Bài Gi NG Syntax [PDF]

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THS. NGUYỄN LỆ HẰNG ĐẠI HỌC TÂY NGUYÊN

Ngữ pháp nâng cao

LỜI NÓI ĐẦU

Ngữ Pháp Nâng Cao là môn học được thiết kế dành cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ hệ sư phạm và cử nhân. Sinh viên đã học 5 học kỳ và đã có một năng lực ngôn ngữ ở độ trung cấp, đã học Ngữ âm và ngữ pháp cơ bản. Môn học này hoàn chỉnh cú pháp và ngữ pháp nói chung. Môn học giúp sinh viên nắm được khái niệm cơ bản về câu và cú, phân biệt được câu đơn, câu ghép và câu phức, những thuật ngữ cần thiết cho việc miêu tả câu đơn cũng như những khái niệm cơ bản về các thành tố của câu, quan hệ giữa các loại động từ và các kiểu câu. Từ đó, phân biệt các loại cú: độc lập và chính phụ ở cấp độ ngữ và cú và biết phân tích, giải thích các hiện tượng ngữ pháp liên quan đến nội dung cú pháp. Ngữ Pháp Nâng Cao gồm 5 bài. Bài 1 về câu đơn và thành tố cấu tạo nên câu đơn. Bài 2 về câu ghép. Bài 3 nói về câu phức. Bài 4 miêu tả cách thức tổng hợp các loại câu trong khi đó bài 5 tập trung vào các cách thức nhấn mạnh

PREFACE The course on Advanced Grammar is designed for the third year English majored students. The students who take this course have completed 5 terms, acquired the courses on Phonetics and Phonology as well as General Grammar and have reached the intermediate level of English. This course is to widen the students’ knowledge of syntax and grammar in general. The course helps the students to comprehend the basic definitions of sentences, distinguish the differences between simple, compound and complex sentences as well as understand the essential terms used to describe simple sentences and sentence elements, the relationship between the different types of sentences. Hence, it enables students to tell finite and non-finite clauses apart, analyze and explain grammatical matters related to syntax. This grammar lecture describes the basic units and processes of sentence formation in English. An important goal of this grammar book is to explain how sentences that native speakers accept as grammatical differ from those they reject as ungrammatical. The book consists of 5 units. Unit1 mentions simple sentences and the elements of simple sentences. Unit 2 discusses compound sentences while unit 3 is about complex sentences. In unit 4, the ways of combining sentences are introduced. Unit 5 focuses on theme and emphasis

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LỜI NÓI ĐẦU............................................................................................................................1 PREFACE...................................................................................................................................2 TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................3 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................5 1. What is syntax?...................................................................................................................5 2. Grammatical or Ungrammatical?........................................................................................5 3. What else do you know about syntax?................................................................................6 Exercises.....................................................................................................................................9 UNIT 1 - SIMPLE SENTENCES.............................................................................................10 LESSON 1- SENTENCE ELEMENTS..........................................................................10 1. Syntactic features of sentence elements............................................................................10 2. Semantic roles of clause elements- Subject, Object, and Complement............................10 3. Techniques of analyzing sentence structure.....................................................................12 Exercises...................................................................................................................................17 LESSON 2 - PHRASES............................................................................................................20 1. What is a phrase?..............................................................................................................20 2. Noun Phrase......................................................................................................................20 Exercises...................................................................................................................................23 LESSON 3- ADJECTIVE PHRASES AND ADVERB PHRASES........................................26 1. Adjective phrases..............................................................................................................26 2. Adverb phrases..................................................................................................................28 Exercises...................................................................................................................................31 LESSON 4- ADJUNCTS, DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS.................................................33 1. Units realizing adverbial functions...................................................................................33 2. Classes of adverbials.........................................................................................................33 Exercises...................................................................................................................................40 LESSON 5 - PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES............................................................................43 1. Formation..........................................................................................................................43 2. Remarks............................................................................................................................43 Exercises...................................................................................................................................45 LESSON 6 - VERB PHRASES................................................................................................47 1 . Intensive and extensive verbs/verb phrases.....................................................................47 2. Stative and Dynamic.........................................................................................................48 3. Intransitive and transitive Verbs/ verb phrases.................................................................49 Exercises...................................................................................................................................52 UNIT 2- COMPOUND SENTENCES.....................................................................................58 ELLIPSIS, COORDINATION AND APPOSITION...............................................................58 1. Ellipsis dependent on linguistic context...........................................................................58 2. Ellipsis not dependent on linguistic context.....................................................................59 3. Coordination.....................................................................................................................59 4. Apposition.........................................................................................................................62 Exercises...................................................................................................................................64 UNIT 3 – COMPLEX SENTENCES.......................................................................................67 LESSON 1 - FINITE AND NON-FINITE CLAUSES............................................................67 1. Finite clauses.....................................................................................................................67 2. Non-finite clauses.............................................................................................................67 Exercises...................................................................................................................................72

LESSON 2 - DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 74 1. Noun clauses.....................................................................................................................75 2. Relative clauses.................................................................................................................78 3. Adverbial Clauses.............................................................................................................79 Exercises...................................................................................................................................83 UNIT 4- SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES................................................................................86 1. Definition:.........................................................................................................................86 2. Combination of two or more simple sentences into a single simple sentence..................86 3. Combination of two or more simple sentences into a single compound sentence............88 4. Combination of two or more simple sentences into a single complex sentence...............89 UNIT 5- FOCUS, THEME AND EMPHASIS.........................................................................91 1. Information focus- End focus and contrastive focus.......................................................91 2. Theme and Emphasis........................................................................................................93 3. Cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences.......................................................................................95 4. Existential sentences.........................................................................................................97 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................100

INTRODUCTION SYNTAX - THE SENTENCE PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. Syntax refers to the harmonious way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences. These words can be structured in a variety of patterns. The subject-verb structure emphasizes action and the subject's determination. A telescoping effect in a sentence can detail movement from general to specific or far to near. A periodic sentence suspends the main idea or subject until the end of the sentence. This creates suspense within the sentence and prolongs reader interest. 2. Grammatical or Ungrammatical? Grammatical (well-formed): Describes a well-formed sequence of words, one conforming to the rules of syntax. Ungrammatical (ill formed): Ill-formed structures (sequence of words) that do not conform to the rules of grammar/syntax. A native/fluent speaker will judge intuitively that a sentence to be grammatical and the other one to be ungrammatical. Intuitive knowledge belongs to the linguistic competence of the native/fluent speaker. In generative/transformational grammar there are three important aspects of sentence structure: 1) the linear order of words from left to right 2) the categorization of words into parts of speech 3) the groupings of words Grammaticality is not based on: 1) having heard the sentence before. Example: Enormous crickets in pink socks danced at the prom. 2) whether the sentence is meaningful or not. Example: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Although the sentence does not make sense, it is syntactically well formed. However, it sounds “funny”.

Compare: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (sounds funny) *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless. (ungrammatical) 3) the truth of the sentence. Example: Pregnant men are happy. Unicorns live in the forest. 3. What else do you know about syntax? Syntactic knowledge goes beyond being able to decide which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. It accounts for the double meaning or ambiguity of expressions Ambiguity will happen when a sentence has multiple meanings. The sentence in (1) is semantically ambiguous: it has two interpretations. 1) John saw the boy with a telescope. Interpretation 1: John saw the boy who had a telescope. Interpretation 2: Using a telescope, John saw the boy This sentence is also structurally ambiguous: it is assigned two different structures by our phrase structure rules. S → NP (Aux) VP NP → (Det) (AP) N (PP*) VP → V (NP) (PP*) PP → P NP For sale: an antique desk suitable for ladies with thick legs and larger drawers We will oil your sewing machine and adjust tension in your home for $10.00 This will make you smart. These structures are ambiguous because of the grouping, therefore causing structural ambiguity

Structure 1

S

NP

VP V

NP Prep Det

John

PP

saw

NP

N

the

Det

boy with

N

a

telescope

Structure 2 S

NP

VP V

NP

Det

N

PP Prep

NP Det

John

saw

the

boy

with

a

N

telescope

There is a connection between the semantic ambiguity of sentences like (1) and their structural ambiguity. There is a one-to-one correspondence between structures and interpretations. In the example above, structure 1 corresponds to interpretation 1 and structure 2 corresponds to interpretation 2.

How do we know? On interpretation 1, the constituency tests tell us that the NP and the PP are two different constituents: We can replace the boy by a pronoun, as in (2) and leave the PP untouched. We can front the PP without having to front the NP too. 2) John saw him with a telescope 3) With a telescope, John saw the boy

On interpretation 2, the constituency tests tell us that the chunk the boy with a telescope is a single constituent. If we understand the sentence to mean ‘John saw the boy who had a telescope’ we cannot front the PP or the NP, and we cannot replace the NP with a pronoun. In brief, the syntactic rules in a grammar must at least account for: 1. the grammaticality of sentence 2. word order 3. structural ambiguity/Lexical ambiguity (semantic) Flying planes can be dangerous (structural ambiguity) The man pointing at the person with a gun (structural ambiguity) The professor answered to the students with a smile (structural ambiguity) This will make you smart (Lexical Ambiguity) She found him a pig (Lexical Ambiguity) 4. grammatical relations (for example, which NP is the subject, and which NP is the direct object) Bill hired Mom I rented the room to you 5. whether the different structures have different meanings of the same meaning Bill hired Mary Mary was hired by Bill 6. the creative aspect of language - unlimited number of sentences - novel sentences - unlimited in length of sentences (recursiveness)

EXERCISES 1. Consider the tree underlying the ambiguous sentence The government expelled the officers from Thailand Paraphrase each meaning and indicate which tree goes with which meaning. 2. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved. – a. The professor’s appointment was shocking. – b. How much do you want to cut the grass? – c. The long drill was boring – d. Mary finally decided on the boat. – e. Terry loves his wife and so do I. 3. In What ways are these expressions “structurally ambiguous”? a. An American history teacher b. Flying planes can be dangerous. c. The parents of the bride and the groom were waiting.

UNIT 1 - SIMPLE SENTENCES LESSON 1- SENTENCE ELEMENTS 1. Syntactic features of sentence elements A subject is normally a NP or a clause with nominal functions. It occurs before the VP in declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator in questions. A subject has number and person concord, where applicable, with the VP. An object is a NP or clause with nominal function. It normally follows the S and the VP. An object assumes the status of S by the passive transformation The Oi precedes the Od and is semantically equivalent to a prepositional phrase A complement is a NP, and Adj phrase, or a clause with nominal function. It has a co-referential relation with S or O and follows the S, VP, and O. A complement does not become S through the passive transformation. An adverbial is an Adv phrase, adverbial clause, NP, or prepositional phrase. It is generally capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause and is generally optional (may be added to or removed from a sentence without affecting its acceptability), except for the obligatory adverbial or the SVA and SVOA patterns. 2. Semantic roles of clause elements- Subject, Object, and Complement 2.1 Semantic roles of subject  Agentive (most typical) animates causer of the happening John opened the door. (The most typical semantic role of a subject is agentive; that is, the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoting by the verb)  Instrumental inanimates causer of the happening The wind opened the door. The unwitting (generally inanimate) material cause of an event  Affected means one being affected by the event The door opened. This role of subject is found with: Intransitive verbs Jack fell down Intensive verbs: E.g.: The pen is lying on the table  Recipient is one that receives the happening John has a beautiful wife This role of subject is found with such verbs as have, own, possess, benefit (from)… and more …

Locative is one that denotes location The bus can hold forty people (Forty people can sit in the bus)  Temporal Subject is one that denotes time Tomorrow is my birthday (It is my birthday tomorrow)  Eventive is one that denotes event The concert is on Thursday  ‘ Empty’ It is one that lacks semantic content E.g.: It is getting dark 2.2. Semantic roles of object. 

