. Core i5-6600K

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15. You want to upgrade the graphics on a system with a discrete GPU. Which of the following describes the process? 1. Replace the CPU. 2. Remove the GPU from the card and replace it. 3. Replace the graphics card. 4. Replace the motherboard.

16. You want to use a computer with 4GB of RAM to perform video editing. The video-editing software requires 8GB of RAM. Which of the following would prevent this system from being upgraded to 8GB of RAM? 1. 32-bit CPU 2. Small hard drive 3. Only one video card 4. Power supply too small

17. You have a laptop that stops working. If the CPU is bad, which of the following options might enable you to get back to work? 1. Install a spare desktop CPU. 2. Connect the laptop to a desktop computer and use it for extra storage. 3. Replace the CPU. 4. Replace the power supply.

18. The Wi-Fi radio in a smartphone has failed. Which of the following is a possible solution? 1. Connect a Wi-Fi adapter.

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2. Connect an Ethernet adapter. 3. Replace the Wi-Fi chip. 4. Replace the device.

19. You are trying to determine if a Windows desktop computer has enough RAM to be used as a photoediting workstation. Which of the following procedures would tell you how much RAM is installed? 1. Run I-Nex. 2. Use Device Manager. 3. Run System Information. 4. Check the instruction manual.

20. The BIOS chip is an example of ___________. (Fill in the blank.) 1. Firmware 2. Hardware 3. Software 4. CMOS

YOUR NEXT STEPS If you love to build, configure, and optimize computers for gaming, graphics, video, or 3D, consider getting a CompTIA A+ certification. However, if connecting computers and devices together is more your cup of tea, a CompTIA Network+ certification might be your next step.

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Chapter 11 Internet Service Types Without the Internet, installing and managing operating system and app updates, installing and updating driver files for peripherals, and convenient sharing of files would be extremely difficult. This chapter covers CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 2.4: Compare and contrast common Internet service types (fiber optic, cable, DSL, wireless: radio frequency, satellite, cellular).

FOUNDATION TOPICS FIBER OPTIC The fastest type of Internet service is based on fiber optic cabling. Fiber optic cabling transmits signals with light rather than with electrical signals, which makes it immune to electrical interference. It is used primarily as a backbone between networks. Fiber optic cable comes in two major types: Single-mode: Has a thin core (between 8 and 10 microns)

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designed to carry a single light ray long distances (up to 60km or further). Single-mode cable uses a laser diode as a light source. Typical uses include cable TV and telephone companies. Multi-mode: Has a thicker core (62.5 microns) than single-mode cable; carries multiple light rays for short distances (up to 10km). Multi-mode cable uses an LED light source. Typical uses include local and metropolitan area networks (LANs and MANs).

Fiber optic cabling can be purchased prebuilt, but if you need a custom length, it should be built and installed by experienced cable installers because of the expense and risk of damage. Some network adapters built for servers are designed to use fiber optic cable. Otherwise, media converters are used to interconnect fiber optic and conventional cables on networks. Fiber optic devices and cables use one of several connector types. Here are some of the most common: SC: Uses square connectors LC: Uses square connectors ST: Uses round connectors

Figure 11-1 illustrates typical fiber optic cables and connectors.

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Figure 11-1 Different Types of Fiber Optic Connectors. Duplex Cables Like These Permit Simultaneous Send/Receive Operations.

Fiber optic has been used for several years for Internet backbone connections between cities. However, in

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recent years, several telecom and cable companies have begun rolling out fiber optic connections that go from the Internet service provider (ISP) location to neighborhoods or all the way to homes or businesses. These connectors can be used singly or in pairs, depending on the implementation. A fiber connection from the ISP to a neighborhood is often referred to as fiber to the cabinet or curb (FTTC) or fiber to the neighborhood (FTTN). This type of connection often uses coaxial cable from the cabinet to each individual home or business; thus, it is sometimes called hybrid fiber-coax (HFC). It provides connection speeds of up to 100Mbps. Telephone ISPs that use fiber use high-speed versions of DSL between the cabinet and the home or building. A fiber connection from the ISP that goes directly to a home or business is referred to as fiber to the premises (FTTP) or fiber to the home (FTTH). This type of connection provides connection speeds up to 1000Mbps (1Gbps) or more. In a FTTP/FTTH connection, the fiber cable connects to a device known as an optical network terminal (ONT). It converts the light signals carried by the fiber optic cable into an Ethernet networking signal. Some ONT modems have a four-port Gigabit Ethernet

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switch built in (see Figure 11-2). Others have only a single port. With either type, to add wireless capabilities, connect the ONT modem to a standard wireless router.

Figure 11-2 Typical Connections on an ONT for Home Use

Note ISPs for fiber optic, DSL, and other networks sometimes combine Wi-Fi wireless networking and modem capabilities into a single device known as a gateway. For example, an ONT gateway combines an ONT modem with a wireless router. Most fiber connections use passive optical technology, which splits a single fiber optic connection to connect to multiple locations. The PON on the back of the ONT shown in Figure 11-2 indicates an ONT designed for passive optical networking.

Fiber optic advantages include the following: Very high transmission bandwidth. Longer distance for signal transmissions. Resistance to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Very secure medium data transmission. ONT is at your home, so neighborhood Internet usage won’t affect your connection’s speed.

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Fiber optic disadvantages include the following: Difficult to install (made of fragile glass [silica] or plastic fibers) Higher cost than cable or DSL wiring

CABLE Until the advent of fiber optic, the fastest Internet service available to home and business customers was cable Internet. Cable Internet uses the same RG6 coaxial cable as cable TV (see Figure 11-3), but adds a device called a cable modem (shown in Figure 11-4) to convert the signal for use by computers and home/business networks.

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Figure 11-3 RG6 Quad-Shielded Coaxial Cable Compared to a USB Cable

Figure 11-4 A Typical Cable Modem That Can Connect via Ethernet to a Wireless Router or via USB Directly to a Host PC

Typical cable Internet speeds range from 10Mbps up to 100Mbps, but some operators are now offering 500Mbps and 1000Mbps (1Gbps) speeds by using FTTH

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fiber optic service. Who provides the cable modem? That depends on the provider and on the service speed you select. The Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) version supported by a cable Internet provider is one of the determining factors. Currently, DOCSIS 3.0 and 3.1 are supported by most cable Internet providers. ISPs that support DOCSIS 3.0 modems limit speeds to 500Mbps or less. Cable Internet providers that offer 1Gbps-class services require modems that support DOCSIS 3.1. Most cable operators allow the customer to provide a cable modem if it is compatible with the service level desired. Caution Although it is less expensive to buy a modem than to rent one, a cable Internet modem that you provide must be supported by your cable ISP. ARRIS, a leading provider of cable modems, offers links to various providers’ compatibility lists at http://arris.force.com/consumers/articles/General_FAQs/Service-ProviderDevice-Compatibility-List. If your cable service is bundled with telephone service, you must use a cable modem with telephone support from the ISP.

As faster cable Internet service speeds have become common, cable modems that support older DOCSIS standards have become obsolete. If you bought a cable modem that cannot support the service speed you prefer, you must buy a replacement that supports the speeds desired or rent one from your cable ISP.

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Cable Internet pricing varies with the downstream speed and upstream speed chosen. Symmetrical service (same downstream/upstream speed) is typically offered to business customers. Most cable ISPs do not have data caps. Note Upstream refers to data, page requests, email, and so on being sent from your computer or network to the Internet. Downstream refers to any information being received from the Internet. Sending data upstream is called uploading. Receiving data is called downloading.

To determine the actual upstream/downstream speeds your connection achieves with any Internet service, use a speed-testing website. Many ISPs provide speedtesting web page links on their customer service pages. A popular choice is the Speedtest website at http://www.speedtest.net/ (see Figure 11-5).

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Figure 11-5 The Author’s Cable Internet Connection Is Rated at 60Mbps Downstream, but Is Actually Slightly Faster According to Speedtest.net.

Note A data cap is a limit on the amount of data you can download during a billing period (usually 30 days). Some vendors that have data caps charge overage fees for data downloaded beyond the limit, while others drastically reduce download speed to as little as 128Kbps for excess data. Another approach used by some vendors is to reduce the download priority of excess data.

Cable advantages include the following: “Always-on” connection Faster than dial-up connections or DSL

Cable disadvantages include the following: Speeds are sometimes slower than fiber or depend on how many people in an area are connected at once because the neighborhood shares ISP backbone (main connection to ISP). Not available in all places.

DSL

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DSL Digital subscriber line (DSL) is used by telephone companies to provide Internet services at speeds much faster than that allowed by analog (dial-up) Internet services while allowing traditional analog telephones and devices such as fax machines to share the same connection. To make this possible, devices called DSL microfilters are attached between telephones and telephony devices such as answering machines, voicemail, and fax machines to prevent interference with DSL signals. Figure 11-6 illustrates a typical DSL installation.

Figure 11-6 A Typical Self-Installed DSL Setup. The DSL Vendor Supplies the DSL Modem (Center) and the Microfilters That Attach Between Telephones and Other Devices and the Wall Outlet (Right).

Because traditional DSL runs over telephone lines

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originally developed for voice services only, it is far slower than a cable Internet connection. Typical traditional DSL speeds range from 768Kbps/384Kbps (downstream/upstream) to 6Mbps/768Kbps. Speeds decrease as the distance between the DSL service location and the central switch (central office or CO) providing the DSL connection increases. Most DSL providers do not have data caps. Improved versions of DSL such as ADSL2+ (up to 24Mbps/3.3Mbps) and VDSL (very high bit rate DSL— up to 500Mbps/100Mbps) have largely replaced traditional DSL in many markets. These use fiber optic cable to a neighborhood cabinet and then use DSL or other copper-wire-based network connections from the cabinet to individual homes and businesses. With any type of DSL connection, a device called a DSL modem or DSL gateway connects the DSL signal to your home network. Because of the wide variety of DSL implementations, DSL providers lease their modems to customers. DSL advantages include the following: Faster than dial-up connections. Users can connect to the Internet and talk on the phone simultaneously (unlike dial-up).

DSL disadvantages include the following:

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Inconsistent Internet connection speeds. Available in limited distances from service provider. Speeds drop the greater the distance from the connection to the Internet (also known as the central office or central switch). Slower than cable or fiber connections.

WIRELESS Wireless Internet service for homes and businesses permits locations that are beyond the reach of fiber, cable, or DSL services to connect to the Internet. There are three technologies in this category:

Radio frequency (RF) Satellite Cellular

Here’s how they compare.

Radio Frequency

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Radio Frequency Radio frequency wireless is also known as fixed wireless service. A fixed wireless ISP (WISP) uses a signal tower to send and receive microwave-frequency radio signals. Each customer location has a small antenna designed to connect to the wireless ISP’s signal tower. The antenna is connected to a wireless modem, which can be connected directly to a PC or to a router for sharing the connection. Most fixed wireless ISPs use multiple towers. Unlike cellular service, a fixed wireless ISP’s connection to a customer relies on line-of-sight signals. This is necessary because an RF signal is focused, unlike cellular, which uses an omnidirectional (receive or transmit in all directions) signal. Consequently, the customer’s antenna is typically mounted on the roof or an antenna tower to permit an unobstructed signal to the nearest tower. The signal from the tower is routed to an RF modem in the house or office. Most WISPs market their services to rural areas where fiber, cable, and DSL services are not available. However, some WISPs offer service in urban areas as an alternative to fiber. For pricing and speeds, contact a WISP in your area. RF wireless Internet, unlike cable or DSL, usually has high setup charges, in part because a site survey is

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necessary to determine the best location for the antenna and a roof or tower mount is often necessary. However, most WISPs do not have data caps. Satellite Satellite Internet services can be used by individuals and businesses that are out of reach of wired Internet services. Satellite Internet services are often bundled with satellite TV service. Satellite Internet service uses oval satellite antennas (very similar in appearance to satellite TV antennas) to connect with geosynchronous communication satellites orbiting over the equator. These satellites relay Internet from ground stations to individual users/viewers via a satellite modem. Satellite modems are proprietary to each satellite service and are usually purchased by the user. Satellite Internet services offer pricing based on one or two variables: data bandwidth allowed per month and downstream (download) speed. Data bandwidth per month ranges from 10–50GB (HughesNet Gen 5) to 35–100GB (Viasat). Current download speeds vary from 12–50Mbps (Viasat) to 25Mbps (for all of HughesNet’s plans). Satellite Internet vendors have data caps. However, HughesNet’s Bonus Zone offers up to 50GB additional

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download amount/month between 2 a.m. and 8 a.m. local time (off-peak hours). Because of the extra time involved in relaying signals from a ground base to a satellite and back to the individual user, satellite Internet services are poor choices for gaming or VoIP (Voice over IP) services. Satellite advantages include the following: No geographic barriers; can reach places where cable or fiber are not available. Faster than dial-up connections.

Satellite disadvantages include the following: Expensive installation. Equipment costs can be expensive (modem and dish). Unreliable; weather conditions can affect connection. Data caps are common with satellite providers. Slow ping rate unsuitable for gaming, video chat, and VoIP.

Cellular Cellular Internet service is built into smartphones. There are two ways for other devices such as tablets and PCs to use cellular Internet service: Adding a cellular radio and data plan Connecting to a mobile hotspot

To add cellular service to an Android tablet or iPad, the

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cellular radio must be factory-installed and a suitable data plan purchased from a mobile carrier. To enable devices that have only Wi-Fi (wireless Ethernet) connection to use cellular Internet, connect them to a mobile hotspot. Mobile hotspot devices can be purchased from mobile service providers. For occasional use, many smartphones can also be turned into mobile hotspots (see Figure 11-7).

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Figure 11-7 Entering the MAC Address of the Device Sharing the Hotspot’s Internet Connection.

Cellular Internet service isn’t recommended as your only connection because it is slower than most other services (average download speed for U.S. carriers in early 2018 is 12–36Mbps) with monthly data caps at 10– 15GB per line.

COMPARING INTERNET SERVICES Use Table 11-1 to help you quickly review the major differences between services.

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Table 11-1 Internet Service Comparison

Service Type

Maximum Download Speeds

Selfinstall

Data Cap

Mobile

Shareable

Fiber optic

1Gbps

No

No

No

Y es*

Cable

500Mbps

Varies

Varies

No

Y es*

DSL

6Mbps**

Varies

Varies

No

Y es*

No

Varies

No

Y es*

500Mbps Fixed wireless

768Kbps–

Satellite

25–50Mbps

No

Y es

No

Y es*

Cellular

Up to 36Mbps

Y es

Y es

Y es

Y es***

1Gbps^

*Use wireless router or router with switch. **Based on AT&T traditional DSL services. ^See https://broadbandnow.com/Fixed-Wireless-Providers for details. ***Use mobile hotspot device or enable mobile hotspot feature on cellularequipped device such as a smartphone.

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 11-2 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 11-2 Key Topics for Chapter 11

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 11-1

Different types of fiber optic cables

204

List

Fiber optic advantages/disadvantages

205

Paragraph

Typical cable Internet speeds

206

Figure 11-6

A Typical self-installed DSL setup

209

List

Three wireless technologies

210

Table 11-1

Internet Service Comparison

213

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Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work. Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: Fiber optic cable digital subscriber line (DSL) Radio Frequency satellite cellular

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.4 1. You need to specify an Internet connection that provides a speed of at least 100Mbps that cannot suffer electronic or weather-related interference. Which of the following best meets these requirements?

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1. RF 2. Cable 3. Satellite 4. Fiber optic

2. A client is reporting problems with their Internet connection during rainy weather. They are not using satellite Internet. Which of the following connections are they most likely using? 1. Cable 2. DSL 3. RF 4. Cellular

3. Fiber optic is being used as part of the distribution network for several types of Internet connections. Which of the following goes directly to the service location (home or business) to provide the fastest service? 1. FTTP 2. FTTN 3. FTTC 4. VDSL

4. You are working at an electronics store and a customer asks for a cable modem that supports DOCSIS. Which of the following should be your response? 1. Offer the most expensive cable modem. 2. Ask which version of DOCSIS is needed.

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3. Offer the least expensive cable modem. 4. Ask which cable service the customer has.

5. You are evaluating Internet service offers at a new address. One of the offers is for 6Mbps downstream/768Kbps upstream with free microfilters. Which of the following is being offered? 1. DSL 2. Cable 3. RF 4. Fiber optic

6. You are evaluating Internet service in a rural area of the USA. You can mount an antenna that faces south on your roof. Which of these services need this type of antenna positioning? 1. RF 2. Cellular 3. Satellite 4. DSL

7. Your ISP is performing a site survey of your location. There are two towers that can provide a suitable signal for your location. Which of the following Internet services is being planned? 1. Cellular 2. Satellite 3. Cable 4. RF

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8. Your ISP offers you the option to buy or lease a modem that meets DOCSIS 3.0 standards. Which type of Internet service do you have? 1. DSL 2. Fiber optic 3. Cellular 4. Cable

9. Your Internet service has become erratic since you connected the fax feature on your multifunction device. When you contact the ISP, the ISP asks you if you installed a microfilter on the new device. Which type of Internet service do you have? 1. Cable 2. Satellite 3. DSL 4. RF

10. You are using your Wi-Fi-equipped laptop in the field and you need to send a report to your office. Wi-Fi service is not available in your location. However, your smartphone has a strong signal. Which feature do you need to enable on your smartphone to permit you to use its connection? 1. Channel bonding 2. Hotspot 3. Cellular 4. DSL

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11. You are evaluating Internet service for a new address. One of the proposals has line items for a site survey and a tower. Which of the following services is being offered? 1. Cellular 2. RF 3. Cable 4. Fiber optic

12. Your telephone company is offering Internet service on the same line that you use for your fax machine with a top speed of 6Mbps. Which of the following service types is the company offering? 1. Cable 2. DSL 3. Satellite 4. RF

13. A DOCSIS device used in your Internet service is obsolete. When you look for a replacement, which of the following are you shopping for? 1. DSL gateway 2. Cable modem 3. Satellite dish 4. Microfilter

14. Your Internet service has been interrupted. You must contact your WISP for help. Which type of Internet service do you have?

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1. Cable 2. RF 3. Cellular 4. Satellite

15. Your client is watching TV during a heavy rainstorm. Because the picture cuts in and out, your client tries to use the Internet. However, the Internet signal also cuts in and out. The client’s Internet and TV services are bundled. Which of the following types of Internet is most likely in use? 1. RF 2. Cellular 3. Satellite 4. DSL

16. Your client is excited to hear that fiber optic service is coming to their area. However, the maximum speed of the service is only 100Mbps. Which of the following best describes how fiber will be used? 1. Fiber optic runs to each home. 2. Fiber optic to a cabinet, then satellite to each home. 3. Fiber optic to a cabinet, then wireless to each home. 4. Fiber optic to a cabinet, then DSL or cable to each home.

17. Your client is moving from a home that has 6Mbps/768Kbps Internet service to a location about a block away. However, the provider advises your client that the service at the new location will only be 5Mbps/512Kbps. What type of Internet service

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does your client have? 1. Cable 2. DSL 3. Satellite 4. RF

18. Your client is giving you a six-month-old DOCSIS 3.0 cable modem. The client is not changing Internet providers. Which of the following can explain what happened? 1. Client upgrading to 1Gbps cable service. 2. Client downgrading to slower cable service. 3. ISP switched to DSL modems. 4. ISP switched to satellite modems.

19. You have moved to a different location where cable Internet service is not available. However, DSL is available. You own your cable modem. What can you do for equipment? 1. Connect a cable/DSL signal adapter to your cable modem. 2. Ask if your cable modem is compatible. 3. Assume your cable modem is compatible. 4. Lease a DSL modem.

20. You are looking over a home you are consider buying. A coaxial cable is connected to a modem that is next to a wireless router. There is no satellite dish or RF antenna. The current owner has a 60Mbps download speed. Which of the following

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Internet services is installed? 1. Cable 2. DSL 3. Cellular 4. Fiber optic

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) If Internet service is what you came to IT for, you have lots of choices of what to study next. If you’re planning to install or troubleshoot Internet connections, be sure to make a CompTIA A+ certification your next learning stop. CompTIA’s Network+ should be on the list to follow. You can then choose from vendor-specific network and security certifications.

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Chapter 12 Compare and Contrast Storage Types Storage is essential to computing. Without storage, a computer would simply be an overgrown calculator useful only for simple calculations that could be entered by hand. Thanks to storage, applications can be used over and over again to create and update data. This chapter covers CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 2.5: Compare and contrast storage types: Volatile vs. nonvolatile, local storage types (RAM, hard drive, solid state vs. spinning disk), optical, flash drive; local network storage types (NAS, file server); cloud storage service.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS VOLATILE VS. NONVOLATILE

We consider two types of storage in this chapter: Volatile Nonvolatile

Both types of storage can be used for the operating system, apps, and data, so what’s the difference? The contents of volatile storage are available only as long as the system is powered on. Turn off the system, and the contents disappear. There is only one type of volatile storage: random access memory, or RAM. Nonvolatile storage, on the other hand, is what most of us think of as storage: someplace to keep the operating system, apps, and data before the computer or device is started and where to place new and changed data so it’s available when the system is shut down. There are many types of nonvolatile storage, including magnetic (spinning disk) hard drives, solid-state drives, optical storage, flash drives, network storage, and cloud storage.

LOCAL STORAGE TYPES

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LOCAL STORAGE TYPES Local storage is the first type of storage available when you turn on a computer, tablet, or smartphone. Local storage does not require an Internet or even a network connection. Let’s take a closer look. RAM When you turn on a computer, smartphone, or tablet, the operating system is loaded into the device’s RAM, followed by apps or other processes that are loaded at startup. With desktops and many laptops, memory modules of various sizes can be installed to increase the amount of volatile storage available for the operating system, apps, and the data created, changed, or loaded. Figure 12-1 illustrates typical memory modules used by recent laptop and desktop computers. Note Memory modules for desktop computers are commonly known as DIMMs (dual inline memory modules). Laptop memory modules are commonly known as SODIMMs (small outline DIMMs). To learn more about RAM, see Chapter 10, “Explain the Purpose of Common Internal Computer Components.”

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Figure 12-1 A DDR4 SODIMM for Laptops (Top) Compared to a DDR4 DIMM for Desktops (Bottom)

Figure 12-2 illustrates the process of installing a memory module into a desktop computer, whereas Figure 12-3 illustrates the process for a laptop computer. Before working with any memory modules, turn the computer off and unplug it from the AC outlet.

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Caution Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects that can harm computer components. Be sure to employ ESD protection in the form of an ESD strap and ESD mat.

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Figure 12-2 Installing a DIMM into a Desktop Motherboard

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Figure 12-3 Installing a Second SODIMM into a Laptop

After memory is installed, reconnect the power and restart the computer. You might need to enter the BIOS/firmware setup program to save the new memory

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size before the operating system starts. Most convertible (2-in-1) computers, which can be used as laptops or as tablets, as well as an increasing number of laptops, now feature non-expandable memory. In other words, the amount of RAM installed in the computer cannot be upgraded after purchase; if you buy a device with 8GB of RAM, that’s the largest amount it can have. As with smartphones and tablets, many of which also have non-expandable memory, the purchaser should consider both current and future RAM requirements before purchasing a computer with nonexpandable RAM. Note The amount of installed RAM that is usable in a computer depends on the processor installed and the operating system installed. A 64-bit processor (CPU) can use more than 4GB of RAM if a 64-bit operating system is installed. However, if a 32-bit operating system is installed, only 4GB of RAM can be used, regardless of the actual amount of RAM installed. To learn more about 32-bit versus 64-bit memory addressing, see Chapter 6, “Common Units of Measure: Storage, Throughput, and Speed.”

Figure 12-4 illustrates a system that has a 64-bit processor, a 64-bit version of Windows, and 16GB of RAM.

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Figure 12-4 Windows 10’s About Page in Settings Displays Processor Type, Windows Type, and Installed RAM.

Hard Drive

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Hard Drive Hard drive is a general term for the system drive in a laptop, desktop, convertible, or all-in-one computer. Hard drives are available in two types:

Solid state Spinning disk, using magnetic storage

Solid State Solid-state drives (SSDs) are rapidly becoming the system drive of choice for laptops and convertible computers as well as for performance-oriented desktop computers and servers. These drives use various types of high-performance flash memory to store files, and they can be used for the operating system, apps, and data. Because there is no need to move read-write heads to various storage areas of the drive to locate data, SSDs are faster than mechanical hard drives and are not affected by shock.

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Caution As Windows runs, it creates temporary files for print jobs and swap files that are used in place of RAM if there is not enough RAM for the number of programs and amount of data in use at any particular time. These files are normally stored on the C: (system) drive. If your system drive is an SSD, keep in mind that SSDs are not recommended for temporary files or swap files because they are designed for a large, but specific, number of read/write cycles. If you are using a computer to host many print jobs or other tasks that create temporary files, configure Windows to send the print queue and other temporary files to a spinning drive. To learn how to make this change, see https://winaero.com/blog/how-to-move-page-file-inwindows-10-to-another-disk/.

SSDs can also be used as replacements for existing spinning-disk hard drives in laptop or desktop computers and are also available in external versions using USB 3.1 Gen 1 (aka USB 3.0) and USB 3.1 Gen 2 interfaces. Windows 8.0 and later have built-in support for SSDs, but older versions of Windows require special configuration settings for use with SSDs. MacOS (OS X) 10.10.4 and later have built-in support for SSDs. Linux distributions (distros) based on the Linux kernel version 3.8 and later have built-in support for SSDs; however, we recommend checking compatibility for a particular SSD and its controller with the vendor of your preferred Linux distro.

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Note The Linux kernel is the basis for Linux distributions. As the kernel is improved, newer versions of Linux distributions are released. Linux kernel 3.8 was released in 2013. If you are using a Linux distribution developed in 2014 or later, your distribution is probably using Linux kernel 3.8 or later.

To determine the version of the Linux kernel your Linux distribution uses, open Terminal and use the command uname -r. In Figure 12-5, the version is 4.15 (4 is the kernel version, 15 is the major revision).

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Figure 12-5 Displaying the Linux kernel version used by an installed Linux distro.

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Figure 12-6 illustrates the two most common SSD form factors used in laptop and desktop systems: 2.5-inch and M.2 module.

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Figure 12-6 Typical 2.5-Inch and M.2 SSDs

Typical capacities of current SSDs for desktop, laptop, convertible, and all-in-one computers range from less than 60GB to capacities of over 1TB in either form factor. SSDs use NAND flash memory chips along with a controller chip, as illustrated in Figure 12-7. Note NAND flash memory is a type of nonvolatile storage technology that does not require power to retain data. NAND flash memory and a flash memory controller chip are used in solid state drives, CompactFlash and SD cards, and smartphones and USB flash drives.

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Figure 12-7 The Interior of a 512GB Samsung 840 Pro SSD

To learn more about SSDs and the specific drive referenced in Figure 12-7, see https://www.custompcreview.com/reviews/samsung840-evo-250gb-750gb-ssd-review/. Spinning Disk (HDD, SSHD) Although SSDs have become very popular as startup system drives, they still do not offer the cost per GB or capacity of spinning disk drives, also known as hard disk drives, or HDDs. Spinning disk drives contain one or more aluminum or glass platters that have magnetic coatings. Read/write heads are moved to the correct locations to read existing data and write new or changed data. A circuit board on the bottom of the drive assembly contains cache memory, the SATA controller chip, and SATA power and data interfaces. Figure 12-8 illustrates the drive platters and read/write heads of a typical SATA HDD. Typical HDD capacities range from 500GB to 6TB, but high-capacity HDDs for desktops and small servers are now available in capacities as high as 12TB.

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Figure 12-8 The Interior of a Seagate SATA Hard Disk Drive

A solid-state hybrid drive (SSHD) resembles a standard

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HDD, but it also includes up to 8GB of high-speed flash memory. An SSHD is a combination HDD and SSD, offering up to 4TB of storage that can be accessed several times faster than with an HDD. How do SSDs compare to spinning disk drives? SSDs are more expensive than spinning disk drives. However, they have many advantages over their rivals: SSDs use smaller form factors so they can fit into smaller spaces, they run cooler, and they are much faster than spinning disk drives. To learn more about the history of both drive types and how they differ, see “SSD vs. HDD: What’s the Difference?” at www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2404258,00.asp. Optical Optical drives are fading from standard system configurations but are still useful for creating and installing operating system recovery disc images, creating and installing self-booting diagnostic apps, installing apps sold on DVD media, transferring information to other users, and creating DVD or Blu-ray movie discs. Optical drives for desktop computers use a 5.25-inch form factor, and most have a pop-out tray for loading media (see Figure 12-9).

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Figure 12-9 A Typical Desktop DVD Rewriteable Drive That Supports Multiple Disc Formats

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Note Common drive markings include the following: LightScribe: Can record labeling information on the label side of the media. Requires special LightScribe media and software. DVD-Multi Recorder: Can read DVD-ROM (pressed) media, can read/write DVD-R, DVD-RW, and DVD-RAM media, and can erase and rewrite DVD-RW and DVD-RAM media. RW DVD+R DL: Can read DVD-ROM and can read/write DVD+R (single layer), DVD+R DL (dual layer), and DVD+RW (read/write/erase). Compact Disc ReWriteable: Can read CD-ROM (pressed) media, can read/write CD-R media, and can read/write/erase CD-RW media. Ultra Speed drives support CD-RW discs with speeds from 16× to 24×. Other speed grades include High Speed (8×– 12×), original (1×–4×), and Ultra+ (32×).

Laptops with optical drives typically use a slimline drive with a pop-out tray. A similar design is used for optical drives that connect via USB 2.0 or faster ports.

Media for optical drives can be divided into three categories: Compact Disc (CD) media has a capacity of 700MB; DVD and Bluray (BD) drives can also read and write CD media (see note for details). Digital Video Disk (DVD) media has a capacity of 4.7GB (singlelayer) or 8.4GB (dual-layer). Blu-ray drives can also read and write DVD media (see the following note for details). Standard Blu-ray Disc (BD) has a capacity of 25GB (single-layer), with enhanced versions holding more data.

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Note Pressed CD, DVD, and Blu-ray media are read-only. CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, and BD-R discs can be written to but not erased. CD-RW, DVDRW, DVD+RW, and BD-RE discs can be written to, erased, and rewritten. DL discs feature two recording layers.

Windows Drive Letter Assignments Windows assigns drive letters in the order that drives are connected to the system. The drive (SSD or spinning drive) where Windows is installed is the C: drive. If the system has an optical drive installed, that drive is normally assigned the drive letter D:. Additional drives use drive letters E: or above. Windows can also assign network folders that are shared with a computer a drive letter. When you move a drive from one computer to another, it might be assigned a different drive letter based on the drive letters already assigned on that computer. Flash Drive Flash drives can be divided into two categories: USB and card-based drives. USB flash drives can be plugged directly in to a USB port. Card-based flash drives must be plugged in to a flash card reader before they can be used. Both types of flash drives are automatically assigned drive letters by Windows and are automatically recognized by macOS and by modern Linux distros.

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USB flash drives are available in capacities up to 1TB, although the most common sizes are 8GB to 64GB. Figure 12-10 illustrates the exterior and interior of a typical 64GB USB 3.0 flash drive.

Figure 12-10 A Typical USB 3.0 Flash Drive with a Retractable Cover

USB flash drives up to 32GB capacity are normally

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formatted using the FAT32 file system, and USB drives of 64GB capacity and higher are formatted using the exFAT file system. These file systems are supported by recent versions of Windows, macOS, and Linux. To see the file system used by a USB flash drive, open the drive’s properties sheet in Windows File Explorer and view the General tab (see Figure 12-11). Compare this figure to Figures 6-1 through 6-3 in Chapter 6.

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Figure 12-11 The Properties Sheet for This USB Drive Shows the Drive Letter, File System, and Used and Free Space.

Most laptops and some desktop computers have flash memory card readers. Laptop card readers generally accommodate only one or two types of cards—typically SD/SDHC/SDXC and occasionally Sony Memory Stick Duo. Portable card readers and desktop internal card readers connect to a USB 2.0 or USB 3.0 (USB 3.1 Gen 1) port. Figure 12-12 illustrates a typical USB 3.0 portable card reader.

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Figure 12-12 A Typical USB 3.0 Multislot Flash Memory Card Reader

A multislot card reader might assign a different drive letter to each slot, enabling the reader to read multiple cards at the same time, or it might assign only one drive letter to all slots. Figure 12-13 illustrates a typical SDHC flash memory card. SD-family cards are commonly used in digital SLR (DSLR) and mirrorless cameras with interchangeable lenses as well as digital point-and-shoot cameras.