 Affected (Od): A participant which does not cause the happening denoted by the verb but is directly involved in some other way Many MPs criticised the Prime Minister 

Locative (Od) shows location and is often found after such verbs as turn, leave, reach, cross, surround, penetrate, climb ... They climbed the mountain

 Effected (Od): - Object that exists only by virtue of the activity indicated by the verb I am writing a letter (Effected) I am burning a letter (Affected) Baird invented television. (Effected) I am watching television. (Affected) -

Object that repeats partially or wholly the meaning of the verb Mary sang a song or We fought a good fight – and lost - Object that takes the form of a verbal noun preceded by a common verb of general meaning He did little work that day The prisoner made no comment Have, do, make, take, give, pay ....  Recipient (Oi): An animate participant being passively implicated by the happening or state I have found you a place. He gave his son some money  Affected (Oi) I paid her a visit = I visited her (Affected) 2.3. Semantic roles of complement 

Current attribute denotes an already existing characteristic. My father was a teacher.

We found her attractive  A resulting attribute denotes a characteristic that comes about because of the event reported in the sentence. He became a teacher in 1963. Her new dress made her attractive. 3. Techniques of analyzing sentence structure

3.1. Immediate constituent * To describe generative grammar, people use descriptive approach, structural analysis or immediate analysis. * It is the technique in this approach designed to show how many small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents. * Constituent structure is the arrangement of linguistic units in a phrase, clause, sentence.. . .in order to show their relationship to one another. Constituents refer to the natural groupings of a sentence. It is a syntactic unit in a phrase structure tree. Example: The child found the puppy. The child = noun phrase (NP) found the puppy = verb phrase (VP) Here is a summary of the different types of CONSTITUENTS: (1) Noun Phrase (NP): may function as the subject or as an object in a sentence. They often contain some form of a noun or proper noun, but may consist of a pronoun alone, or even contain a clause or a sentence. . (2) Verb Phrase (VP): it always contains a verb and may contain other categories (NPs, PPs) etc (3) Sentence (S): contains an NP, AUX, and an VP OR Inflectional Phrase (IP): contains NP, INFL, VP (4) Adjective Phrase (AdjP): (5) Preposition Phrase (PP): (6) Complementizer Phrase (CP): An embedded clause or subordinate clause These larger syntactic categories (NP, VP, PP, etc) are called NODES. Nodes contain the following information (parts of speech): (7) Determiner (Det): is found in a NP (8) Adjective (Adj): is found in an AdjP (9) Noun (N): is found in a NP (10) Preposition (P): is found in a PP (11) Adverb (Adv)

(12) Auxiliary Verb (Aux) will, have, be, may, might, would, could, can, etc. OR Inflection (Infl) this holds the inflectional information (tense, mood, gender, number) of RICH inflectional languages (Spanish, Italian, Frenchsomewhat)

3.2. Different types of diagrams showing immediate constituent analysis or IC The analysis of the constituent structure of a sentence can be represented in different types of diagrams: 1. Domino box the

ate

cat

the

mouse

2. Immediate constituent cut (IC cut)

The

child

found

thecat 3 2 1

3. Labelled brackets

The Art NP

dog N

followed V

the Art

VP

NP

boy N

Each constituent is labeled with grammatical terms such as ‘Art=article’, ‘N = noun’... These labels are placed beside each bracket which marks the beginning of a constituent.

4. Arrows a. S → NP +VP b. NP → Det +N c. VP→V +NP 5. Tree diagram or constituent structure tree We can also show the constituents in the form of a tree diagram instead of labeling and bracketing them. Here’s how a whole sentence would look in a tree diagram: S

NP

Det

VP

N

V

NP

Det The

dog

followed

the

N boy

3.3. Constituent structure tree or tree diagram 1. It is better to talk more about the tree diagram because it is the most popular way to analyze the structure of sentences. 2. The sentence can be divided into two or more groups, and within each group the words can be subdivided into subgroups, and so on, until only single words remain. The process is presented in the branching diagram called a constituent structure tree. 3. For example, the sentence “THE CHILD FOUND THE CAT’ is composed of two main groups or constituents: THE CHILD/ FOUND THE CAT, corresponding to the subject and the predicate of the sentence. These two groups can be subdivided until the original sentence is represented in the branching diagram as below:

The child found the cat

the child

the

child

found the cat

found

the cat the

cat

4. Three aspects of the syntactic knowledge of sentence structure which are revealed in the CONSTITUENT STRUCTUTRE TREE are: a. Linearity: Sentences are produced and received in a linear sequence. No one can utter simultaneously all the words of a sentence. Nor could such an utterance be understood. Words are spoken (or written) and heard (or read) in a time sequence from early to later, a sequence represented in the English writing system by a procession of written forms from left to right. There is a standard order for subjects and objects. In the English sentence example used earlier: Cassius sees Brutus. The subject of the sentence, Cassius, precedes the verb, while the object, Brutus, follows the verb. Numbers of other languages follow the same order, Subject-VerbObject (abbreviated as SVO). We could try to switch around the subject and the object, converting the SVO order into OVS, as in this example: Brutus sees Cassius OV S But if we did, English speakers would identify Brutus as the subject. The order would still be SVO, but the meaning would be different. Other languages may use different orderings. The range of possible orderings of these words or phrases is known as the word order parameter. The verb-object parameter discussed earlier is, in fact, part of this more general parameter. In many languages, word .order is less crucial than it is in English because, as in Latin, there is greater reliance on suffixes and other ways of marking sentence constituents. Word order therefore appears to be a setting on a yet more general parameter of function marking. But in no language is word order totally insignificant.

The examples that follow show languages which are like English in that word order is quite significant, but differ from it in their settings for this parameter. Welsh typically uses a VSO ordering: Gwelodd y dynio y ci d n the the Saw men dog V S O “The men saw the dog” b. Hierarchy: Sentences are hierarchically structured, that is they are not simply sequences of individual words but are made up of word groupings, which themselves may consist of lesser groupings. Consider the following sentence: The child found the puppy. Possible Groupings: 1. (the child), (found the puppy) subject predicate 2. (the child) (found) (the puppy) subject verb direct object 3. (the) (child) (found) (the) (puppy) determiner noun verb determiner noun The parts and subparts of the sentence can be illustrated using a tree diagram:  The groupings and subgroupings reflect the hierarchical structure of the tree. The child found the puppy

the child

the

child

found the puppy

found

the puppy

the puppy c. Categoriality: Sentences are made up of parts which belong to a set of distinct categories, each with its special characteristics.

EXERCISES Clause elements semantically considered 1. Indicate by a, b,c. etc. whether the element underlined is a. S agentive e. O affected b. S agent/instrumental f. O recipient c. S affected g. C current d. S recipient h. C resulting 1. It feels cold today. 11. They left the house empty 2. The cold affects me badly 12. I don’t like the toast burnt. 3. The cold killed the trees 13. I had those books burnt. 4. It is turning quite cold 14. Who owns this hat? 5. The bell rang loudly 15. The table is shaking 6. I heard it ring, too 16. Who is shaking it? 7. You’ve got brains 17. We laid him on the sofa. 8. Use your brains 18. We made him some tea. 9. She lay in his arms 19. These shoes cut my feet. 10. We found the house empty 20. I’ll give you the answer. 2. Rephrase the sentences so that O affected becomes S affected 1. Terrorists blew up the dam 6. We rolled the car down the hill 2. I’ve broken my glasses 7. The doctor set my broken arm easily. 3. The frost has killed my roses 8. The guard shut the gate quickly. 4. Someone has moved that picture 9. The driver stopped the train 5. A visitor rang the bell 10. I can’t turn this screw. 3. Indicate by a,b or c whether the object underlined is a. affected b. effected c. locative 1. Has anyone touched the television today? 2. Who is making all that noise? 3. We are just passing the Eiffel Tower. 4. Take a deep breath. 5. Somebody took my coat by mistake. 6. I climbed the hill as light fell short. 7. A gas leak can cause a serious explosion. 8. We have fought a good fight-and lost. 9. Have you dropped your handkerchief, my dear?

10. After that I paid her a visit every evening. 4. Rewrite the following Sentences using Japanese word order. Omit all articles. The first has been done for you. a. Hiro took Masako to the school by the park. Hiro Masako park-by school-to took. b. Ota saw Tanaka in Kyoto. c. The man in the brown suit ate the sushi. 5. List the verb phrases in the following sentences: a. Two firemen entered the hall. b. A doctor with a huge stethoscope climbed up the cliff. c. Almost eighty percent of the individuals questioned had started smoking before age twelve. d. The news failed to impress his family. e. In the afternoon, the women will take over the assignments. 6. Which of the following underlined strings of words form constituents? a. Carrie was the leader of the group. b. Carrie was the leader of the group. c. Carrie was the leader of the group. d. Carrie was the leader of the group. e. Carrie was the leader of the group f. Carrie was the leader of the group. 7. Draw constituent tree structures for the following sentences: a. An ostrich seized the ribbon. b. Those crocodiles came from Egypt. c. The woman in the boat jumped into the water. 8. Look at the tree you drew for 7b. List the constituents (with their category names) that are sisters of each other and the category of the higher constituent whose daughters they are. Example: The noun phrase those crocodiles and the verb phrase came from Egypt are sisters; they are daughters of the S. 9. To what lexical categories do the following words belong? a. house b. rope c. dry d. fast e. slow f. run 10. The following two sentences are ambiguous: a. The lawyer looked at the judge with suspicious eyes. b. Phil hit the man with a red flashlight.

State the two meanings for each sentence and explain how the ambiguity of each sentence is due to differences in hierarchical structure. 11. What can you tell about the grammar of this sample of the Southern Slonal language? Assume that this sample is representative of the language as a whole. Ata-stasy a.

visit

Karlosa Carlos preda i girl

nyu i that

“Carlos will visit that girl in the morning” b. lla-stasy visit

preda girl

nyu that

Karlosai Carlos

“That girl has visited Carlos in Tala”

Tala-si Tala-in

Kvarta-si morningin

LESSON 2 - PHRASES 1. What is a phrase? Phrase is a word group held tightly together by meaning relationship. The purpose of a phrase is to signal to our reader or listener which concepts we wish to combine. A phrase is built around ahead word (N, A, Adv, Prep) and may also have several modifiers in it. Modifiers are expressions that add details of meaning to the head. The modifier may be single word modifiers, or phrases of other types or they may be clauses (especially relative clauses in NPs).

2. Noun Phrase A noun phrase (NP, for short) in English consists of a nominal head (normally a noun or a pronoun) with or without the modifiers that accompany it, before or after. (1) the blue cotton shirt that I borrowed from my brother In the noun phrase marked (1), shirt constitutes the head; the, blue and cotton belong to the pre-modification, and that I borrowed from my brothers is the postmodification. The word blue is called a modifier because it describes 'the shirt’: it limits by excluding other colours and it adds to the plain meaning of ‘shirt’. A modifier may sometimes be separated from the head by intervening words, like the relative clause in the following NP: (2) a butterfly in the garden which was fluttering among the/lowers. When there is nothing else in the noun phrase, nouns or pronouns are also complete noun phrases, like 'cabbages' and 'Aiken' in the two following, sentences which are marked (3) a-b: (3) a. The truck was loaded with cabbages. b. They flew down to Aiken, South Carolin

2.1 Types of pro-nominal modifiers The noun head in a noun phrase can be pre-modified by: * Determiners (Det, for short): Articles, demonstratives and possessives are mutually exclusive in English: only one of them can occur in any noun phrase. Below are the determiners that may be preceded by one of the pre-determiners (PRE-DET, for short), which are all, both and half

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1. articles', the and a/an; 2. possessives: her, his, its, their, your, Johns, the book's, etc.; 3. demonstratives', this, that, these, and those. e.g. All (Pre-det) the men (NP) Both (Pre-det) my (det) studious roommates (NP) Half (Pre-det) Harry’s (det-poss Pro) new books (NP) * There are determiners that are not preceded by pre-determiners. Some of these determiners are called QUANTIFIERS (Q, for short): some, any, no, each, enough, either, neither and another, the others are often known as interrogative exclamatory determiners: what (a/an), which and whose. Quantifying Adjectives (QA, for short) are expressions of indefinite quantity. includes among the pre-modifiers in the N-bar the quantifying adjectives much, many, few and little. * Post-determiners: ordinal number, cardinal number, general ordinal (next, last) * Pre-modifiers can be descriptive adjectives, Nouns, Participles, Genitives or Adverbials ,

2.2 Types of post-nominal modifiers Post-modifiers (Post-Mod, for short) in an NP are the categories that follow the head noun and modify it in some way. 1. Prepositional phrases (PP, for short) are common post-nominal modifiers: An expedition to the pub NP

NP Det

PP N

Prep

NP

N

Det An

expeditio n

t o

t h

p u

2. Adjective phrases: A few adjectives (including present, absent, responsible and visible) may pre-modify or post-modify the head noun... To a greater or lesser extent, a difference in meaning is associated with the difference of position." [Burton-Roberts,

1997: 171] Post-modifying APs does not belong to the N-bar though pre-modifying APs does. NP NP 1 Det

N’1 A

NP2

AP

N’2 Det

The

present

members

The

N

members

present

3. Infinitive phrases (InfP, for short) An infinitive can play the role of an adjective, post-modifying an NP NP1

NP2

AP

Det

N

InfP

A scheme to win Kathy’s heart 4. Participial phrases (PartP, for short): Participial phrases can be subdivided into two sub-categories: participial phrases with -ing and participial phrases with -ed. S NP2 Det

AP N’

PartP V-part

The

car

coming

PP

down the road NP1

NP2 Det

AP N’

PartP V-part

The

man

InfP

expected

to arrive at any moment

5. Subordinate adjective clauses (ACl, for short) The participial phrases and infinitive phrases are often regarded as the reductions of subordinate adjective clauses, either restrictive or non-restrictive. NP1 NP2

ACl

Det

N’

The

car

that is coming down the road

EXERCISES I. Make syntactic analyses of the following noun phrases by tree diagrams: 1. The girl with a smile. 2. The pretty girl with a smile. 3. A man like John 4. Action in case of fire. 5. The table which remained...... 6. The table which I saw ... 7. The girl who is standing at the door... 8. The book which was written by To Hoai...

9. The place where I was born ... 10. The reason why he kept quiet...... . 11. The man whom we saw yesterday ... 12. The time when food was cheap ... . 13. The building to which I was referring ... 14. A little boy who seems to be lost.... 15. Several farmers waiting for the Prime Minister 16. The boy resembling my son ... 17. The mixture consisting of oxygen and hydrogen 18. The question debated in the Parliament yesterday 19. The train to arrive ... 20. The question to be debated in the Parliament 21. The place to stay..... 22.The man to consult at the conference II .Make an analysis of the following noun phrases by tree diagrams. 1. Those delicious ice creams 2. My brother’s first two nephews 3. Five green bottle 4. His underrated musical talent 5. The old cupboard with the blue handles 6. Jim's many fatal mistakes 7. All our many grievous sins 8. An ugly large yellow submarine 9. Plenty of delicious rice pudding. 10. This mischievous tax collector’s grabbing hand 11. The third unpleasant task to be assigned to me. 12. The fourth place behind him. 13. The major upset of the year. 14. The clearest instructions that anybody could have been given. 15. This sudden disaster approaching us. III. Convert the participle phrase into a relative clause in each of the following sentences 1. At the station, we were met by a man carrying a copy of the Times. 2. A car coming unexpectedly out of the side street crashed into us. 3. He was accompanied by a man weighing at least 150 kilos. 4. He collided with a car driven by a young man without a license.

5. Any driver not having a license ought to be sent to jail right away. 6. The train standing at platform six is for London 7. Any article left in this bus was taken at once to the Lost Property Office 8. Present costing at least 10 pounds in all may be imported duty free. 9. Anyone not hearing that noise must have been stone-deaf. IV. Convert the infinitive clause in each of these sentences into a relative- clause: 1. The next train to arrive is from Edinburgh. 2. The first man to fly non-stop across the Atlantic was John Alcock. 3. Was Cortes the first European ever to see the Pacific Ocean? 4. The best man to see for your eye trouble is the Professor of Ophthalmology. 5 The man for John to speak to first is the Director of the Museum. 6. The cheapest place to eat at is the cafeteria. 7. You’ll find the best time to get there is just after twelve. 8. The way to get to the head of the queue is to slip in through the kitchen. 9 Will you buy me a magazine to read on the journey? 10. Here is something for you to do while you’re waiting. 11. The only thing left to consider now is how to get away without being seen. 12 The last problem, to be considered at our next meeting, is how to invest the money. V. Rewrite these sentences, using a noun phrase with infinitive clause as post modifier. 1. We planned to cross the river at night but failed. 2. Our appeal to volunteers for another attempt was greeted with enthusiasm. 3. We thought the idea that we should create a diversion upstream was a good one. 4. We did not wish to waste lives in another frontal attack. 5. Our allies promised to send reinforcements but did not do so. 6. We felt they were cowardly to hesitate to come to our aid. 7. It was disgraceful that they should refuse to fulfill their promise. 8. This only made us more determined to succeed on our own. 9 Meanwhile, we were not disturbed when the enemy threatened to attack us. 10 Nor were we deceived when they proposed that we should call a truce

LESSON 3- ADJECTIVE PHRASES AND ADVERB PHRASES 1. Adjective phrases 1.1. Functions Adjectives or adjective phrases have two uses or functions: the attributive function and the predicative function. 'The attributive function is when adjectives or adjective phrases are found in the pre-modification of a noun phrase, as for example in an interesting story, a somewhat anxious mother... The predicative function of an adjective phrase is its occurrence after a copula' such as be, seem, sound, feel; for example, Naomi is anxious about Jim's health, Jim seems concerned that Naomi will worry too much. 1.1.1 When an adjective or adjective phrase is functioning attributively, it may not, in any case, be followed by a post-modifier. That is to say, adjective phrases containing postmodifiers may function only predicatively: (1) a. * She is a somewhat anxious about his son's health mother. b. She is somewhat anxious about his son's health. 1.1.2 There is a small set of adjectives restricted to predicative position and called 'predicative adjective’ and likewise a small set restricted to attributive position and called 'attributive adjectives’. ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES (2)a. The main reason is his laziness. (3)a. *The reason is main. b. He's a mere youth. b. *This youth is mere. c. *He is a faint patient, c. He feels faint. d. * This is an asleep boy. d. The boy is asleep. But the vast majority of adjectives may function either attributively predicatively: ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES (4) a. The charming girl attracts his attention. (4) b. The girl is charming (5) a. She's a lonely wife. (5) b. I sometimes feel lonely.

1.2. Heads of Noun Phrases *Adjectives can often function as the heads of noun phrases. As such, they do not inflect for number or for the genitive case and must take a definite determiner. Most commonly, such adjectives have personal reference: The extremely old need a great deal of attention. We will nurse your sick and feed your hungry The young in spirit enjoy life.

The rich will help only the humble poor The wise look to the wiser for advice. The old who resist change can expect violence These adjectives have generic and plural reference. * Some adjectives denoting nationalities can be noun-phrase heads: You British and you French ought to be allies The industrious Dutch are admired by their neigbbours. The adjectives in question are virtually restricted to words ending in -(i)sh (eg: British, Spanish), -ch (Dutch, French) and -ese (eg: Chinese, Japanese), and the adjective Swiss. As with the previous type, these noun phrases have generic reference and take plural concord but they cannot be modified by adverbs. They can be modified by adjectives, which are normally non-restrictive, ie: the industrious Dutch is interpreted as * the Dutch, who are industrious... * Some adjectives can function as noun phrase heads when they have abstract reference, these take singular concord. A few are modifiable by adverbs. They include, in particular, superlatives: The latest (news/ thing) is that he is going to run for the election The very best (ie *the very best part/thing) is yet to come. : He ventured into the unknown He went from the sublime to the extremely ridiculous 1.3 Verbless adjective clause An adjective (alone or as head of an adjective phrase) can function as a verbless clause. The clause is mobile, though it usually precedes or follows the subject of the superordinate clause: (By then) nervous, the man opened the letter The man, (by then) nervous, opened the letter. The man opened the letter, (by then) nervous. The implied subject is usually the subject of the sentence. Thus, while we have The man restrained the woman, who was aggressive we do not have as its equivalent. The man restrained the woman, aggressive However, if the clause contains additional clause constituents, its implied subject can be other than the subject of the sentence: She glanced with disgust at the cat, quiet (now) in her daughter's lap Other examples of verbless adjective clauses:

Long and untidy, his hair played in the breeze Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote The implied subject of the adjective clause can be the whole of the superordinate clause. For example, Strange, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings. is semantically equivalent to: That it was she who initiated divorce proceedings is strange. An adverb may sometimes replace, with little difference in meaning, an adjective functioning as a verbless clause: Nervously, the man opened the letter Nervous, the man opened the letter

2. Adverb phrases As far as its internal structure is concerned, a typical Adverb phrase (AdvP, for short) has its head an adverb. An ADVERB (Adv, for short) is the minimal form of an AdvP; indeed many adverb phrases occur in the minimal form: very enthusiastically → enthusiastically. The most common characteristic of the adverb is morphological: the majority of adverbs have the derivational suffix-ly. There are two types of syntactic function that characterize adverbs, but an adverb need have only one of these: (1) adverbial An adverb may function as adverbial, a constituent distinct from subject, verb, object, and complement. There classes of adverbials are established and discussed in the next lesson: adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts. (2) modifier An adverb may, however, be pre-modified; though post-modification if not found in all adverb phrases. The only kind of pre-modifier occurring in adverb phrases is another adverb, usually of the same restricted set of adverbs of degree, which are also called intensifying adverbs, as fount in the pre-modification of adjective phrases, e.g. very quickly, quite wonderfully, somewhat fleetingly, and extremely faithfully, However, as with adjectives, other adverbs may function as pre- modifiers in an adverb phrases, e.g. amazingly well, understandably badly, horribly fast, incredibly gracefully. This kind of modifying adverbs appears to be either directly (amazingly) or indirectly (horribly) an expression of personal evaluation An adverb may premodify an adjective: It is extremely good of you One adverb-enough- postmodifies adjectives, as in high enough.