MicroSD and SD cards are available in three different types: Secure Digital (SD): Capacities up to 2GB Secure Digital High Capacity (SDHC): Capacities up to 32GB Secure Digital Extended Capacity (SDXC): Capacities starting at 64GB

To enable a microSD card to work in a device that uses standard SD-family cards, use a microSD–SD adapter, as shown in Figure 12-14.

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Figure 12-13 A Typical 4GB SDHC Card

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Figure 12-14 MicroSD Cards and microSD–SD Adapters

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Note SD-family cards use two different speed measurements: C-class refers to write speeds in MBps (megabytes per second), with C10 (10MBps) being the fastest; UHS (Ultra High Speed) cards are available in U1 (10MBps write speeds) and U3 (30MBps write speeds). For recording HD video, use at least a C10- or U1-rated card.

LOCAL NETWORK STORAGE TYPES A single storage location on a network can make sharing files between devices easier and make data backup and restoration simpler. Two types of devices are made especially for this purpose: Network-attached storage (NAS) File server

NAS

Network-attached storage (NAS) is a self-contained storage device that contains one or more drives, a network interface, and is bundled with software to enable computers on the network to access the device. Figure 12-15 illustrates a typical consumer-grade NAS that plugs in to a Fast/Gigabit Ethernet wired network.

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Figure 12-15 A Single-Drive NAS Device

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Depending on how the NAS is set up, it might appear as a network drive letter or a network device. Figure 12-16 illustrates how a Seagate GoFlex Home NAS appears in the Windows 10 File Manager’s This PC view.

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Figure 12-16 Viewing the Properties for a Seagate NAS in Windows 10 File Explorer

A NAS device built for use in business may have two or more drive bays, permit easy upgrading of drives, and might also provide for automatic mirroring (copying) of the contents of one drive to another (RAID 1). Note Redundant Array of Independent (Inexpensive) Drives (RAID) is the common name for using two or more drives that work as a unit. To learn more about RAID, see Chapter 34, “Disaster Recovery 101: Business Continuity Concepts.”

File Server Current operating systems for PCs enable one computer to share files and folders with others (see Figure 12-17). However, for faster performance, business networks use single-purpose devices known as file servers.

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Figure 12-17 Using the Sharing Tab on a Folder’s Properties Sheet to Share the Folder in Windows 10

A file server contains one or more drives, is connected to a network, and is designed to transmit and receive files from multiple devices at the same time using one or more Gigabit Ethernet or 10G Ethernet network adapters. Data centers often use multiple file servers, as shown in Figure 12-18.

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Figure 12-18 File Servers in a Typical Server Room in a Data Center Credit:White78/ShutterstockWhite78/Shutterstock

Many file servers use a rack-mounted design, which permits a server to be quickly swapped out if it stops

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working. File servers using a rack-mounted design are shown in Figure 12-19.

Figure 12-19 Rack-Mounted File Servers in a Data Center Credit: Sashkin/Shutterstock

CLOUD STORAGE SERVICE

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CLOUD STORAGE SERVICE As mobile computing devices (laptop and convertible computers, smartphones, and tablets) have become widespread, the need for storage that can be accessed anywhere has also grown. Cloud storage services enable both personal and business users to access their information and apps anywhere an Internet connection is available.

Services such as Google Drive (shown in Figure 12-20), Microsoft OneDrive (shown in Figure 12-21), Apple iCloud, Dropbox (shown in Figure 12-22), Amazon Drive, and others offer subscriptions that provide access to specific amounts of cloud-based storage. By installing a client app or logging in to the service’s web portal, a user can upload files to cloud storage, manage cloud storage (delete, rename, create, and use folders), and download files as needed.

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Figure 12-20 Google Drive’s Web Interface

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Figure 12-21 Microsoft OneDrive’s Web Interface

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Figure 12-22 Dropbox Access from Within Windows 10’s File Manager

Some services also offer web-based office apps. Users of Google Drive can use Google Docs, whereas users of OneDrive can use web-based versions of Word, Excel, and other Microsoft Office apps. These are examples of Software as a Service (SaaS). Note To learn more about cloud hosted applications, see Chapter 19, “Getting Apps from Source to Your Device.”

Many cloud storage providers offer a limited amount of storage free to registered users and have various pricing tiers for additional storage. For example, Amazon Drive, iDrive, and OneDrive offer 5GB free, Dropbox Basic offers 2GB free, Google Drive offers 15GB total for Gmail, Google Drive, and Google Photos. OneDrive provides up to 1TB storage free for users who subscribe to Office 365. Note For more information about Google Docs, go to https://docs.google.com. For more information about OneDrive, go to https://onedrive.live.com. For more information about Dropbox, go to https://www.dropbox.com. For more information about Amazon Drive, go to https://www.amazon.com/b? ie=UTF8&node=15547130011. For more information about iDrive, go to https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201318.

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EXAM PREPARATION TOPICS REVIEW TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 12-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 12-1 Key Topics for Chapter 12

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Listt

Two type of storageo

221

Figure 12-1

A DDR4 SODIMM for Laptops Compared to a DDR4 DIMM for Desktops

222

List

Two types of hard drives

226

Figure 12-6

Typical 2.5 inch and M.2 SSDs

229

List

Optical media types

233

Paragraph

USB flash drives

233

List

MicroSD and SD card types

236

Paragraph

NAS

238

Paragraph

File server

240

Paragraph

Cloud storage services

242

DEFINE KEY TERMS Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary:

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Volatile storage non-volatile storage spinning disk optical Compact Disc (CD) Digital Video Disk (DVD) Blu-ray Disc (BD) flash drive network attached storage (NAS) file server cloud storage service

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.5 1. Which of the following storage types is an example of volatile storage? 1. RAM 2. SSD 3. Flash 4. Cloud

2. You need to install additional RAM into a laptop computer. Which of the following types of storage is suitable?

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1. DIMM 2. SSD 3. Flash 4. SODIMM

3. You need to install a single storage device with 8TB of capacity into a computer that will be used for video editing. Which of the following has sufficient capacity? 1. Flash 2. HDD 3. BD 4. M.2

4. You need to select optical media that can be erased and rewritten and provides a capacity of up to 4.7GB. Which of the following should you choose? 1. BD-RE 2. CD-RW 3. DVD-R 4. DVD+RW

5. You are choosing a high-capacity flash memory card for use with a DSLR camera. Which of the following standards supports a capacity of 64GB or higher? 1. microSD 2. SDXC 3. SDHC 4. SSD

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6. You need to add storage to a network. Which of the following is network-ready? 1. NAS 2. SATA HDD 3. SSHD 4. BD-RE

7. Nonvolatile storage is best described by which of the following phrases? 1. It works as long as the device is turned on. 2. It is available in the DIMM form factor. 3. It is only available as internal storage. 4. It can connect using USB or SATA ports.

8. Which of the following is not a correct statement about a file server? 1. It contains one or more drives. 2. It must be rack-mounted. 3. It may have multiple network ports. 4. It connects to a network.

9. You have been tasked with selecting a free cloud storage service for users of Office 365. Which of the following offers the largest amount of free storage for these users? 1. Google Drive 2. OneDrive 3. Amazon Drive 4. Dropbox

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YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) What’s next? If you love to install, configure, fill up, and upgrade drives on a desktop or laptop, consider going for the CompTIA A+ certification. However, if you love sharing storage (and more) between computers, also think about going for the CompTIA Network+ certification. Learn more about A+ certification at https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/a. For some of the best study guides in the industry (including books and online guides by yours truly), go to http://www.pearsonitcertification.com/store/browse.aspx? st=86559. Learn more about Network+ Certification at https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/network. For some of the best study guides in the industry, go to http://www.pearsonitcertification.com/store/browse.aspx? st=86560.

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Chapter 13 Compare and Contrast Common Computing Devices and Their Purposes In this chapter, we are focusing on CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 2.6: Compare and contrast common computing devices and their purposes, including mobile phones, tablets, laptops, workstations, servers, gaming consoles, and IoT (home appliances, home automation devices, thermostats, security systems, modern cars, IP cameras, streaming media devices, and medical devices).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS MOBILE PHONES Mobile phones, particularly smartphones, are among the most widespread computing devices in common use. Many smartphone users rely on them for email, web browsing, and text/video communication, and might make phone calls only a small amount of the time. Many smartphones have faster processors, more RAM, and more flash memory storage space than desktop computers of a decade ago, along with integrated digital cameras, video capture, and music playback. A few feature expandable storage using microSD-family cards. Smartphones can be used almost anywhere because they feature both cellular and Wi-Fi connections: cellular connections for cellular phone calls and data, and Wi-Fi for data and (with some carriers) phone calls. Switching to Wi-Fi connections enables communication without using up cellular minutes or data limits. Table 13-1 summarizes the essential features of smartphones.

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Table 13-1 Smartphone Core Features

Feature

Details

Processor

ARM 32 bit or 64 bit

RAM

Non-expandable

Storage

Flash memory up to 256GB

Expansion slot

MicroSD-family card slot or none

Expansion port

(See “Charging”)

Charging

Micro-USB, USB-C, or Lightning

Display

Built in

External video output

N/A

Interface

Touchscreen

Wireless network(s)

Bluetooth, cellular, Wi-Fi

Wired network

N/A

Operating system(s)

iOS, Android, Windows Mobile

TABLETS

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TABLETS Tablets are a step up from smartphones in storage capacity, screen size, and RAM. When paired with a wireless keyboard, a tablet can be used as an effective mobile substitute for a computer when used for web surfing, email, and light-duty office tasks. Many tablets feature expandable storage using microSD-family or SDfamily cards. Tablets are equipped with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, but some can also be fitted with cellular radios to provide the same kind of connect-anywhere capabilities a smartphone has. Table 13-2 summarizes the essential features of tablets. Table 13-2 Tablet Core Features

Feature

Details

Processor

ARM 32 bit or 64 bit, x86 32 bit

RAM

Non-expandable up to 2GB

Storage

Flash memory up to 256GB

Expansion slots

MicroSD-family card slot or none

Expansion port

(See “Charging”)

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Charging

Micro-USB, USB-C, or Lightning

Display

Built in

External video output

N/A (iOS, Android) Varies (Windows)

Interface

Touchscreen Keyboard*

Wireless network

Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, cellular*

Wired network

N/A Gigabit Ethernet**

Operating system(s)

iOS, Android, Windows 10

*Optional **Via USB-Ethernet adapter

LAPTOPS A laptop computer has the essential features of a desktop computer, plus a built-in screen, in a smaller battery-powered form factor. A laptop computer uses the same operating system as a desktop computer (Windows, macOS, or Linux), offers multiple USB 2.0/3.0 ports for expansion as well as one or more video ports, has built-in audio, and might have a built-in DVD drive.

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A laptop computer also includes a webcam for video chatting and a touchpad (sometimes also a touchscreen) for mouseless control of the computer. With the similarities in performance between laptop and desktop computers, it’s not surprising that laptop computers have been outselling desktop computers for several years. Table 13-3 summarizes the essential features of laptops. Table 13-3 Laptop Core Features

Feature

Details

Processor

64 bit

RAM

4GB to 16GB RAM; may be expandable

Storage

Hard disk or SSD

Expansion slots

SD-family card slot

Expansion port

USB (two or more)

Charging

Proprietary or USB Type C

Display

Built in

External video output

Y es

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Interface

Keyboard, touchpad touchscreen*

Wireless

Bluetooth, Wi-Fi cellular*

Wired network

Gigabit Ethernet

Operating system(s)

Windows 10, macOS Linux*

*Optional

WORKSTATIONS

What is a workstation? The term workstation usually refers to a basic desktop computer that runs an office suite, web browser, and email, and is typically connected to a network for printing and Internet access. Note Sometimes, a workstation is a computer that is more powerful than a normal desktop or laptop computer. It uses processors, video cards, and other components designed for technical workloads such as 3D CAD, 3D modeling, video editing, photo editing, operating system/app virtualization, and audio editing. The CompTIA A+ Certification 220-901 exam, for example, specifies several specific workstation configurations, including Graphic/CAD/CAM Design workstation, Audio/Video Editing workstation, and Virtualization workstation.

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Office workstations, such as the one shown in Figure 131, are usually built in a small vertical or horizontal case.

Figure 13-1 A Typical Office Workstation

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Table 13-4 summarizes the essential features of workstations. Table 13-4 Workstation Core Features

Feature

Details

Processor

x64 64-bit processor

RAM

4–8GB RAM

Storage

Hard disk and/or SSD, optical drive (DVD)

Expansion slots

PCIe for I/O, networking

Expansion port

USB (four or more)

Charging

N/A

Display

External

External video output

Y es, built-in video port Video card*

Interface

Keyboard Mouse, touchpad, touchscreen*

Wireless

Bluetooth, Wi-Fi*

Wired network

Gigabit Ethernet

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Operating system(s)

Windows 10 macOS Linux*

Form factor

Small form-factor horizontal or vertical case

*Optional

SERVERS

A server is optimized for connecting to or managing other computers on a network. There are many specialized configurations for servers, but their main features include one or more multicore CPUs optimized for high throughput, one or more Gigabit or 10G Ethernet wired or fiber optic ports, RAID drive arrays using multi-TB drives built for additional reliability, 16GB or more of RAM with error correction, hot-swap power supplies, and management features. Some servers are controlled directly from a display, keyboard, and mouse the same way that desktops are, but many are controlled using a KVM switch (keyboard, video, mouse) or with remote access software (see Figure 13-2).

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Figure 13-2 A KVM Switch Enables a Single Keyboard, Mouse, and Display to Be Connected to Multiple Servers.

Servers are sold in many form factors, including tower, rack-mounted (see Figure 13-3), and blade for use in blade servers (see Figure 13-4).

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Figure 13-3 Rack-Mounted Servers and Switches

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Figure 13-4 Working with a Hard Disk in a Server Blade

Table 13-5 summarizes server core features.

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Note A blade is a compact device that has one or more CPUs and might also include storage, networking, and management. It is plugged in to a server blade enclosure, which provides power and cooling and might also provide management. A server blade enclosure holds many blades, enabling many more servers to be placed in the same space than a rack mount could hold.

Table 13-5 Server Core Features

Feature

Details

Processor

x64 64-bit multicore server class (one or more)

RAM

16GB or more RAM

Storage

Hard disk and/or SSD array

Expansion slots

PCIe for I/O, networking

Expansion port

USB (2 or more)

Charging

N/A

Display

External

External video output

Built-in port or none

Interface

Keyboard Mouse*

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Wireless

N/A

Wired network

Gigabit Ethernet or 10G Ethernet (one or two ports)

Operating system(s)

Windows Server Linux server

Form factor

Tower, rack mount, blade

*Optional

GAMING CONSOLES A gaming console (see Figure 13-5) is a specialized type of computer optimized for 3D gaming. Gaming consoles use specialized motherboards with integrated video, RAM, and processor. Unlike a standard computer, expansion options are proprietary and limited to controllers and additional storage. Current gaming console models include Blu-ray drives (BDs) and can also be used as Blu-ray players.

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Figure 13-5 A Typical 3D Gaming Console

Although you can’t upgrade a gaming console’s RAM, processor, or video output, you can choose from two or more models with the latest consoles from Sony and Microsoft.

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For example, the Sony PlayStation 4 Pro has three USB 3.0 (USB 3.1 Gen 1) ports, versus only two on the original PS4 and PS4 Slim. The PS4 Pro has a faster processor with much more powerful 3D graphics than its predecessors and can stream 4K video sources, compared to its predecessors, which support only 1080p output. The Microsoft Xbox One X offers more RAM and a faster CPU and GPU than its predecessors (Xbox One and Xbox One S). The Xbox One S and One X support HDR and 4K Blu-ray, compared to the original Xbox One, which supports 1080p Blu-ray. Table 13-6 compares the essential features of smartphones, tablets, laptops, workstations, servers, and gaming consoles.

Table 13-6 Computing Device Feature Comparison

Feature

Phone

Tablet

Laptop

Workstation

Server

Game

Upgradeable RAM

No

No

Varies

Y es

Y es

No

Upgradeable storage

Varies

Varies

Varies

Y es

Y es

Y es

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Expansion slots

No

No

Varies

Y es

Y es

No

Charging

Y es

Y es

Y es

No

No

No

Built-in display

Y es

Y es

Y es

No

No

No

Upgradeable video output

No

No

No

Varies

Y es

No

Keyboard

Soft

Soft

Built in

Add-on

Add-on

No

Touchpad

No

No

Built in

No

No

No

Mouse

No

No

Add-on

Add-on

Add-on

No

Wi-Fi

Y es

Y es

Y es

Add-on

Add-on

Y es

Bluetooth

Y es

Y es

Varies

Add-on

Add-on

No

Wired network

No

No

Y es

Y es

Y es

Varies

Optional operating systems

No

No

Y es

Y es

Y es

No

IOT

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IOT IoT is short for the Internet of Things, a term that refers to intelligent devices capable of communicating via the World Wide Web. IoT devices are usually not fullfledged computers, but, depending on the device, have sensors, controllers, or other components that are Internet enabled (see Figure 13-6).

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Figure 13-6 Many Different Types of Devices Are Now Part of the IoT.

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IoT devices are designed to work with specific apps. It might be necessary to install an app on your smartphone to enable a connection to a particular IoT device. Note The terms Internet of Things and IoT are not typically used by the vendors of these type of products. Look for “connected,” “intelligent,” “smart,” or “powered by technology name” as you research or shop for IoT devices.

The connection between home automation systems and you is typically a smart assistant app, accessible through your smartphone or intelligent speakers. There are several competing technologies (Apple HomeKit, Nest, Amazon Echo/Alexa, Google Home, Microsoft Cortana, and IFTTT). Fortunately, many products support more than one technology.

To learn about products that support Apple HomeKit, the technology included in iOS for home automation and control, see https://www.apple.com/ios/home/accessories/ for compatible IoT equipment. To learn about products that work with Nest, see https://nest.com/works-with-nest/. To learn about products that work with Amazon

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Echo/Alexa, see https://www.amazon.com/AmazonEcho-And-Alexa-Devices/b?node=9818047011. To learn about products that work with Google Home, see https://store.google.com/product/google_home. To learn about products that work with Microsoft Cortana, see https://www.windowscentral.com/everysmart-home-device-works-cortana. To learn about IFTTT, a free web-based service for creating custom automation commands that can be used with social media, email, and home automation products, see https://ifttt.com/. Home Appliances IoT-enabled home appliances include refrigerators, ranges, microwave ovens, dishwashers, washing machines, and dryers (see Figure 13-7).

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Figure 13-7 Examples of IoT Appliances

IoT-enabled devices can enable users to: Find out the refrigerator door was left open. Request more ice before a party. Use cameras inside the refrigerator to see what needs to go on the

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shopping list. Download and use customized wash and dry cycles. Preheat an oven. Scan food product barcodes to set cooking time and temp. Use Alexa or other smart home speakers to control appliances. Receive maintenance alerts when it’s time to replace filters.

Note To learn more about IoT-enabled home appliances and software, check out these websites: LG SmartThinQ: www.lg.com/us/discover/smartthinq/thinq Whirlpool Connected appliances: www.whirlpool.com/homeinnovations/connected-appliances.html GE Connected appliances: www.geappliances.com/ge/connected-appliances/ Samsung FlexWash: https://www.samsung.com/us/explore/flexwash/ Samsung Family Hub refrigerator: https://www.samsung.com/us/explore/family-hubrefrigerator/overview/

Home Automation Devices Home automation is a general term for many types of IoT-enabled devices you can use to automate lighting, power, cleaning, and window coverings (see Figure 138).

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Figure 13-8 Home Automation

Some of these include:

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Intelligent speaker systems (Amazon Echo, Google Home, and so on) Smart LED lighting (Philips Hue, Lifx, and so on) Smart plugs and switches to retrofit existing lights, fans, space heaters, and other small appliances with IoT capabilities (Belkin WeMo, iDevices, iHome, Ecobee, and so on) Smart robotic vacuum cleaners (Neato Botvac, iRobot Roomba 880, Ecovacx Deebot, and so on) Window blinds and shades (HunterDouglas, Serena by Lutron, and so on)

To learn more about intelligent lighting see: Philips Hue https://www2.meethue.com/en-us Lifx (https://www.lifx.com/) Eufy Lumos (https://www.eufylife.com/collections/led).

To learn more about smart plugs and switches see: Belkin’s WeMo https://www.belkin.com/us/Products/smarthome-iot/c/wemo/ iDevices (idevicesinc.com) iHome (https://www.ihomeaudio.com/products/#/? department=73) Ecobee Switch+ (https://www.ecobee.com/switch-plus/)

To learn more about smart robotic vacuum cleaners see: Neato Botvac (https://www.neatorobotics.com/smarthome/) iRobot Roomba (https://www.irobot.com/For-theHome/Vacuuming/Roomba.aspx) Eufy RoboVac (https://www.eufylife.com/products/575/cleaning)

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To learn more about smart window blinds and shades see: HunterDouglas PowerView (https://www.hunterdouglas.com/operatingsystems/motorized/powerview-motorization) Serena (https://www.serenashades.com/serenaadvantage/connectedhome).

Thermostats Intelligent thermostats (see Figure 13-9) enable you to control temperature when you’re away from home. Use them to adjust the thermostat when you’re away on a trip, warm up or cool down your home before you arrive, and tweak your home’s temperature without getting out of bed.

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Figure 13-9 A Typical Smart Thermostat

Intelligent thermostats can help save on heating and cooling costs, and rebates are available from some gas and electric utilities. Some popular brands include: Ecobee: https://www.ecobee.com/ Nest: https://nest.com/thermostats/ Lux KONO and GEO: https://www.luxproducts.com/kono/; https://www.luxproducts.com/geo/ Honeywell Lyric: https://www.honeywellhome.com/Lyric

Security Systems

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Security Systems IoT-enabled security systems (see Figure 13-10) provide capabilities for remote monitoring, intrusion detection, and fire warnings without using wires, enabling easy installation and the ability to install systems in rented properties.

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Figure 13-10 Controlling a Home’s Security and Lighting with a Smartphone

Some of the features of typical intelligent security systems might include:

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Motion sensors Glass breakage Fire and smoke detection Gas leak detection Water leak detection Freeze detection Wi-Fi and cellular connections IP cameras (also available separately) Integration with home automation systems Professional monitoring (optional)

Some of the leading vendors include SimpliSafe (www.simplisafe.com), Frontpoint (https://www.frontpointsecurity.com/), ADT (www.adt.com), iSmartAlarm (https://www.ismartalarm.com/), and Ring (https://ring.com). Modern Cars Many recent cars contain a lot of connected technology (see Figure 13-11).

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Figure 13-11 Getting a Diagnostic Readout from a Wi-Fi-Enabled Car on a Smartphone

Some of the connected automotive features that might be found on a new passenger vehicle include cellular connections with a Wi-Fi hotspot, so all your Wi-Fi devices are usable while you drive; integration with iOS

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or Android smartphones, so you can use many of your smartphone’s features from the touchscreen display in the vehicle; a vehicle locator so you’ll never misplace your car at Disney World again; vehicle service status; satellite navigation and radio; voice commands; streaming media support; and more. Connected features may vary by optional packages selected. To learn more, see these and other vehicle manufacturers’ websites: Buick: https://www.buick.com/infotainment-and-connectivity Chevrolet: https://www.chevrolet.com/connectivity-andtechnology Chrysler: https://www.chrysler.com/uconnect.html Ford: https://www.ford.com/technology/sync/ GMC: https://www.gmc.com/entertainment-and-connectivity Hyundai: https://www.hyundaiusa.com/connectivity/index.aspx Mercedes-Benz: http://www.mercedes-benz-mobile.com/us/en/ Toyota: https://www.toyota.com/entune/

IP Cameras

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IP Cameras IP cameras capture still images or streaming video and are included in many security systems. They are also available as independent devices. When IP cameras are used as independent devices, still or video output is generally stored in a private cloud account for review on your smartphone or computer. Many IP cameras can be integrated with home automation systems. Some of the leading vendors of IP cameras include the following: Logitech: https://www.logitech.com/en-us/product/circle-2home-security-camera Arlo: https://arlo.com/en-us/products/default.aspx D-Link: http://us.dlink.com/home-solutions/wifi-camera/

Streaming Media Devices

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Streaming Media Devices

An increasing number of TV and movie fans are switching from cable or satellite TV to streaming media services. Streaming media services are delivered by cable or other broadband Internet providers. Although many new TVs are now smart TVs with some streaming media capabilities, separate streaming media devices often have more features and have the advantage of being movable from TV to TV. A mixture of paid and free streaming channels brought in via broadband Internet services means that viewers have access to more media than with a traditional cable TV or satellite TV subscription. All of the devices listed use Wi-Fi connections. The leading streaming media devices include the following: Roku: https://www.roku.com/; some models have 4K video and wired network support; some models support analog TV connections; also available in smart TVs from third-party vendors. Amazon Fire TV: www.amazon.com; some models have 4K video and 3D audio support; can be controlled with Alexa/Echo; use optional adapter for wired network. Apple TV: https://www.apple.com/apple-tv-4k/; supports 4K video, 3D audio, and Siri voice command; other versions support full HD; plays Apple TV games.

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Google Chromecast: https://store.google.com/product/chromecast_2015; streams 1080p video from Android, iOS, macOS, and Windows devices. Sonos: www.sonos.com; streams audio from streaming music services, including Apple Music, Spotify, Pandora, and many others. Available in stereo and 5.1 surround audio versions.

Medical Devices Wearable activity trackers such as Fitbit are the most well-known IoT medical devices, but there are many other categories now available or in trials. Some of these devices include the following:

Asthma management Back therapy Biosensors Smart contact lenses Breast health tracking Compact ECG monitor Pacemaker/defibrillators

Note For a roundup of companies and products in some of these categories, see http://www.appcessories.co.uk/connected-smart-medical-devices-thatare-changing-healthcare/.

These and similar products typically work with

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Bluetooth, cellular, or Wi-Fi connections to smartphones or directly to health care providers. While the IoT in general provides a new level of security threats, medical device security is an even greater concern because misuse or hacking could be a literal life-and-death issue. Technical, security, and privacy issues are all important factors in this new field. Note For more information about security issues with medical devices, see https://www.cio.com/article/3102918/internet-of-things/connected-medicaldevice-makers-need-to-step-up-security.html.

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 13-7 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 13-7 Key Topics for Chapter 13

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

Workstation

252

Note

Rack mounted

252

Paragraph

Server

253

Note

Server blade

255

Table 13-6

Computing device feature comparison

257

List

Internet of Things smart assistant apps

259

Figure 13-7

Examples of IoT appliances

259

List

Home automation examples

260

List

IoT automotive features

264

Paragraph

Streaming media devices

265

List

Medical devices

266

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory

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Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix B, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix C, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work. Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: smartphone tablet laptop workstation server KVM switch blade server gaming console Internet of Things home automation IP camera streaming media device activity tracker

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.6 1. Your gaming console has run short of storage, and you are looking for a solution that is relatively inexpensive while preserving your existing gaming experience. What should you do? 1. Replace the console. 2. Connect a standard USB drive. 3. Connect a drive made for the console. 4. Delete some games.

2. You want to play games but want the ability to replace onboard video with faster 3D graphics as they are introduced. Which of the following should you buy? 1. Laptop 2. Server 3. Desktop 4. Gaming console

3. Your company is replacing its collection of mainframe computers. To achieve the maximum computing and storage density in the least amount of space, which of the following should be installed in their place? 1. Tower servers 2. Blade servers 3. Rack mounted servers

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4. Rack mounted workstations

4. You are designing a home automation project. Which of the following statements best reflects how to have a working configuration? 1. Make sure everything is from the same vendor so it works together. 2. Any home automation product works with every other home automation product. 3. Make sure everything works with the same smart assistant technology. 4. Use IFTTT and stop worrying.

5. You have just installed a new kitchen with connected appliances. Which of the following do you need to do before you can connect to them? 1. Run network cabling to each appliance. 2. Install a new router. 3. Install a new app on your smartphone. 4. Upgrade your home network.

6. You want to use the Wi-Fi hotspot feature in your new car. Which of the following do you need to do first? 1. Buy a data plan. 2. Upgrade your phones. 3. Measure the distance from your phones to your car. 4. Pair your phones to the hotspot.

7. Your gas and electric utility might offer you a rebate if you buy which of the following IoT

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devices? 1. Car 2. Range 3. Smartphone 4. Thermostat

8. You have just purchased a new smart TV. Which of the following do you need to do to start using it with streaming media? 1. Connect it to an antenna. 2. Connect it to your home network. 3. Buy a streaming media device. 4. Discontinue cable.

9. Which of the following features an ARM 32-bit or 64-bit processor? 1. Laptop 2. Workstation 3. Server 4. Smartphone

10. Which of the following features an ARM 32-bit or 64-bit processor or x86 32-bit processor and can include non-expandable System on a Chip (SoC) up to 2GB? 1. Tablet 2. Workstation 3. Blade server 4. IoT smart car

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11. Which of the following features one or more multicore CPUs optimized for high throughput, one or more Gigabit or 10G Ethernet wired or fiber optic ports, and drive arrays using multi-TB drives built for additional reliability? 1. PlayStation 4 Pro 2. Workstation 3. Server 4. IP camera

12. Which of the following enables a single keyboard, mouse, and display to be connected to multiple servers? 1. Xbox One X 2. Smart assistant app 3. KVM switch 4. Enterprise automation

13. Which of the following is a more powerful version of a desktop computer, featuring processors geared toward technical work (3D CAD, video editing, photo editing, 3D modeling), more RAM, a video card with a 3D GPU designed for technical modeling, and large, fast mass storage? 1. Server 2. Workstation 3. IoT home design device 4. Gaming console

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14. Which of the following is a general term for many types of IoT-enabled devices you can use to automate lighting, power, cleaning, and window coverings? 1. Home automation 2. IoT Everywhere 3. Smart Stream to the Home (SSH) 4. Activity detection and protection

15. Which of the following plays back media from websites or Internet media channels on a TV or home theater system? 1. Activity tracker 2. IP camera 3. Media streaming device 4. Compact ECG monitor

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) Vendors of computers and similar computing devices often have certifications for technicians. Check with the vendor for details. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a growing field, and if you want to specialize in it, consider getting a certification: Cisco offers the Cisco Industrial Networking Specialist certification

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for working with industrial control IoT applications in manufacturing and similar industries. Go to https://learningnetwork.cisco.com/community/certifications/iot/industrialnetworking. The Global Science and Technology Forum (GSTF) offers its Certified Internet of Things Specialist (CloTS) certification for a wide range of IT professionals. Learn more at https://globalstf.org/certified-internet-of-things-specialist-ciots/.

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Chapter 14 Explain Basic Networking Concepts Without networking, today’s computing world of instant communications, fast and frequent updates to operating systems and software, and shared devices would be impossible. This chapter is designed to help you master CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Infrastructure Objective 2.7: Basics of network communication, device addresses, basic protocols, and devices.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS BASICS OF NETWORK COMMUNICATION Network communication works very differently than communication between a peripheral and a computing device. When your computer sends a print job to a printer connected to a USB port, for example, the connection is direct between the two devices and is a single stream of information. On the other hand, network communication between two devices is much more complicated. The information must be turned into small bits (packets), may be sent via different paths, and must be reassembled at the destination in the correct order. The following sections discuss the network technologies that enable this process. Basics of Packet Transmission You can compare a file to an enormous building made of construction blocks built for traveling exhibitions. Let’s assume that to move the file to the next location, it must be disassembled and carried, one block at a time, via different people and different routes, to its destination. At the destination, it must be reassembled. Figure 14-1 shows a rough example of how packet transmission works.

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Figure 14-1 How Moving a Complex Object to a New Location

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Compares to Routing Information over the Internet

When information is sent over a network connection, the information is divided into packets. Assume, for example, that a file can be divided into 100 packets. All of the packets need to contain the origin and destination information. To prevent the information from becoming corrupted along the way, all of the packets need to contain error-checking information. Because the packets need to be reassembled at their destination, each packet needs information to identify where it belongs in the finished product: packet 01, packet 02, and so on. As the packets flow through the network, devices known as routers determine which packets stay in the network, which ones are routed to their destination, and the best routes to follow. The destination information in the packets enables the routers to determine where the packets are going. As the packets travel, they are intermingled with many other packets going to many other destinations. When the packets reach the destination, the information contained in each packet enables the destination device to reassemble the information in correct order so it can be acted upon (for example, to send a web page, download a file, and so on). The response is packetized and sent back to the requesting device in a similar fashion. Figure 14-2 shows a

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simplified diagram of how an email message is routed over the Internet between two computers. The private IP addresses assigned to the computers are replaced with public IP addresses for routing between the networks.