Most commomly, the modifying adverb is an intensifier. The few adverbs that premodify particles in phrasal verbs or prepositional phrases: The nail went right through the wall His parents are dead against the trip. Intensifying adverbs can premodify indefinite pronouns, predeterminers and cardinal numberals: Nearly everybody came to our party. Over two hundred deaths were reported. I paid more than ten pounds for it. A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases: quite, rather, and the predeterminers such and exclamatory what I have never heard such wickedness It was rather a mess. He was quite some player. What a (big) fool he is ! Some place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition. Of the place adverbs, here and there take the most prepositions: along, around, down, from, in, near, on, out of, over, round, through, under, up. Time adverbs most commonly functioning as complement of prepositions are shown in the diagram.

PREPOSTIONS

ADVERBS LATELY RECENTLY

SINCE

THEN TODAY YESTERDAY TILL UNTIL

AFTER BEFORE BY FROM

NOW TOMORROW TONIGHT

AFTER AFTERWARDS LATER FOR

ALWAYS EVER ONCE

EXERCISES 1. Adjective as head of a noun phrase Replace the phrase underlined by a noun phrase with an adjective as head when such replacement is permissible. 1 Robin Hood robbed rich people in order to pay those who were poor. 2 The injured people were conveyed in ambulances to the General Hospital. 3 The injured man lay unattended for several hours. 4 If those who are blind lead others who are blind, both will fall into the ditch. 5. He sat there as silent as if he were a dumb man. 6. Does anyone know the dead man's name? 7. Always speak well of those who have died. 8. I fear he is no longer in the land of those who live. 9. Fear of what is unknown often make people conservative. 10. Nothing is so certain to happen as something that we do not expect. 11. These seats are reserved for men who have been disabled. 12. The English country gentlemen galloping after a fox - what is unspeakable in full pursuit of something he cannot eat. 13. Wise men are often confounded by a foolish man. 14. The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch those who are sick whom, snoring she disturbs. 15. Have you heard the latest news? 2. Adjective or adverb? Indicate by adj if the final word of the sentence is an adjective, or by adv if it is an adverb 1. The sun burnt the grass quickly. 11. What made my bed so hard. 2 It burnt the grass black. 12. We shall leave the house early. 3. He drove his employees hard 13. We shall leave the room empty. 4. He drove some of them mad. 14. I can paint your hall pink. 5. I find this very unlikely. 15. I can paint his wall fast. 6. We found the people friendly. 16. Pull the rope hard. 7. This made everyone late. 17. Pull the rope tight 8. I have made his acquaintance lately. 18. He turned the corner well. 9. The doctor soon made the pattern well. 19. The heat turned the milk sour. 10. We can make breakfast early. 20. You must wipe the windscreen clear.

3. Rewrite the following sentences replacing the relative clause in each by an adjective phrase, remembering that such a phrase can be realized by a single word 1 Will all students who are married please raise their hands? 2 Will all students who are interested write their names on this list? 3 I don't wish to know the names of the people who were involved 4 All the women who were present looked up in alarm. 5 We should call the doctor who is nearer 6 We must find the doctor who is concerned. 7 What are the best seats that are available? 8 Can you recommend something that is really interesting? 9 I have a problem that is much more complicated. 10 I have a problem that is much more complicated than that. 11 The road that is best to take is the A 40. 12 The people who are most difficult to understand are often members of one's own family. 13. I have never met a person who was so difficult to understand as my husband. 14. You couldn't find anyone who is more difficultly. 15. What I would like to do is to go somewhere where it is really quiet. 4. Verbless adjective clauses When it is possible to do so, rewrite the following sentences using a verbless adjective clause. 1 The men were eager to begin the climb and they rose at first light. 2 The summit, which was bare and bleak, towered above them. 3 They studied the cliff face; it was perpendicular. 4 They found a ledge which was narrow enough for one man. 5 They were thoroughly exhausted as they crawled into their sleeping bags. 6 They could hardly stand, as they were stiff in every joint, 7. When the snow was fresh, it afforded no sure foothold. 8. The wind was keen as a razor and drove them back into the shelter of their tent. 9. Though their tent was as light as a feather, somehow it remained firm. 10. The rescue party brought them down to the base camp; they were half-dead with the cold.

LESSON 4- ADJUNCTS, DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS Adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts are three classes of adverbials 1. Units realizing adverbial functions The functions of the adverbial are realized by: (1) Adverb phrases phrases with adverbs as head or sole realization: Peter was playing as well as he could We'll stay then (2) Noun phrases (less common): Peter was playing last week (3) Prepositional phrases: Peter was playing with great skill . (4) Finite verb clauses: Peter was playing although he was very tired (5) Non-finite verb clauses, in which the verb is (a) infinitive; Peter was playing to win (b) -ing participle: Wishing to encourage hint, they praised Tom (c) -ed participle; If urged by our friends, we’ll stay (6) Verbless clauses: Peter was playing, unaware of the danger

2. Classes of adverbials 2.1. Adjuncts and Sub-classification of adjuncts Adjuncts are integrated within the structure of the clause to at least some extent. I can now understand it. He spoke to me about it briefly. Adjunct is part of the basic structure of the clause or sentence in which it occurs and modifies the verb 2.1.1 Viewpoint adjuncts Viewpoint adjuncts can be roughly paraphrased by 'if we consider what we are saying from a [adjective phrase] point of view......or 'if we consider -what we are saying from the point of view of [noun phrase]

Adverbs functioning as viewpoint adjuncts are most commonly derived from adjectives by the addition of a -ly suffix: Geographically, ethnically, and linguistically, these islands are closer to the mainland than to their neighbouring islands To tap a private telephone line is not technically a very difficult operation Viewpoint adjuncts derived from nouns by the addition of the suffix -wise (especially AmE) are considered informal: Program-wise, the new thing on TV last night was the first installment of a new science series All -ly viewpoint adjuncts have a corresponding participle clause with speaking, eg: visually, visually speaking, and a corresponding prepositional phrase with the frame from a [adjective phrase] point of view, eg: morally, from a moral point of view. Other examples of viewpoint adjuncts: Many of these people have suffered, economically speaking, because of their political affiliations As far as mathematics is concerned, he was a complete failure. Looked at politically, it was not an easy problem Viewpoint adjuncts, whatever their structure, are usually in initial position.

2.1.2. Focusing adjuncts Focusing adjuncts indicate that what is being communicated is limited to a part that is focused - LIMITER ADJUNCTS - or that a focused part is an addition - ADDITIVE ADJUNCTS. Most focusing adjuncts are adverbs. LIMITERS (a) Exclusives restrict what is said to the part focused eg: alone, just, merely, only, purely, simpl. (b) Particularizers restrict what is said particularly or mainly to the part focused eg: chiefly, especially, mainly, mostly; in particular ADDITIVES also, either, even, neither, nor, too; as well as, in addition

2.1.3. Intensifiers Intensifiers can be divided into three semantic classes: emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners, Intensifiers are not limited to indicating an increase in intensity; they indicate a point on the intensity scale which may be nigh or low. Emphasizers have a general heightening effect; amplifiers scale upwards from an assumed norm; downtoners have a lowering effect, usually scaling downwards from an assumed norm. The three classes are shown with their subclasses:

Emphasizer (definitely) maximizer (completely) Amplifier

booster (very much)

Intensifier Downtoner (hardly) * Emphasizers common emphasizers include [A] actually, certainly, clearly, definitely, indeed, obviously, plainly, really, surely, for certain, for sure, of course [B] frankly, honestly, literally, simply, fairly, just. Examples of the use of emphasizers: I honestly don't know what he wants He actually sat next to her I just can't understand it They literally tore his arguments to pieces I simply don't believe it While emphasizers in Group A seem to be free to co-occur with any verb or predication, those in Group B tend to be restricted. For example, honestly tends to co-occur with verbs expressing attitude or cognition: They honestly admire her courage. He honestly believes their accusation . Most emphasizers normally precede the item they emphasize (medial positions for verb phrases) but for certain and for sure are exceptional in being postposed. . * Amplifiers Amplifiers are divided into (a) MAXIM IZERS, which can denote the upper extreme of the scale, and (b) BOOSTERS, which denote a high point on the scale. Boosters are very much an open class, and new expression are frequently created to replace older ones whose impact has grown stale. Most amplifiers can be contrasted in alternative negation with to some extent: He didn't ignore me completely, but he did ignore me to some extent. Some common amplifiers are given below, with examples of their use. *Maximizers Absolutely, altogether completely, entirely, fully, quite, thoroughly, utterly, in all respects; most eg I can perfectly see why you are anxious about it

We absolutely refuse to listen to your grumbling He quite forgot about her birthday I entirely agree with you * Boosters Badly, deeply, greatly, heartily, much, so, violently, well; a great deal, a good deal, a /of, by far: exclamatory how; more eg They like her very much I so wanted to see her (*I wanted to see her so much*) I can well understand your problem *Downtoners : Downtoners have a lowering effect on the force of the verb. The incident somewhat influenced his actions in later life We know them slightly

2.1.4. Process adjuncts Process adjuncts define in some way the process denoted by the verb. They can be divided into at least three semantic subclasses: * Manner adjunct Examples of the use of manner adjuncts: They sprayed tear gas indiscriminatedly on the protesters She replied to question with great courtesy. He spoke in a way that reminded me of his father. He always writes in a carefree manner. They walked (in) single file. You should write as I tell you to. Noun phrases with way, manner, and style as head tend to have the definite article: She cooks chicken the way I like/ in a way I like As the above example illustrates, we can regard such noun phrases as having omitted the preposition in. An adverb manner adjunct can usually be paraphrased by In a.. manner or in a... way with its adjective base in the vacant position. Where an adverb form exists, it is usually preferred over a corresponding prepositional phrase with manner or way. Hence, *He always writes carelessly' is more usual than * He always writes in a careless manner/way. Adverbs as heads of manner phrase adjuncts are an open class. The main method of forming manner adverbs is by adding a -/y suffix to an adjective. Three minor methods are by adding -wise, -style, or -fashion to a noun, eg: snake-wise, cowboy-style, peasant-

fashion. With these forms, the prepositional paraphrase would include postmodification: in the manner of a snake, in the style of cowboys, in the fashion of peasants * Means and instrument adjuncts Examples of the use of means adjuncts: He decided to treat the patient surgically I go to school by car He gained entry into the building by means of a bribe to the guard Examples of the use of instrument adjuncts: He examined the specimen microscopically You can cut the bread with that knife The injured horse was humanely killed with a rifle bullet. Most means and instrument adjuncts are prepositional phrases, but some are adverb phrases and others are noun phrases without an article. We can consider the noun phrases as related to prepositional phrases He sent it (by) air mail Fly {with/ by} Air France

2.1.5. Subject adjuncts Subject adjuncts relate to the referent of the subject in an active clause (or the agent in a passive clause) as well as to the process or state denoted by the verb. All are either adverb or prepositional phrases. Resentfully, the workers have stood by their leaders (*The workers have stood by their leaders and were resentful about it*) With great unease, they elected him as their leader (* They were very uneasy when they .. ,*) The subject adjuncts show their relationship to the subject by the paraphrase they allow. For example, we must provide a different paraphrase for the subject adjunct bitterly from its homonyms as manner adjunct and booster intensifier: Bitterly, he buried his children (*He was bitter when he.. .*) He spoke bitterly about their attitude (*He spoke in a bitter way ...') He bitterly regretted their departure (* He very much regretted.. .*)

2.2. Disjuncts Most disjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses. Disjuncts can be divided into two main classes; STYLE DISJUNCTS (by far the smaller class) and ATTITUDINAL DISJUNCTS. Style disjuncts convey the speaker's comment on the form of what he is saying, defining in some way under what conditions he is speaking. Attitudinal disjuncts, on the other hand, comment on the content of the communication.

2.2.1. Style disjuncts •• Examples of the use of style disjuncts: Seriously, do you intend to resign? Personally, I don't approve of her. Strictly speaking nobody is allowed in here. There are twelve people present, to be precise. If I may say so, that dress doesn't suit you. The adverb phrase as style disjunct implies a verb of speaking of which subject is the I of the speaker. Thus, very frankly in Very frankly, I am tired Is equivalent to I tell you very frankly. In a question, eg Very frankly, is he tired ? the disjunct may be ambiguous. Here, very frankly corresponds to I ask you very frankly or to the more probable Tell me very frankly. Common adverbs as style disjuncts include: bluntly, briefly, candidly, confidentially, frankly, generally, honestly, personally, seriously. Style disjuncts normally appear initially. 2.2.2. Attitudinal disjuncts Attitudinal disjuncts convey the speaker's comment on the content of what he is saying. They can generally appear only in declarative clauses: Obviously, nobody expected us to be here today. Understandably, they were all annoyed when they read the letter. He is wisely staying at home today. They arrived, to our surprise, before we did. Of course, nobody imagines that he will repay what he borrowed. To be sure, we have heard many such promises before. Even more important, he has control over the finances of the party. They are not going to buy the house, which is not surprising in view of its exorbitant price. What is even more remarkable, he manages to inspire confidence in the most suspicious people. Many of the adverb phrases are paraphrasable by constructions in which the adjective base is subject complement, expressing an attribute of the subject. The subject is the content of the original sentence or (the more usual form) anticipatory it with the original sentence proposed: Unfortunately, Bob rejected the offer. = It was unfortunate that Bob rejected the offer

2. 3. Conjuncts Most conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases. This is a list of common conjuncts. ENUMERATIVE: first, second, third,..; firstly, secondly, thirdly ...; one, two, three (especially in learned and technical use);c, b, c (especially in learned and technical use); for one thing... '{and} for another {thing); for a start (informal); to begin wish, to start with; in she first place, in the second place; next, then; finally, last, lastly: to conclude REINFORCING: also, furthermore, moreover, then (informal, especially spoken), in addition, above all, what is more EQUATIVE: equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way TRANSITIONAL:

By the way, incidentally SUMMATIVE: then, (all) in all, in conclusion, to sum up APPOSITION: namely (often abbreviated to viz in formal written English), in other words, for example (often abbreviated to e.g. or eg), for instance, that is (often abbreviated to i.e. or ie in specialized written English), that is to say RESULT: consequently, hence (formal), so (informal), therefore, thus (formal), as a result, [somehow (*for some reason or other*) INFERENTIAL: else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case FORMULATORY: better, rather, in other words REPLACIVE: alternatively, rather, on the other hand ANTITHETIC: instead (blend of antithetic with replacive), then, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison, (on the one hand...) on the other hand CONCESSION: anyhow (informal, anyway (informal), besides (blend of reinforcing with concessive), else, however, nevertheless, still, though, yet, in any case, at any rate, in spite of that, after all, on the other hand, all the same TEMPERAL TRANSITION: meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime * Positions of conjuncts The normal position for most conjuncts is initial. In that position they are usually separated from what follows by a tone unit boundary in speech or a comma in writing. In other positions, they may be in an independent tone unit or enclosed in commas to prevent confusion with homonyms or contribute towards indicating information focus. Some conjuncts are restricted, or virtually restricted, to initial position: again, also, altogether, besides, better, else, equally, further, hence, likewise, more, only, overall, similarly, so, still, , then (antithetic), yet. Medial positions are rare for most conjuncts, and final position rarer still. Those that readily occur finally include anyhow, anyway, otherwise, and (commonly) though.

The last two frequently appear medially. Virtually all conjuncts can appear with questions, most of them initially: Anyway, do you know the answer?

EXERCISES 1. Identify the adjuncts in the sentences below, and state a) the class, and b) the subclass, if any, to which each adjunct could be allotted: 1. Princess Albert foresaw great changes in the framework of society. 2. The masses now hold strong views. 3. I heard a machine which haltingly reproduced the human voice. 4 We even thought it was going to explode. 5. No one can really be informed about all these questions. 6. I simply did not have the technical knowledge required. 7. Something happens to make the answer completely wrong. 8. Suddenly, the door swung open. 9. The train stopped suddenly. 10. A man's real influence is only exerted after his death. 11. Butler was conceited and rather self-conscious. 12. An unstable community is especially liable to suspect its neighbours. 13. Artistically, the work had little merit. 14. Lytton Strachey ranked much of Hugo’s poetry highly. 15. He was highly crucial of one particular play of Hugo's. 16. Hugo's revolutionary aims were purely literary. 17. His call for an overthrow of the old classical drama rang out far beyond the literary world. 18. Conservatives heard the call with alarm. 19. A queue of long-haired, strangely dressed youths formed outside the theatre. 20. You see three-quarters of his figure, to just above the knees. 21. He is standing almost squares. 22 When you start looking especially at his body, you move naturally from the top. 23 The eyes are a little sad if you look at them alone 24 His right hand, entirely shadowed, is on his hip. 25 This style of conversation is quite different from that of rhetoric. 26 That is one of those fruitful ideas that can carry society forward. 27. These ideas are already improving society. 28. We shall find that the Greeks and Romans, too, overran the world in their day. 29 They deliberately spread their culture.

30 As far as culture is concerned, their influence remains today. 2. Classify the disjuncts in the sentences below as (a) style disjuncts, (b) attitudinal disjuncts 1. Honestly, I was nowhere near the scene of the accident when it happened 2. I was indeed, several miles away 3. Luckily, someone managed to get in touch with me. 4. I was off duty, strictly speaking. 5. Confidentially, the driver was inexperienced. 6. As a matter of fact, he had only just passed his driving test. 7. Quite rightly, you telephoned the hospital first. 8. Foolishly, the girl who answered the telephone did not ask your name. 9. I think, personally, that the girl is rather stupid. 10. Her appointment has not yet been confirmed, understandably. 3. From the following list, supply a suitable conjunct to link the two sentences in each of the pairs below, without using the same conjunct twice: at the same time for instance on the contrary thereafte equall r y hence on the one hand therefore first howev er on the other for example nevertheless similarly hand 1. In the year 1500, Europe knew less about science than Archimedes, who died in 212 B.C. , medievalism made an important contribution to the formation of the scientific movement. 2 The habit of exact thought was implanted by scholastic logic. , the greatest contribution of medieval scholarship was the belief that even occurrence can be correlated with its antecedents. 3. It is a great mistake to conceive this histonca1 revolt as an appeal to reason. , it was a return to the contemplation of brute fact. 4. There are several factors that contribute to wisdom. , there is a sense of proportion. 5. Sight and sound and touch are bound up with our own bodies and cannot be made impersonal. Our emotions start from ourselves. 6. It is possible to make a continual approach towards impartiality: , by knowing things somewhat remote in time or space; and, , by giving to such things their due weight in our feelings. 7. With every increase of knowledge and skill, wisdom becomes more necessary, for

every such increase augments our capacity for realizing our purposes, and augments our capacity for evil, if our purposes are unwise.

8. There are distortions in art which seem to many people unnatural, and shocking: , those that we see in some of Picasso's work or in the sculpture of Henry Moore. 9. Morality must be realistic and theory mast be related to practice. in politics we must make our moral judgments realistic enough to be political judgments. 10. One of the tragic things about intercommoned strife is that both parties quickly believe the worst of each other. And, each of the antagonist's insists that its own actions are inspired by lofty ideals. 11. In those countries where the media of mass communication are commercial enterprises, success is generally measured by the size of the audience. People are more likely to buy a newspaper, ,it" their attention is caught by something sensational. 12. Unnumbered years before the Spaniards' coming, the beautiful wife of an Indian Chief, to whom she had been unfaithful, came to this lonely spot and drowned herself in the cold waters of the Guatavita. Every year the unhappy chief came to the lake with offerings of gold. 4. Identify the adverbs in each of the following sentences. Then classify them as A. B. C. etc: see below. Where there are two adverbs refer to the first as a, the second as b A Adjunct B Modifying an adj C Modifying an adv. D Modifying a prepositional phrase E Modifying a determiner F. Modifying a noun phrase G Complement of preposition H Disjuncts I. Conjuncts 1. Shut the door quickly. 2 You are quite right. 3. He plays surprisingly well 4. Hardly anyone came. 5. It is rather a pity. 6. I am right for once 7. His room is right at the end. 8. Wait until afterwards. 9. Answer me honestly. 10. Honestly, I don’t know.

11. I haven’t met him yet. 12 Yet I feel I know him. 13. I hope to meet him soon, though 14. We left home so early. 15. We are almost at the station. 16. That cost almost a pound. 17. It’s about double the normal price. 18. I didn’t say anything, naturally 19. He is really very kind 20. In fact, he is quite a nice man

LESSON 5 - PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 1. Formation:

HEAD (Prep) + Complementation

2. Remarks: A prepositional phrase can be followed by: *A noun phrase PP

Prep

NP Det

Behind

N

the

garden

 A gerund PP

Prep

Ing -Cl

V-ing

After

PP

going

43

Prep

N

to

bed

 A Wh- clause PP

Prep

Wh-Cl Wh-word

S’ NP

(interested) in

VP

Pro

Aux

he

is

what

Lex saying

 An adverb PP Prep

Adv

Until

now

*An adjective S NP

VP V

We

regarded

PP NP

him

Prep

as

A

insane

 A prepositional phrase PP Prep

PP

Prep

NP Det

Until

after

his

N

death

EXERCISES 1. Replace the that-clause in each of the following sentences by a prepositional Phrase without changing the original meaning: 1 I was afraid that I might fail down the ladder 2 We were amused that you met the Joneses there. 3. I am not aware that I gave you permission to leave. 4 We are quite confident that we shall win. 5 The committee has decided that the matter be dropped. . 6 The brothers were determined they would have their revenge. 7. We are grateful (to you) that you have taken an interest in us. 8. No one is sorry that Lawler has resigned. 9. Are you sure that Simon has disappeared? 10. I am not surprised that he has married again. 11. I assure you that I am willing to stand down 12. The young man convinced everyone that he was innocent. 13. Did anyone inform you that the plans had been changed? 14. I must remind you that you have a responsibility towards your friends. 15. No one told me that there were these problems.