Figure 14-2 How an Email Message Is Carried over the Internet Between Two Computers

DNS

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DNS One of the most common ways that the Internet is used is to request web pages or other content from websites such as InformIT.com (Pearson Education), Microsoft.com, and so on. Behind the scenes, a website may be hosted by multiple devices, each of which has an IP address (see “IP Address,” this chapter, p.276, for details). However, the user does not need to specify a particular IP address, but merely the name of the web page. The technology that makes this happen is called the Domain Name System or DNS.

When you enter the name of a website (www.microsoft.com) or click a link to a particular web page (www.informit.com/store/easy-windows-109780789759795), the technical name for what you have typed or clicked is a uniform resource locator (URL). DNS works by translating a URL into the actual IP address used by that resource. Note The domain name service (DNS) is the name for the network of servers on the Internet that translate domain names, such as www.informit.com, and individual hostnames into their matching IP addresses. If you manually configure an IP address, you typically provide the IP addresses of one or more DNS servers as part of the configuration process. DNS uses port 53.

URL to IP Translation

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URL to IP Translation DNS relies on special servers located across the Internet known as DNS servers. Each Internet service provider (ISP) provides the IP addresses of one or more (typically two) DNS name servers to the devices that connect to it. DNS name servers (often called simply DNS servers) receive information about websites and the IP addresses matching them, and they use this information to translate URLs into IP addresses. When an IP address is provided and its URL is translated, that’s an example of a reverse DNS lookup. LAN vs. WAN Although some computers connect directly to the Internet (for example, if a home computer connects directly to a cable or DSL modem), most computers and computing devices connect to each other via a wired or wireless network. This type of network is called a local area network (LAN). The Internet is an example of a wide area network (WAN). A wide area network is a collection of local networks and connections between those networks. The device that connects a LAN to a WAN is called a router (see “Router,” this chapter, p.284, for details).

DEVICE ADDRESSES

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DEVICE ADDRESSES How do networks distinguish one device from another on a network? There are two different types of addresses a network device can have: an Internet Protocol (IP) address and a media access control (MAC) address. As the following sections illustrate, these address types are used in very different ways. IP Address The type of networking that is used for WANs such as the Internet is called Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP. TCP/IP networking is also used for LANs—even those that usually don’t connect to the Internet. Every device on a TCP/IP network is identified by a unique IP address.

There are two versions of IP addresses: IPv4 Uses a 32-bit address composed of four numbers ranging from 0 to 255 (for example, 192.168.1.154). If any part of an IP address has a value greater than 255, it is not a valid IP address. For example, 256.0.832.9 is not a valid IP address because the first and third numbers are greater than 255. A local loopback IPv4 address, 127.0.0.1, is assigned to each computer and is used only for testing. IPv6 Uses a 128-bit address composed of eight groups of hexadecimal numbers, some of which can be zeros: fe80::6c5a:c90d:4169:13da%18. The :: characters represent two or

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more groups of zeros. The local loopback IPv6 address is ::1.

IPv4 supports up to 232 IP addresses (over 4.2 billion) that are visible to all devices. Because that is not nearly enough IPv4 addresses for the rapidly increasing numbers of IP-capable devices (computers, tablets, smartphones, printers, and more), IPv4 addresses are available in two forms: public and private. Public IP addresses are assigned to servers on the Internet and to ISPs. Private IP addresses (they usually start with 192.168) are assigned to networks that connect to the Internet using a router, such as small office or home office (SOHO) networks. A feature known as network address translation (NAT), included in routers, enables a public IP address to provide access to multiple private IP addresses on a network. Note Any device that has an IP address is referred to as a host. IPv4 addresses are divided into Class A, Class B, and Class C categories. Class A addresses range from 0.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0; Class A addresses support 16,777,216 hosts each on 128 networks, for a total of over 2.1 billion addresses. Class B addresses range from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0; Class B addresses support 65,536 hosts on each of 16,384 networks, for a total of over 1 billion addresses. Class C addresses range from 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254; Class C addresses support 256 hosts on each of 2 million networks, for a total of over 536 million addresses. The remainder of the 4.2 billion available IP addresses are set aside in Classes D and E, which are not used for normal IP addressing.

IPv6 networking, because it uses a much larger address size (2128), is capable of handling over 340 undecillion

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addresses. IPv6 is replacing IPv4 networking, but the process will take some time and, for now, requires a feature called tunneling, which enables IPv4 addresses to work over an IPv6 network. Whether a device has an IPv4 address, an IPv6 address, or both, the IP address is assigned, most often by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server on the network. The DHCP server may be built in to the router or a separate device on larger networks. A device that is connected to different networks through the course of a day will receive a different IP address as it connects to different networks. Note If a device that is normally assigned an IP address by a DHCP server cannot connect to the DHCP server, it assigns itself an Automatic Private IP Addressing Protocol (APIPA) address. These addresses are randomly assigned from the range 169.254.1.0 through 169.254.254.255. Devices that use an APIPA address can connect to each other on a LAN but cannot connect to other networks or to the Internet until the DHCP server starts working again. APIPA was originally supported only by Windows and Windows-compatible devices. This range of IP addresses is also used by macOS and by Linux devices if they are unable to connect to a DHCP server. To determine the IPv4 address and subnet mask and the IPv6 address assigned to a computer, the DNS servers it uses, its default gateway and DHCP server (if any), and its MAC address, use a utility built in to the operating system. In Windows, open a command prompt session with cmd.exe and run the command ipconfig /all (see Figure 14-3).

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Figure 14-3 Using ipconfig /all on a Windows 10 Computer to See Information about the Computer’s Network Adapter

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Note A feature known as subnetting allows a single network to be divided into two or more separate subnetworks. A subnet mask is used to determine whether or not a network is subdivided. In the example shown in Figure 143, the computer has an IP address of 192.168.1.154. It is part of a network that starts with IP address 192.168.1.1. The subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 indicates that the network is not subdivided. A subnet mask of 255.255.255.128 would be used to divide the network into two networks of 128 hosts each. To learn more about subnets, see https://www.iplocation.net/subnet-mask.

To determine the IP address and other information in Linux, open a terminal session and run ifconfig (install it if it is not already installed). In macOS, open System Preferences and click Network. The active network adapter is selected for you. Click Advanced and choose the appropriate tab: Click TCP/IP to see the IPv4 address, subnet mask, and router (default gateway). IPv6 information is also shown as well as whether a DHCP server is being used as the source for the IP address. Click DNS to see the DNS server (it may be listed as the router’s IP address). Click Hardware to see the MAC (physical) address of the network adapter.

MAC Address A media access control (MAC) address is also known as a physical address. Every device that is network-capable has a unique MAC address composed of six groups of two-character hexadecimal numbers (0–9, a–f).

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Note To learn more about hexadecimal numbering, see Chapter 2, “How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems.”

The numbers may be displayed in groups of two or as a string of values. MAC addresses may be written in uppercase or lowercase characters. The MAC address is assigned by the device manufacturer and is used to determine which device or devices will receive data. Network adapters have the MAC address on a label (see Figure 14-4). You can also determine the MAC address by using the network utilities covered in the previous section. A device that can connect to two different networks at the same time, such as a router, will have two different MAC addresses, one for each connection. Note Some operating systems and utilities allow the MAC address for a network device to be changed. This is referred to as MAC spoofing.

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Figure 14-4 A MAC (Physical) Address on a Mini-PCIe Network Adapter in a Laptop Computer

BASIC PROTOCOLS A protocol is a rule or collection of rules that defines how a process is supposed to happen. A network protocol is a rule or collection of rules that defines how information is sent and received between devices. The key network protocols you must understand for the IT Fundamentals+ certification exam are listed in Table 141, along with their TCP port numbers. TCP port numbers are used to direct different types of network traffic.

Table 14-1 Common Network Protocols

Protocol

How Used

TCP Port Number(s)

HTTP/S

Web browser traffic

80 (HTTP) 443 (HTTPS)

POP3

Receiving email

110

IMAP

Receiving email

143, 993*

SMTP

Sending email

25, 587*

*Varies according to the encryption method used

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HTTP/S The Hypertext Transmission Protocol (HPPT/S) is the protocol used by web browsers such as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, and others to request and display information received from web servers on the Internet. Hypertext refers to the hyperlinks contained in many web pages; these links can be clicked to request information from another server. A website address such as http://www.erewhon.net makes an unencrypted connection. However, a website address such as https://www.erewhon.net is a secure (encrypted) connection (these website examples are using made-up names). Originally, secure connections were used mainly for electronic banking or shopping. However, many websites now are requiring secure connections to protect users and websites from attack. A normal connection (http://) uses TCP port 80, and a secure connection (https://) uses TCP port 443. Secure connections also display a padlock icon next to the website address (see Figure 14-5).

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Figure 14-5 An HTTPS (Secure) Connection to an Electronic Banking Website

POP3

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POP3 Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) is a protocol used to receive email. POP3 is the third version of POP and is sometimes referred to simply as POP. All versions of POP work by checking an email server and downloading new messages to your email client app. For users who have only one computer, POP3 works well. However, for users who switch between computers, POP3 and earlier versions have a major limitation: If you retrieve email on a desktop computer and on a laptop computer, each computer will have only some of the messages unless you configure your email server to keep a copy of your email. When the server keeps a copy of downloaded email, you might download the same messages over and over again. Note Email systems that utilize POP3 servers to retrieve email typically use SMTP to send email. POP3 uses TCP port 110. Many email systems now use the IMAP protocol instead (see next section).

IMAP

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IMAP The Internet Message (or Mail) Access Protocol (IMAP) is used to retrieve email from an email server. Instead of downloading new messages to the user’s computer, IMAP displays messages when received and enables the user to keep them on the server and organize them in folders. If a user checks for email using IMAP on multiple devices, all devices can show all of the user’s email. A user can delete IMAP messages whenever necessary. Multiple users can check a single email box at the same time.

When configuring a new email service, the user must select the protocol to use. Some services support only one protocol, whereas others allow you to choose between IMAP and POP3. Check the documentation for the email service to determine which protocol is supported. Note IMAP4 is the current version of IMAP. IMAP uses TCP port 143.

SMTP

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SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the protocol responsible for sending email from an email client program to the Internet and for relaying email to the receiving device. SMTP is used for email services that use either IMAP or POP3. SMTP uses TCP port 25. Note When configuring email settings on a client, you need to know the server type(s) used (SMTP, POP3, or IMAP), the ports used (default values may be changed by some ISPs), the username and password for the email service, and the security settings. Check with the ISP or organization that provides Internet access for the correct values.

Figure 14-6 illustrates how these settings would look for a typical IMAP email service being configured in Microsoft Outlook.

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Figure 14-6 Configuring an IMAP Email Service in Microsoft Outlook

Security settings you will encounter include SSL and TLS. Here’s more about these: Secure Socket Layers (SSL) is an encryption technology used by secured (https://) websites. To access a secured website, the web browser must support the same encryption level used by the secured website (normally 128-bit encryption) and

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the same version(s) of SSL used by the website (normally SSL version 2.0 or 3.0). Sites secured with SSL display a padlock beside the browser’s URL and often a green address bar if secured by a certificate. Transport Layer Security (TLS) is the successor to SSL. SSL3 was somewhat of a prototype to TLS and was not fully standardized. TLS was ratified by the IETF in 1999. However, many people and companies might still refer to it as SSL.

DEVICES Networking requires hardware devices as well as software. The software needed for networking is built in to both desktop/laptop and mobile operating systems. Network adapters are also built in to these devices or can be added by connecting an adapter to a USB port. However, other devices are needed to make a connection to a network.

Modem

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Modem

To connect to the Internet, a device known as a modem is required. Modem is short for modulate-demodulate, which originally referred to the process of changing digital signals into analog signals sent over phone lines to a remote computer. More broadly, modem now refers to any device used to connect a computer or network to the Internet. To learn more about the different types of modems used for Internet connections, see Chapter 11, “Internet Service Types.” Router Most computers don’t connect directly to a modem to gain Internet access. Instead, they connect to a switch (see “Switch,” later in this chapter) or access point (see “Access Point,” later in this chapter). The switch or access point is designed to connect computers and devices on the local area network (LAN) to each other.

However, to enable computers and devices to connect to the Internet, a device known as a router is also used. A router has at least two network connections that use RJ45 cables. The port labeled WAN connects the router to

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a modem. The port labeled LAN connects the router to a switch. If the router has a built-in switch, it has multiple LAN ports numbered starting at 1. Most routers today are wireless routers that combine a router, a switch, and an access point. A router has two IP addresses because it has two network connections. One network connection uses a private IP address and is used to attach to the LAN (ports numbered 1–4 or higher). The other network connection is the one used to connect to the Internet via a modem. This is a public IP address. Switch Wired Ethernet computers and devices connect to each other with a multiport device known as a switch. A switch enables direct connections between any two computers or devices on a network.

Switches are available with as few as four or five RJ-45 ports or with dozens of ports. Switches can be connected to each other so that a small network can grow without needing to replace existing switches. Most switches support at least Fast Ethernet (100Mbps) signaling, with Gigabit Ethernet (1000Mbps) becoming common in home and small-office networking. 10G Ethernet

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switches (10Gbps) are now used in enterprise networks. A managed switch can organize its switch ports into several logical networks that cannot interfere with each other. A managed switch enables different companies or departments to have independent networks in the same location. To enable a switched network to connect to the Internet, connect a switch to a router. Many routers made for home or small offices include a multiport switch and a wireless access point. Figure 14-7 compares a five-port switch with a router that includes a four-port switch.

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Figure 14-7 A Switch (Top) Resembles a Router with a Built-in Switch (Bottom), but the Router Has a WAN Port so It Can Connect to a Modem for Internet Access.

Access Point

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Access Point

For a wireless network, the counterpart to a switch is an access point (AP), also known as a wireless access point, or WAP. An AP enables computers with Wireless Ethernet (Wi-Fi) network adapters to connect to each other. To connect a wireless network to a wired network, connect the RJ-45 port on the AP to a switch on a wired network. If the wired network is connected to a router with Internet access, the wireless network will also have Internet access. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a wireless router combines a router with an Ethernet switch and an AP. Learn more about wireless routers and access points in Chapter 15, “Given a Scenario, Install, Configure and Secure a Basic Wireless Network.” Firewall The term firewall originally referred to a wall between buildings or rooms that was designed to resist fire. In computer terms, a firewall is a device or software that blocks unwanted Internet traffic from entering a network while permitting legitimate Internet traffic. Figure 14-8 illustrates how a firewall is placed between a router and the remainder of the network.

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Figure 14-8 On a Network That Uses a Hardware Firewall, the Firewall Examines All Traffic Flowing to or from the Internet and Stops Unauthorized Traffic. Credit: © Oez/Shutterstock

Here’s a simple description of how a firewall works: A computer from outside the network attempts to gain access to the email server on the network. The network

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has a firewall. Because no computer on the network sent a request to the outside computer, the firewall blocks the incoming traffic from that computer. A computer on the network sends a request to a remote server hosting a website. The remote server sends the answer back to the computer on the network. Because the remote server is responding to a request from the network, the firewall permits the incoming traffic. Firewalls are frequently incorporated into wireless routers, and Microsoft Windows and macOS include software firewalls (also called host firewalls). The Linux iptables command is a software firewall that might already be installed in the Linux distro you use (it can also be installed later). Ubuntu’s ufw command is an easy-to-use configuration tool for iptables. To learn more about host firewalls, see Chapter 29, “Device Security Best Practices.” Note In Figure 14-8, the FTP server is used to host files that are sent or received using the File Transfer Protocol. The proxy server is used to cache copies of requested websites for faster downloading (see Chapter 20, “Configuring and Using Web Browsers,” for details). The backbone switch is a high-performance switch that connects servers to other parts of the network. The hub is a device that enables several computers to share a single printer.

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 14-2 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 14-2 Key Topics for Chapter 14

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

URL-to-IP translation

275

List

Two version of IP addresses

276

Figure 143

Using ipconfig /all on a Windows 10 computer to see the network adapter’s MAC address and its currently-assigned IP address.

278

Table 14-1

Common network protocols

280

Figure 145

An HTTPS (secure) connection to an electronic banking website.

281

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Paragraph

Configuring a new email service

282

Paragraph

Modem

284

Paragraph

Router

284

Paragraph

Switch

284

Paragraph

Access Point

285

Figure 148

On a network that uses a hardware firewall, the firewall examines all traffic flowing to or from the Internet and stops unauthorized traffic.

286

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work. Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: Domain name system (DNS) local area network (LAN) wide area network (WAN)

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Internet Protocol (IP) address IPv4 media access control (MAC) address Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Sockets Layer (HTTP/S or HTTPS) Post office protocol 3 (POP3) Internet message access protocol (IMAP) Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) modem router switch access point (AP) firewall

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.7 1. Your client wants you to add a firewall device to their network. Where should it be located? 1. Between the router and the Internet 2. Between the server and the clients 3. Between the router and the server 4. At each client

2. A managed switch specifically includes which of

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the following features? 1. A firewall 2. Multiple logical network support 3. Multiple Wi-Fi antennas 4. A WAN port

3. You are examining network hardware mounted on a rack. A device has an RJ-45 port labeled WAN. Which of the following best describes this device? 1. Network adapter 2. Switch 3. Managed switch 4. Router

4. A potential client is quizzing you about TCP port numbers and wants to know what port 993 does. What’s your best answer? 1. Supports IMAP email 2. Supports POP3 email 3. Supports sending email 4. Supports web browsing

5. You have connected your Windows 10 laptop to your wireless home network, wireless work network, and a coffee shop wireless network throughout the day. After connecting to each network, you used ipconfig /all to look at your network connection. Which of the following information will be the same at every location?

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1. Network name. 2. MAC address. 3. IP address. 4. No information will be the same.

6. Which of the following is not a possible IPv4 address? 1. 172.16.4.257 2. 0.1.2.3 3. 192.168.0.1 4. 127.0.0.1

7. When you enter a website URL into your browser window, which of the following matches it to a particular server IP address so you get the right page? 1. NAT 2. DNS 3. WAN 4. TCP/IP

8. You receive an email message claiming to be from your bank that asks you to log in and change your account information. The URL is http://www.yourbank.com. What should you do? 1. Change the http:// to https:// because the bank made a mistake. 2. Click the link as-is. 3. Look for a browser setting to add a padlock. 4. Delete the message.

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9. You are discussing how information flows across the Internet from one computer to another with a client. Which of the following statements are correct? 1. The user decides the route(s) for the information to follow. 2. All packets follow the same path to the destination. 3. Packets are routed as needed to reach their destination. 4. The user creates the packets with a utility before sending the file.

10. Which of the following is not a possible MAC address? 1. 00-03-3-ac-fq-f3 2. 00-07-4f-a4-27-a6 3. 00-22-bd-64-ae-3e 4. f8-66-f2-be-a4-91

11. You are trying to determine the IP address for an installed network adapter card on a Windows computer. Which of the following should you do first? 1. Open a command prompt and run ipconfig /all. 2. Call the network adapter card vendor. 3. From the command-line, run ifconfig. 4. Open the computer and check the adapter card’s label.

12. You are setting up an email program at work and you don’t know what type of email service (POP3 or IMAP) the company will be using. What should you do?

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1. Set up the email program to use both protocols. 2. Check with the email administrator. 3. Set up SMTP and use it to receive and send email. 4. Go on vacation.

13. A co-worker is concerned about receiving all of their email when they switch from their work desktop computer to a laptop computer for a business trip. Which protocol is their email most likely using? 1. HTTPS 2. IMAP 3. POP3 4. Webmail

14. Examine this photo of a router and select where to connect a modem.

1. Port labeled A 2. Port labeled B 3. Port labeled C 4. Ports labeled D

15. A switch is used to connect computers on a wired Ethernet network to each other. Which of the following devices would be most comparable on a wireless network?

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1. Wireless switch 2. AP 3. Modem 4. Router

16. Your client is using a wireless router with a built-in switch that has four ports. The client needs to connect more computers to the wired part of the network. Which of the following is the easiest solution? 1. Replace the wireless router with a model that has more ports. 2. Connect another wireless router and disable its routing feature. 3. Connect a switch with enough ports. 4. Persuade the client to use wireless networking instead.

17. Your client wants to add a WAP to their network. Which of the following is what the client needs? 1. Access point 2. Wireless router 3. Switch 4. Wireless adapter

18. Your client runs an office building in which tenants rent different numbers of rooms. The client wants to install a network device that will allow logical networks of different sizes. Which of the following should you recommend? 1. Managed switch 2. Wireless router for each tenant 3. Switch on each floor

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4. Moving the router to a central location on each floor

19. Which of the following correctly defines the relationship between a switch and a router? 1. A router is a WAN device, and a switch is a LAN device. 2. Both routers and switches are WAN devices. 3. A router must contain a switch. 4. A switch can be used as a router.

20. A server that assigns IP addresses on a network is called what? 1. DNS server 2. File server 3. IP server 4. DHCP server

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) What should you learn next? To understand how network hardware relates to the other components in a computer or mobile device, CompTIA’s A+ certification is a logical choice. If you want to learn how to configure and manage networks, CompTIA’s Network+ certification will give you a solid foundation no matter where you ultimately wind up in the network portion of IT.

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Chapter 15 Given a Scenario, Install, Configure, and Secure a Basic Wireless Network Wireless networking is within the budget of almost any family and business today. To make sure a wireless network works as well as possible, it’s essential to understand the differences in wireless standards (802.11a/b/g/n/ac) and how to set up a secure wireless network (best practices include changing the SSID and default password, using encrypted versus unencrypted communication, and more). This chapter covers IT Fundamentals+ Objective 2.8: Given a scenario, install, configure, and secure a basic wireless network.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS 802.11A/B/G/N/AC All wireless networks that support Internet access and local area networks are based on the 802.11 family of standards. This collection of standards is commonly known as Wi-Fi or Wireless Ethernet. Any Wi-Fi device contains a radio, and like an AM/FM radio, the radio in a Wi-Fi device has a specific range of frequencies it can tune into. Some versions of Wi-Fi use a series of radio frequencies starting at 2.4GHz, whereas others use a series of radio frequencies starting at 5GHz. Some devices support both ranges of frequencies. Either range of frequencies is divided into 20MHz-wide channels that can sometimes be grouped or bonded together into 40MHz-wide or 80MHz-wide combinations. It’s a common myth that any Wi-Fi network device can connect with any other Wi-Fi network device. The reality is that there are two wireless frequency bands used for Wi-Fi as well as differences in the number and width of wireless channels, differences in how signal interference is handled, and differences in security options. All of these factors must be taken into account, especially when you’re adding wireless devices and

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network adapters to an existing network. Types of Wireless Hardware Wi-Fi adapters are currently available in three categories: Add-on cards using the PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) or PCIe (PCI Express) standards for desktop computers (see Figure 15-1). USB (Universal Serial Bus) adapters for use with USB 2.0 or 3.x ports (see Figure 15-2). Internal adapters in laptop or tablet computers; laptop wireless adapters can sometimes be replaced or upgraded (see Figure 15-3).

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Figure 15-1 A Typical PCIe Wi-Fi Card for Desktop Computers Credit: chaistock/Shutterstock

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Figure 15-2 A Typical USB Wireless Adapter for Use with Either Desktop or Laptop Computers

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Figure 15-3 A Typical Laptop Wireless Adapter That Uses a microPCIe Slot

A wireless access point (WAP, or wireless AP) adds wireless Ethernet support to an existing Ethernet network (see Figure 15-4).

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Figure 15-4 The Rear of a Typical Wireless Access Point

A wireless router does what a WAP does as well as connects to a broadband modem for Internet access.

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Most wireless routers also include an Ethernet switch, so you can connect both wireless and wired network devices to the Internet (see Figure 15-5). Both types of devices use the same types of wireless settings.

Figure 15-5 The Rear of a Typical Wireless Router

Older vs. Newer Standards

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Older vs. Newer Standards Wi-Fi can be divided into two categories: older and newer standards. Older standards include 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g. All three of these standards are out of date in terms of speed and, in some cases, security (security issues are discussed later in this chapter). Table 15-1 provides a quick review of their features. To learn more about 2.4GHz channels, refer to Figure 15-7. To learn more about 5GHz channels, see Figure 15-8.

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Table 15-1 Older Wi-Fi (802.11) Standards

Standard

Also Known As

Max Speed

Frequency Band

Number of Channels

Channel Width

802.11b

WirelessB

11Mbps

2.4GHz

11/3*

20MHz

802.11a

WirelessA

54Mbps

5GHz

12

20MHz

802.11g

WirelessG

54Mbps

2.4GHz

11/3*

20MHz

*Only three channels do not overlap: 1, 6, and 11. Use only these channels to avoid excessive interference.

802.11b Despite its name, 802.11b (Wireless-B) was the first wireless Ethernet standard to hit the market. Its maximum speed of 11Mbps was about 20% of the speed of later versions. With only three non-overlapping channels, 802.11b is difficult to configure for best performance when other 2.4GHz wireless networks are present. 802.11a 802.11a (Wireless-A) actually reached the market after Wireless-B, and it differs in the following ways:

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Easier configuration (12 non-overlapping channels) due to using the 5GHz frequency band Use of the 5GHz frequency band

Because 802.11b and 802.11a use different frequencies, they cannot interconnect with each other unless dualfrequency adapters or wireless access points/routers are used. 802.11g 802.11g (Wireless-G) was designed to provide the speed of Wireless-A (up to 54Mbps) while enabling interconnection with 802.11b devices. Some 802.11g adapter cards and access points are dual-band, also supporting 802.11a networks. Wireless-G has the same channel limitations as Wireless-B, due to the use of the crowded 2.4GHz frequency band. Note 2.4GHz is used not only by Wireless-B, Wireless-G, and Wireless-N Wi-Fi but also by Bluetooth wireless networking, some older wireless phones, car alarm sensors, microwave ovens, some types of wireless cameras, some types of wireless microphones, and baby monitors.

If you want to use any devices that support 802.11b or 802.11g standards with the newer 802.11n and 802.11ac standards, you will need to configure your access point or router to run in mixed mode. Mixed mode enables older and newer devices to run on the same network.

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Some routers refer to a mode that also supports the ancient 802.11b standard as legacy mode or b/g protection mode (refer to Figure 15-10). Newer standards include 802.11n and 802.11ac. In addition to faster performance than older standards, 802.11n and 802.11ac support more than one data stream so that more data can be transmitted or received at the same time. Table 15-2 provides a quick review of their features.

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Table 15-2 Newer Wi-Fi (802.11) Standards

Standard

Also Known As

Frequency Band

No. of Data Streams

Max Speed

Number of Channels

Channel Width

802.11n

WirelessN

2.4GHz

Up to four

72Mbps*

11/3**

20MHz

Up to four

72Mbps*

Up to eight

433Mbps*

5GHz***

802.11ac

WirelessAC

5GHz

150Mbps*

40MHz 12

150Mbps*

20MHz 40MHz

12

867Mbps*

80MHz 160MHz

*Per stream (antenna). **Only three channels do not overlap: 1, 6, and 11. Using these channels can help avoid interference. ***Optional feature.

The easiest way to determine which standard a wireless adapter supports is to view its properties. In Windows, use the Device Manager (see Figure 15-6). To access the Device Manager, click the Search window next to the Start button, search for Device Manager, and click the Device Manager (Control Panel) link in the Search window. Alternatively, you can hold down the Windows button on the keyboard and press X, and then click Device Manager from the menu.

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Figure 15-6 The Properties of a Wireless Adapter Shown in Device Manager

802.11n

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802.11n 802.11n (Wireless-N) is now the minimum Wi-Fi standard for new equipment. Its standard version supports the same 2.4GHz frequency band as its predecessors (802.11b and 802.11g). However, it supports up to four data streams, enabling speeds of up to 288Mbps with 20MHz channels. To achieve even faster speeds, 802.11n optionally supports 40MHz channels. When four channels with four streams are used, 802.11n can reach speeds of 600Mbps. Because of overlapping channels in 2.4GHz, it’s easier to set up 40MHz channels with 802.11n hardware that supports 5GHz signals. Figure 15-7 illustrates how different networks running on the 2.4GHz band may interfere with each other and how a Wireless-N router can use 40MHz channels.

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Figure 15-7 Wireless Channel Usage and Potential Conflicts (2.4GHz Band)

802.11ac 802.11ac (Wireless-AC) supports only 5GHz frequencies and achieves much faster speeds than 802.11n 5GHz by doubling channel width and supporting up to eight data streams. 802.11ac wireless routers include 802.11n 2.4GHz support so that the older Wi-Fi 2.4GHz and 5GHz standards can also connect to the router, and 802.11ac wireless adapters also include 802.11n 2.4GHz support. Figure 15-8 illustrates how wireless routers using 5GHz signals have many more channels available.

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Figure 15-8 Wireless Channel Usage and Potential Conflicts (5GHz

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Band)

Speed Limitations The speeds listed in Table 15-1 and 15-2 are “best-case” examples, and real-world speeds are sometimes much slower. Here’s why: The greater the distance between an access point/wireless router and a wireless client, the slower the speed of the connection. When wireless devices that support different speeds connect, they connect at the speed of the slower device. When network channel congestion is present with 2.4GHz wireless networks, a single 20MHz channel may be used on 802.11ncompatible wireless access points even though 802.11n supports wider channels. The more data streams connecting devices, the better the performance. Low-end 802.11n network adapters and access points/wireless routers typically have only one antenna, and thus only one data stream.

Note To determine the number of data streams a Wireless-N or Wireless-AC adapter supports, you can check its specifications. Some wireless adapters display this information in the Windows Device Manager.

Interference and Attenuation Factors Two other factors that make older versions of Wi-Fi (802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g) much less desirable than current versions are their handling of interference and attenuation. Interference

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Interference

Interference is caused by devices that are operating in the same frequency as the wireless network. For example, if channel 1 is used for your 2.4GHz wireless network, a nearby network using channel 2 or 3 would interfere with your network (and your network would interfere with it) because of the overlapping problem with 2.4GHz wireless networking. Other devices that can interfere with 2.4GHz networking include some types of cordless phones, some wireless mice and keyboards, early versions of Bluetooth, and some types of home automation devices. Some 2.4GHz wireless routers and access points use automatic configuration of channels in an attempt to avoid other nearby networks. Free and paid network analyzer apps for computers and mobile devices can be used to determine the channels in use in nearby networks and help you select a channel manually. The free Acrylic Wi-Fi Home free scanner is used for the channel analyses shown in Figures 15-7 and 15-8 earlier in this chapter. You can download it from www.acrylicwifi.com/en/wlan-wifi-wireless-networksoftware-tools/wlan-scanner-acrylic-wifi-free/. One of the benefits of using 5GHz networking such as

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802.11ac is the greater number of usable channels and the reduction of possible interference from other devices. Because the channels do not overlap and because 802.11ac supports the ability to use nonadjacent channels (two 40MHz channels or an 80MHz channel, for example), 802.11ac provides faster throughput with easier configuration than 2.4GHz wireless networks. Attenuation

Attenuation is the reduction of wireless transmission strength caused by objects in the path of the signal, such as doors, walls, or trees. Attenuation causes wireless network connections to run more slowly. Attenuation also occurs if there is too much distance between a wireless device and an access point or wireless router. With older standards (802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g), the problem of attenuation is joined by another issue: signal reflections. Signal reflections off objects arrive at a wireless adapter or router at different times, causing lower signal quality—a problem referred to as multipath fading. 802.11n and 802.11ac are designed to take advantage of multipath signals to improve performance. These

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versions also support MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) antennas to improve performance. Some 802.11ac routers add a feature called MU-MIMO (multiuser MIMO) to more efficiently allocate network bandwidth among multiple devices. Some advanced 802.11ac routers also use a technique called beamforming to set up a directional signal between the router and a specific client device rather than just using 360-degree broadcast signals. With any router, you can improve both signal strength and attenuation issues by moving the router to a location central to the devices that connect to it and locating the router on a wall or ceiling away from obstructions such as furniture.

BEST PRACTICES Setting up a wireless network includes more than simply just selecting a fast access point or wireless router: It needs to be secure as well. In the following sections, you learn how to do the following:

Change the SSID Change the default password Understand encrypted versus unencrypted networks and how to make encrypted networks as secure as possible

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These changes can be made in two ways: By logging in to the router or access point manually using the device’s built-in web server. See the device’s documentation for details. By running a setup app included with the device.

Caution A third method of setting up security, Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), is no longer recommended. WPS can be easily hacked, especially if it is implemented by pushing a button on the router or access point to start the setup process.

Change the SSID When you open the box for a wireless router or access point and plug it in, it usually has a default wireless network name (called the service set identifier, or SSID) that identifies the brand of the device and sometimes the model number. This information is broadcast to all devices near the router/access point. If you don’t change this information, a would-be hacker could look up the default settings and try to gain unauthorized access to your network. The SSID should be changed to something that does not identify the brand/model of wireless hardware you are using, specify your family name or location, reveal other personally identifiable information (PII).

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Note Some vendors now require users to change the administrator name and password and create a custom SSID as part of initial setup.

Here’s an example of a safe SSID: X7Z42V (it uses random characters and numbers). Here are some unsafe SSIDs: smith801E: If the Smith family lives at 801 East, this SSID makes finding their home way too easy. BEARSFAN_ZZZ: Rooting for a team that’s not in the local area and identifying your city with its airline code—again, too easy, especially if you’re the only one on the block with a Bears flag hanging on the porch. I_Like_My_Belkin: That’s great, but who needs to know you’re using a Belkin or any other brand of router? Jenny’s_Network: I just hope Jenny’s password isn’t 8675309!

Figure 15-9 illustrates a user-selected SSID on a typical 802.11ac router.

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Figure 15-9 Changing an SSID on an 802.11ac Wireless Router

Note Your wireless router might also offer the option to disable SSID broadcast in order to make the network hidden. To connect with a hidden network, the user must have its SSID as well as the password. Although enabling this option might seem to improve security, your network can still be detected with a network-scanning app. To keep your network secure, use the other methods recommended and leave the SSID broadcast setting enabled.

Change the Default Password Changing the default SSID makes it a little harder for a casual hacker to get into a wireless network, but the problem is that the default password to control access to the wireless router/access point is often listed in the documentation (available online) and is easy to guess: admin is a popular choice for the username, with admin or password as the password, or even with no password at all (blank). Change the management password to a non-obvious phrase. Tip Some routers can be managed wirelessly, which means that an attacker could change its settings and take over your network without even seeing your router. If your router has an option to use a wired (Ethernet) connection for management, enable this option, disable wireless management, and change the default password.

Unencrypted

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Unencrypted A wireless network can be set up as unencrypted (open) or encrypted. Which should you choose, and what are the differences between the various encryption standards? Let’s take a closer look at unencrypted (open) wireless networks first. Open An open wireless network has no encryption. All that a user needs to do to connect to the network is select it from the list of available wireless networks. Open networks are popular in hotel lobbies, restaurants, and coffee shops because there no connection management is needed. Unfortunately, an open wireless network can be easily exploited. People looking for illegal downloads or child pornography like to use open wireless networks to grab the data they want. Tracing the connection from the illegal site back to the wireless network doesn’t show who was using it. If your wireless network is open, you may be blamed (or charged)!

Captive Portal

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Captive Portal

A captive portal is a type of open wireless network. However, when you click it, the connection opens to a login page on your default browser. It may be necessary for you to open the browser manually. The portal might ask you to agree to terms of service, view an ad, or provide an email address in order to connect to the network. After agreeing to the terms of service, you can navigate to any website as desired. A captive portal is not a secure connection. However, if the terms of service listed are enforced by network configuration settings (for example, settings that block the use of keyboard loggers or remote control apps), it is slightly more secure than an open network. Encrypted Wireless security (encryption) works like this: When you select an encryption standard, you assign a password (encryption key) that users must provide before they can connect to the wireless network. There are three different types of encryption you can use with a Wi-Fi network: WEP, WPA, and WPA2.

WEP

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WEP The first type of wireless security developed, Wireless Equivalent Privacy (WEP), was introduced with the 802.11b and 802.11a wireless networks. When WEP was first introduced, the password could only be ten hexadecimal (0–9, A–F) or five ASCII (A–Z, 0–9) characters long. The password was encrypted as a 64-bit key. Later, WEP devices started using 26-character hex or 13-character ASCII passwords that were encrypted into a 128-bit key (much harder to guess). Some types of corporate network hardware support 256-bit encryption; this can only be used if all other devices on the network also support 256-bit encryption. To learn more about hex and ASCII, see Chapter 2, “How Computers Store Data: Notational Systems.” WEP keys generally are based on hexadecimal values (characters 0–9, A–F), although some devices can use decimal values (characters 0–9, A–Z, a–z). The limited character set, short key length, and weaknesses in how WEP authentication take place have made WEP obsolete. It was supported by 802.11g, but not by later versions.

WPA

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WPA WEP was replaced by Wireless Protected Access (WPA), a more powerful encryption standard, with the introduction of 802.11g. Software and firmware updates were made available by many vendors for the older 802.11b and 802.11a devices to add WPA support. WPA also uses a pre-shared key (PSK), but unlike WEP, the key can be of varying length (up to 63 ASCII characters, including punctuation), the original key is used as the basis for frequent changes, and it is encrypted using Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) encryption. TKIP has many features that make it stronger than WEP. WPA2

Wireless Protected Access 2 (WPA2) is an improved version of WPA. WPA2 uses the even stronger Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) encryption technology. When possible, use WPA2 (also known as WPA/AES) on your wireless network. If your wireless router/access point has a WPA/WPA2 setting, it can support either type of encryption on the same network. Use this option if you have devices that support WPA but do not support WPA2. Figure 15-10

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illustrates selecting an encryption mode (also known as an authentication method) on an 802.11ac wireless router.

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Figure 15-10 Selecting an Encryption Mode on a Wireless Router

Table 15-3 compares WEP, WPA, and WPA2 encryption to each other. Table 15-3 Wireless Ethernet Encryption Types

Setting

Encryption Type

Encryption Key Length

Encryption Key Rules

Strength

Open

None

N/A

N/A

None

Wireless Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

RC4

10 hex/5 ASCII characters (64-bit)

ASCII: alphanumeric (no punctuation).

Very weak

Punctuation is okay; some devices can’t use a fulllength encryption key.

Strong

26 hex/13 ASCII characters (128-bit) 58 hex/29 ASCII characters (256-bit) Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)

TKIP (128bit)

Up to 63 ASCII characters

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Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2)

AES (128bit)

Up to 63 ASCII characters

Punctuation is okay; some devices can’t use a fulllength encryption key.

Very Strong

Note

To learn how to connect a Linksys wireless router to a cable modem, see www.linksys.com/dk/support-article?articleNum=142912. To learn how to connect a NETGEAR router to a cable modem, see https://kb.netgear.com/119/How-to-configure-your-NETGEAR-router-forcable-internet-connection-with-Smart-Wizard. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission offers advice about securing your wireless network at www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/0013-securing-your-wireless-network. The U.S. Department of Defense offers an Adobe Reader (PDF) document on keeping your home network secure at http://dodcio.defense.gov/Portals/0/Documents/Cyber/Slicksheet_BestPracticesForKeepingYourHomeNetworkSecure_Web_u

EXAM PREPARATION TOPICS REVIEW TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 15-4 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 15-4 Key Topics for Chapter 15

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Table 15-1

Older Wi-Fi (802.11) standards

298

Table 15-2

Newer Wi-Fi (802.11) standards

300

Paragraph

Interference

303

Paragraph

Attenuation

304

List

Wireless best practices

304

Figure 15-9

Changing an SSID on an 802.11ac wireless router

306

Paragraph

Captive Portal

307

Paragraph

WPA2

308

Figure 15-10

Selecting an encryption mode

309

Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: 802.11a 802.11b

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802.11g 802.11n 802.11ac interference attenuation service set identifier (SSID) captive portal wireless equivalent privacy (WEP) wireless protected access (WPA) wireless protected access 2 (WPA2)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 2.8 1. How many non-overlapping channels are available on a 2.4GHz Wi-Fi network? 1. 11 2. 12 3. 3 4. 4

2. A dual-frequency wireless access point cannot be used to: 1. Connect 2.4GHz and 5GHz wireless adapters to each other 2. Connect wireless devices to a wired network 3. Enable older and newer devices to use the same wireless network

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4. Connect wireless devices directly to the Internet

3. You are connecting to a wireless network with a maximum speed of 54Mbps using the 2.4GHz frequency band. This network is which of the following? 1. Wireless-G 2. Wireless-B 3. Wireless-A 4. Wireless-AC

4. A client asks you how to connect an 802.11b portable game system to an 802.11n network. Which of the following would be the best solution? 1. Connect an 802.11n adapter to the portable game system. 2. Enable mixed b/g/n mode in the router configuration. 3. Connect an Ethernet cable to the portable game system instead of using wireless. 4. Shop for a compatible game system that supports newer wireless networks.

5. Your client is complaining that their encrypted 2.4GHz wireless network is much slower since neighboring apartments were occupied. Which of the following would you do first in search of a solution? 1. Suspect hacking. 2. Check for channel interference. 3. Replace the router. 4. Replace the wireless adapters.

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6. Beamforming involves changing which of the following characteristics of a wireless network? 1. Frequency 2. Channel 3. Signal direction 4. Encryption

7. Your next-door neighbor casually remarks that your router is a particular brand. How did your neighbor know this? 1. The default SSID displays the router brand. 2. The default channel is used by a particular brand. 3. The antennas send out a distinctive pattern. 4. Y our neighbor has ESP.

8. You receive a letter from your Internet service provider (ISP) threatening to revoke your service because of Internet piracy. You have never illegally downloaded anything. However, after checking your router configuration, you determine it is configured as: 1. USB 2. Open 3. Cellular 4. Encrypted

9. You have finally replaced your 802.11g router with an 802.11ac router. You thought it would simply be a matter of changing the router, but now you have

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to replace some of your older network adapters as well. The reason is most likely which of the following? 1. No support for WPA/WPA2 in router 2. Devices too slow for router 3. Not enough channels to support older devices 4. No support for WEP in router

10. If you set up your wireless router to require characters to be entered by a user who wants to connect to the network, this is an example of what? 1. PSK 2. USB 3. A captive portal 4. 802.11g

11. You are connecting to a wireless network that does not use an encryption key but asks you to agree to terms before you can use it. This network specifically uses which of the following settings? 1. Open network with captive portal 2. Default SSID 3. Channel bonding 4. Hidden network

12. Which of the following is the correct order, from most vulnerable to most secure, for encrypted wireless networks? 1. WPA, WPA2, WEP

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2. WEP, WPA, WPA2 3. WPA2, WEP, WPA 4. Open, WPA2, WEP

13. A wireless router is configured to use AES encryption. Which of the following options is enabled? 1. WPA2 2. WPA 3. Open 4. WEP

14. Multipath fading happens when: 1. A wireless router has two or more antennas 2. Signal reflections off objects are received at different times 3. Two SSIDs use the same channel 4. A router supports more than one wireless standard

15. Your wireless network was originally set up with 802.11b hardware. It has been upgraded with an 802.11g router and some 802.11g wireless adapters. The original security standard was not changed since the network was first set up. What is it? 1. WPA2 2. WEP 3. WPA 4. Wireless-B

16. Your client has decided to add wireless support to an existing Ethernet network that already has a

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router to provide Internet access. What should the client connect to the network? 1. Wireless router 2. Wireless adapter 3. Wireless access point 4. Wireless switch

17. Your client is using a cordless phone that uses the 2.4GHz frequency band. Which of the following wireless standards will not have interference problems caused by this phone? 1. Wireless-B 2. Wireless-AC 3. Wireless-G 4. Wireless-N (standard)

18. Your wireless network provides very high speeds when you are working in the same room as the router but slows down when you work in an upstairs bedroom. Which of the following would not be a possible cause? 1. Distance from the router to the broadband Internet modem 2. Signal strength dropping with distance 3. Interference from other networks 4. Location of the router

19. You purchased a laptop sold as surplus from your company. Its wireless adapter runs at up to 54Mbps but cannot connect to your 802.11n 2.4GHz router.

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Why? 1. Y ou must enable the 54Mbps setting in the router. 2. The network adapter is 802.11a. 3. The router cannot support 54Mbps devices. 4. The network adapter is 802.11g.

20. For convenience, you put your wireless router directly next to your broadband Internet device on an outside wall. The signal quality in most of your home is very poor. Which of the following would improve signal quality at minimal cost? 1. Moving the broadband Internet device 2. Moving the router 3. Adding a second router 4. Replacing wireless with fiber optic

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YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) To dig deeper into network hardware, make your next certification CompTIA’s A+ certification. Then, build on that with CompTIA’s Network+ certification to get the inside story on the software, protocols, and services that make networking possible. If you want to go even deeper into wireless network certifications and your organization uses or sells Cisco hardware, check out Cisco’s CCNA Wireless (/www.cisco.com/c/en/us/training-events/trainingcertifications/certifications/associate/ccnawireless.html) and CCNP Wireless (www.cisco.com/c/en/us/training-events/trainingcertifications/certifications/professional/ccnpwireless.html) certifications. For multivendor or nonCisco environments, consider the Certified Wireless Network Professional’s certification career track (https://www.cwnp.com/it-certifications/).

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Part 3: Domain 3.0 – Applications and Software

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Chapter 16 Explain the Purpose of Operating Systems In this chapter, you learn what operating systems are designed to do, as covered in CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Objective 3.1: Explain the purpose of operating systems, including interface between applications and hardware, disk management, process management/scheduling, kill process/end task, application management, memory management, device management, and access control/protection. You also learn the types of operating systems (OSs): mobile device OS, workstation OS, server OS, embedded OS, firmware, and hypervisor (Type 1).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS INTERFACE BETWEEN APPLICATIONS AND HARDWARE

The operating system (OS) acts as the “glue” between applications and hardware. Hardware is unable to function without device drivers that are loaded into the operating system, and applications (software) cannot perform tasks without instructing the operating system to control devices (open files, load files into RAM, perform computations, and so on). A device’s operating system is loaded right after the device is powered on and provides not only the connection between applications and hardware but also the user interface, which enables you to use both applications and hardware by typing or using a mouse, touchscreen, or touchpad.

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Note A device driver is a file that contains information that enables a device (for example, a printer, scanner, drive, video card, or network interface) to connect to an operating system. In addition to accurately supporting a device’s functions, the device driver must be written to support a particular processor type (Intel/AMD or mobile [ARM]), a processor architecture (32 bit or 64 bit), and operating system type (Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, or Android), and the version.

Now that you’ve read a general description of what an operating system does, let’s dig deeper.

DISK MANAGEMENT One of the major tasks of any operating system is disk management. Disk management involves the process of setting up an internal or external hard drive. Some of the tools covered in this section can also be used with USB flash drives. In Microsoft Windows, initial hard drive setup is typically performed using the Disk Management tool (see Figure 16-1).

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Figure 16-1 Preparing a New Hard Drive for Use with Windows Disk Management

Note You can access Disk Management using the following methods: Use Windows key+R to open Run, type diskmgmt.msc in the empty box, and click OK. Alternatively, open Disk Management in Computer Management or right-click Start and select Disk Management.

Note To learn more, see https://www.windowscentral.com/how-format-new-harddrive-windows-10.

The command-line Diskpart.exe program can be used for disk cleaning, file system conversions, and other advanced tasks (see Figure 16-2).

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Figure 16-2 Using diskpart to View Disk Information with detail disk

Note To learn more, see https://www.windowscentral.com/how-clean-andformat-storage-drive-using-diskpart-windows-10.

In macOS, initial hard drive setup is performed using Disk Utility, as shown in Figure 16-3.

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Figure 16-3 Preparing a Hard Drive for Use with the macOS Disk Utility

Note You can access Disk Utility by searching for “disk utility” with macOS Spotlight or by clicking Finder, Applications, Utilities, Disk Utility. To learn more, see https://www.lifewire.com/using-os-xs-disk-utility-2260088.

In Linux, the console (command-line) tool fdisk is used for initial hard drive setup and to create and delete partitions (see https://www.tecmint.com/fdiskcommands-to-manage-linux-disk-partitions/ for details).

PROCESS MANAGEMENT/SCHEDULING

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PROCESS MANAGEMENT/SCHEDULING An operating system can display the processes that are currently running and can schedule tasks to run at particular times. In Windows, use Task Manager to see currently running processes in a GUI display. From the command line, use tasklist (refer to Figure 16-4). To schedule tasks, use Task Scheduler.

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Figure 16-4 Viewing Running Processes with tasklist, then Killing a Process with taskkill

In macOS, use Activity Monitor to see currently running processes. Use Automator to schedule tasks (https://blog.macsales.com/42196-macos-101-how-toautomate-tasks-on-your-mac). In Linux, use the console command ps to see a snapshot of all currently running processes. To see the most active processes in real time, use top. To schedule tasks, use the console command cron. Note Task Manager, Activity Monitor, ps, and top are covered in more detail in the “Processes,” section of Chapter 17, “Operating Systems 101:Features, Processes, UI, and Management,” p.377. Task Scheduler, Automator, and cron are covered in more detail in the “Task Scheduling” section of Chapter 17, p.385.

Kill Process/End Task To kill a process (also known as ending a task), use the appropriate tool(s) for the operating system. In Windows, Task Manager can be used to kill a process. From the command line, use taskkill (see Figure 16-4). In macOS, Activity Monitor can be used to kill a process. From the Terminal, use ps -ax to view the PIDs of running processes, then use kill PID (see Figure 16-5).

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Figure 16-5 Viewing Running Processes with ps -ax, then Killing a Running Process with kill

In Linux, you can kill a process while running top with the K (kill) option (see https://www.tecmint.com/12-

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top-command-examples-in-linux/). You can kill a process by its PID (use ps or top to see it) with kill (same syntax as with macOS) or by process name with killall. Note To learn more, see https://www.linux.com/learn/intro-to-linux/2017/5/howkill-process-command-line.

APPLICATION MANAGEMENT Application management refers to how an operating system manages the installation, repair, and removal of apps. Microsoft Windows

In Windows, apps include their own installation routines. However, Windows can provide compatibility settings for installers and for running apps designed for older versions that do not perform properly in the current version of Windows. Compatibility changes can be made interactively from the app’s properties sheet by opening the Compatibility tab (shown in Figure 16-6) or by running the Program Compatibility Wizard or Program Compatibility Troubleshooter.

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Figure 16-6 Making Changes on an App’s Compatibility Tab to Enable This Windows XP-Era Program to Run Properly Under Windows 10

In Windows 10, the primary location for program listing, repair, and removal is the Apps & features section of Settings (see Figure 16-7) However, Control Panel’s Programs section can also be used, as in earlier versions of Windows.

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Figure 16-7 The Apps & Features Section of Settings Lists Programs and Configures App Sources

Windows application settings are stored in the Windows Registry. Registry settings are normally made by the program installer/uninstaller and by user options when a program is run, but the Registry can be manually edited with Regedit if necessary (see Figure 16-8). Registry editing is sometimes necessary if a program cannot be uninstalled completely by normal means.

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Figure 16-8 Preparing to Edit the Windows 10 Registry with Regedit

Note Always back up the Registry before making any changes, and be very careful when making changes with Regedit. To learn how to back up the entire Registry or any section, see https://www.lifewire.com/how-to-backup-the-windows-registry-2625146.

Windows 8 and later supports the Microsoft (previously Windows) Store as an approved location for apps. To manually update an app from the Microsoft Store, open the store and click or tap the three-dot menu button. Click or tap Downloads and updates, then click or tap Get updates. In all versions of Windows except Windows 10 in S mode, users can also download apps or install apps from media (Windows 10 in S mode can only install apps from the Microsoft Store). To limit app availability to the Microsoft Store only with other Windows 10 versions, use the Installing apps menu in Apps & features (refer back to Figure 16-7). User Account Control (UAC) prevents standard users from installing apps unless the user provides an administrator name and password (see Figure 16-9).

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Figure 16-9 A Standard User’s UAC Prompt when Installing an App

macOS In macOS, applications can be installed from the App Store or from a DMG archive file. After opening the file, drag the app’s icon file to the Applications folder to install it (see https://www.howtogeek.com/177619/how-to-installapplications-on-a-mac-everything-you-need-to-know/ for details).

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By default, macOS blocks apps that are not from the App Store or from an identified developer. To bypass the block, hold down the Control key and click the app, then select Open. If a warning message such as “Appname” is from an unidentified developer. Are you sure you want to open it? appears, click Open to open it anyway (see https://www.howtogeek.com/205393/gatekeeper-101why-your-mac-only-allows-apple-approved-software-bydefault/). To update an app obtained from the App Store, click System Preferences, App Store or open the App Store itself. If the Show Updates button is available, click it. Select the operating system upgrade and app updates desired (see Figure 16-10).

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Figure 16-10 The Updates Dialog in macOS’s App Store

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To uninstall an app, drag the app’s icon to the Trash. Enter your password on the Finder dialog box to confirm the deletion. Linux Linux apps are usually installed from a package manager.

In Debian-based distributions such as Ubuntu, you can update the apps list in the package manager with this command: sudo apt-get update

To install an app from the package manager, use the following command (replace packagename with the actual app): Click here to view code image sudo apt-get install packagename

To remove an app installed with sudo apt-get, use sudo apt-get –purge remove packagename; when prompted to confirm the deletion, type y and press the Enter key. For cautions and additional guidance, see

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https://askubuntu.com/questions/187888/what-is-thecorrect-way-to-completely-remove-an-application. In older versions of Fedora and other distributions based on Red Hat, use yum. To update the apps list in the package manager, log in as root and run this command: yum update

To install an app from the package manager, run this command as root: yum install packagename

To remove an app installed with yum, log in as root and run this command: yum remove packagename

Newer versions of Fedora and other distributions based on Red Hat use dnf. To learn more about using dnf, see https://docs.fedoraproject.org/enUS/fedora/f27/system-administrators-guide/packagemanagement/DNF/index.html and https://linoxide.com/how-tos/yum-replace-dnf/. Android

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Android Android apps are installed through the Google Play store. To update an app, open the Google Play store, open the menu, and tap My apps & games. To update a specific app, tap its Update button. To update all apps, tap Update All. To uninstall an app, press and hold the icon and then tap Uninstall on the pop-up menu that appears. Click OK to confirm. iOS Apps for iOS are installed through the App Store. To update an app, open the App Store and tap Update. To update a specific app, tap its Update button. To update all apps, tap Update All. To uninstall an app, press and hold the icon. The app icons onscreen begin to shake, and an X appears in the upper-left corner of the icons. Tap the app you want to remove and tap Delete to confirm.

MEMORY MANAGEMENT

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MEMORY MANAGEMENT Operating systems assign the memory needed by each process, making sure that each process uses only the memory addresses allocated to it and, when necessary, uses virtual memory (disk space) as a substitute for memory. These processes are normally automatic, but some adjustments are possible. Note The terms paging file, swap file, swap space, and virtual memory are synonymous. Windows refers to its paging file as swapfile.sys.

Windows Virtual memory swaps data in memory to and from disk space when there in not enough RAM for all operations. To adjust how virtual memory is allocated in Windows, search for System and choose System (Control Panel). Click Advanced system settings. The System Properties Advanced tab opens. Click the Settings button in the Performance section. Click the Advanced tab and then click Change (see Figure 1611). You can specify which drive(s) are used for the paging file and change the size of the file (see Figure 16-12). For recommendations, see https://support.microsoft.com/en-

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us/help/2860880/how-to-determine-the-appropriatepage-file-size-for-64-bit-versions-of. Note A paging file should not be located on an SSD because it can cause excessive wear. The C: drive in Figure 16-12 is an SSD.

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Figure 16-11 Preparing to Change Virtual Memory Settings in Windows

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Figure 16-12 Changing Paging File (Virtual Memory) Size and Location

macOS macOS does not support changing the swapfile size manually. Freeing up space on the system drive or upgrading to a larger drive will enable macOS to create a larger swapfile when needed. Linux To see how memory is being allocated in Linux, open a console (Terminal) session and use the command free. To see the location and size of your swap space, use the command swapon -show. Figure 16-13 illustrates both commands being used on Ubuntu Linux.

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Figure 16-13 Using free to See Memory Usage and swapon -show to See Swap Space Location in Ubuntu Linux

For a system being used for production purposes, the swap space should be twice the memory size on the

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system. For example, on a system with 2GB of RAM, the swap size should be 4GB. To learn how to create an empty file and transform it into swap space, see https://linuxhint.com/linux-memory-managementswap-space/. A variable called swappiness can be set temporarily or permanently to change how aggressive system swapping is. See the same article for details.

DEVICE MANAGEMENT Device management refers to setting up and managing devices connected to USB, SATA, Thunderbolt, and other input/output (I/O) ports. Windows In Windows 10, the primary method for managing devices is by selecting Settings, Devices. However, the Device Manager (available from the Control Panel or the System properties sheet) can also be used. With Devices, the user can add hardware, view connected devices, pair Bluetooth devices, and configure mice, pens, Windows Ink, keyboards, and AutoPlay settings for USB devices. With Device Manager, the user can view normally functioning and malfunctioning devices, update or roll back device drivers, and diagnose malfunctioning devices (refer to Figure 9-18, p.162).

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macOS In macOS, click the Apple icon (upper-left corner) and then click About This Mac, System Report to display System Information. All of the possible hardware categories are listed in the Hardware section; click a category to expand it (refer to Figure 8-13, p.127). If you click an item category that is not installed, a message informs you that no devices of that type are installed. If you click an item category that is installed, you will see device details. Linux If you are using a Linux installation with a GUI, you can use the Settings menu to manage hardware. However, to dig deeper, you will need to use command-line utilities: lspci (list PCI devices) -nn for additional detail (see Figure 16-14) lsusb (list USB devices) lscpu (list CPU features, speed, and so on)

For a comprehensive look at all hardware device, buses, and so on, use sudo lshw. To temporarily remove a device until you restart the system, you can use the /sys command (see http://www.6by9.net/using-linux-sys-to-disableethernet-hardware-devices/ for details).

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Figure 16-14 Using lspci and lscpu to View Hardware Information in Linux

ACCESS CONTROL/PROTECTION What is access control? Access control refers to methods used by individual computing devices and computer networks to ensure that only authorized users can access and use devices and networks. Some of these include passwords (no password, no access), user/group permissions controlled by a network server (members of group A can only access network resources assigned to group A, and so on) or by the administrator of a computer (administrators can access all resources; standard users only their own files and resources), and accounts for remote services (only a bank customer can access the electronic banking function). Windows, macOS, and Linux all support user/group permissions. For details, see “Permissions,” in Chapter 17 p.359.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS (OSS) There are many types of operating systems (OSs) in a typical computing environment today. Here’s a brief digest.

Mobile Device OS

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Mobile Device OS The most common mobile device operating systems include the following: Android: Used on almost all non-Apple smartphones and tablets running ARM processors. iOS: Used on all Apple smartphones and tablets. iOS devices use ARM processors. Windows Mobile: Used on a small number of smartphones.

Android Many different versions of Android are used by different vendors. Some vendors use unmodified Android, whereas others, notably Samsung, customize Android for their devices. Updates to Android for a particular device are provided by the device vendor. To learn more about Android devices and the Android OS, see https://www.android.com/. iOS Apple provides iOS updates for its iPhone, iPad, and other touch-based products. To learn more about iOS and iOS devices, see https://www.apple.com/ios/.

Windows Mobile

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Windows Mobile Windows Mobile, like Android, is available from thirdparty mobile phone vendors. The current version of Windows Mobile, Windows 10 Mobile, has features similar to those in Windows 10. To learn more, see https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/phones. Windows tablets run standard Windows 10. Workstation OS Major workstation and desktop operating systems include Windows, macOS, and Linux. These operating systems support common office productivity suites such as Microsoft Office and OpenOffice. They can connect to a local area network and join a domain or workgroup network. They can connect to the Internet and support file sharing. Windows Windows runs on Microsoft and third-party tablets and laptops and on third-party desktop computers and technical workstations. Currently, it supports 32-bit and 64-bit processors made by Intel and AMD. The current version, Windows 10, is GUI based and distributed as a service that is updated frequently. It is optimized for keyboard/mouse/touchpad and for touchscreen (see Figure 16-15), switching modes

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according to installed hardware or user preference. Windows 10, like previous versions of Windows, also has a command-line mode used primarily for system management and diagnostics.

Figure 16-15 Touchscreen Mode in Windows 10 Uses the Full Screen for Menus

Windows 10 is available in various editions made for

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various types of computers and uses: Windows 10 in S mode (formerly Windows 10 S) is made for PCs, tablets, and 2-in-1 (tablet/laptop) PCs. It is preinstalled on systems that are used in enterprise and education markets where system management and security are paramount. Windows 10 Home is made for PCs, tablets, and 2-in-1 (tablet/laptop) PCs. Windows 10 Pro has all Windows 10 Home features and adds additional features such as domain networking and BitLocker fulldisk encryption. For more information, see https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/compare. Windows 10 Pro for Workstations is designed to support up to four high-performance CPUs and up to 6TB of RAM, along with a new file system (ReFS) and persistent memory. For more information, see https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/p/windows-10-pro-forworkstations/dg7gmgf0dw9s. Windows 10 Enterprise adds application threat protection, device health, application and user environment virtualization, and other features to Windows 10 Pro. Enterprise is designed for large corporations. Learn more at https://www.microsoft.com/enus/WindowsForBusiness/Compare.

macOS macOS runs only on laptops and desktops sold by Apple. macOS is a 64-bit operating system. The current version, macOS 10.14.x, Mojave, is GUI based. Like its predecessors, Mojave also has a command-line mode (Terminal), which uses many commands similar to Linux and is used primarily for system management and diagnostics. macOS is based on

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FreeBSD, which is an open source version of Unix. Linux Linux is available for a wide variety of computers and can be run on 32-bit or 64-bit processors. Unlike Windows and macOS, Linux is open source. Linux is based on Unix, and there are many distributions (“distros”) available from many different vendors. The most common Linux distributions are those based on Debian (including Mint and Ubuntu) and Red Hat (including Fedora, RHEL, and CentOS). Other popular distributions include OpenSUSE, Slackware, and ArchLinux. Linux distributions vary in their package managers and some command-line syntax, but most Linux apps are available for most distributions. Linux is natively run from the command line, but most distributions contain some type of GUI desktop. Note For a useful introduction to major distros, see https://distrowatch.com/dwres.php?resource=major.

Linux can run on less-powerful processors with lower RAM requirements than Windows, making it a useful choice for extending the life of older, slower systems. Many Linux distributions are available as Live CD or Live USB images, and these images can be installed to a

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CD or USB drive that can be run without installing. Live CD or Live USB versions are useful for test-driving Linux or for using it as the OS for a disaster recovery or anti-malware emergency boot disc. Server OS A server OS is an OS optimized to provide print, file, network management, user, and other services to a wired or wireless network rather than being optimized for a single user. Although desktop versions of Windows, macOS, and Linux have built-in print and file sharing, they are not optimized for server functions. Windows Server

The latest version is Windows Server 2016, but Windows Server 2012 is still available. A preview edition of Windows Server 2019 is available for users who want to try future editions still in development (see https://insider.windows.com/en-us/). Windows Server 2016 supports physical and virtual servers with more RAM and processors than its predecessor and supports more types of networks and server loads than its predecessor. To learn more and to compare different editions, see https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/cloudplatform/windows-server.

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Note Windows Server supports domain networking, which enables workstation users to log in to any workstation on the domain with the same credentials. A domain can contain multiple physical networks and is easier to scale to accommodate larger networks than a workgroup. To learn more about the differences between workgroup and domain networking, see “Workgroup network or Domain network for small business” at https://answers.microsoft.com/enus/windows/forum/windows_8-security/workgroup-network-or-domainnetwork-for-small/69a4cc74-0a5b-469c-9639-ce8f7e543dd1.

macOS Server At one time, Apple offered a separate version of its OS for servers. Currently, macOS Server is available from Apple as a low-cost add-on for standard macOS. macOS Server includes support for network and user management, connections to high-speed storage networks, and macOS and iOS clients. Learn more at https://www.apple.com/macos/server/. Linux Server

Linux server distributions are usually based on the same code as Linux desktop distributions. The differences include the following: Server versions don’t include a GUI. Server versions don’t include desktop productivity apps. Server versions include email server, file server, web server, clustering, container support, and other server-specific features.

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Clustering is a technology that enables multiple physical servers to work together for better reliability or better performance. Note Clustering support is available in Windows Server 2008 and later versions by installing the Failover Cluster feature. Learn more about Windows clustering at https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previousversions/windows/desktop/mscs/windows-clustering. Learn more about Linux clustering at https://www.tecmint.com/what-isclustering-and-advantages-disadvantages-of-clustering-in-linux/. macOS Server does not support clustering.

Containers are collections of apps that can be easily moved from one server to another as long as the servers use the same operating system. Containers are faster and easier to set up than virtual machines. Containers are supported by Windows Server 2016 and most Linux Server distributions. Note To learn more about containers, see https://www.informationweek.com/strategic-cio/it-strategy/containersexplained-9-essentials-you-need-to-know/a/d-id/1318961.