2. Replace the subordinate clause underlined by a prepositional phrase retaining the original meaning. Do not use the same preposition twice. 1 We were obliged to rest, because it was intensely hot. 2 We were obliged to wear thick, high boots, because we were afraid of poisonous snakes. 3. Because he knew this mountainous country, Jackson was appointed as our guide. 4. I think the chief let us go simply because he sympathized with us in our plight. 5. Many of the prisoners died on the march either because they were starving or because they had been severely wounded. 6. There are criminals who will commit the murder because they want money.

LESSON 6 - VERB PHRASES There are six main types of English verb phrases. 1 . Intensive and extensive verbs/verb phrases Intensive verbs "require a single complement, which can take the form of an Adjective Phrase, or a Noun Phrase, or a Prepositional Phrase ... As the most central example of the intensive sub-category of verb, be is called 'the copular’ Other intensive verbs are: become, seem, appear, prove, turn, get, remain, look, taste, feel, smell, sound, etc, S NP

VP Vgrp

AP/NP/PP

Ed is rather extravagant (AP) Tom was an auctioneer (NP) Oscar should be in the engine room (PP) The complement of an intensive verb group functions (more specifically) as a SUBJECT-PREDICATIVE (sP, for short), which is also called a subjective complement (Cs, for short). "When a verb is complemented just by an AP (Vgrp+AP), it is certain that this is the case of an intensive verb + an sP, because [intensive] is the only sub-category of verb that can take just an AP complement." [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 85] Realizations of the subjective complement: Downing and Locke [1992: 51-52] subcategorize the subjective complements according to their syntactic realizations and the semantic meanings they provide to complement the subject. (i) Attributive subjective complements AP Mountaineering can prove very dangerous indeed She is twenty-two years old. NP John is a very lucky man. Two brothers are pilots.

(ii) Identifying Subjective Complements NP The Robinsons are our next-door neighbors. Finite clause Ken' s belief is that things can’t get any worse. He has become what he always wanted to be. Non-finite clause The only thing I did was to tell him to go away. My advice is to withdraw. What I don't enjoy is standing in queues. What most people prefer is others DOING the work (iii) Circumstantial subjective Complements NP The exam is next Tuesday. AdvP The amusement park is over there. PP The manager is in a good mood. Finite clause This is how you should do it In short, sentences which have subject complements have intensive verbs and all other sentences have extensive verbs 2. Stative and Dynamic When verbs will not admit the progressive, they are called stative. When they will admit it, they are called dynamic. In other words, the progressive occurs only with dynamic verbs. These verbs fall into five classes while stative verbs, which disallow the progressive can be seen as belonging to one of two classes * [A] DYNAMIC (1) Activity verbs: abandon, ask, beg, call, drink, eat, help, learn, listen, look airplay, rain, read, say, slice, throw, whisper, work, write, etc. (2) Process verbs: change, deteriorate, grow, mature, slow down, widen, etc. Both activity and process verbs are frequently used in progressive aspect to indicate incomplete events in progress. (3) Verbs of bodily sensation (ache, feel, hurt, itch, etc.) can have either simple or progressive aspect with little difference in meaning. (4) Transitional event verbs (arrive, die, fall, land, leave, lose, etc) occur in the progressive but with a change of meaning compared with simple aspect. The progressive implies inception, ie only the approach to the transition. (5)Momentary verbs (hit, jump, kick, knocks, nod, tap, etc) have little duration, and thus the progressive aspect powerfully suggests repetition.

[B] STATUS (1) Verbs of inert perception and cognition: abhor, adore astonish, believe, desire, detest, dislike, doubt, feel, forgive, guess, hate, hear, imagine, impress, intend, know, like, lose, mean, mind, perceive, please, prefer, presuppose, realize, recall, recognize, regard, remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste, think, understand, want, wish, etc. Some of these verbs may take other than a recipient subject, in which case they belong with the A1 class. Compare; I think you are right [B1] I am thinking of you all the time.[A1] (2) Relational verbs: apply to (everyone), be, belong to, concern consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, equal, fit, have, include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess., remain (a bachelor), require, resemble, seem, sound, suffice, tend, etc. 3. Intransitive (Vi, for short) and transitive (Vt) Verbs/ verb phrases An intransitive verb doesn’t require any further constituent as sister in the VP. In other words, verbs used intransitively don’t take objects. S NP

VP

Phil sunbathed My children have grown up An intransitive verb is frequently modified by one or more optional adverbial adjuncts. Adjuncts provide circumstantial information about the action, process or event talked about in the clause in which they occur. Circumstantial information includes information about the place, time, manner, etc. of the action, process or event. They commonly are in form of adverbs or adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases, participial phrases and subordinate clauses

S

NP

VP1 VP2

PP Prep

Phil

bathed

beside

NP Det

N

a

stream

3.1. Monotranstive (monotrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases A monotransitive verb requires a single Noun Phrase to complement it ... The NP that complements a transitive verb is said to function as its DIRECT OBJECT (Od, for short)... Since the Vgrp and the NP are in functional relationship, the NP needs to be represented as a sister of the Vgrp (and therefore as a daughter of the VP) S

NP

VP

The police I

Vgrp have identified used to spend

The frost

has killed off

NP the victim all my money the bud

In some cases, a monotransitive verb must be complemented by an obligatory adjunct (obA, for short). In the following examples, the NP subject refers to "a doer of something" must be [+animate] and [+human] and the action done with intention must be expressed by a monotransitive verb which is [dynamic], [+active] and [+affecting]:

a. He jumbed the horse over the fence (obA of Path). b. The sergeant marched the soldiers along the road (obA of Path) c. I’ll walk you home (obA of Terminus). d, You could bring it to the kitchen (obA of Terminus). e. I always get off/ leave the bus at 42nd street (obA of Location). f. Liza has been putting the liquor under the bed (obA of Location g. She placed the baby on the blanket (obA of Location). h. He put his arms around me {obA of Location)

3.2.Ditransitive (ditrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases A ditransitive verb is "one which requires two NPs as its complementation." the first complement NP, which is in Italic functions as the INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi, for short) of the ditransitive verb. The second complement NP, which is underlined, functions as the Direct object (Od, for short) of the ditransitive verb. S NP

VP Vgrp

They I

gave will buy

NP

Steven you

NP

a prize some toys

3.3. Complex transitive (complex, for short) verbs/verb phrases The complex transitive verb "take two elements: a direct object (NP) and an object-predicative." Obviously, "the predicative in a complex transitive characterizes (attributives a property to) the direct object, not the subject hence the name 'objectpredicative'." object predicative (oP, for short), which is also called the objective complement (Co, for short)

S NP

VP Vgrp

The teacher Beth The police Part members

made is making got regarded

NP

the lesson Stella the traffic him

AP/NP/PP/Non-finite Cl

extremely interesting her spokensperson moving as the only possible candidate

EXERCISES 1. Indicate by Od, Oi, Cs or Co whether the parts underlined in the sentences below are the direct object (Od), the indirect object (Oi), the subject complement (Cs) or the Object complement (Co). 1 Will someone get a doctor quickly! 2 George and Paul both became famous doctors. 3 Do you call yourself a doctor? 4. May I call you Jenny? 5. May I call you a taxi or something? 6. Call me anything you like. 7. It's 'so cold. I can't get warm. 8. I can't get my hands warm. 9. Keep quiet. Keep those children quiet. 10. Can't you give them something to keep them quiet? 11 The young man was slowly going mad 12 His mother-in-law was driving him mad. 13 The driver turned the corner too quickly. 14 The weather is turning warmer. 15 The hot weather turned all the milk sour. 16 The young man grew very depressed. 17. He grew his hair long 18. He had made a great mistake. 19 His in-laws had simply made him their servant.

20. His wife sometimes made him curry. 21 But this only made him more miserable. 22 Show me your passport. Show me. 23 Did you see anyone? Did you say anything? 24 I didn't tell anybody anything. 2. The following terms can be used with reference to verbs: a. intensive c, stative e intransitive g ditransitive b. extensive d dynamic f. monotransitive h complex transitive Indicate, by the letters a,b, c, etc.. which of those terms could be applied to the verbs as they are used in the sentences below NOTE that more than one label could be used in every case. 1 Do you understand the question? 2 English and German are separate languages. 3 He appeared rather worried. 4 The mist is disappearing slowly 5 I see what you mean 6 You aren't looking in the right direction. 7 He offered her his hand hesitatingly. 8. Bertrand is becoming rather a bore. 9. Susan chooses her clothes sensibly. 10. Her mother made her that dress well. 11. We elected him President unanimously. 12. His election made him very conceited. 3. Use one of the eight terms in the instructions to Exercise 2 to fill each gap in the sentences below most appropriately 1 In a sentence with the structure S +V + x, if x is a noun that must be plural when S is plural, then V is 2 In the structure S +V + x, if both S and x are plural nouns. V may be either or 3 In the same structure, if S is plural and x is a singular noun, then V is usually 4 In S +V +A, if A can be realized by steadily, then V is 5 If Od is present in a clause. V is either

or

not or

6 If Oi is present. V is . If Co is present, V is 7. In S +V +A, if A is realized by at this moment. V is not 8. In any structure, if V is transitive it must be 9. The progressive may occur if V is

but

not

if

V

is

4. Indicate whether the underlined verb phrases are stative or dynamic in the context given. 1 This tank holds precisely 10 liters. 2 Hold the handle very firmly. 3 Answer the question more precisely. 4 He's a fool. Don't listen to him. 5 I was a fool. I was driving too fast. 6 I'd like three tickets immediately 7 We have only two tickets, I’m afraid. . 8 I was having my coffee quietly. 9 Smell this meat. "Does it smell bad? 10. I think I hear someone coming. 11. I consider you acted very wisely. 12 We shall consider your application. 5. Indicate by the symbol a. b. or c, etc. whether DO in the following sentences is used as a. a lexical verb d. an emphatic affirmative b. an interrogative operator e. an emphatic imperative c. a negative operator f. a pro-form 1 2 A . Do do me a favour. B. How do1 you do2? C. I do1 know you did2 your best. D. I don't1 smoke, and nor does2 Henry. E. Don't1 do2 that. please! F. A Did1 you tell me you'd be away? B Of course, I did2. G. A You forgot to post that letter, didn't1 you? B But I did2 post it. H. I didn't1 do2 any damage. I. Do1 that again. I didn't2 see it properly.