Common Linux server distributions include the following: Ubuntu Server: https://www.ubuntu.com/server Red Hat Enterprise Linux Server: https://www.redhat.com/en/resources/enterprise-linux-serverdatasheet

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SUSE Linux Enterprise Server: https://www.suse.com/products/server/

For additional options, see https://www.serverwatch.com/columns/slideshows/top10-linux-server-distributions.html. Note that server distributions, unlike most desktop Linux distributions, may be commercial (paid) products, although many commercial distributions also have community-supported counterparts. Embedded OS An embedded OS is an OS designed to be reliable and resource-efficient. It is configured to perform a specific task. It is used to control an embedded computer, which is a computer configured to perform a specific task. Some examples of embedded OS and computer combinations include ATM machines, CNC (computer numeric control) machines for machining precision tooling, network routers, and many more.

Microsoft Windows IoT (Internet of Things) is the new name for its Embedded Windows operating systems. Although Windows XP is no longer supported, embedded versions based on Windows XP (Windows Embedded Standard 2009 and Windows Embedded

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POSReady 2009) are still supported. There are also embedded versions of Windows 7, Windows 8.1, and Windows 10. Embedded versions of Windows are generally available from hardware OEMs that build embedded devices. However, some Windows 10 IoT versions for embedded devices are also available direct from Microsoft at https://developer.microsoft.com/enus/windows/iot/downloads. Note For more information about current Windows Embedded (IoT) products, download Windows Embedded Version Overview (PDF) from https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/confirmation.aspx?id=51484.

Embedded versions of Linux are widely used in small, single-board computers such as the Raspberry Pi, Internet routers, set-top boxes for streaming TV, network-attached storage, mobile media players, and many other categories. Note For more information about embedded Linux hardware, software, and much more, go to https://elinux.org/Main_Page.

Firmware

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Firmware Firmware is commonly defined as software stored in a read-only memory (ROM) chip. On desktop, laptop, workstation, and server computers, a firmware chip called a UEFI chip is used to store essential low-level startup and configuration options. However, on many embedded devices, the firmware chip on the circuit board is used to store the operating system. Because firmware is often stored on a flashable (reprogrammable) chip, it is possible to upgrade the embedded operating system on many devices. Set-top boxes (Blu-ray players, streaming media players) and smart TVs are examples of devices that include automatic firmware update routines. When connected to the Internet, these devices can check for and install firmware updates automatically. Many routers can be customized with open source firmware after purchase, and some vendors sell alreadycustomized routers. Note The open source DD-WRT firmware is available for many Linux-based routers. You can determine if DD-WRT replacement firmware is available for a particular router brand/model/revision by visiting the https://dd-wrt.com website. Another popular replacement router firmware for Broadcombased routers is Polarcloud’s Tomato. Learn more at www.polarcloud.com/tomato. The Flashrouters website (www.flashrouters.com) sells high-end routers that have been updated with more powerful firmware.

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Updating the firmware/OS on Windows Embedded devices can be performed manually or automatically according to device configuration. Contact the embedded device vendor for details. Hypervisor (Type 1) What is a hypervisor? A hypervisor (also known as a virtual machine manager or VMM) is program that sets up and runs virtual machines (VMs). So, what’s a virtual machine? A virtual machine is a software emulation of the hardware in a working computer. For example, the VMM sets up emulated motherboard chipsets, USB controllers, hard disk host adapters, video cards, and other components of an actual computer as part of the VM, along with setting aside either an expandable or fixed amount of hard disk space. Note For more information about virtual machines, see https://blogs.technet.microsoft.com/chenley/2011/03/04/what-is-a-virtualmachine/.

After a hypervisor creates and configures a virtual machine, you install the operating system and apps desired into the VM to have a working emulated computer or virtual machine. The hypervisor is used to start the virtual machine and, depending on the RAM, processor speed, and features, and available hard disk

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space in the physical computer, the hypervisor can run several virtual machines at the same time. Virtual machines can be copied from one physical computer to another. All that is needed to run a VM on a different computer is an installation of the same hypervisor app that was used to create and run the original VM. There are two types of hypervisors. A Type 2 hypervisor is a VMM that runs inside an operating system and carves out RAM and disk space from an already-running system. Many authors (including this one) use Type 2 hypervisors such as Oracle VirtualBox and others to run multiple operating systems inside a single physical PC for testing, writing, and experimentation. So, for example, to run Linux, I start my Windows 10 computer, start my hypervisor, and start the virtual machine(s) I need to use.

A Type 1 hypervisor is a VMM that works directly with the host computer hardware, rather than being installed inside an existing operating system. For this reason, Type 1 hypervisors are often referred to as “bare-metal” hypervisors. Figure 16-16 compares the relationship of the operating system, server hardware, and virtualization layers in Type 1 and Type 2 hypervisors

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versus a normal, nonvirtualized server.

Figure 16-16 Conceptual Diagram of Hardware, Operating System, Hypervisor, and Apps in Nonvirtualized and Virtualized Servers

In Figure 16-16, a nonvirtualized server (A) has the operating system layer directly interfacing with the hardware, and apps directly interfacing with the operating system. In a Type 2 hypervisor (B), the hypervisor interfaces with the operating system, and

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each VM interfaces with the hypervisor. Each VM contains an operating system and at least one app (one app only shown for clarity in this diagram). In a Type 1 hypervisor (C), the hypervisor interfaces directly with the hardware for faster speed and better control. As with a Type 2 hypervisor, each VM contains an operating system and at least one app (one app only shown for clarity in this diagram). Type 1 hypervisors are used for server virtualization to enable a single physical server to perform different roles more efficiently and at a lower cost than multiple physical servers. Some of the major Type 1 hypervisors include the following: Microsoft Hyper-V Server: See https://docs.microsoft.com/enus/windows-server/virtualization/hyper-v/hyper-v-server-2016 and https://www.techrepublic.com/article/getting-started-withmicrosoft-hyper-v-server-2016/. VMware vSphere Hypervisor: See https://www.vmware.com/products/vsphere-hypervisor.html. Oracle VM: See http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/serverstorage/vm/overview/index.html. Xen/Citrix XenServer: See https://www.citrix.com/products/xenserver/ and https://xenserver.org/.

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EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 16-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 16-1 Key Topics for Chapter 16

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

Operating systems

319

Paragraph

Device drivers

319

Paragraph

Compatibility settings

324

Paragraph

Windows Registry

326

Paragraph

Bypassing app block (macOS)

328

List

Package managers

329

Figure 16-11

Preparing to change virtual memory settings in Windows

331

Figure 16-12

Changing paging file (virtual memory) size and location

332

Paragraph

Windows Server

339

List

Linux server

339

Paragraph

Embedded Windows

341

Paragraph

Type 1 Hypervisor

343

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Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: About This Mac Activity Monitor Automator device drivers Devices Disk Utility diskpart DMG dnf embedded computer embedded OS fdisk kill killall lscpu lshw lspci lsusb macOS Server operating system

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processor architecture Program Compatibility Wizard ps swap space swapfile Task Manager Task Scheduler top Windows Mobile Windows Server yum

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 3.1 1. Where is an embedded OS typically installed in an embedded computer? 1. Flash drive 2. Hard disk 3. SSD 4. Firmware

2. The term “bare metal” refers to which of the following? 1. A computer before the OS is installed

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2. A Type 1 hypervisor 3. A Type 2 hypervisor 4. A processor without a heatsink

3. You need to update the device drivers in Windows. Which of the following should you use? 1. lspci 2. Devices 3. System Report 4. Device Manager

4. You are installing an app in Ubuntu Linux. Which of the following package managers will you use? 1. apt-get 2. yum 3. ps 4. dnf

5. You need to clean off an existing hard disk in Windows using a command-line program. Which of the following will you use? 1. fdisk 2. chkdsk 3. ps 4. diskpart

6. You have run into problems uninstalling an app in Windows. Which of the following tasks might you need to perform to finish the job? 1. Disable UAC.

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2. Run Device Manager. 3. Run Regedit. 4. Open the Microsoft Store.

7. You are using the lscpu tool to determine CPU information on a computer. Which operating system is in use? 1. Windows 2. Linux 3. macOS 4. Windows Server

8. When does an operating system use a paging file? 1. When it has too much RAM 2. When it runs short of disk space 3. When it runs short of RAM 4. When it needs to send a message

9. A standard Windows user must provide an administrator name and password when which of the following prompts appears? 1. UAC 2. RAM 3. DMG 4. Y UM

10. You are preparing an Android tablet for use. You will visit which of the following to obtain apps? 1. Android App Store 2. App Store

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3. Google.com 4. Google Play

11. You are inventorying a group of computers running Linux. Which command can you use to determine the hardware installed in each computer? 1. sudo lshw 2. Device Manager 3. System Report 4. showall

12. Windows Server enables a user to log in to any computer on a network. This is referred to as which of the following? 1. Workgroup 2. Domain 3. Wireless 4. Embedded

13. An ATM running Windows is using which of the following types of Windows? 1. Windows Embedded 2. Windows Server 3. Windows 10 4. Windows Mobile

14. In macOS, the Trash is used to perform which of the following tasks? 1. Install antivirus 2. Uninstall an app

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3. Store the paging file 4. Store passwords

15. You are preparing to install some apps on Linux Mint. Which of the following would you use for this task? 1. yum 2. apt-get 3. dnf 4. Install

16. You want to have multiple servers work together for better reliability. You need to enable which of the following? 1. Virtualization 2. Clustering 3. Hyperthreading 4. Access control

17. You are installing an additional hard disk on macOS. Which of the following would you use for this task? 1. fdisk 2. Disk Management 3. Automator 4. Disk Utility

18. You are uninstalling an app and the icons are shaking prior to your selecting one to remove. Which operating system are you using?

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1. Android 2. Windows 3. Linux 4. iOS

19. You are using Automator, System Report, and Disk Utility as some of the tools for managing a fleet of laptops. Which operating system do these computers use? 1. Windows 2. Android 3. macOS 4. Linux

20. Your company depends on a proprietary app written for Windows XP to perform a vital task. To enable it to run properly in Windows 10, which of the following should you use? 1. Device Manager 2. Program Compatibility Wizard 3. File Manager 4. Task Scheduler

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) Want to dig deeper into your favorite operating system? Check out these certifications: Microsoft Windows Server

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https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/learning/browse-allcertifications.aspx (Choose a technology to see applicable certifications.) macOS https://training.apple.com/ Linux https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/linux https://certification.ubuntu.com/ https://www.redhat.com/en/services/certification Android https://developers.google.com/training/certification/ https://developers.google.com/training/certification/associateandroid-developer/ iOS https://training.apple.com/ https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT205332 (AppleCare support)

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Chapter 17 Operating Systems 101: Features, Processes, UI, and Management The IT Fundamentals+ exam targets three different operating systems: Windows, macOS, and Linux. They differ in almost every way: from preferred file systems and features to interfaces, and from setting permissions to updating drivers. This chapter covers CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ Applications and Software Objective 3.2: Compare and contrast components of an operating system.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS FILE SYSTEMS AND FEATURES What is a file system? A file system refers to how a computer or computing device manages files and folders (a folder, or directory, contains files). Where files and folders can be stored, how many files can be stored in a folder, and the minimum amount of space that a file must use are all specified by the file system. File systems also differ in their support for data compression and encryption, how permissions are specified, whether journaling is supported, limitations on drive size, and naming rules. File Systems With any file system, one of the important factors is cluster size (also known as allocation unit size). The cluster size is the minimum amount of space a file can occupy on a storage device. For example, if a file occupies 2KB of space in memory, it will actually use a cluster when stored. If the cluster size is 4KB, the file uses 4KB when saved to disk. If the cluster size is 16KB, the file uses 16KB when saved to disk. What about larger files? If a file is 6KB, it would use two 4KB clusters, but only one 16KB cluster when saved to

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disk. Cluster sizes can vary according to the file system and the size of the drive. When files are stored, their location is recorded in the file allocation table or master file table, which acts as a type of index to the contents of the disk. The number of entries allowed in this structure along with the cluster size are used to determine the maximum size of a drive and the total number of files it can store (a directory/folder is considered the same as a file in making this calculation). When a disk drive is set up by an operating system, it can contain one or more volumes. Each volume can be assigned a separate ID (in Windows, a drive letter). Let’s take a closer look at the file systems you need to understand for the IT Fundamentals+ certification exam. NTFS New Technology File System (NTFS) was originally developed by Microsoft for Windows NT. It is the default file system for Windows XP and all later versions of Windows. The following are some major features of NTFS: Support for large hard disk drives—up to 16TB using the default 4KB cluster size.

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Support for journaling, which stores a record of changes to the drive. File compression and encryption (support for encryption not present in Home versions of Windows). Permissions are used to control which users have access to a file or folder and what level of access is available. Timestamps when files and folders are created or changed use Universal Time Coordinates (UTC, also known as Greenwich Mean Time) and are displayed in local time per the time zone setting in the operating system.

Current and recent versions of macOS and Linux can read drives that use NTFS. Third-party utilities are available to enable these operating systems to write to NTFS drives. Note Reading a drive includes tasks such as opening a file and viewing the contents of a drive or directory/folder. Writing to a drive includes tasks such as erasing a drive, formatting a drive (which replaces its file system), saving a file, saving changes to an existing file, and deleting (erasing) a file.

FAT32

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FAT32 File Allocation Table 32-bit (FAT32) was the primary file system used for older versions of Windows (Windows Me and 9x). It supports drive sizes up to 2TB using its default 32KB cluster size. However, FAT32’s cluster size changes according to the size of the formatted drive. For example, a 4GB drive uses a 4KB cluster size. FAT32 also offers long filename support, enabling users to create filenames longer than the eight characters plus three characters (8.3) filename rule used with the older FAT12 and FAT16 file systems. FAT32 does not include support for journaling, file compression, encryption (use third-party tools for these features), or permissions. For these reasons, FAT32 is used with USB flash drives or memory cards up to 32GB rather than for system drives. For flash drives and memory cards of 64GB or larger, use the exFAT (extended file allocation table) file system. macOS supports read/write access to FAT32 drives, so you can use a FAT32 drive to exchange data between macOS and Windows computers. Although Linux has three drivers that support FAT32, the VFAT file system driver is the only one that supports long filenames and does not have compatibility issues when moving a drive between Linux and Windows. In Windows, you can use a drive’s properties sheet to see the file system it uses

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(see Figure 17-1).

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Figure 17-1 Viewing Properties Sheets for Drives Using NTFS (Left) and FAT32 (Right)

HFS and HFS Plus Hierarchical File System (HFS) is a file system that was developed in 1985 for use with early Macintosh computers. It has a 2TB drive limit, a file size limit of 2GB, and supports long filenames (up to 31 characters are supported by macOS’s Finder on an HFS drive). An HFS drive can only hold up to 65,535 files/folders because it uses 16-bit block addressing. Because of its capacity limitations, HFS was replaced by HFS Plus (HFS+) in 1998. HFS is still supported for read-only access on recent and current macOS operating systems. HFS Plus is also known as OS X Extended. HFS Plus supports drives up to 8EB (exabytes), and an HFS Plus drive can store as many as 4.2 billion files because it uses 32-bit block addressing. macOS has gradually added features to HFS Plus that are similar to those found in NTFS:

Journaling (optional in macOS 10.2, standard in macOS 10.3 and above) Permissions (standard in macOS 10.4 and above)

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Compression (standard in macOS 10.6 and above) Encryption (standard in macOS 10.7 and above)

Third-party software is available for Linux and Windows to enable read-write access to HFS Plus files. Note APFS (Apple File System) was introduced for macOS 10.13 (High Sierra) as well as iOS, tvOS (Apple TV), and watchOS in 2017. It supports flash memory as well as hard drives and is designed to replace HFS Plus.

Ext4 Ext4 (fourth extended file system) is the current version of the ext file system used by Linux. Ext4 was introduced in 2008 with Linux kernel 2.6.28 and is also used by Android starting with version 2.3. The largest recommended volume size is 16 trillion bytes when using 4KB blocks (allocation units). Sixteen trillion bytes is also the maximum file size. There is no limit on the number of folders (subdirectories) on an ext4 volume.

Journaling is a feature carried over from ext3. Ext4 added journaling checksums to improve reliability and improve speed. Permissions supported are read/write/execute; to add support for access control lists (ACLs), which is useful for drives that will be shared with Windows systems over a network, modify the /etc/fstab file.

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Compression is not supported on ext4. Encryption support was added starting with Linux kernel 4.1 (June 2015).

To determine the file system(s) for drives connected to a Linux system, open a console (Terminal) session and use the command cat /etc/mtab. Entries beginning with /dev are mounted drives. As you can see in Figure 17-2, drive sda1 (the system drive) is using ext4.

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Figure 17-2 Using cat /etc/mtab to View the File System for a Linux Installation

FEATURES

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FEATURES In the previous sections, you learned about the major features of different operating systems. Let’s take a closer look. Compression Compression enables a drive to store more information than it could normally store. Compression is supported by NTFS and HFS Plus. The amount of disk space that can be saved with compression depends on the file type being compressed. Files that are already compressed, such as MP3 and WMA music files, JPEG, and some types of TIFF files, can be compressed very little, whereas text files can be compressed a great deal.

Compression in NTFS In NTFS, you can compress a file with File Explorer/Windows Explorer: Step 1. Right-click the file. Step 2. Select Properties. Step 3. From the General tab, click Advanced. Step 4. Click the empty Compress contents to save disk space box.

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Step 5. Click OK. Step 6. Click Apply, then OK. A compressed file has two arrows pointing in opposite directions on the file icon (refer to Figure 17-3) or the file is listed in blue, depending on the version of Windows in use. This type of compression is not compatible with other operating systems. Compression in HFS Plus HFS Plus (macOS 10.6 and newer) uses the ditto command line utility with the hfsCompression switch to compress a file: Click here to view code image ditto –hfsCompression OriginalFilename CompressedFilename

Almost all the system files used in macOS 10.6 and above are compressed. You can use ditto to compress data files. To see information about a file compressed with ditto, download and use afsctool (a third-party utility widely available online).

Creating Archive Files

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Creating Archive Files If you want to compress files for emailing or for easier transporting on a thumb drive, you need to create an archive file. Here’s how to create a ZIP (pkzip) file format with Windows (any file system) from File Explorer/Windows Explorer: Step 1. Select the file or files to archive. Step 2. Right-click the file(s). Step 3. Click Send To… Compressed (zipped) folder. Step 4. Press Enter to use the suggested name or enter a new name (the original files are not changed). To create an archive (ZIP) file with macOS from Finder, follow these steps: Step 1. Select the file or files to archive. Step 2. Open the File menu. Step 3. Click Compress. Step 4. The file is saved as Archive.zip. Each subsequent archive file is numbered (Archive 2.zip, and so on). Step 5. Rename the archive file(s) as desired. Linux uses the gzip tool to create zip files.

Encryption

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Encryption File encryption is designed to prevent unauthorized users from viewing the contents of a file. Encryption is supported in the NTFS, HFS Plus, and ext4 file systems. To encrypt files in FAT32, use a third-party utility. NTFS Encryption with EFS

NTFS uses the Encrypting File System (EFS) to encrypt files on business versions of Windows. To encrypt a file with NTFS, use the Properties sheet’s Advanced dialog. NTFS indicates encrypted files with a padlock icon (Windows 10) or by highlighting the file in green (Windows 10 and earlier versions). Note The option to highlight encrypted or compressed NTFS filenames in color is controlled through the Change folder and search options setting in the View menu for File Manager.

If an encrypted file is copied to another drive by the original user, it is decrypted. However, if an encrypted file is on a drive that is taken from the original user’s PC and connected to another system, it cannot be opened. EFS is supported only on Windows operating systems. Encrypted files can only be opened by the original user

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or by the holder of a recovery key, a special file that is created when you first encrypt a key. If you encrypt files in Windows, be sure to make a copy of the recovery key to a USB flash drive and keep that drive in a safe place.

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Figure 17-3 Normal File Compared to a Compressed File and an

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Encrypted File in Windows 10 (Large Icons View Shown)

BitLocker Encryption

BitLocker encryption is a full-disk encryption technology first made available in business-oriented editions of Vista and subsequent versions through Windows 10. BitLocker performs full-disk encryption. Originally designed to support only the system drive (C:), BitLocker currently supports non-system drives. BitLocker To Go also supports removable drives that use NTFS as well as FAT-based file systems. BitLocker works with either systems that have a trusted platform module (TPM) version 1.2 or greater, or a USB flash drive. BitLocker credentials are used to unlock (unencrypt) a BitLocker drive when necessary. The user’s Microsoft account online is used to store this credential information for safekeeping. A BitLocker To Go reader app is available from Microsoft for Windows XP and Windows Vista. This enables a user of a BitLocker-encrypted flash drive or hard drive to open the drive and use its contents on an older computer.

HFS Plus Encryption with FileVault 2

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HFS Plus Encryption with FileVault 2 Starting with macOS 10.7 Lion, HFS Plus includes builtin encryption called FileVault 2. FileVault 2 differs from the original FileVault in OS X 10.3 Panther by encrypting both the user’s directory and the startup volume. Users can also create and then encrypt a disk image using Disk Utility. The recovery key, which enables the encrypted drive to be read when the computer is not working properly, can be stored online. ext4 Encryption Encryption with an ext4 file system in Linux requires the user to verify the volume is compatible with encryption, enable encryption, create a folder that can be encrypted, generate an encryption key and store it, assign the encryption policy to the folder, and copy files to the folder. Permissions Permissions refers to determining which users can perform operations on a volume prepared with a given file system. Of the file systems covered on the IT Fundamentals+ exam, FAT32 is the only one that does not support permissions.

NTFS Permissions

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NTFS Permissions Permissions are assigned on a per-user or a per-group basis to a volume, a folder (directory), or a file. To see or change an object’s permissions, right-click the object, select Properties, and click the Security tab. The top of the Security window lists groups and users who have permission to access the object. Select a group or user to list its permissions (see Figure 17-4).

Standard permissions are set as Allow or Deny. They include the following: Full control—User can perform any action on the object, including deletion. Modify—User can change the object. Read & execute—User can open the file and run it. List folder contents—User can view the folder’s contents. Read—User can read the file. Write—User can save a file to the object. Special permissions—Edit to change how permissions are inherited, to view the user or group’s effective permissions, and to audit permissions.

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Figure 17-4 Viewing How Permissions Change with Different Users

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If a user or group cannot access a volume, folder, or file, the permissions need to be edited to permit the level of access desired. HFS Plus Permissions HFS Plus permissions can be viewed and set in three ways: UNIX symbolic notation (see the section “Ext4 Permissions” and Figure 17-7 for details) UNIX numeric notation (see the section “Ext4 Permissions” and Figure 17-8 for details) Finder Sharing & Permissions

To use Finder to view permissions (also called privileges in macOS), follow these steps: Step 1. Select the file/app. Step 2. Click File, Get Info (see Figure 17-5). Step 3. Click Sharing & Permissions to view current permissions (see Figure 17-6). Step 4. To add a user and select permissions, click the + sign.

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Figure 17-5 Using File, Get Info to See Permissions for a Selected File in macOS

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Figure 17-6 Permissions for a Selected File in macOS

Ext4 Permissions

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Ext4 Permissions When you use the ls -l command to view file information, UNIX symbolic notation is used to display permissions (see Figure 17-7).

Figure 17-7 Permissions for a Specified File in Linux Using UNIX Symbolic Notation

In Figure 17-7, the notation -rw-rw-r-- translates thus: First dash: Indicates object type (- is a regular file; c is a character special file; d is a directory). First group of three after the initial character: rw-: r means user class can read file; w means user class can write (change or delete) file; and - means user class can’t execute (run) file (it’s an image file). Second group of three:

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rw-: r means group class can read file; w means group class can write (change or delete) file; - means group class can’t execute (run) file (it’s an image file). Third (last) group of three: r--: r means other users can read file; - means other users cannot write (change or delete) file; - means other users cannot execute (run) file.

When you use the stat -c %a command to view file information, permissions are shown in UNIX numeric notation (see Figure 17-8).

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Figure 17-8 Permissions for a Specified File in Linux Using UNIX Numeric Notation

In Figure 17-8, the value 664 (some Linux distributions would display this as 0664) translates as follows: 6: Read and write for the file’s owner

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6: Read and write for the file owner’s group 4: Read for other users

To change permissions for a file, use the chmod command. This command uses UNIX numeric notation. To change a file from read/write to read-only, use the following command: chmod 444 filename.ext Journaling Journaling is a file system operation that tracks pending changes to a volume. The purpose of journaling is to make recovery easier in the event of a system lockup or crash. FAT32 and HFS do not support journaling, but NTFS, HFS Plus, and ext4 all support journaling. Journaling is enabled by default in NTFS, HFS Plus (beginning with OS X 10.3), and ext4. Limitations Different file systems have limitations on the size of a volume, the number of files in a volume, and the number of files in a folder (directory). Table 17-1 compares the limitations of the file systems discussed in this chapter.

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Table 17-1 File System Limitations

File System

Max Volume Size

Max File Size

Number of Files per Volume

Number of Files per Folder

FAT32

32GB*

4GB

Approx. 268 million

65,536**

NTFS

256TB***

256TB

Approx. 4 trillion

Approx. 4 trillion

HFS

2TB

2GB

65535

65535

HFS Plus

8EB

8EB

Approx. 4 trillion

Approx. 4 trillion

Ext4

1EB

16 trillion bytes

Approx. 4 billion

Approx. 4 trillion

*Limit for formatting the drive using Windows; larger sizes up to 2TB available with third-party formatting tools. **When long filenames are used, each file uses two directory entries, so this number could be reduced by up to 50% if all files have long filenames plus MS-DOS (8.3) aliases. ***Limit in Windows Server 2012 and 2016; larger sizes supported by file system.

Another consideration in selecting a file system is how files are named.

Naming Rules

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Naming Rules Although all the file systems covered in this chapter support filenames longer than the 8.3 limitations of MSDOS, there are still differences in the rules that govern how long a filename can be. FAT32 File Naming Rules FAT32, because it is based on FAT16, which limited filenames to eight characters plus up to a threecharacter extension (for example, wordfile.doc), actually uses at least two directory entries for long filenames: this is a word file.doc (the actual filename) thisis~1.doc (a short filename derived from the actual filename)

To see both filenames and short filenames (SFNs) with a recent or current version of Windows, open the command prompt (cmd.exe), navigate to a folder, and use the following command: dir /x

Figure 17-9 shows how both long filenames (LFNs) and SFNs are visible. The short filenames would be used by operating systems that do not recognize long filenames.

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Figure 17-9 Long Filenames and Short Filenames on a FAT32 Drive in Windows

FAT32 and NTFS File Naming Rules

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FAT32 and NTFS File Naming Rules

FAT32 and NTFS support path names of up to 255 characters, including the filename. FAT32 and NTFS treat uppercase and lowercase names as identical. Here are some additional points to keep in mind: Reserved characters (< > : " / \ | ? *) cannot be used in a filename. However, you can put double quotes around a long filename if you are using an app that is not designed to recognize long filenames. Device names (CON, PRN, AUX, NUL, COMx, LPTx [x=1 through 9]) can’t be used as a filename.

NTFS File Naming Rules NTFS supports both long and short filenames by design, so the OS does not need to generate short filenames. HFS and HFS Plus File Naming Rules HFS supports filenames of up to 31 characters. Eight-bit characters except for : (colon) can be used. HFS and HFS Plus store uppercase and lowercase characters as entered, but treats them the same when opening and using files. For example, if a file is stored as Lower.txt, it can be opened by referring to Lower.txt, LOWER.TXT, and so on. HFS Plus supports filenames of up to 255 characters and does not have any reserved characters that cannot

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be used in a filename. Ext4 File Naming Rules Ext4 supports case-sensitive filenames. For example, Mark.txt, MARK.txt, and mark.txt are separate files in ext4. Filenames can be up to 255 characters. Allowed characters include A–Z, numbers, periods, and underscores.

FILE MANAGEMENT File folders (directories), file types and extensions, and permissions are all essential parts of file management. For more information about permissions, see the Permissions section of this chapter. Folders/Directories In Windows, macOS, and Linux, you can create, switch to, and delete folders (directories) in two ways: From the command line (Windows command prompt, Linux/macOS Terminal) From a file manager in the GUI

Windows Folder/Directory Commands

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Windows Folder/Directory Commands

After opening a command prompt, you can use the following commands: cd \pathname\directoryname to change to any directory (folder) on the current drive cd pathname\directoryname to change to a directory below the current directory md \directoryname to create a new directory one level below the root directory md directoryname to create a new directory one level below the current directory rd \directoryname to remove an empty directory one level below the root directory rd directoryname to remove an empty directory one level below the current directory Linux/macOS Folder/Directory Commands After opening a Terminal session, you can use these commands: cd /pathname/directoryname to change to any directory (folder) on the current drive cd pathname/directoryname to change to a

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directory below the current directory mkdir /directoryname to create a new directory one level below the root directory mkdir directoryname to create a new directory one level below the current directory rmdir /directoryname to remove an empty directory one level below the root directory rmdir directoryname to remove an empty directory one level below the current directory File Types and Extensions Windows, macOS, and Linux differ in their use of file types and extensions. Windows File Types and Extensions

Windows is heavily dependent on file extensions (.docx, .pdf, .jpg, and so on) to determine how to handle files. A file extension that has been matched up with a file type and a default app to open it with is known as a “registered” file type. Table 17-2 lists common file types and extensions for Windows apps. Table 17-2 Common File Extensions and Types for Windows Apps

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File Extension

Category

Details/Typical Registered App

.ai

Graphics (drawing)

Adobe Illustrator

.aiff or .aif

Audio (music)

Audio Interchange File Format (audio file)

.avi

A/V (movie)

Multimedia Audio/Video

.bat

Command

PC batch file

.bmp

Graphics (picture)

Windows Bitmap

.cdr

Graphics (drawing)

CorelDraw

.class or .java

Program

Java files

.csv

Data (text)

Comma-separated, variable-length file (open in Excel)

.doc

Document

Microsoft Word for Windows/Word 97–2003

.docx

Document

Microsoft Word 2007 and newer

.eps

Graphics

Encapsulated PostScript

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.exe

Program

PC Application

.gif

Graphics (picture, animation)

Graphics Interchange Format

.htm or .html

Web page source text

.jpg or jpeg

Graphics (picture)

JPEG graphic

.mdb

Database

Microsoft Access database 2003 and earlier

.accdb

Database

Microsoft Access database 2007 and newer

.mid or .midi

Audio (music)

MIDI sound

.mov or .qt

A/V (music, movie)

QuickTime Audio/Video

.odg

Graphics (drawing)

OpenOffice Impress

Presentation

OpenOffice Impress

.odp

LibreOffice Impress

LibreOffice Impress

.ods

Spreadsheet

OpenOffice Calc LibreOffice Calc

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.odt

Document

OpenOffice Writer LibreOffice Writer

.ott

.oth

Document template

OpenOffice Writer

HTML template

OpenOffice Writer

LibreOffice Writer

LibreOffice Writer

.pdf

Document, picture

Acrobat Portable Document Format

.png

Graphics (picture)

Portable Network Graphics

.ppt

Presentation

PowerPoint 97–2003

.pptx

Presentation

PowerPoint 2007 and newer

.psd

Graphics (picture)

Adobe Photoshop

.psp

Graphics (picture)

PaintShop Pro

.rtf

Document

Rich Text Format

.sit

macOS archive

Stuffit Compressed Archive

.tar

UNIX/Linux archive

UNIX Tar Compressed Archive

.tif

Graphics (picture)

TIFF graphic

.txt

Text

ASCII text

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.wav

Audio (music)

Windows sound

.xls

Spreadsheet

Excel 97–2003

.xlsx

Spreadsheet

Excel 2007 and newer

.zip

Windows archive

PKZip Compressed Archive

By default, File Explorer (Windows 10 version shown in Figure 17-10) and Windows Explorer do not display registered file types. Hiding file types as the normal setting causes users who rename files to be less likely to delete or change a file extension. With Windows File Explorer (Windows 8 and later), you can display registered file types by clicking the View tab and clicking the File name extensions box (see Figure 17-11). Displaying file types can be helpful to distinguish different types of image, document, and other types of files from each other.

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Figure 17-10 File Icons Indicate Different File Types in File Explorer and Windows Explorer.

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Figure 17-11 Displaying Registered File Extensions in Windows File Explorer

The Folder Options, View tab shown in Figure 17-12 can also be used in older versions of Windows to make the same change. By default, the Hide extensions for known file types box is checked. Clear this check box to make the file extensions visible.

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Figure 17-12 Using the Folder Options, View Tab to Make Registered File Extensions Visible

Many email-based attacks use a fake file extension, such as something.txt.exe, to try to compromise a system. With registered file extensions hidden by default, an unwary user might mistake something.txt (with the

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actual .exe hidden) for a harmless text file rather than a potentially hazardous executable file. The same dialogs can also be used to make normally hidden files and folders visible. Files and folders that are part of the operating system are often hidden to help prevent their being moved or deleted by inexperienced users. However, a Windows technician may need to see these files. Figure 17-13 shows a portion of the C: drive’s root directory (folder) as it normally appears and after hidden folders are made visible.

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Figure 17-13 Using File Explorer’s View Tab’s Show/Hide Menu to Make Hidden Items Visible

Linux File Types and Extensions Linux recognizes seven different file types, as shown in Table 17-3. Table 17-3 Linux File Types

File Type

How Displayed by ls

Notes

Regular file

-

Text, binary, image, other file types

Directory

d

Folder

Character device file

c

Used to communicate with peripherals

block device file

b

Used to communicate with memory or storage devices

Local socket file

s

Used by services

Named pipe

p

Used to communicate between services

Symbolic link

l

Pointer to a file

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Unlike Windows, Linux makes little use of extensions. Instead, the file’s MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) information is embedded into the file, and this information is used to enable Linux to choose the correct app to open a file. Table 17-4 lists some common MIME file types. For a complete list, see http://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/mediatypes.xhtml.

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Table 17-4—MIME File Types and Typical Windows Extensions

Windows File Extension

MIME Type

File Type

.avi

video/x-msvideo

AVI: Audio Video Interleave movie file

.doc

application/msword

Microsoft Word file (pre-2007 versions)

.jpg (.jpeg)

image/jpeg

JPEG image file

.pdf

application/pdf

Adobe Reader (Portable Document Format)

.xlsx

application/vnd.openxmlformatsoffice document.spreadsheetml.sheet

Microsoft Excel 2007 and newer (OpenXML)

.zip

application/zip

Zip (PKZIP) archive

As you can see from Table 17-4, files that are associated with a specific application have a MIME type beginning with application/. On the other hand, files that can be

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opened by many different types of applications start with the file type (image/ or video/). macOS File Types and Extensions macOS uses file extensions when present to help determine how to open a file, but it can also use MIME types for files that have no extension.

SERVICES Services refer to processes that are launched when a system is started or when a particular task is started. Common services include connecting to wireless networks, setting up a print spooler, power management, and many others. Viewing and Managing Services in Microsoft Windows To view running services in Microsoft Windows, open Task Manager and select More Details, then click the Services tab (see Figure 17-14). All available services are listed, and each running service has a process ID number (PID). To change the status of a service, rightclick it and select Start, Stop, or Restart. You can also open the Services menu or learn more about the service. Services can also be viewed and managed with the sc command-line program.

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Figure 17-14 Viewing Services with Task Manager in Windows 10

The easiest way to manage Windows services is through the Computer Management console’s Services module. Open it by entering Services.msc in the Search (Cortana) window and clicking Services when it appears in the results. It can also be launched from the Windows Administrative Tools folder or from Computer Management. Select a service to stop, start, pause, or manage its settings with Properties (see Figure 17-15).

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Figure 17-15 Managing a Service in Windows 10

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Viewing and Managing Services in macOS In macOS, services work much differently than in Windows. Services in macOS are managed through the System Preferences, Keyboard, Shortcuts tab; click Services to see available services. You can assign custom keystrokes to activate a service, and you can enable or disable services (see Figure 17-16). By assigning keystrokes to a service, you can use the service more quickly.

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Figure 17-16 Managing Services in macOS

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To see which services are available, select a file or text and hold down the control key while clicking. Viewing and Managing Services in Linux The init.d folder in Linux is used to store services that will be run at startup and shut down when the system is shut down. To see the contents of init.d (and thus the startup services), use ls /etc/init.d (Debian-based distributions such as Ubuntu; see Figure 17-17) or ls /etc/rc.d/init.d (Red Hat–based distributions such as Fedora).

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Figure 17-17 Viewing the Contents of init.d (services) in Ubuntu Linux

To list all services, running or not, use service – status-all: [+] means service running. [-] means service not running.

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[?] means status unknown. To start a service, use sudo service servicename start. To stop a service, use sudo service servicename stop. If prompted, provide the password for the current user.

PROCESSES Processes are any programs or services that are running at a particular time. Windows, macOS, and Linux all include utilities to display and manage processes. Caution Be careful about stopping processes. Stopping a vital process could crash your system. The safest way to practice stopping a process is to start a program you’re not using and then stop it.

Viewing and Managing Processes in Microsoft Windows Microsoft Windows includes the GUI-based Task Manager and the command-line tasklist and taskkill utilities for managing processes. Task Manager can be started from the Cortana Search window, or by pressing the Ctrl+Alt+Del keys and selecting Task Manager. Task Manager starts in

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simple mode, listing running programs. Click More details to see a multi-tabbed display with processes, performance, app history, startup programs, users, details, and services. To stop a process or app in either mode, right-click it and select End task (see Figure 1718).

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Figure 17-18 Stopping an App in Task Manager

The command-line tasklist utility offers many options for viewing, sorting, and filtering tasks. Use tasklist with no options to see a complete list of programs and services by process ID (PID). To see options for tasklist, enter tasklist /?. After viewing the output of tasklist, you can use taskkill to stop a task by specify-ing its PID (for example, taskkill /PID 2688). To see options for taskkill, enter taskkill /?. Viewing and Managing Processes in macOS When you use macOS, the Dock at the bottom of the display shows you the apps that use the macOS GUI. To force a GUI app to stop, press command+option+esc keys and choose the app to stop from the Force Quit Applications dialog. After reviewing running apps, press esc if you don’t want to close one. However, many other processes could be running. Use the Activity Monitor to view them. Activity Monitor can be started from the Applications menu. Activity Monitor (shown in Figure 17-19) is similar to the Windows Task Manager and can be used to stop various processes.

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Figure 17-19 Viewing System Activity with Activity Monitor

macOS can also use the top and ps Terminal (command-line) utilities, which are also available in Linux, to view processes. Viewing and Managing Processes in Linux From the Linux Terminal, use top to see running services for the current user and root user (see Figure 17-20). Press Ctrl+C to stop the display. To see options for filtering and sorting, enter top h.

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Figure 17-20 Using top to View Running Services in Linux

To see running apps and services, use ps aux (shown in

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Figure 17-21). This command lists the user first, followed by PID, and the last two items are the amount of time active and the name of the service or app. To see options for ps, enter ps –help.

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Figure 17-21 Using ps aux to View Running Apps and Services in Linux

To kill (stop) a process, look up the PID with either top

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or ps, then use kill, like so: kill pid

For example, I used kill 1094 to shut down the Wacom tablet process on my system. That was a safe change to make because my Linux system isn’t using a Wacom tablet. For additional options for kill, enter kill with no options.

DRIVERS Drivers, also known as device drivers, are the software files that enable operating systems to communicate with and control the motherboard and internal and external devices. For a device driver to work, the following all need to be true: The driver matches the hardware. The driver is the correct type for the operating system. The driver supports 32-bit operation for a 32-bit CPU or 64-bit operation for a 64-bit CPU.

Obtaining Drivers for Microsoft Windows

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Obtaining Drivers for Microsoft Windows Drivers compatible with Microsoft Windows are provided by the hardware vendor. Although Windows includes some drivers for printers and other types of devices, these drivers are often limited in features. For the best support for your hardware, download the latest drivers (preferred) or use the drivers packaged with the device. When downloading drivers for a particular device, be sure to choose a driver that is designed for your version of Windows and processor type (32-bit or 64-bit). Drivers can be updated through Device Manager. To update drivers, right-click the device, select Properties, click the Driver tab, and click Update Driver (see Figure 17-22). You can search your computer and the Internet or browse the computer to locate an updated driver. After the driver is updated, you might need to restart your computer.

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Figure 17-22 Preparing to Update a Device Driver Using Windows 10’s Device Manager

Obtaining Drivers for macOS

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Obtaining Drivers for macOS Apple provides drivers for hardware built into its macOS computers. For third-party devices, download drivers at the vendor’s website. Be sure to verify that your version of macOS and your hardware are compatible with the driver. Obtaining Drivers for Linux There are many ways to obtain device drivers for Linux, depending on the distribution you use and your hardware vendor. Some hardware vendors host Linux drivers on their websites. However, many drivers, particularly for printers, are available as Linux packages that are available through a distribution’s package manager. To locate a package that contains a driver in Debian-based distributions such as Ubuntu, open a Terminal session and use this command (see Figure 1723): Click here to view code image sudo apt-cache search drivername

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Figure 17-23 Searching for Drivers Using sudo apt-cache in a Debian-based Linux Distribution

To learn more about what’s in a particular package, use the following command: Click here to view code image sudo apt-cache show pkgname

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To see the dependencies in a particular package, use this command: Click here to view code image sudo apt-cache showpkg pkgname

Note In Linux, dependencies are files that are needed to install or update a package.

After locating a driver, install it with this command: Click here to view code image sudo apt-get install driver

Other Linux distros use different package managers and offer comparable commands. Linux distros including a GUI typically have package-management features included in the GUI. Note For commands used in CentOS, Fedora, and FreeBSD, see the discussion at https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/packagemanagement-basics-apt-yum-dnf-pkg.

UTILITIES

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UTILITIES Utilities are small programs that perform functions such as configuration or management. The utilities discussed in the following sections are those included with the operating system, but many additional utilities are available from the operating system vendors or thirdparty websites. Windows Utilities

Windows utilities are typically located in one of two places in the Start menu: Windows Accessories Windows Administrative Tools

Here’s a list of some of the most useful utilities: Character Map: Add characters such as icons, custom buttons, math symbols, and more to documents or images. Snipping Tool: Grab any part of the screen and save to a file. Computer Management: Configure services, disk drives, and much more. Disk Cleanup: Remove unneeded files. Event Viewer: See warnings, errors, device installation, and more. System Configuration: Change boot process settings, startup programs, and services run at startup. Memory Diagnostic: Test system memory.

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macOS Utilities

macOS utilities are located in the Applications-Utilities folder. Some of the most useful utilities include the following: Activity Monitor: Displays processes, CPU, memory, energy, disk, and network usage. Can also stop processes and run diagnostics. Console: Logs system activity. Disk Utility: Displays information about connected drives. Also prepares drives for use and repairs disk problems. System Information: Displays information about your computer, connected hardware, installed software, and the network. Terminal: Use it to run command-line utilities.

Linux Utilities

Ubuntu and other distributions that use the GNOME desktop store utilities in the Applications-Utilities folder. Some of the most useful utilities include the following: Archive Manager: Works with compressed archive files Backup: Backs up selected folders to local or online locations Disk Usage Analyzer: Provides split-screen view of file usage Image Viewer: Views images

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Screenshot: Captures windows, selected areas, and full screen

Task Scheduling Task scheduling is one of the most important functions in any operating system. In Microsoft Windows, use Task Scheduler (shown in Figure 17-24) to run an app at startup or when particular events take place.

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Figure 17-24 Reviewing the Settings for a Task Supplied with Windows 10 Using Task Scheduler

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macOS uses the Automator (shown in Figure 17-25) to run apps, services, folder actions, and other types of activities.

Figure 17-25 Selecting a Task Category with Automator

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Linux distributions typically run the cron daemon (service) automatically at startup. Cron performs tasks as directed by the crontab file. Crontab is a plain-text file that is edited from a console (Terminal) session to add the commands desired. To start the editing process, use sudo crontab -e. If prompted, choose a text editor. In Figure 17-26, crontab has been edited to perform a command daily at 1900 hours (7:00 p.m. local time). After you write (save) changes to crontab and exit the editor, use sudo service cron reload to reload cron with the latest crontab entries.

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Figure 17-26 Editing crontab to Schedule a Task

There are five items at the beginning of a crontab entry

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that determine when the command runs. In the example in Figure 17-22, they are read thus: 0: Minute 0. 19: Hour 19 (7:00 p.m.). *: Day (* means every day; use 1–31 for a particular date). *: Month (* means every month; use 1–12 for a particular month). *: Day of week (* means every day of the week; use 0–6 for a particular day, with 0=Sunday, 6=Saturday). The cronsandbox.com website provides a handy way to understand how your crontab timing statement will work.

INTERFACES Windows, macOS, and Linux all support two interfaces: console/command line and graphical user interface (GUI). In the following sections, we discuss how they differ.

Console/Command Line

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Console/Command Line

Microsoft Windows uses the command line (also known as command prompt) primarily for technical management tasks. To open a command-line session, open cmd.exe. However, to use cmd.exe to make changes to your system, run cmd.exe as administrator, as shown in Figures 17-27 and 17-28.

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Figure 17-27 Starting the Windows Command Prompt as Administrator

macOS, like Windows, uses a Terminal session for advanced configuration options not available from the GUI. Most, but not all, macOS Terminal commands are similar to those in Linux (both macOS and Linux are based on UNIX). Some Linux distros boot directly to the Linux console using the Terminal app. Others boot to a GUI such as GNOME. However, Linux uses the console mode for most management operations. To make changes to the Linux environment, most distros require the current user to add sudo at the start of the command. sudo allows a user to run apps that normally require an administrator, and users may be prompted to enter their passwords.

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Figure 17-28 Using the Windows 10 Administrative Command Prompt to Check for System File Errors with System File Checker (sfc)

GUI Windows and macOS boot to their GUI environments as standard. Some Linux distros include a GUI and boot to the GUI. Common Linux GUIs include Plasma Desktop (developed by KDE) and GNOME (developed by the GNU Project).

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 17-5 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 17-5 Key Topics for Chapter 17

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 17-1

Viewing properties sheets for drives using

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NTFS and FAT32 List

Features of HFS Plus

354

List

Features of ext4

354

Step List

Compression in NTFS

356

Paragraph

NTFS Encryption with EFS

357

Paragraph

BitLocker Encryption

358

List

Standard Permissions

359

Figure 174

Viewing how permissions change with different users

360

Figure 177

Permissions for a specified file in Linux using UNIX symbolic notation

362

Table 17-1

File System Limitations

364

Paragraph

FAT32 and NTFS File Naming Rules

365

Exercise

Windows Folder/Directory Commands

366

Paragraph

Windows File Types and Extensions

367

Figure 1714

Viewing services in Task Manager in Windows 10

374

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Figure 1715

Managing Services in macOS

375

Figure 1718

Stopping an app in Task Manager

378

Figure 1722

Preparing to update a driver using Windows 10’s Device Manager

382

List

Windows Utilities

384

List

macOS Utilities

384

List

Linux Utilities

385

Figure 1724

Reviewing the settings for a task supplied with Windows 10 using Task Scheduler.

385

Paragraph

Console/Command Line

387

Complete the Tables and Lists from Memory Print a copy of Appendix A, “Memory Tables,” or at least the section from this chapter, and complete the tables and lists from memory. Appendix B, “Memory Tables Answer Key,” includes completed tables and lists to check your work.

Define Key Terms

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Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: New technology file system (NTFS) file allocation table 32-bit (FAT32) hierarchical file system (HFS) ext4 (fourth extended file system) compression encryption permissions journaling command line graphical user interface (GUI)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 3.2 1. You need to prepare a drive for use with Windows 10 and macOS. Which of the following file systems is the best choice? 1. Ext4 2. OS X Extended 3. NTFS 4. FAT32

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2. You are attempting to open a picture file on Windows but the file extension is missing. What happens if you try to open the same file on macOS? 1. macOS will guess the file type. 2. macOS will examine the file’s MIME type to determine a suitable app. 3. macOS will prompt you for a file extension. 4. macOS will not be able to open the file either.

3. You have downloaded the 32-bit version of a driver file for your 64-bit Windows system. Which of the following will take place? 1. Y our computer will use the driver file without any problems. 2. Windows will upgrade the driver. 3. Windows will run the driver in 32-bit compatibility mode. 4. Windows cannot use the driver.

4. You have connected a hard disk to your macOS laptop. Which utility will display drive information such as file system? 1. Device Manager 2. Disk properties 3. Disk Utility 4. Cron

5. A task is running and needs to be shut down. Which of the following pairings of operating system and method are correct? 1. Windows – Properties sheet 2. Linux – crontab

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3. macOS – Activity Monitor 4. Windows – tasklist

6. A PID identifies a process that is running. Which of the following is not a possible PID? 1. 1040 2. 54-40 3. 99 4. 419

7. You need to make a directory (folder) one level down from the current folder from the console/command line. Which of the following commands is correct in Linux or macOS? 1. md directoryname 2. rmdir directoryname 3. mkdir /directoryname 4. mkdir directoryname

8. You are trying to save a file about frequently asked questions as FAQ? using Windows. Why can’t you save the file? 1. Filename is too short: must be longer than eight characters. 2. The proposed filename has a reserved character. 3. Windows doesn’t use capital letters. 4. Try a different storage location.

9. You are attempting to copy a 5GB file from a Linux system to an unused 16GB flash drive, but the file can’t be copied. Which of the following is the most

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likely reason? 1. Drive has 12GB of defects. 2. Drive uses NTFS file system. 3. Drive must be formatted first. 4. Drive uses FAT32 file system.

10. Task Manager indicates that an app is not working. Which of the following is your next step? 1. Start taskkill to close the app. 2. Open crontab and disable the service. 3. Stop the app. 4. Edit the app’s properties.

11. You have copied a JPEG file from Windows to a flash drive formatted with FAT32 that you use to move files between systems. You are trying to open the file on a different system and can’t open it. Other JPEGs on the drive can be opened. What’s the reason? 1. File was encrypted. 2. File is the wrong type. 3. File was compressed. 4. File is too large to open.

12. You are trying to find out why you can’t remove or change a file on a Linux system. Which of the following commands will show you the file’s permissions? 1. ls filename

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2. Properties sheet for file 3. ls-l filename 4. ps aux

13. Your computer has crashed while saving a file but your data was not corrupted on your NTFS system drive. The feature that helped protect your data is called ___________. (Fill in the blank.) 1. encryption 2. journaling 3. compression 4. properties

14. Your manager asks you to create a single compressed file from a half-dozen photos on a flash drive. Which of the following utilities would you use on a Linux system? 1. format 2. Disk Utility 3. ZIP compression 4. gzip

15. You are attempting to perform a task in Linux and you need to make sure you have adequate permissions. Which of the following should you do? 1. Add cmd.exe to the beginning of the command. 2. Add sudo to the beginning of the command. 3. Add Administrator to the beginning of the command. 4. Run cmd.exe as administrator.

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16. Cron is an example of a Linux ________. (Fill in the blank.) 1. daemon 2. process 3. scheduler 4. app

17. You need to make a directory (folder) one level down from the current folder from the console/command line. Which of the following commands is correct in Linux or macOS? 1. md directoryname 2. rmdir directoryname 3. mkdir /directoryname 4. mkdir directoryname

18. Which of the following crontab entries would run a command at 2:15 a.m. every Sunday? 1. 2 15 * * 7 2. 15 2 0 * * 3. 2 15 * 0 * 4. 15 2 * * 0

19. A Microsoft Windows user who needs to run a command-line utility will use which of the following? 1. command.com 2. cmd.exe 3. Terminal 4. Archie

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20. You need to update a driver in Windows. Which utility would you use? 1. Task Manager 2. Device Manager 3. Activity Monitor 4. Spotlight

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) Want to go even deeper into the differences between Windows, macOS, and Linux? Check out CompTIA’s A+ certification. If Windows or other Microsoft technologies are in your future, Microsoft offers a wide range of certifications. Learn more at https://www.microsoft.com/enus/learning/certification-overview.aspx. If you’re wanting to take a bigger bite of the Apple, check out the resources at https://training.apple.com/. CompTIA’s Linux+ certification tests your skills with multiple Linux distributions, and you can also get certifications from the Linux Foundation: https://training.linuxfoundation.org/certification.

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Chapter 18 Purpose and Proper Use of Software Without software (applications or apps), a computer, tablet, or smartphone is like a multifunction tool handle without tools. Software enables computing devices to perform many tasks. In this chapter, you learn about the primary types of software used in business: productivity software, collaboration software, and business software. This chapter covers IT Fundamentals+ Objective 3.3: Explain the purpose and proper use of software.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS PRODUCTIVITY SOFTWARE

Productivity software is a general term for software that is used to create or view information used in all types of business and home-business situations. Many of these apps are sold as suites, which are collections of productivity software from a single vendor that usually share similar menu systems, file types, and other features. A typical office productivity suite includes a word processing program, a spreadsheet program, a presentation program, and might also include other apps. Some apps are also available individually. The most popular office productivity software suite is Microsoft Office (office.microsoft.com), which is also available in subscription form as Microsoft Office 365. Other popular office productivity suites include WordPerfect Office (Corel, www.wordperfect.com) and free open source rivals Apache OpenOffice (www.openoffice.org) and LibreOffice (www.libreoffice.org).

Word Processing Software

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Word Processing Software At its most basic level, a word processing program enables the user to write, edit, and save text. A text editor such as Notepad can also perform these tasks. However, a word processing program can apply text formatting (such as bold, italic, and different fonts and font sizes), change layouts, mail-merge with external data, and save files that can be used with the same or other word processing programs or other apps. Proofing, research, markup, macro creation, and other features are often included. Support for plug-ins (small programs that add additional features) enables word processing programs to perform more tasks. WordPad, a simple word processor included with Microsoft Windows, can perform a few of these tasks. However, the text for this and all chapters in this book was produced with Microsoft Word (see Figure 18-1). Microsoft Word (also available in Microsoft Office and Office 365), Corel WordPerfect (available in WordPerfect Office), and Apache OpenOffice Writer and LibreOffice Writer are the most popular word processing programs on the market today, but additional commercial and free open source programs are available from other vendors.

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Figure 18-1 Editing a Section of This Chapter Using Microsoft Word in Office 365

Spreadsheet Software A spreadsheet program enables the user to enter numeric or text data and formulas into cells. Cells can be formatted in a variety of ways. The data in cells can also be used to create various types of charts. By altering data, various scenarios can be tested. Spreadsheet files can also be used as databases or sources for mailmerging and can be filtered to find information that matches user-defined criteria. Microsoft Office and Office 365 include Excel (also available separately), and WordPerfect Office includes Quattro Pro. Apache OpenOffice and LibreOffice include spreadsheet modules called Calc. Third-party vendors also offer commercial and free open source spreadsheet programs. Figure 18-2 shows a calculation being made using Microsoft Excel in Office 365.

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Figure 18-2 Using the SUM Function in Microsoft Excel in Office 365

Presentation Software Presentation software is used to convey information or tell a story through a combination of structured text, images, animations, and videos. Presentations can be used interactively, allowing the user to click to advance or return to a particular slide, played as a slide show that runs automatically, and saved in another format such as Adobe Reader. Office suites include presentation programs: PowerPoint is included in Microsoft Office and Office 365, Corel’s WordPerfect Office includes Presentations, and Apache OpenOffice and The Document Foundation’s LibreOffice include Impress. Third-party apps include Prezi (www.prezi.com) and Canva (www.canva.com). Figure 18-3 shows a PowerPoint presentation that contains a figure from this chapter and a callout arrow being added from the PowerPoint shapes collection.

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Figure 18-3 Adding a Callout Arrow to a Slideshow Including the Figures from This Chapter

Web Browser There are more than 1.3 billion websites on the Internet, the “network of networks.” They host billions of web pages offering information, contests, social media connections, shopping, banking, and, sadly, malware. You use a web browser to visit those websites. An unsecure connection resembles the one shown in Figure 18-4. To make changes to the browser’s normal settings, open the menu. An increasing number of websites now use secure connections to help make browsing safer. A secure browser connection is shown in Figure 18-5.

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Figure 18-4 Visiting a Website with Google Chrome

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Figure 18-5 Visiting a Secure Website with Microsoft Edge (Windows 10)

To learn more about HTTP/HTTPS and other Internet protocols, see Chapter 14, “Explain Basic Networking Concepts.” When you find a web page you want to revisit, you can bookmark it (also known as setting it as a favorite) to make it easy to return to. Web browsers also make it easy to find new websites with connections to search engines, which are websites that index web pages, images, and other content. Web browsers are included in Microsoft Windows (Edge and Internet Explorer), macOS (Safari), and Linux distributions that include a GUI (varies) as well as Android and iOS mobile operating systems. Many thirdparty web browsers are also available. Some popular choices include Google Chrome (www.google.com/chrome), Mozilla Firefox (www.mozilla.org), and Opera (www.opera.com), all of which work with Windows, macOS, and Linux. There are also many variations based on Firefox that are available for desktop and mobile operating systems.

Visual Diagramming Software

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Visual Diagramming Software If you need to create a flowchart, network diagram, electrical diagram, floor layout, or organizational chart, you will have a much easier time using a specialized diagramming program than trying to use a conventional paint or draw program such as Microsoft Paint. Visual diagramming programs include predefined shape libraries and templates, automatic connections between shapes, and connections to external data sources. Some are designed for use online. Some visual diagramming software products include Microsoft Visio (https://products.office.com/en-us/visio/flowchartsoftware), Cinergix Creately (www.creately.com), and Gliffy (www.gliffy.com). Figure 18-6 illustrates the creation of a flowchart in Visio for the author’s book PC and Gadget Help Desk.

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Figure 18-6 Creating a Troubleshooting Flowchart Using Visio

COLLABORATION SOFTWARE

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COLLABORATION SOFTWARE

Whether you work with just a handful of people or hundreds, collaboration software enables you and your co-workers to stay in touch with face-to-face, voice, or text exchanges. In the following sections, you learn more about email, conferencing, instant messaging, online workspace, and document sharing software and services. Email Client Although most email services can be used with a web browser, using only a web browser for email means that backups, encryption, and filtering are more limited or aren’t available. Most email services now enable you to use both web-based email and an email client program so you can stay in touch while online and enjoy the extra benefits of an email client. To keep you protected from harmful emails, many clients today also feature protection functions that block harmful messages and protect your system from questionable attachments. Many email clients also include calendar functions so you can use them to organize your business and personal life. Some also support hosting large attachments in cloud storage so that the recipient can

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click a link to the attachment rather than having their email box fill up with presentations, vacation photos, and videos. Email clients use protocols such as SMTP, POP3, and IMAP to send and receive mail. To learn more about these protocols, see Chapter 14. Some popular email clients include Microsoft Outlook and Windows 10 Mail (www.microsoft.com), Mozilla Thunderbird (www.thunderbird.net), and Mailbird (www.getmailbird.com). Conferencing Software Conferencing software enables workers in various places, from down the hallway to across the world, to work together in real time, to reach potential clients, or to handle sales and technical briefings. Conferencing software typically combines live text chat, live video, shared desktops, and shared programs. Some conferencing programs also support webcasts, in which the presentation is streamed to thousands of viewers and is also recorded for future viewing. A webinar, on the other hand, is for a smaller group of viewers and has similar interactive features to a conference. The vast majority of conferencing programs are commercial products using proprietary technology. Most of them support Windows, macOS, and Linux, and

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a large number have mobile apps for iOS and Android. Some examples include GotoMeeting (www.gotomeeting.com), Webex (www.webex.com), and the open source Apache OpenMeetings (openmeetings.apache.org). Instant Messaging Software Instant messaging software is perfect for connecting when email is too slow and a telephone call isn’t possible. Originally IM software was designed for text chats only, but today’s IM programs can also send and receive files, perform video chats with audio, and allow multiple users to chat with each other at the same time. Microsoft’s Skype (www.skype.com), WhatsApp (www.whatsapp.com), and Trillian (www.trillian.im) are examples of modern IM programs. Figure 18-7 illustrates a Skype text and video chat session between a Windows 10 PC and an Android smartphone. Organizations that allow users to “bring your own app” (BYOA) for instant messaging can be exposed to security risks if unauthorized data or information is transmitted. Adopting a corporate IM standard app combined with guidelines and data protection settings can help avoid IM problems.

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Figure 18-7 A Video/Text Chat Session in Skype for Windows 10

Online Workspace

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Online Workspace An online workspace is a cloud-based solution that allows users to work together by providing shared access to tasks, calendars, file storage, feedback, org charts, email, and other features. This is a relatively new category made possible by widespread broadband Internet access. Example services include Bitrix24 (www.bitrix24.com) and GlassCubes (www.glasscubes.com). Document Sharing Many organizations have relied on email for sending and receiving documents. However, email often has limits on file size and mailbox size, and if a document needs to be accessed by more than one person, the email must be sent and resent, making version management difficult. Many individuals and organizations now use documentsharing services. Some of these services provide a limited amount of cloud-based storage for free, offer subscriptions for additional space, and provide easy access for different users to specific folders. Most use a simple drag-and-drop method for transferring files and can be integrated with the file management utility in the operating system. Popular document-sharing services that offer free and

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subscription services include Microsoft OneDrive (onedrive.live.com), Dropbox (www.dropbox.com), and Google Docs (docs.google.com). Google Docs is a popular choice because it combines document sharing with word processing (see Figure 18-8), spreadsheets (Sheets), and presentations (Slides). Subscription-only services include Tresorit (https://tresorit.com) and Tonido FileCloud (www.tonido.com). These services typically support Windows, macOS, iOS, and Android, and some also support Linux. App and browser interfaces vary by program.

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Figure 18-8 Creating a New Document in Google Docs

To protect your documents, make sure you use strong passwords for your accounts and share files only with trustworthy users.

BUSINESS SOFTWARE

Business software is software used by businesses to perform business-related functions. Types of business software include database software, project management software, business-specific applications, and accounting software. Learn more about these apps in the following sections. Database Software Database software stores information in a structure that allows searching, filtering, printing, exporting, and queries. Unlike spreadsheets, database software includes data entry screens and report functions and allows multiple users to access the same data simultaneously. Office suites including database software include Apache OpenOffice (Base), LibreOffice (Base), Microsoft Office Professional (Access), Corel WordPerfect Office Professional (Paradox), and some

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editions of Microsoft Office 365 (Access). Figure 18-9 illustrates a typical data entry screen in Microsoft Access.

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Figure 18-9 Entering Data into a Microsoft Access Database

An example of a standalone app is FileMaker Pro Advanced (www.filemaker.com, for macOS, Windows; other FileMaker products for mobile and browser). SQL (Structured Query Language) is the leading query language for databases, and it’s available for many platforms from many vendors: MariaDB (an open source adaptation [fork] of MySQL for Windows and Linux) is available from mariadb.org SQL Server 2017 from Microsoft is available for Linux, Docker (a software containerization technology, www.docker.com), macOS, Windows, and Azure (cloud computing platform): https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/sql-server/sql-serverdownloads. Oracle offers a wide variety of SQL apps (https://www.oracle.com/index.html).

Project Management Software

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Project Management Software Project management software enables organizations to plan, track, schedule, and manage the human and material resources needed for a particular project. Project management software runs on desktop computers or is web-based using SaaS. To learn more about SaaS, see Chapter 19, “Getting Apps from Source to Your Device.” Examples of apps/services include Microsoft Project (software and online, www.microsoft.com) and Asana (www.asana.com, browser). Typical output includes Gantt charts (see Figure 18-10) and activity-on-node diagrams.

Figure 18-10 A Gantt Chart Displays the Duration of Assigned

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Tasks in a Project and the Progress of Each Task (Shown Here in Excel).

Many project management cloud-based services feature integration with Office 365, Google G Suite, and other types of apps. Business-Specific Applications

Business-specific applications are software programs written to meet the specific requirements of a specific type of business. Here are a few examples of these types of apps: Electronic medical record (EMR) software: Manages patient records as well as tracks treatments, medical history, prescriptions, and more. Apps include Epic (www.epic.com) and McKesson EMR (www.mckesson.com). Document management: Converts paper documents into electronic records as well as provides search and retrieval tools. Apps include OnlyOffice (www.onlyoffice.com) and Microsoft SharePoint Online (www.microsoft.com). Employee scheduling: Enables efficient use of employee resources, vacation management, and staffing to meet demand. Typical output includes calen-dars. Apps include OpenSimSim (www.opensimsim.com) and TSheets (www.tsheets.com). Resource management: Enables organizations to match and manage resources to meet specific needs. Similar in some ways to project management. Apps include Float (www.float.com) and LiquidPlanner (www.liquidplanner.com). Supply chain management: Enables organizations to track the

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transformation of raw materials into finished goods. Apps include Oracle NetSuite (www.oracle.com) and Unleashed (www.unleashedsoftware.com). Point-of-sale (POS) system: Enables organizations to handle retail payments electronically and interface with accounting and inventory management software. Apps include AIMsi (www.technology4retailers.com) and Korona (www.koronapos.com).

Accounting Software Businesses of all sizes use accounting software to record income and expenses. Accounting software for small businesses is typically limited to general ledger (GL), accounts payable (AP), accounts receivable (AR), payroll (PR), and trial balance. Accounting software for larger businesses may also include support for point-of-sale, customer relationship management (CRM), human resource management, inventory, and resource management software. Accounting apps for small/medium businesses include QuickBooks (quickbooks.com) and LedgerSMB (ledgersmb.org).