J. Do1'stop! You know it annoys me, don't2 you? 6. Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., to which of the following clause types the sentences below belong: a. S V intens. Cs b. S V intens. A place c. S V intrans. d. S V monotrans. Od e. S V complex trans. Od Co f. S V complex trans. Od A place g. S V ditrans. Oi Od 1. George's father greeted the headmaster. 2. The headmaster put George into the second class. 3. That made Stanley angry. 4. His annoyance did not last. 5. He was really a lawyer. 6. But he proved himself a great soldier. 7. The manager is not in. 8. May I offer you a cup of coffee. 9. After the war, they gave him back his saddle-bags. 10. He threw himself from his horse. 11. I remember the reasonableness of my father argument. 12. The parson’s cat is an abominable animal. 13. We are in a bit of a mess. 14. I have always lived in the country. 15. Could you call me a porter, please? 16. Do you call yourself a porter? 17. Finding peace and quiet has become very difficult. 18. Every increase in knowledge augments our capacity for evil. 19. The police laid the bodies by the side of the road. 20. Travel nowadays is fraught with disillusion. 21. You must keep calm. 22. Keep out of sight. 23 You can keep the change. 24 Keep your hands off me. 25 I can't keep my hands warm.

26 Keep me a seat, will you? 7. Say whether the items underlined in the following sent obligatory or optional: 1 George's father greeted the headmaster warmly. 2 He greeted us warmly. 3 That made me very annoyed. 4 It made me thoroughly annoyed. 5 George's work was always thorough. 6 Let me give you a drink. 7. Let me explain the difficulty. 8. The burglar stood the Ladder against the wall. 9. I don't enjoy loud music. .• 10. You are being rather stupid. 11. I get impatient with stupid people. 12. He convinced us of his innocence. 13. I always regarded him as innocent. 14. A difficult problem arises in this sentence. 15. Airmen fly aeroplanes. 16. The old lady grew bitter. 17. The luggage weighed twenty kilos. 18. May I suggest a different approach? 19. Please answer this letter by return of post 20. It gets dark earlier in winter. 8. Give the clause elements and patterns of the following simple sentences: 1. The bowler threw the ball at the slumps. 2. The jury found the prisoner guilty. 3. The performance lasted three hours unfortunately. 4. The farmer was eating his lunch in the cornfield. 5. The committee considers your proposals rather unworkable. 6. The transport manager could not decide on a new bus. 7. Jim passed the salt down the table. 8. The delinquent received a reprimand from the magistrate. 9. The milk has gone sour. 10. Gordon sent his apologies to the meeting. 11. All of them called Harry a fine fellow. 12. They crammed the clothes into the case.

13. We played snooker after dinner. 14. The old fellow forgot about Jim yesterday. 15. I wouldn't make rice in that saucepan. 16. Your Madras curry smells appetizing. 17. You may not deposit your boots on top of mine. 18. They rolled the barrel into the courtyard. 19. You must not walk on the grass 20. They consider poor old Andrei insane. 21. Barry sent Mary a bunch of carnations. 22. Your luggage weighs seventy kilos. 23. The children played in the garden all yesterday afternoon. 24. We found the wall overgrown with ivy. 25. It disturbs me to see so many people wasting their time. 26. We imagined Uncle John much older. 27. The children are playing in the garden now. 9. Compare the first sentence of each pair with the second. Explain the meaning differences between them. 1 a. They could have canceled their trip. b. They were able to cancel their trip. a. They don't have to leave before dawn. b. They mustn't leave before dawn. 3 a. The dam may have collapsed. b. The dam must have collapsed. 4 a. The nurses should eat at five o'clock. b. The nurses should have eaten at five o'clock. 5 a. "She must read to them every night," the judge ordered. b. "She must read to them every night," the teacher said. "or they wouldn't be improving so rapidly." .

UNIT 2- COMPOUND SENTENCES ELLIPSIS, COORDINATION AND APPOSITION This chapter is devoted primarily to coordination and apposition. But since these often involve ellipsis, it seems convenient to bring together here other cases of ellipsis except those discussed under sentence connection. Ellipsis is most commonly used to avoid repetition, and in this respect, it is like substitution. She might sing, but I don’t think she will (sing) Another important reason for ellipsis is that by omitting shared items attention is focused on new material A: Have you spoken to him? B: (I have) Not yet (spoken to him) 1. Ellipsis dependent on linguistic context

1.1. Adverbial finite clause In adverbial finite clauses the whole of the predication or part of it can be omitted I’m happy if you are (happy) Mary is dusting the furniture because Alice won’t (dust the furniture. But we can’t ellipt merely the object: * I’ll open an account if you’ll open (an account) Or merely the subject complement if the verb is other than be: *He became a member since she became (a member) 1.2. Adverbial non-finite and verbless clauses The subject (co-referential with that of the superordinate clause) and an appropriate form of be are ellipted in: (1) participle clauses Although (he was) told to stop, he kept on working If the subordinator is not present, more than one subordinator can be supplied and there may be several possibilities for tense and aspect: (If/ When they are) Punished, they will not cooperate. Although living many miles away, he attended the course. = Although he is living/ was living/lives/lived many miles away, he attended the course. (2) verbless clauses While (he was) at Oxford, he was active in the dramatic society.

1.3. Postmodification Postmodifying clauses or phrases can often be considered reduced relative clauses (1) postmodifying participle clauses: The police rounded up men (who are/were) known to have been in the building at that time. (2) postmodifying adjective phrases The men (who were) responsible for the administration of the school refused to consider the matter. (3) postmodifying prepositional phrases He spoke to the girl (who was) from New York. Supplementing and appended clauses A supplementing clause can be regarded an elliptical clause for which the whole of the preceding or interrupted clause constitutes the ellipsis: I caught the train-just (= I caught the train. I only just caught the train) In an appended clause only part of the preceding or interrupted clause constitutes the ellipsis, and an additional clause constitute is present They are meant to wound, perhaps to kill (= They are meant to wound. They are perhaps meant to kill) 2. Ellipsis not dependent on linguistic context Some types of informal ellipsis are not dependent on the linguistic context. In most cases it is the initial word or words of a sentence are ellipted (I) Beg your pardon (Are you) Looking for anybody? (I am) Sorry I couldn’t be here (Is) There anything the matter? (It’s) Good to see you (Does) Anybody need a lift? (I’ve) Got to go now Determiners, operators, and pronouns are commonly omitted in block language (in headlines, titles, notices). They are also commonly omitted in personal letters, in familiar style, in notes, diaries, and very drastically in telegrams. 3. Coordination Coordination is a very common element in sentence structure: the placing together of elements that have exactly the same syntactic function.

For instance: Jane and Dick love bagels and chardonnay. [The finite verb, love, has coordinate subjects, Dick and Jane and coordinate completers, bagels and chardonnay.] Spot hates Fang and Jumbo but adores Ms. Beebs, bowling, and beer. [One subject with two coordinate finite verbs, hates and adores. Hates has two coordinate completers and adores has three.] Let’s try some of that delicious and nutritious cobra chow. [Delicious and nutritious are coordinate adjectives, modifying cobra chow.] It’s now time to look at some additional aspects of coordination and also to introduce two other elements: apposition and ellipsis.

3.1. The Meanings of Coordinating Connectives The three coordinating connectives, and, or, and but, express among them the three possible relationships among coordinate elements in English: And includes the connected elements; that is, it adds them together: His fangs and his conversation are dull. [two “dulls”] Grab your partners and swing ‘em around! [The instruction includes both grabbing and swinging.] That mouse has been running up and down the clock all day. [Coordinate prepositions: both directions are included.] In contrast, or excludes one coordinated element or signals alternatives: only one is possible: Do you prefer slithering or dithering? Shape up or ship out! [not both.] I don’t know if I’m hungry or in love. [The prepositional phrase in love is not a modifier in this sentence but a coordinate completer of the finite verb, don’t know.] The third coordinating connective, but includes both coordinated items while expressing a contrast between them: He’s small but venomous. [He's both, but they're contrasted qualities.] I play with Fang but work with Jumbo. [play versus work:but I do both.] Last but not least … [The not cancels the contrast but not the "including."]

3.2 Correlatives The relationship between coordinate elements can be stressed through the use of certain special combinations of adjectives and coordinating connectives: both…and either…or not only…but also neither…nor Both wiggling and slithering are in fashion right now. He’s either sulking or drunk. Not only champagne corks but also Popsicle sticks make good migration fetishes. If you are a gentleman, As I suppose you be, You’ll neither laugh nor smile At the tickling of your knee. —A nursery rhyme These pairs are called correlatives—units that “relate together.” The adjectives, both, either, not only, or neither, go just before the first of the coordinate functions and, again, serve to emphasize the connection. The coordinating connectives go, of course, between the coordinated elements. Series When more than two elements are coordinated, they make up what is called a series (as do sitcoms and athletic contests). The items in the series are ordinarily separated by commas; then, to signal that the series is about to end, a coordinating connective comes between the last two items (the comma after the next-to-last element is optional): We’ve got Jane dolls, Dick dolls, Spot dolls, and Fang dolls. [a series of completers of have got] I reached out, touched her proboscis, and fainted in ecstasy. [a series of finite verbs that share the same subject] Arsenic, cobra venom, botulism, or cocoa will resolve your problem. [A series of subjects of will resolve] For the sake of emphasis or rhythm, every item in a series may be joined with a coordinating connective. For example, many post office buildings in the United States are inscribed with this motto:

Neither rain nor snow nor cold nor dark of night will stay these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds. In the next example, a speaker would progressively stress the and’s more forcefully, to emphasize the inclusiveness of her or his affection: Why choose? I love Fang and Spot and Dick and beer. 4. Apposition Each of the following sentences contains two noun phrases that refer to the same thing but in different words. I’ve italicized the main words of these phrases: Our next guest is Monty, the Python. The guest is Monty; the guest is the Python. But Monty and Python both refer to the same creature: there’s only one guest. A certain reptile, once the terror of four continents, now rides in the grass with all the other narrow fellows. Reptile and the terror of four continents, both the subjects of rides, refer to the same single snake (note that the verb is singular). His skill in his favorite competitive sport, dunking bagels in beer, earned him an athletic scholarship. His favorite competitive sport and dunking bagels in beer are the same activity. Both phrases are completers of the preposition in. Elements like these are said to be in apposition (from a Latin word that means “placed toward” each other) We also say that such elements are apposed (the verb) or that they’re appositives (the noun). Apposition is a special kind of coordination between noun phrases. To repeat: apposed nouns have exactly the same function in their sentence (that’s what makes them coordinate), and they both refer to the same thing but in different words. The second apposed noun either identifies the first one or gives additional information about it: The name Fang makes even snake charmers tremble. [Fang identifies the name.] Snake charmers, a serious bunch of professionals, don’t bother with retirement packages. [The second appositive, a serious bunch of professionals, gives additional information about the first, snake charmers.] For one final example: And now, here they are!—those great personalities of the talk-show circuit: Jacob the Media Star and Brigid the Polymath!