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EXAM PREPARATION TOPICS REVIEW TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 18-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

Table 18-1 Key Topics for Chapter 18

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

paragraph

Productivity Software

397

paragraph

Collaborative Software

403

paragraph

Business Software

406

List

Business-Specific Applications

409

DEFINE KEY TERMS Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary:

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Productivity software collaboration software business software

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 3.3 1. Your client has asked you to recommend a software program with support for GL, AR, AP, and PR. Which of the following are you looking for? 1. Spreadsheet 2. Accounting 3. Presentation 4. Supply chain management

2. You are preparing an organization chart for a proposed business reorganization. Which of the following types of apps are designed to do this? 1. Paint 2. Collaboration 3. Visual diagramming 4. Office suite

3. Your client has sent over a Gantt chart. Which type of app produced it? 1. EMR 2. Project management 3. Accounting

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4. Employee scheduling

4. Your client is downsizing to a smaller office but has many years of paper records that need to be accessed quickly when needed. Which type of software should you discuss with your client? 1. Word processing 2. Resource management 3. Database 4. Document management

5. Your client’s staff is having a difficult time in correctly entering names and addresses into a spreadsheet for use in mailing. Which of the following types of software would make this easier? 1. Document management 2. Database 3. Document sharing 4. Instant messaging

6. Your client needs to have face-to-face, real-time connections with sales staff on a one-to-one basis. Which of the following types of apps would be best for this task? 1. Instant messaging 2. Database 3. Document sharing 4. Email client

7. A friend has asked you to put together a slide show

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for a graduation using only free software. Which of the following would be a suitable choice? 1. Microsoft PowerPoint 2. LibreOffice 3. Thunderbird 4. Skype

8. You are working with a web designer who wants to ensure that the website will work well for an office that uses Linux, macOS, and Windows. Which of the following browsers would you recommend the office use as standard? 1. Firefox 2. Edge 3. Navigator 4. Safari

9. Your client needs a common way for the office personnel to make their schedules available to other users. Which of the following types of apps also contain calendar support? 1. Word processing 2. Email 3. Conferencing 4. Document sharing

10. Your client needs to make about 1GB worth of files available at all times to a team whose members live in various cities. Which of the following is the least-

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expensive solution? 1. Document management 2. Accounting 3. Point-of-sale 4. Document sharing

11. You are making a presentation to a potential client who has the following needs: real-time team access to tasks, calendars, email, and file storage. The team members live in various locations. You are going to recommend which solution? 1. Office suite 2. Online workspace 3. Document sharing 4. Instant messaging

12. Your client has been trying to determine the best salary and bonus combination for a sales force by running reports in a database program. Which of the following would enable your client to see different scenarios that can be quickly changed? 1. Scheduling 2. Spreadsheet 3. Web browser 4. Supply chain management

13. Your client has been trying to build a flowchart using a presentation program but is frustrated with the results. Which type of program is a better

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choice? 1. Spreadsheet 2. Gantt chart creator 3. Database 4. Visual diagramming

14. Your client has just attempted to upload a large file to Dropbox and was unable to do so. Which of the following would help? 1. Using a different email client 2. Upgrading the document-sharing plan 3. Converting the file using a spreadsheet program 4. Turning it into a presentation

15. Your client has used a spreadsheet program for years to manage a mailing list. However, there are now many more customers, and only one person at a time can enter data. Which of the following would allow multiple people to enter data? 1. EMR 2. Resource management 3. Supply chain management 4. Database

16. Your client is not allowed to bring removablemedia storage into a bank where spreadsheet training will take place. However, Internet access is available. Which of the following can be used to make sure everyone has the practice files needed?

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1. Document management 2. Document sharing 3. Project management 4. Database

17. Your client is considering a cloud-based Software as a Service solution but has some workers with slow or spotty Internet access. Which of the following would be good advice? 1. Don’t use a cloud-based solution. 2. Use a solution that has client apps for each device. 3. Use a solution that has both cloud and client apps. 4. Upgrade everyone’s Internet access.

18. Your client is changing their business to become a retailer and a manufacturer. Which two types of apps would you recommend they consider? 1. Point-of-sale and document management 2. Supply chain management and resource management 3. Employee scheduling and document management 4. Point-of-sale and supply chain management

19. You have created a document, embedded quarterly sales figures on page 4, and built a slide show featuring pie and bar charts based on those sales figures. Which of the following did you use? 1. Web browser 2. Conferencing software 3. Office suite 4. EMR

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20. You are advising a doctor’s office that is automating its operations to add which of the following? 1. Point-of-sale system 2. Online workspace 3. EMR 4. Document sharing

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) In this chapter, you have taken a whirlwind tour of different types of software you might encounter in your work. What’s next? Look at software-specific certifications if you find yourself drawn to a particular vendor or type of software. For example, Microsoft offers various Microsoft Office Specialist (MOS) certifications for the major components of Microsoft Office (https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/learning/moscertification.aspx), and Oracle offers certification in its database and other technologies (education.oracle.com). Contact the vendor(s) of the programs you are most interested in mastering and find out what the next steps would be.

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Chapter 19 Getting Apps From Source to Your Device How are applications delivered to a system? What is the difference between a one-tier and a three-tier application architecture? These are a couple of the questions you explore in this chapter, which covers Comp TIA IT Fundamentals+ Applications and Software Objective 3.4: Explain methods of application architecture and delivery models.

FOUNDATION TOPICS APPLICATION DELIVERY METHODS A computer, tablet, or smartphone must have access to applications (software) before it can be useful. Applications can be delivered in a variety of ways and may require different levels of access to the Internet or other resources before they can be used.

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Locally Installed A locally installed application is one that does not require any outside resources after it is installed. The installation files might come from a local storage device such as a CD or DVD optical disc or a downloadable file, but after the installation is complete, the application is ready to run.

The characteristics of a locally installed app include the following: Network not required: After initial installation, the application does not need network access. Many apps prefer network access to validate a product key or license key, but there are typically alternatives such as telephone validation to enable an application to run if network access is not available. Application exists locally: The application files are stored on a drive that is connected to the computer. Typically, applications are stored on the system drive—the hard drive or solid-state drive (SSD) that is built into the computer. In Windows, this is referred to as the C: drive. However, some operating systems have provisions to use an additional drive connected to the system. Files saved locally: The application is designed to save files to local storage. Most locally installed applications can also save files to network storage as an option.

Typical locally installed apps include office suites, photo-editing and video-editing apps, and games.

Local Network Hosted

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Local Network Hosted

A local-network-hosted application is one that is installed on a local network (LAN). Its characteristics include the following: Network required: If a network connection is not available, the application cannot run. Internet access not required: Although the application needs a network connection, it does not need Internet access.

Windows applications that are installed on a server and accessed by clients running Remote Desktop Services are examples of local-network-hosted applications. Cloud Hosted

With the rise of mobile devices in business, cloudhosted apps (also known as Software as a Service, or SaaS) have become extremely popular. What are the key features of a cloud-hosted app? Internet access required: Because the app is on the Internet, your device must have Internet access to run. Service required: Y ou must have a subscription to the cloudhosted service to use it. The service might be free or cost money, but without a subscription to the service, it’s not available to you. Files saved in the cloud: Cloud-hosted services save files to the

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cloud. With many apps, you can also download your files, but the default location for the files is the cloud.

Some examples of cloud-hosted applications include Google Docs and Microsoft Office web apps (Word, Excel, and PowerPoint). Browser-delivered apps from other vendors are also examples of cloud-hosted apps. Microsoft Office web apps and Google Docs automatically save files to the cloud as you work. Figure 19-1 illustrates the File dialog from Microsoft Office’s Word web app.

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Figure 19-1 Microsoft Word Web App Offers Options to Save a File Under a New Name or Download the File to Y our System.

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Two other types of hosted services include Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). PaaS vendors provide cloud access to the equipment and development tools needed for vendors to create and deploy software. IaaS vendors provide cloud access to data center infrastructure, software, and services.

APPLICATION ARCHITECTURE MODELS The phrase “application architecture models” refers to how the essential parts of an application are connected to each other. The essential parts of any application are as follows: Presentation: The application’s user interface (menus, look and feel) Logic (programming): The portion of the application that takes input from the presentation layer and uses it to create or manage data Data: Information created or used by the application

Depending on the application, additional parts (layers) may also be introduced between the programming and data layers. The terms one-tier, two-tier, three-tier, and n-tier for applications refer to how the different layers are organized and stored on a computer or network. These relate to the application delivery methods discussed earlier.

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One Tier One-tier architecture has presentation, logic, and data layers all stored in the same location. A locally installed application is an example of a one-tier app. Two Tier Two-tier architecture uses two devices, such as a computer and a server for its layers. For example, in a two-tier application such as a local-network-hosted application, the presentation layer runs on a computer (one tier). The programming and data layers run on a server (second tier). Three Tier Three-tier architecture (shown in Figure 19-2) uses three layers that are typically hosted on different devices, such as a computer and two servers. For example, a cloud-hosted app uses the following tiers (layers): The presentation tier is run on a computer, tablet, or smartphone. This can also be referred to as the client layer. The programming (logic) tier is run on an application server in the cloud. The data tier is stored on a file server in the cloud.

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Figure 19-2 A Conceptual Diagram of a Three-Tier Application Architecture

Cloud-hosted apps such as Google Docs use three-tier application architecture: Tier one is the Google Docs web page, as presented on a computer or mobile device. Tier two is the Google Docs application running on a Google Docs application server. Tier three is Google Drive cloud storage for Google Docs files.

N-Tier

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N-Tier An n-tier architecture uses more than three layers and is frequently used for database applications. For example, an n-tier architecture used for a database app might have the following layers:

Tier one: The presentation layer running on a computer or mobile device Tier two: The logic (programming) layer running on a server Tier three: The data access layer running on another server Tier four: The database layer running on a database server

N-tier application architecture also works well in environments where the use of multiple logical (virtualized) or physical servers can improve performance.

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS Review All Key Topics Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 19-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 19-1 Key Topics for Chapter 19

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

List

Characteristics of a locally installed app

417

List

Characteristics of a local network hosted app

418

List

Characteristics of a cloud hosted app

418

Paragraph

One-tier, two-tier, three-tier, and n-tier architecture

419

Figure 19-2

A conceptual diagram of a three-tier application architecture

420

List

n-tier architecture layers

421

Define Key Terms Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: locally-installed application local network hosted application cloud hosted

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one-tier two-tier three-tier n-tier

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 3.4 1. Your client wants to move the database application from a local drive to a network drive. This is an example of a(n) _________ application. 1. N-tier 2. Cloud-hosted 3. Wireless 4. Local-network-hosted

2. Google Docs is an example of a __________ application. 1. Remote Desktop Services 2. One-tier 3. Cloud-hosted 4. Local-network-hosted

3. In a three-tier application architecture example, which device runs the presentation layer? 1. File server 2. Client computer 3. Application server

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4. Cloud server

4. A locally installed application is an example of which application architecture? 1. N-tier 2. One tier 3. Three tier 4. Two tier

5. In an n-tier environment used for a database, which of the following is the correct sequence for the tiers? 1. 1 Data access, 2 Presentation, 3 Logic, 4 Database 2. 1 Presentation, 2 Logic, 3 Data access, 4 Database 3. 1 Logic, 2 Database, 3 Data access, 4 Presentation 4. 1 Database, 2 Logic, 3 Data access, 4 Presentation

6. In a three-tier application architecture, which tier is used for data? 1. Tier 1 2. Tier 3 3. Tier 2 4. N-tier

7. Which of the following must you do before you can connect to a cloud-hosted application? 1. Configure your router to allow access. 2. Decide which application architecture the application uses. 3. Subscribe to the service. 4. Invite other users to sign up for the service.

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8. You are using an app. When the network goes down, you can’t access the files you have on a network drive, but you can still open files stored on a thumb drive. Which of the following terms best describes your app? 1. One-tier architecture 2. Local network hosted 3. Cloud hosted 4. N-tier architecture

9. Your company has just changed to a different type of application access that requires you to use Remote Desktop Services to run the app. Which of the following terms best describes your new configuration? 1. Cloud hosted 2. Three tier application architecture 3. Local network hosted 4. N-tier application architecture

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YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) If you’re serious about digging into application architecture, you need to have a firm grasp of enterprise computing first. Start with the CompTIA Network+ and Security+ certifications, and then look into building your business skills as well as your IT skills. Some certifications to consider include CompTIA’s Cloud+ (https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/cloud), Amazon Web Services Certified Solutions Architect – Associate (https://aws.amazon.com/certification/certifiedsolutions-architect-associate/), and Microsoft cloud certifications: MTA: Certification in cloud platform and infrastructure, MCSA: Cloud Platform, and MCSE: Cloud Platform and Infrastructure (https://www.microsoft.com/enus/learning/certification-overview.aspx#/). Enterprise Architecture requires a combination of technology, interpersonal, and business skills. For more information, see https://www.quora.com/What-skillsare-specific-to-Enterprise-Architect-role and https://www.cutter.com/article/10-key-skillsenterprise-architects-must-have-deliver-value-469471.

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Chapter 20 Configuring and Using Web Browsers As more apps are run from the cloud rather than local or network locations, web browsers have become vital application tools. Maintaining browser security and performance settings are important skills to understand. This chapter covers IT Fundamentals+ Objective 3.5, which covers browser configuration settings.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS CACHING/CLEARING CACHE Browser caching is a feature that enables a web browser to display already-viewed content much more quickly when you visit the page again. Here’s how it works: When you open a web page, your browser stores a copy of the page elements that usually don’t change very often (scripts, images, banners, and so on). Click to another page, and then click back to the first page, and the page you returned to opens very quickly because the browser is using cached page elements. Normally, this process works very well. However, if a web page has major changes right after you first view it, the browser might be displaying out-of-date information. To ensure that your browser is displaying the latest page, you can clear the browser cache. The browser cache (also known as cached data and files or cached images and files) is one of several items you can clear when you select the option to clear browsing data. Here’s how to get to the browser cache settings in several popular browsers.

Google Chrome

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Google Chrome To clear the cache, click the three-dot menu button, More Tools, Clear browsing data…. The Clear browsing data, Basic dialog (shown in Figure 20-1) lets you select the time period to clear and what to clear. Cached images and files is selected by default. Click the Advanced tab to choose additional items and see details. Click Clear Data to clear selected information.

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Figure 20-1 Clear Browsing Data Menus in Google Chrome (Left) and Microsoft Edge (Right)

Microsoft Edge

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Microsoft Edge To clear the cache, click the three-dot menu button, Settings, Choose what to clear (Clear browsing data). Click Clear to clear the selected items (see Figure 20-1). Mozilla Firefox To clear the cache, click the three-line menu button, Options, Privacy & Security. To choose what to clear, click Clear History. Select the time range to clear. Click the Details arrow to choose what to clear (see Figure 20-2). Click Clear Now.

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Figure 20-2 Clear Browsing Data Menus in Mozilla Firefox (Left) and Microsoft Internet Explorer (Right)

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Microsoft Internet Explorer To clear the cache, click the gear (settings) icon, then click Safety. Click Delete Browsing History. By default, temporary Internet and website files, cookies and website data, and history will be deleted. Favorite website data will be kept. Make any changes desired and then click Delete (see Figure 20-2).

DEACTIVATE CLIENT-SIDE SCRIPTING Browser pages can use two types of scripts. Server-side (back-end) scripts perform tasks at the server, such as creating dynamic HTML pages. Client-side scripts are used to process user input and are usually written in JavaScript. Client-side scripts can be a security risk, so browsers have options to deactivate client-side scripts, including settings and add-ons. The following sections provide details for managing JavaScript settings in leading browsers. Note Changing browser settings is awkward if you have websites you depend on that must use client-side scripting. I recommend using extensions and plug-ins for greater control over scripting.

Google Chrome

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Google Chrome

In Google Chrome, open Settings, Advanced Settings, Privacy & Security, Content Settings and then select JavaScript. You can allow or block JavaScript by specifying websites or you can block all websites from using JavaScript. Mozilla Firefox In Mozilla Firefox, enter about:config into the navigation window and click I accept the risk to continue. Search for javascript.enabled. Right-click the line and select Toggle to turn it off. Microsoft Edge Current versions of Windows 10 do not include any built-in options for disabling scripting in Microsoft Edge (the default browser). However, you can use a script blocker add-on.

Microsoft Internet Explorer

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Microsoft Internet Explorer In Internet Explorer, you can set different zones to have different security options. To start, click the gear icon or open the Tools menu, and then click Internet Options. Click the Security tab and then click the zone to change, typically the Internet zone. Click Custom level. To change scripting settings, scroll down to the Scripting section and select Active scripting. Click Disable to disable all scripting. To enable all scripting, click Enable. To be prompted when a page has a script, click Prompt. Click OK, then OK again on the next dialog to close the window.

BROWSER ADD-ONS/EXTENSIONS Browser add-ons and extensions enable users to customize a browser’s features and add additional options. Browser add-ons and extensions can be used to disable potentially dangerous scripts. However, there are many more possibilities, especially for Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Internet Explorer. Microsoft Edge only offers about a hundred—a far smaller number than Chrome, Firefox, or Internet Explorer. Exactly what you can do with your browser with extensions varies, but there are plenty of options. Here are a few of the extension categories available for

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Google Chrome: Blogging News & Weather Photos Search Tools

For a complete list, visit https://chrome.google.com/webstore/category/extensions. And here are few of the extension categories available for Mozilla Firefox: Download management Photos, music, and videos Shopping Privacy & security

For a complete list, visit https://addons.mozilla.org/enUS/firefox/extensions/. To see the extensions available for Microsoft Edge from Microsoft, visit https://www.microsoft.com/enus/store/collections/edgeextensions/pc (additional extensions may be available from third parties). To see the extensions available from Microsoft for Internet Explorer, see https://www.microsoft.com/enus/IEGallery. Third-party extensions are also available from other vendors.

Add

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Add To add an extension, open a web browser and navigate to its extension website. Search for or browse to locate the extension you want and then click it. With Chrome, click + ADD TO CHROME to install it; then follow the prompts to finish the process. With Firefox, click +Add to Firefox to install it. With Microsoft Edge, click Get the app to install it. With Internet Explorer, click Add and then follow the prompts to finish the process. Enable/Disable After you install an extension, you may need to enable it before you can use it. Google Chrome enables extensions automatically. If you need to disable an extension, click the three-dot menu button, click More tools, Extensions, and then slide its control to the left. To enable a disabled extension, slide its control to the right. Mozilla Firefox also enables extensions automatically. If you need to disable an extension, click the three-line menu button, click Add-ons, and click its Disable button. To enable a disabled extension, click Enable. Microsoft Edge does not enable newly installed extensions automatically. After you install an extension, Edge prompts you to turn it on or keep it off (see Figure 20-3). To disable an installed extension, click the three-

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dot menu button, click Extensions, click the extension, and slide the control to Off.

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Figure 20-3 Installing an Extension in Microsoft Edge

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To manage installed extensions in Internet Explorer, click the gear (Settings) button or open the Tools menu and click Manage add-ons. Currently loaded toolbars and extensions are shown first. To see all add-ons, select that option from the Show menu at the lower left. To enable a disabled extension, click it, then right-click it and choose Enable. To disable an enabled extension, click it, then right-click it and choose Disable. Remove If you decide a particular extension isn’t what you want to use, you can remove it. To remove an extension in Google Chrome or Mozilla Firefox, open the extension dialog and click the extension’s Remove button. To remove an extension in Microsoft Edge, open the extension dialog, click the extension to remove, and click Uninstall. To remove an extension in Internet Explorer, double-click it and click Remove from the More information dialog. If the Remove option is not available, use the Add/Remove Programs dialog in Control Panel to uninstall it. You might need to close and restart your browser to complete the process. With some browsers, you must enable an extension before you can remove or uninstall it.

PRIVATE BROWSING

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PRIVATE BROWSING Normal web browsing is an open book to anyone who wants to know where you’ve been on the Internet. Browsers record the websites you visit, so if you’re trying to surprise your loved ones with a surprise vacation, don’t let them use your account login, or they can see what you’re up to. Private browsing prevents your browser from recording browser history, storing searches, storing cookies (which are used by advertisers to track your activity), and saving temporary files. However, private browsing does not prevent your activity from being visible to corporate monitoring (if you use a corporate computer) or your Internet service provider. Downloads and bookmarks will be saved (see Figure 20-4).

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Figure 20-4 An Incognito (Private Browsing) Window in Google Chrome

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In Google Chrome, this feature is called Incognito. Click the three-dot menu button and select New incognito window to start. In Mozilla Firefox, start Private Browsing by clicking the three-line menu button and selecting New Private Window (see Figure 20-5). In Microsoft Edge, click the three-dot menu button and click New InPrivate Window. With Internet Explorer, open the Safety menu or click the gear (menu) button and select Safety, then click InPrivate Browsing.

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Figure 20-5 Preparing to Open a New Private Window in Mozilla Firefox

When you are finished with private browsing, close all private browsing windows and tabs.

PROXY SETTINGS Many corporate networks do not permit direct access to the Internet for web browsing or other web-based activities. To preserve bandwidth, help protect against hostile inbound web traffic, or to filter Internet traffic, proxy servers are used to capture outbound and inbound traffic. If a web browser on the network requests a page, the proxy server checks to see if an updated copy of the page is already in its web page storage. If it is, the proxy server’s copy of the web page is sent as a response. If not, the proxy server updates its copy and then sends an updated copy. Web browsers must be configured to use proxy servers. Many networks provide a proxy script at login to make these settings for network users. However, you can also set the proxy server values manually or specify the location for a proxy script the system needs to load. Proxy server settings are also used by other types of web-enabled software, including instant messaging apps and FTP apps.

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There are typically four proxy settings that can be used. Depending on the network, all proxy servers might use the same setting or might use different settings:

HTTP proxy: Used for web browsers. SSL proxy: Used for Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encrypted web traffic. FTP proxy: Used for File Transfer Protocol. SOCKS Host: Used for socket secure connections for exchanging network packets. The user may be prompted to select the version of SOCKS Host to use.

Figure 20-6 shows a typical manual proxy server setup for Mozilla Firefox. Other browsers have similar dialogs.

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Figure 20-6 Proxy Server Dialog for Mozilla Firefox

Do not configure a proxy server manually unless your network manager or your ISP directs you to do so. If a proxy server is needed, you will be given specific settings to make.

CERTIFICATES Security certificates are used by secure websites to verify that these websites can be trusted. Certificates are provided by companies known as certificate authorities (CAs), and the certificates are provided to your web browser. To see the certificate for a secure site, click the padlock and then click the Certificate link (see Figure 20-7) to view the certificate information (refer to Figure 20-8).

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Figure 20-7 Secure Connection Information for a Banking Website

Valid A valid certificate is a certificate that is issued by a recognized certificate authority for the company that owns the website and has a current date range (see Figure 20-8).

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Figure 20-8 A Valid Certificate for a Banking Website

Invalid An invalid certificate has one or more of the problems shown in Table 20-1.

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Table 20-1 Invalid Certificate Issues

Problem

Meaning

Error Code*

Expired

Certificates are good for a specified date range. If you visit a secure website after the date range on the certificate, the certificate is expired.

ERR_CERT_DATE_INVALID C

The certificate being used by a website does not match the name of the owner. This can indicate the certificate is being used fraudulently.

ERR_CERT_COMMON_NAME_INVALID C

Wrong host

SEC_ERROR_EXPIRED_CERTIFICATE F DLG_FLAGS_SEC_CERT_DATE_INVALID E,I

SSL_ERROR_BAD_CERT_DOMAIN F DLG_FLAGS_SEC_CERT_CN_INVALID E,I

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Selfsigned

Website used a self-signed certificate, not a certificate from a certificate authority.

ERR_CERT_AUTHORITY _INVALID C

Untrusted root certificate

The issuer certificate is unknown.

Same error messages as self-signed.

Revoked

Certificate revoked by certificate authority.

Refer to Figure 20-9.

SEC_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ISSUER F DLG_FLAGS_INVALID_CA E,I

*C = Google Chrome, F = Mozilla Firefox, E = Microsoft Edge, I = Internet Explorer

To see safe examples of these and other secure website errors, visit badssl.com and click a Certificate link. Figure 20-9 illustrates how Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge display a Revoked error.

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Figure 20-9 Revoked Certificate Errors as Displayed by Leading Browsers

POPUP BLOCKERS A popup is a small browser window that shows up in front of all other open browser windows. Popups have been used for advertisements as well as fake virus infection scares, but they are sometimes used for mapping and other desirable content. Current browsers are designed to block popups by default. When a website displays a popup, the user is prompted to decide what to do. Figure 20-10 displays the prompts for Chrome, Firefox, and Edge. If you choose the option to allow popups from a particular website, you can view and manage the list of allowed websites.

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Figure 20-10 Popup Dialogs from Chrome, Firefox, and Edge Browsers

To manage popup settings with Chrome, click the

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Manage button or open settings/content/popups. To manage popups with Firefox, click the Edit Pop-up Blocker Options or open the Preferences: Privacy & Security menu. To manage popups with Microsoft Edge, you must use the Windows Registry Editor. See details at the answers.microsoft.com website. I have shortened the URL for you: https://bit.ly/2J12JEC. Caution Editing the Registry is potentially dangerous. Be sure to make a backup copy of the Registry before you make any changes. A good visual guide to backing up the Registry and using the Registry Editor is available at https://www.wikihow.com/Edit-the-Windows-Registry.

SCRIPT BLOCKERS Although you can stop JavaScript scripts with built-in settings in web browsers, this is awkward when you need to allow some scripts and block others. Google Chrome offers extensions such as ScriptSafe and Script Blocker. These and others are available from the Chrome Web Store. Firefox can use add-ons such as NoScript Security Suite and uBlock Origin. These and others are available from the Firefox Add-ons website. The Microsoft Store’s Extensions for Microsoft Edge website includes several ad blockers and the script manager uBlock Origin.

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Note To learn more about browser extensions, see “Browser AddOns/Extensions” earlier in this chapter.

COMPATIBLE BROWSER FOR APPLICATION(S) Although current browsers are designed to more strictly follow web standards, many websites have been tested with specific browsers or may be optimized for certain browsers only. Figure 20-11 illustrates a typical compatibility statement from a web-based app (Gliffy diagram creator). If you are unable to use your browser with a particular website, check the following: Check your browser version against the website’s list of approved browsers. Make sure you are using the latest version of the browser. Turn off any script blocker software.

Caution A “WARNING: Your current browser is Outdated!” message and clickable link can be used to trick users into installing malware. If you need to update your browser, visit the browser vendor’s official download website. Don’t click a link; instead, close the browser window.

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Figure 20-11 Tested Browsers and Versions from the Gliffy Website

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Some applications that work with browsers will work only with certain browser versions. In other words, it is sometimes necessary to ask, “Is my browser compatible with my app?” Internet Explorer includes a Compatibility View setting that can be used to enable it to display pages that were designed for older versions of IE. To learn more, see https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/17472/windows-internet-explorer-11-fix-sitedisplay-problems-compatibility-v. If you need compatibility with older versions of thirdparty browsers, you can usually download older versions of the browser from the vendor’s website.

EXAM PREPARATION TASKS REVIEW ALL KEY TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 20-2 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 20-2 Key Topics for Chapter 20

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Figure 201

Clear browsing data menus in Google Chrome (left) and Microsoft Edge (right).

428

Paragraph

Allow or block JavaScript in Google Chrome.

430

Figure 203

Installing an extension in Microsoft Edge.

432

Figure 204

An Incognito (private browsing) window in Google Chrome.

433

List

Proxy settings.

435

Figure 208

A valid certificate for a banking website.

437

Table 20-1

Invalid Certificate Issues.

437

Figure 2010

Popup dialogs from Chrome, Firefox, and Edge browsers.

439

Figure 2011

Tested browsers and versions from the Gliffy website.

441

DEFINE KEY TERMS

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DEFINE KEY TERMS Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: browser caching client-side scripts add-ons and extensions private browsing proxy server proxy settings certificate invalid certificate pop-up popup blocker script blocker

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 3.5 1. Your web browser is still showing an old logo on a website you visit every day. Which of the following is a good solution? 1. Deactivate client-side scripting. 2. Clear cache. 3. Install an add-on.

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4. Remove an extension.

2. You are preparing a surprise party for a co-worker who shares your computer. How can you hide your searches? 1. Clear cache. 2. Turn on proxy settings. 3. Refuse security certificates. 4. Use private browsing.

3. You are using your company’s in-house wireless network and its security certificate has expired. What should you do? 1. Run anti-malware software on your computer. 2. Call the IT department. 3. Do nothing. 4. Tell your co-workers the wireless network has been hacked.

4. You are making reservations for a trip, and every time you want to finish a reservation, your browser tells you it has blocked a popup. Which of the following is the best way to deal with this issue? 1. Use a different web browser. 2. Accept popups for the site. 3. Disable popup blocking. 4. Call the hotel to make a reservation.

5. You want to demonstrate what certificate errors look like to your co-workers. What should you do? 1. Search for news stories about fake websites and navigate to them.

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2. Disable your computer’s security certificates. 3. Hope you find a certificate error so you can screen-capture it. 4. Go to badssl.com.

6. A co-worker has accidentally enabled popups for a website that must be visited frequently but whose popups are just annoying. The browser is Microsoft Edge. What do you do to remove that website from the allowed list? 1. Download NoScript. 2. Use Registry Editor. 3. Edit Privacy & Security settings. 4. Use settings/content/popups to make changes.

7. A website you visit has a security certificate, but the certificate was not issued by a certificate authority. Which of the following messages will be displayed by your browser? 1. NET::ERR_CERT_AUTHORITY _INVALID 2. NET::ERR_CERT_COMMON_NAME_INVALID 3. NET::ERR_SSL_PINNED_KEY _NOT_IN_CERT_CHAIN 4. NET::ERR_CERT_DATE_INVALID

8. You are trying to log in to an ecommerce website you use frequently. You have recently installed some browser extensions and suspect one of them might be causing problems. Which of the following types of extensions would you disable first? 1. Translation 2. Popup blocker

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3. Script blocker 4. Screen capture

9. You have just installed an extension in Microsoft Edge. Which of the following best describes how it works? 1. It is automatically enabled. 2. Y ou are prompted to turn it on. 3. Y ou must enable scripting to make it work. 4. Y ou must set up a proxy for the extension.

10. You are visiting a website and a “WARNING: Your current browser is Outdated!” message appears. What should you do? 1. Click the link to get a new version of your browser. 2. Close the window. 3. Ignore the message. 4. Switch to a different browser.

11. Which of the following is not true about private browsing? 1. Does not store bookmarks 2. Does not keep a record of searches 3. Does not save temporary files 4. Does not store cookies

12. When you connect to your corporate network, your connection uses a proxy server, but when you connect to your home network, your connection does not use a proxy server. It’s not necessary for

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you to change proxy settings when you change networks. Which of the following explains why? 1. Y our system is using NoScript. 2. A proxy script is used by your corporate network. 3. The system ignores proxy settings when on the home network. 4. Y our system has an extension to handle changed settings.

13. You need to disable client-side scripting in Microsoft Edge. Which of the following methods will work? 1. Disable JavaScript in Content Settings. 2. Toggle JavaScript off in config. 3. Disable JavaScript proxy. 4. Use script blocker.

14. You are providing telephone support for a client who wants to plan a surprise party and wants to use private browsing. The client is using Google Chrome. Which of the following do you tell them to use? 1. InPrivate 2. Private 3. NoScript 4. Incognito

15. Your client has installed an extension that is causing problems on some websites but is useful on others. Your client can have only one browser installed on their system. How would you advise

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them to handle this issue? 1. Remove the extension and add it as needed. 2. Set up a proxy for certain websites. 3. Disable client-side scripting. 4. Disable the extension and enable it as needed.

16. Your client has just taken over a website from a different firm and has not yet arranged for new security certificates. Visitors to the website might see which of the following errors? 1. NET::ERR_CERT_AUTHORITY _INVALID 2. NET::ERR_CERT_COMMON_NAME_INVALID 3. NET::ERR_SSL_PINNED_KEY _NOT_IN_CERT_CHAIN 4. NET::ERR_CERT_DATE_INVALID

17. What does a proxy server do first when a web browser on the network requests a page? 1. Adds page to allowed list 2. Checks to see if an updated copy of the page is already stored 3. Updates its copy of the page and then sends an updated copy 4. Searches for a javascript.enabled setting

18. If you are unable to use your browser with a particular website, which of the following should you do? 1. Check your browser version against the website’s list of approved browsers. 2. Make sure you are using the latest version of the browser. 3. Turn off any script blocker software. 4. All of the above.

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19. Your client calls on Saturday and asks how to view certificate information for a secure site. What should you tell them? 1. Click the padlock, then click the Certificate link to view the certificate. 2. Only certificate authorities can view certificate information. 3. Press Ctrl+Alt+Del and select Certificate Manager. 4. Certificate information can only be viewed Monday through Friday.

20. How do you enable a disabled extension in Google Chrome? 1. Click the three-dot menu button, click Extensions, click the extension, and slide the control to on. 2. Click the three-line menu button, click Add-ons, and click its Enable button. 3. Click the three-dot menu button, click More tools, Extensions, and slide its control to the left. 4. Click the three-dot menu button, click More tools, Extensions, and slide its control to the right.

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) If you want to concentrate on web security in your IT career, there are several certifications to consider. . CompTIA’s Security+ certificate is a popular credential. Learn more at https://certification.comptia.org/certifications/security.

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The Certified Internet Web Professional (CIW) certifications are designed specifically for Internetfocused IT personnel. Information on the CIW Web Security certifications is available at https://www.ciwcertified.com/ciw-certifications/websecurity-series. If you want to develop apps for Google, mobile web, or Android, check out the Google Developers Certification page at https://developers.google.com/training/certification/.

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Chapter 21 Compare and Contrast General Application Concepts and Uses Regardless of the type of software you or your organization use, from operating systems to office suites, understanding software platforms, license agreements, and installation best practices is essential to making wise choices and using software legally. In this chapter, you learn about IT Fundamentals+ Objective 3.6: Compare and contrast general application concepts and uses: single-platform software, crossplatform software (compatibility concerns), licensing (single use, group use/site license, concurrent license, open source vs. proprietary, subscription vs. one-time purchase, and product keys and serial numbers), and software installation best practices (reading instructions, reading agreements, and advanced options).

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FOUNDATION TOPICS SINGLE-PLATFORM SOFTWARE

Single-platform software is software that is designed to run on a single combination of hardware and software. For example, Microsoft Windows is currently designed to run on Intel-compatible 32- or 64-bit processors. CorelDraw is a graphics application that runs on Microsoft Windows. CorelDraw is a single-platform software program. It does not run on macOS or Linux.

CROSS-PLATFORM SOFTWARE

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CROSS-PLATFORM SOFTWARE

Cross-platform software is software that is designed to run on more than one combination of hardware and software. For example, Adobe Creative Cloud and Microsoft Office 365 can run on macOS and Microsoft Windows. Creative Cloud and Office 365 are examples of cross-platform software. Microsoft Office 365 can also run on iOS and Android mobile platforms. The popular GIMP image editor can run on Windows, Linux, and OS X (older versions of the operating system for Mac computers). Many games are also available for PC and macOS, as Figure 21-1 illustrates.

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Figure 21-1 Games Available on the Steam Game Download Service for Windows, macOS, and the Steam Platform

Compatibility Concerns Although cross-platform applications are quite common, compatibility concerns can cause problems when you’re moving files between platforms. Here are a few examples: If the same fonts are not available on the originating device and the targeted device, font substitutions will take place. Font substitutions could significantly change the appearance of documents, presentations, and graphic designs (see Figure 21-2). Differences in photo-handling support between Windows and macOS or between Windows and iOS or Android could cause problems when viewing or using images. Figure 21-3 shows a portion of Microsoft’s comparison of PowerPoint picture features on different platforms.

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Figure 21-2 When the Same Fonts Are Not Available on Different Systems, Font Substitutions Are Offered. These Can Cause Big Problems to a Presentation or Graphic Design.

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Figure 21-3 The Windows Version of PowerPoint Has the Most Picture Features Available, Whereas Versions for iOS, iPad, and Mobile Have the Least.

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Differences in built-in video and music playback support between Windows and macOS or between Windows and iOS or Android could cause problems when playing videos or music. Be sure to choose common file formats to avoid problems. For example, crossplatform audio files such as MP3 are better choices in a presentation than WMA (Windows Media Audio, developed by Microsoft) or AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format, developed by Apple). Differences in feature support across platforms can cause problems in opening files or in viewing file contents. Microsoft Office apps such as PowerPoint and Excel include compatibility checkers that can help find issues with older versions’ support for new features. Figures 21-4 and 21-5 illustrate how the Excel Compatibility Checker can find features in an Excel file that can cause issues with older versions of Excel.

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Figure 21-4 Open the Excel Compatibility Checker from the File Menu’s Info Tab. Click Check for Issues, Check Compatibility.

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Figure 21-5 This Excel Workbook Will Not Work Properly in Older Versions of Excel, as Noted by the Compatibility Checker.

Note If you are considering a cross-platform app, some vendors offer comparison documents you can consult to see if there are differences in how the app works on different platforms. There can also be issues when running apps made for older versions of Windows on newer versions. For help with this issue, see https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/15078/windows-make-older-programs-compatible. You can also check user forums (websites where users discuss problems with software and offer solutions). The Microsoft Community website is at https://answers.microsoft.com/. The Official Apple Support Community (for macOS and iOS) is at https://discussions.apple.com/welcome. Some useful Linux forums include www.linuxquestions.org/ and www.linux.com/forums. Two useful Android forums include https://androidforums.com/ and https://forums.androidcentral.com/.

LICENSING Software piracy, the use of software that has not been licensed, has been a major problem for the industry since the first personal computers were introduced in the late 1970s. The use of unlicensed software can lead to heavy fines for companies that are caught using it, and unlicensed software obtained through illegal download sites can carry malware as an unwanted bonus. There are many different types of licenses for software. The following sections discuss how they differ. If you have questions about software licensing, be sure to check with the software vendors you use.

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Note Licenses are often referred to as end-user license agreements, or EULAs.

Single Use A single-use license is the easiest license to understand: one installation on one computer. Generally, a singleuse license enables all users of a computer to use the software. However, it does not allow the software to be installed on more than one computer. Some single-use licenses permit software to be installed into a virtual machine, but others permit installation onto physical hardware only. Note What is a virtual machine? A virtual machine (VM) exists in software but looks and acts like a physical computer to the operating system and apps installed in it. A single physical computer can have several VMs running on it. Virtualization is the process of creating a VM and installing an operating system and apps in it. For example, you have a computer running Windows and you want to install/run Linux on the same computer. Through virtualization software such as Hyper-V or Oracle VirtualBox, you can actually install Linux into a virtual machine on the same computer running Windows. To learn more, see https://docs.microsoft.com/enus/virtualization/hyper-v-on-windows/about/.

Group Use/Site License

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Group Use/Site License A group use or site license enables all users in a defined group such as a department, company, or location to legally run the licensed software. Site licenses typically have pricing that varies according to the number of users (seats) needed. Concurrent License A concurrent license allows a single copy of a program to be used by more than one computer that is owned or managed by the same user. For example, Adobe Creative Cloud apps have a two-user concurrent license: They can be installed on two computers managed or owned by the same user. The user can run the apps on either computer as needed, but not at the same time. If the user needs to run the apps on a third computer, the apps on the other computers are deactivated by the Creative Cloud app manager. Concurrent licenses are also used with networked apps. For example, a four-user concurrent app would block additional users from logging on if four users were already using the app. However, once a user logged off, another user could log on. Concurrent licensing is different from simultaneous licensing. For example, Microsoft Office 365 Home allows up to five users to install and use the product at

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the same time on macOS or Windows computers. Up to five tablets and five smartphones can also use the subscription (see Figure 21-6).

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Figure 21-6 Sharing an Office 365 Home License

Note Learn more about Adobe licensing at https://www.adobe.com/legal/licenses-terms.html, and learn more about Microsoft licensing at https://www.microsoft.com/enus/licensing/default.aspx. To understand concurrent versus per-seat licenses, see https://www.micropact.com/blog/detail/concurrent-vs.-perseat-licenses-the-analogy.

Open Source vs. Proprietary

Most commercial apps are proprietary: The source code (software instructions before being turned into an application) is not available to the public or other companies. Windows, macOS, and iOS are considered propriety operating systems. You have to pay for licensing. Microsoft Office and Adobe Creative Cloud are examples of proprietary software. Proprietary apps can be made available without charge, but most proprietary apps are licensed on a paid basis. Proprietary apps are available for both proprietary and open source operating systems. On the other hand, open source operating systems such as Linux and Android and apps such as Apache Open Office, Libre Office, and the GIMP are open, meaning any developer can obtain the source code and reuse it or improve it. Open source apps are typically made

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available free of charge. Commercial versions of open source apps charge for support and for enhancements. Originally, open source apps were available mainly for Linux operating systems; the many versions of Linux are the result of Linux itself being an open source software product. In recent years, an increasing number of apps for macOS and Windows have also been released as open source products. To find open source apps for macOS and Windows, check out Github.com and Sourceforge.net. These are two of the websites that specialize in hosting open source apps that are ready to use as well as the software coding that can be reused and adapted for other projects. Note For a list of open source apps for macOS at Github, go to https://github.com/serhii-londar/open-source-mac-os-apps. For a list of recently updated open source apps for Windows at Sourceforge, go to https://sourceforge.net/directory/os:windows/freshness:recently-updated/.

Subscription vs. One-Time Purchase

There are two ways to purchase a software license: One-time purchase: This is a single payment to license the software for as long as the user wants to use it. A one-time purchase license does not expire.

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Subscription: This is a monthly or yearly payment to license the software for that time period. A subscription expires if the user stops paying for it. The software might run in a reduced-capability mode or stop working completely until the subscription is renewed.

Depending on the specific licensing agreement, a onetime purchase may not be transferable to a different computer. On the other hand, a subscription is usually transferable. A subscription also enables users to receive frequent updates (sometimes monthly) to apps and is usually less expensive than making a one-time purchase every year. A subscription for multiple users can be much less expensive. Here’s an example, based on US dollars: Microsoft Office 365 Home (five users): $99.99/year, under $20/user. Microsoft Office 365 Personal (one user): $69.99/year, $69.99/user. Microsoft Office Home and Student 2016 for PC (one user): $149.99/one-time purchase, $149.99/user. All versions include Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and OneNote. However, Office 365 Home and 365 Personal also include apps not available in Office Home and Student, such as Outlook, Publisher (Windows only), and Access (Windows only), and two services, such as OneDrive cloud storage and Skype messaging.

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A one-time purchase makes sense in this example only for a single user who does not need the additional programs and services, will not be replacing the app for at least three years, and does not need frequent updates. Many established software vendors are moving to the subscription model. However, newcomers who are seeking to undercut an established vendor may offer one-time purchase licenses that are substantially cheaper than a subscription. Product Keys and Serial Numbers For one-time software purchases, product keys and serial numbers are used to authenticate the software license. The software key or serial number must be entered before the software can be used. Figure 21-7 illustrates the process of entering a product key during the installation of Windows.

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Figure 21-7 Entering a Product Key (Fictitious) During a Windows Installation

The process of checking this information and verifying the installation is genuine is known as activation. In some cases, the serial number must be sent to the vendor after the product is ordered to receive a product key that is entered to activate the software.

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With subscription software such as Adobe Creative Cloud, Microsoft Office 365, and web-based apps, the user’s account information is used to activate the software. With a multiuser subscription such as Microsoft Office 365, the subscribing user sends invitations to other users granting them permission to install and activate the software.

SOFTWARE INSTALLATION BEST PRACTICES There are several ways to make mistakes when installing software, regardless of whether it’s delivered on an optical disc, a flash drive, or via a download. Use the following sections to learn best practices and avoid common errors. Note If you have not performed a Windows installation, check out the “How to: Perform a Custom Installation of Windows” article at https://answers.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/forum/windows_10windows_install-winpc/how-to-perform-a-custom-installation-ofwindows/38adfa8c-32f8-4354-8c53-13b5f2cf7e44. This article covers custom installations for Windows 10, 7, and 8.1.

Reading Instructions

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Reading Instructions

Why should you read the instructions before installing software? To avoid problems like the following with your installation: System is not compatible with the app. Check the system requirements (operating system version, processor type and speed, RAM size) for the app and compare it to your device’s operating system and hardware. For Windows, open the System properties sheet (see Figure 21-8) or select Settings, System, About (see Figure 21-9). For macOS, open About this Mac (see Figure 21-10). For Linux with a GUI, open a dialog such as Settings (see the Ubuntu version in Figure 21-11). For Linux from the command line (Terminal), run inxi (see http://goinglinux.com/articles/SysInfo.html).

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Figure 21-8 This Windows 8.1 System Has a LowPerformance 32-bit Processor and Only 2GB of RAM, Making It Suitable Primarily for Web Surfing and Email.

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Figure 21-9 This Windows 10 System Has a Multicore High-Performance 64-bit Processor and 16GB of RAM, Making It Suitable for Almost any Business or Gaming Purpose. You missed last-minute changes to the app or the installation process. To avoid this problem, check the installation media for a “readme” file. It could be a text file or a file you can open with most word processing programs, such as an RTF (Rich Text) or DOC (Microsoft Word) file. Read it before you start the installation process.

Figure 21-10 A Typical 2015 MacBook Air Laptop’s Configuration

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Figure 21-11 Ubuntu’s Settings Report Lost license key or serial number means no installation for you! Be sure to keep the packaging if it contains a license key or serial number. Without this information, you have an overpriced CD or DVD that can’t be used. If you are installing a downloaded app, check your email and save your purchase receipt and installation information. Clean up the old before installing the new. If you are upgrading an older version of an app, there may be special instructions before proceeding. Y ou might need to remove (uninstall) the older version first or save the preference files (personalized settings) for reuse. Back up the old (operating system) before installing the new. The regular backup app in Windows 10 backs up data files, not the operating system, and the image backup utilities in older versions of Windows don’t always work well. Use a third-party image backup utility (an image is the entire contents of the system drive). If your system has a Seagate or Western Digital drive installed, you can get a free limited version of Acronis True Image (Seagate DiscWizard: https://www.seagate.com/support/downloads/discwizard/) or Acronis True Image (WD Edition: https://www.wdc.com/products/features/acronis.html). With macOS, use Time Machine as it backs up both system and data files (https://support.apple.com/en-in/HT201250). With Linux, use backup apps such as rsync (grsync is a GUI version) and others. See https://www.tecmint.com/linux-system-backup-tools/ for recommendations. Close other apps to avoid problems later. Frequently, you are advised to close other running apps before starting the installation process. If you don’t, you might have problems updating shared program file libraries. No reboot, problems follow. If the installation program prompts you to reboot after installation, do it. Y our new software

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(or hardware) might not work until you do. However, if you are installing more than one program, you can reboot after installing the other apps. Have an ISO file but no optical drive? Many apps are distributed as ISO (optical disc image) files (.iso is the usual extension for these files). Y ou can sometimes install directly from an ISO file by mounting the media. However, in some cases, you need to create an optical disc or USB install media. In Windows 8 and later, right-click an ISO file in File Explorer and select Mount (see Figure 21-12). Windows assigns the ISO file a drive letter, which you can open to run the installation program. In macOS, use Disk Utility to mount an ISO file. In Linux, make a folder (directory) and use the sudo mount command (see http://linuxg.net/how-to-mountunmount-iso-images-in-linuxand-unix-systems/ for details). If you need to create a bootable USB flash drive from a Windows operating system ISO file, you can use the free Rufus utility (www.lifewire.com/how-to-burn-an-iso-file-to-a-usb-drive2619270). If you want to create a Live USB flash drive that can be used for testing a Linux distribution without installing it, use UNetbootin (https://unetbootin.github.io/).

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Figure 21-12 Mounting an ISO File in Windows 10 Unzip now, install later. Many apps for Windows and some for other operating systems are downloaded as PKZIP (ZIP) files. To unzip these files in Windows, you can use the Extract All option in File Manager (see Figure 21-13). The default location for the extracted files is a folder with the same name as the ZIP file, but you can choose a different location if desired. To extract files in macOS, double-click the file. To extract files in Linux, you can use the GUI file manager or run the Terminal command unzip filename. See https://www.wikihow.com/Unzip-Files-in-Linux for a visual tutorial.

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Figure 21-13 Extracting Files from a ZIP Archive File

Even if you have installed many programs before, take time to read the instructions. Reading Agreements The license agreement (EULA) is one of the least-read documents in all of IT (information technology). However, it’s worth reading to discover what your rights and responsibilities are. For this example, let’s look at the licensing terms for Microsoft Windows 10. The actual license is at https://www.microsoft.com/enus/Useterms/Retail/Windows/10/UseTerms_Retail_Windows_10_English.htm Briefly, the license limits you to a single installation of Windows 10 on a computer or as a virtual machine. You can’t use the components of Windows 10 on different computers, but you can have up to 20 users access a shared printer, drive, or other shared feature on the Windows 10 computer over a network. Your ability to transfer the license varies according to whether Windows 10 was preinstalled on a new computer or if you installed it yourself. Updates are automatic. There are downgrade rights to Windows 7 or Windows 8.1 for Windows 10 Professional. The remainder of the license agreement covers arbitration, differences in consumer rights by countries and regions, and additional information such as limits on special-use versions. The

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warranty follows. Because licenses are rather dry reading, some vendors will not permit you to click to accept the agreement until you scroll through the entire window. Open source licenses are typically much less restrictive than proprietary software licenses, but they exist for the same reason: to tell you what you can and cannot do with software. Here’s the link to the license for a popular open source office suite, LibreOffice: https://www.libreoffice.org/about-us/licenses/. Some of the differences you’ll notice compared to the Microsoft Windows 10 license are that the LibreOffice license discusses licensing on any works you create based on LibreOffice and that LibreOffice itself is based on Apache OpenOffice. Note Both of these open source office suites provide features comparable to Microsoft Office, but at no charge. To learn more about Apache OpenOffice, see www.openoffice.org. To learn more about LibreOffice, see www.libreoffice.org.

Advanced Options

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Advanced Options If you don’t change any of the usual settings for a program, you are performing a standard installation. However, many software programs offer advanced options (also called custom options) during installation. When you select different options than usual, the installation is called a custom installation. Some typical options include the following:

Where to install the software Install for all users of the computer, or only the current user Install all available import/export filters for documents, photos, and other files Install all software features Allow software to open all supported file types (file associations) Check for automatic updates

With the low cost of disk space today, I see no reason not to install all available features and filters for a software package. However, there can be good reasons to install a package only for the current user if other users of the computer don’t need it. Figure 21-14 shows some of these options during the installation of the GIMP graphics editor.

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Figure 21-14 Typical Installation Options for a Windows Application (GIMP Shown).

If you have difficulties starting your system after installing a new operating system, either as a fresh installation or as an upgrade, there are custom startup options you can use to help recover. The term Safe Mode is used for many of these options. In Safe Mode, only essential hardware and software are available, and the display might run at a lower resolution than normal. With Windows 7, for example, you can press the F8 key (Fn+F8 on some keyboards) to bring up a menu with startup options such as Safe Mode (loads minimal drivers), Safe Mode with Network Support (minimal drivers with access to your network/Internet), and others. To learn more, see https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/17419/windows-7-advanced-startup-optionssafe-mode. In Windows 10, the startup options are similar but are accessed from either the Settings menu (Advanced Startup) or from the Sign-in screen. To learn more, see https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/4026206/windows-get-to-safe-mode-andother-startup-settings-in-windows-10. Windows 8.1 instructions can be found at https://support.microsoft.com/enus/help/17076/windows-8-startup-settings-safe-mode.

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To start your Mac in Safe Mode, hold down the left Shift key when you turn it on. For other startup options, see https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201255. Some Linux distros use the same option as Mac. For others, you change options in the boot manager. Look up the details for the distro you use.

EXAM PREPARATION TOPICS REVIEW TOPICS Review the most important topics in this chapter, noted with the Key Topics icon in the outer margin of the page. Table 21-1 lists these key topics and the page number on which each is found.

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Table 21-1 Key Topics for Chapter 21

Key Topic Element

Description

Page Number

Paragraph

Single-Platform Software

449

Paragraph

Cross-Platform Software

449

Figure 214

Open the Excel compatibility checker from the File menu’s Info tab. Click Check for Issues, Check Compatibility

452

Figure 216

Sharing an Office 365 Home License

455

Paragraph

Open Source vs. Proprietary

456

List

Two ways to purchase a software license

457

Figure 217

Entering a product key (fictitious) during a Windows installation

458

List

How to avoid problems with software installation

459

List

Typical advanced/custom options

465

DEFINE KEY TERMS

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DEFINE KEY TERMS Define the following key terms from this chapter and check your answers in the glossary: concurrent license cross-platform software group use/site license one-time purchase open source Single-platform software single use license subscription proprietary

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE 3.6 1. You are considering a software program that can be run on Windows or on macOS. This is an example of which type of software? 1. Open source 2. Cross-platform 3. Proprietary 4. Site licensed

2. Which of the following is accurate when

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considering a cross-platform application? 1. It will work the same on every platform. 2. Some versions will work only in a virtualized environment. 3. Some features might vary. 4. It must be open source.

3. You are creating a presentation that will run on both Windows and macOS versions of PowerPoint. Which of the following file types should you choose for sound and music effects in the presentation? 1. DOCX 2. WMA 3. AIFF 4. MP3

4. You are creating a workbook in Microsoft Excel 2016 that will be emailed to a user with Microsoft Excel 2007. Which of the following should you do before emailing the file? 1. Create a macro. 2. Use Compatibility Checker. 3. Ask the user to perform a custom installation of their Excel 2007 program. 4. Check https://answers.microsoft.com to make sure the file will work.

5. What displays a EULA? 1. A new display 2. Only open source apps 3. Only hardware 4. A software installation program

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6. You are using your laptop and your desktop and want to use an installed program on both computers at the same time. You start the program on your desktop computer. However, when you start the program on your laptop computer, it will not run. Your software has which type of license? 1. Concurrent license 2. Single user 3. Open source 4. Site license

7. You are considering creating an improved version of a calendaring app with the permission of the vendor and without licensing fees. What type of license does the calendaring app have? 1. Site license 2. Open source 3. Subscription 4. Free

8. You have started to use a computer that is running an application that is three versions behind the current version. It was purchased and installed five years ago. What type of a license is it using? 1. Open source 2. Subscription 3. Free 4. One-time purchase

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9. You are installing Adobe Creative Cloud, which is provided as a subscription. Which of the following would you enter to validate your installation? 1. Y our software serial number 2. Y our IP address 3. Y our Adobe account information 4. Y our computer’s account information

10. Before you install a new program for your client, your client wants to know what types of installations are permitted. You tell your client to download and review which of the following? 1. URL 2. EULA 3. Win.com 4. HTML

11. Your client wants to share a printer on a Windows 10 computer with 25 other users. You inform him this is not permitted because of which of the following? 1. It violates the EULA. 2. Windows 10 can’t share a printer. 3. It’s not covered in the EULA. 4. No drivers are available.

12. You are installing a program and need to change the normal location for the program and change what features are installed. You are performing

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which of the following? 1. Network installation 2. Custom installation 3. Standard installation 4. EULA modification

13. A client is installing a subscription program and is panicking because there is no prompt for a serial number. Which of the following statements will solve the problem? 1. “Use your account information.” 2. “Enter your IP address.” 3. “Enter your ZIP Code.” 4. “Call the vendor and ask them for a serial number.”

14. You have a program with a single-use software license for computers or virtual machines and need to install it on a computer and a VM. Which of the following should you do to take care of your client and follow the license agreement? 1. Install the software on the VM and then on the computer. 2. Install the software on the computer or on the VM. 3. Buy a second software license. 4. Install the software on the computer and then on the VM.

15. Your client has recently switched from Windows to macOS. Their most important software is crossplatform. What do you need to do to get them running on the new computer?

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1. Install the Windows version on macOS. 2. License the macOS version and install it. 3. Turn on the cross-platform option in macOS. 4. Check the EULA.

16. Which of the following enables all users in a defined department, company, or location to legally run licensed software? 1. Single-use license 2. Group or site license 3. Open source license 4. EULA license

17. Which of the following is a typical advanced/custom installation option? 1. Install for all users of the computer, or only the current user. 2. Where to install the software. 3. Install all software features. 4. Check for automatic updates. 5. All of the above are typical advanced/custom installation options.

18. Your client asks you what will happen if they stop making payments on their monthly software license subscription. How should you respond? 1. They will be given a seven-day grace period to choose a free open source alternative. 2. The subscription will expire if they stop paying for it and the software will then stop working. 3. A one-time purchase payment to license the subscription software will be offered. 4. They will be reported to the software vendor’s certificate authority.

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19. What are the major risks associated with downloading and using unlicensed software? 1. Heavy fines and malware 2. EULA suspension and data invalidation 3. Feature and filter loss for software packages 4. Being restricted to site and seat licensing only

20. Which of the following is considered a compatibility concern? 1. Font substitution 2. Differences in photo handling 3. Differences in feature support 4. All of the above

YOUR NEXT STEPS (MORE CERTS) Any CompTIA, Microsoft, or other certification is a suitable next step. Along the way, you will install many programs.

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Part 4: Domain 4.0 – Software Development Concepts

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Chapter 22 Compare and Contrast Programming Language Categories In this chapter, you learn about Objective 4.1, comparing and contrasting programming language concepts. You will learn about programming language categories such as interpreted (scripting, scripted, and markup languages), compiled programming languages, query languages, and assembly language. This chapter is intended as an introduction. To dig deeper into a particular language, visit the websites listed in this chapter.

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FOUNDATION TOPICS INTERPRETED What is an interpreted computer language? An interpreted computer language is run directly from the program’s instructions. You could say that it is run lineby-line. This contrasts with a compiled programming language, which is converted into machine language, the binary (0,1) instructions used by the CPU, before it can be run. Scripting Languages

The term scripting languages refers to interpreted languages that are frequently used to create scripts that are run from within an integrated development environment (IDE). The IDE contains a text editor for writing language statements and an interpreter to test the program. After the program is written and tested, it can be saved as a script for reuse (if desired).

BASIC

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BASIC BASIC (Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed in 1964 at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. Co-developers John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz wanted to create a programming language that would help nontechnical people to create programs. Any language with BASIC (or Basic) in the name is a descendent of BASIC, such as GW-Basic, Visual Basic, QuickBASIC, TrueBASIC, QBasic, and many others. Table 22-1 is a list of some BASIC keywords. For more keywords, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC#Typical_BASIC_keywords. Table 22-1 Selected BASIC Keywords and Uses

Category

Keyword

Usage

Data manipulation

LET

Assigns value to a variable.

DATA

List of values for use with READ.

IF… THEN… ELSE

Decisions or comparisons.

FOR…TO… {STEP}…

Repeat code a specified number of times (a counter is included in the code

Program flow control

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Input-output

Functions

Others

NEXT

section).

GOTO

Jump to a numbered or labeled line in the program.

PRINT

Displays specified message on the screen or output device.

TAB

Sets the position for the next character to PRINT.

ABS

Absolute value.

INT

Integer value.

SQR

Square root value.

REM

Remark.

TRON

Trace On (displays line numbers as program runs).

TROFF

Trace Off (turns off line number display).

Many versions of BASIC are interpreted computer programs. Here’s a simple example of an interpreted BASIC program: Click here to view code image 10 PRINT "This is a simple BASIC program"

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20 END

The program prints This is a simple BASIC program on the screen and then quits. Later versions of BASIC look much different because line numbers are omitted. Here is a similar statement in QuickBASIC: Click here to view code image ? "This is a simple BASIC program"

BASIC (or Basic) exists in many forms today, including some web-based versions, such as Quite BASIC (www.quitebasic.com) and Run BASIC (http://runbasic.com/). Microsoft’s Small Basic (http://smallbasic.com/) works with Windows Vista and later versions. Perl Perl refers to a family of two different interpreted programming languages: Perl 5 and Perl 6 (Perl 6 is a substantial rewrite of Perl 5). Perl combines features from a number of languages, including BASIC, and is often used as a “glue” language to connect different systems and interfaces together and for quick data analysis. To display This is a simple Perl program in Perl, enter this statement into a Perl shell interpreter:

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Click here to view code image print "This is a simple Perl program\n";

To get a Perl editor, interpreter, and other supporting programs, download the free Padre Perl IDE for Windows, macOS, and Linux at http://padre.perlide.org/. You can use the IDE to run Perl commands interactively or to save commands in a script. A great introduction to Perl is available at https://rc.hms.harvard.edu/training/perl/OLD/Weekly_Perl_Intro.pdf. JavaScript

JavaScript is a programming language that is used by most web pages as well as many non-web-based applications. Scripts are typically stored using the .js extension. You can enter JavaScript commands, run them, and save them using the JS.do online JavaScript Editor (https://js.do). In the following sample program, we use the JavaScript keyword var to set up three variables to store text that will display “This…is… JavaScript” (note that the text_2 variable is used twice). We added comments with the standard JavaScript // comment notation: Click here to view code image

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A subset of JavaScript, known as JavaScript Object Notation (JSON), is used for data interchange between languages such as XML and JavaScript. To learn more about JSON, see https://www.json.org/. Python Python is a programming language that is designed to be simple to understand, very extensible, and easy to use with other programming languages. The official website for Python is www.python.org, which offers versions for Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, and other platforms. The Code the Blocks (CTB) website (https://codetheblocks.com/) is one of many websites where users can experiment with Python by using it interactively for creating scripts. Here’s an example of

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using Python to create a Fibonacci sequence (the >>> characters are the Python interpreter prompts) based on an example from the Python.org website. In a Fibonacci sequence, every number after the first two numbers is the result of adding the two preceding numbers (such as 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and so on). Click here to view code image >>> def fib(n): >>> a, b = 0, 1 >>> while a < n: >>> print(a, end=' ') >>> a, b = b, a+b >>> print() >>> fib(400)

The program output is as follows: Click here to view code image 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Ruby

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Ruby Ruby was designed from the ground up as an objectoriented language and has become very popular since the development of Ruby on Rails, which is a web framework that was created using the Ruby language. Ruby is available for Windows, macOS, and Linux from the official Ruby website, www.ruby-lang.org/, and there are other implementations available. You can experiment with Ruby online at https://ruby.github.io/TryRuby/. Here’s a simple procedure: 2.times print print print end

do 'This ' 'is ' 'Ruby '

The program output is shown here: Click here to view code image This is Ruby This is Ruby

PowerShell

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PowerShell

PowerShell was originally developed by Microsoft as a scripting language for Windows (Windows PowerShell). PowerShell is included in Windows 7 and later versions. In 2016, PowerShell Core was introduced as a crossplatform version for use with Windows, macOS, and Linux. It is available from https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/powershell/. PowerShell includes aliases that make it easy to reuse existing Windows command prompt and Unix shell (Linux shell) scripts. For example, the Get-Childitem command, which lists the files and folders in the current folder, has the aliases gci, dir, and ls. Dir is the equivalent in a Windows command prompt, and ls is the equivalent in Unix/Linux. Here’s a command that displays the first five running services on the current system: Click here to view code image PS C:\Users\Mark E. Soper> get-service | where { $_.Status -eq "running"} | select-object -first 5

And here’s the program output: Click here to view code image

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Status -----Running Running Running Running Running

Name ---AcrSch2Svc AdobeARMservice AdobeUpdateService afcdpsrv AGMService

DisplayName ----------Acronis Scheduler2 Service Adobe Acrobat Update Service AdobeUpdateService Acronis Nonstop Backup Service Adobe Genuine Monitor Service

Scripted Languages A scripted language is a programming language with a built-in command interpreter. A command interpreter runs the commands stored in source code or in bytecode. Source code is human-readable code (see the language examples earlier in this chapter). Bytecode is object code that can be run by a language’s virtual machine (VM). Java is the most common example. Java converts source code into bytecode to enable the same Java program to be run without alteration on Java installations on many different types of computers, from Windows PCs to macOS, Linux, and mobile devices. Compilation converts the program’s source code into machine code, which is instruction that is specific to the operating system and processor in use on the computer that will be used to run the program. A language such as C++ or C# can create programs for different types of

Technet24

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computers and operating systems, but in each case the compiler must be used to create a system-specific version of the app. Markup Languages Markup languages are used to annotate a document with tags that can indicate characteristics such as fonts, colors, hyperlinks, and more. Markup languages typically use angle brackets for tags. The two most common markup languages are HTML and XML HTML Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is used by everyone who has ever opened a web page. Unlike other languages we have discussed in this chapter, HTML is not used interactively. HTML commands are written with a plain-text editor such as Notepad and saved using the .htm or .html file extension. The file is opened in a web browser. HTML tags specify how the content in a web page should be displayed: for example, the color and font used by specified text, the background color, hyperlinks to other parts of the page or other pages on the Web, and much more. Almost all HTML tags are paired. For example, Pearson

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website would mark the text “Pearson website” as a clickable hyperlink. A tag that starts with