Jacob and media star are apposed and so are Brigid and polymath (a person of enormous learning): we have a total of two guests. Both apposed pairs are in apposition with those great personalities.

4.1. Non-restrictive and restrictive apposition Apposition may be Non-restrictive or Restrictive. The appositives in non-restrictive apposition are in different information units, and the two appositives have different information value, one of them being subordinate in the distribution of information. Non-restrictive apposition is indicates in speech by separate tone units for the appositives and in writing by commas or more weighty punctuation, with one of the appositives marked as parenthetic. For example, the apposition is non-restrictive in Mr. Campbell, the lawyer, was here last night While it is restrictive in Mr. Campbell the lawyer was here last night (ie Mr. Campbell the lawyer as opposed to any other Mr. Campbell we know) 4.2. Ellipsis We frequently leave words out of sentences, so long as the meaning is clear without them. We can say the following: Have you teased any cobras lately? I haven’t unknotted Miss Hiss yet, but I will unknot her. But we can also say instead: Teased any cobras lately? I haven’t unknotted Miss Hiss yet, but I will. The leaving-out of words from sentences is called ellipsis (Greek for “coming short”). The verb is to ellipt; a sentence from which words have been ellipted is an elliptical sentence. Ellipsis isn’t strictly related to coordination because ellipsis doesn’t involve paired elements. But leaving elements out is roughly the opposite of adding elements together, so it’s convenient to mention it here. There are two reasons for ellipting words. One is to avoid repetition; the other is to emphasize the words that remain: You can give me a hug if you want. [Elliptical for You can give me a hug if you want to give me a hug. We would never say all that.] Much coin, much care. [A proverb: coin = money; care = anxiety.] A finite verb is missing: involves? requires? leads to?, so a stronger emphasis falls on the two alliterating nouns, the subject and completer.

EXERCISES Ellipsis in dependent clause 1. Rewrite the following sentences omitting whatever-can be ellipted without change of meaning: 1. When you are is Rome, do as Rome does. 2. When he was pressed to take part in politics, he firmly declined. 3. There were no stores of boots that were readily available. 4. He threw himself from his horse and lay still as if he had been shot5. Any foreigner, however innocent he might be was attacked. 6. If you were left alone on a desert island. What would you do first? 7. If other people are willing to make and use machines for my benefit. I am not less willing to let them make and use machines for my benefit. 8. I do not wish to take part in this protest, and I do not intend to take part in it. 9. Unless you are travelling by the coach, please let the secretary know when you expect to arrive. 10. The castle, which was built in the twelfth century, has- dominated the valley ever since. 11. Much of the earth's surface is formed by sedimentary rocks - that is to say rocks which were formed by the deposition of sand, silt and clay. 12 Our atmosphere, while it is beneficial for life in general, prevents us from seeing the universe in any but a very restricted range of light. 2. Expand the following ellipted sentences so as to make their meaning clearer. 1. See you tomorrow then 7. Thought you were never coming. 2, See anything interesting? 8. Anything else you want? 3. Anybody coming my way? 9. Anything on the news last night? 4. Anybody telephone? 10. Anything the matter with your foot 5. Had a good time? 11. Surprised you didn’t hurt yourself more seriously. 6. Sorry, had to find my coat. 12. Sorry you didn’t come with us.

Semantic implication of coordination 3. Explain the semantic relationship between the two coordinate clauses of each of the following sentences, and make the relationship explicit by adding an adverbial: 1. I often see men who went to school with me and who have done well for themselves. 2. I am a professional man of letters and a typewriter is essential to my work. 3. If other people are willing to make and use machine for my benefit, and they seem willing and eager to do so, I am not less willing to let them do so. 4. These sharks are very dangerous, and they have never attacked me so far. 5. Lay a hand on me and I’ll scream. 6. A coral reef is a flower garden of stone, and it is filled with the most colourful varieties of life. 7. Another prospect remains to be considered and that is a combination of bridge and tube or tunnel. 8. Now that our son is able to walk, we lay ladders flat instead of leaving them propped up against things; and we shut the garden gate. 9. Man is the only animal that tortures its own species for amusement; and during much of his evolution he has been busily engaged in ruining his own habitat. 10. Japan’s position on the edge of the monsoon region has made highly productive rice cultivation possible, and the Japanese islands are surrounded by rich fishing grounds. 4. Apposition Point out what noun phrases are in apposition to each other in the following sentences; and indicate by the symbols A to Bc whether the apposition is A. Restrictive B. Non- restrictive a. equivalent b. attributive c. inclusive 1. Your cousin Robert has just arrived. 2. Robert Ross, your cousin, is on the telephone. 3. The Commander, Captain Peter McKay, was pacing the quarter-deck. 4. Anther officer and a midshipman, John Sartoris, were keeping watch from the bridge. 5. Captain McKay was on the quarter-deck, that part of the deck which reserved for officers.

6. Sartoris was a midshipman, a junior officer in training. 7. All the men swore they saw a sea serpent, a dark brown monster with a mane like that of a horse. 8. The journal The Illustrated London News published an account of the incident. 9. My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, the senior officials of the navy. 10. An enquiry was held at Plymouth, the port where the ship docked. 11. The court room, an eighteenth century building, was crowded with excited people, 12. The officers, Captain McKay and Sartoris particularly, were questioned closely.

UNIT 3 – COMPLEX SENTENCES LESSON 1 - FINITE AND NON-FINITE CLAUSES 1. Finite clauses A finite clause has a finite verb as its head. I know everyone sent their friends birthday cards this year. 2. Non-finite clauses A non finite clause has a non-finite verb (i.e. an infinitive or a participle) as its head. Everyone promised to send their friends birthday cards this year.

* This important difference is always signaled by the first verb in the verb-chain: I know everyone has sent their friends birthday cards this year. Everyone hopes to have finished their projects by the end of the week. Having already finished their projects, they can have a rest.

* This difference also affects the ways in which these clauses can be used:  Finite clauses may generally be used as complete sentences (once any subordinating words have been removed): Everyone sent their friends birthday cards this year.  Non-finite clauses are always part of a larger clause: They have made plans to send their friends birthday cards this year. This is because the use of a non-finite verb such as to send is one of the main signals that a clause is a subordinate clause.

* This difference may also affect the meaning of sentences, often in a subtle way. For example, compare:  I remembered that I was responsible. (finite)  I remembered to do it. (non-finite)  I saw that you did it. (finite)  I saw you do it. (non-finite) 2.1. Non-finite verbs:  present participle: sailing I was sailing (was is finite, sailing is non-finite)  past participle: sailed They have sailed (have is finite, sailed is non-finite)

 infinitive: to sail, sail I learned to sail (learned is finite, sail is non-finite) Watch him sail (watch is finite, sail is non-finite) 2.2. Non-finite Clauses There are three kinds of non-finite clauses: their verb groups contain infinitives, present participles, or past participles. We'll first consider infinitives. There are two types of infinitives: one with to, as in (1), and a bare one, without to, as in (2). The bare one occurs only after verbs such as make, see, hear and feel, but the to-infinitive occurs very frequently: 1. I expected him to go. 2. I made him leave. Apart from infinitives, there are two other kinds of non-finite Verb Groups, usually referred to as participles: a present participle ending in -ing, as in (3), and a past participle ending in -ed or -en, as in (4): 3. Walking down Rural Road, he was bothered by the traffic lights. 4. Arrested last night, he is in jail this morning. The form of arrested is a regular past participle because it ends in -ed. Remember, however, that past participles, like simple past tenses, can have irregular endings. As mentioned in chapter 6, non-finites fail to express tense. Thus in (5), the non-finite to walk in the subordinate clause is neither past nor present, but the finite verb is/was in the main clause determines the tense: 5. [To walk in the Superstitions] is/was nice. In addition, the verb in non-finite clauses displays no person or number marking, as is shown by the ungrammaticality of walks in (6): 6. *[For him to walks in the Superstitions] is nice. A third characteristic of non-finites is that the subject is not nominative. Thus, (7), (8), and (9) are grammatical with accusative him, but (10) with nominative he is not: 7. I want [him to go]. 8. I heard [him/Edward playing a song]. 9. She couldn't bear to see [him/Edward suffering]. 10. *I want he to go. The non-finite clause can also be replaced by a verbal noun, as in (11), and then the subject bears genitive case, namely his/Edward's, rather than accusative or objective, as in (7), (8), and (9). This construction is often called a gerund in traditional grammars, and suffering is a noun rather than a verb:

11.

She couldn't bear to see [his/Edward's suffering]. As (12) shows, a non-finite clause by itself is not a complete sentence: 12. *Him to go. 2.3. The Functions of non-finites The functions of non-finite clauses are similar to those of finite ones. They function at sentence level as subject in (13), and (5) above; direct object in (14), and (7) above; adverbial in (15), and (3) and (4) above; and subject predicate in (16): 13. [Eating pancakes] is a pleasant thing. 14. I love [eating pancakes]. 15. He went there [to see them]. 16. The problem is [to decide on what to eat]. In chapter 10, non-finite clauses will be shown to function inside phrases as well. Here too, their function is similar to that of finite clauses. 2.4. The Structure: S'? The structure for non-finites is debatable. I represent it by means of an S', as in (17), the structure for (7):

This means that I assume an empty complementizer which can be filled by for in a number of cases such as (18): 18.

I want for you to do your homework.

Non-finite clauses need not include a subject. The subject may be understood, as in (19). However, rather than represent the infinitive by just a VP, I will use an S', with an empty C and an empty subject NP, as in (20): 19. 20.

To hike around Weaver's Needle is pleasant. 20.

The reason I prefer (20) is that it is pleasant for someone to walk around Weaver's Needle; the tree expresses that there is a subject even if this subject is left unidentified. Sentences such as (3) and (4) above can also be represented as S', as in (21) and (22). However, as in the case of infinitives, there are grammarians who prefer a structure with fewer empty positions, i.e. a VP rather than an S':

22.

2.5. Coordinating Non-finites As is the case with finite clauses, non-finite clauses can be coordinated, as in (23), where the coordinated present participles function as subject: 23. Gossiping about Zelda and chewing gum is hard to do at the same time.

Other examples are given in (24) to (26). The coordinated non-finites in (24) are the object to think; in (25) the complement to inclination (this will get clearer in chapter 10); and in (26), there are three coordinate clauses functioning as subject predicate. We can go over these in class, but the basic structure is like other coordinates, namely as in (27), a simplified (24): 24. She could not think of Emma losing a single pleasure, or suffering an hour's ennui (adapted from Emma) 25.

S NP She

VP VGp

PP

could not think P of

S S

NP

C VP

Emma

V losing

S

or

NP NP

a single pleasure

VP Ø

V suffering

NP an hour's ennui

EXERCISES 1. Draw a tree for the following sentences: 1. Drawing trees is a good way for students to relax. 2. I wanted to do that. 3. For him to be doing that was stupid. 4. Anselm made her read the paper. 5. I saw him crossing the street. 6. He set the alarm to be on time. 2. Analyze the following sentences that contain non-finite verbless clauses 1 Taking that bend at 60 mph explains how he left the road. 2. After visiting Milan they decided that they must see Naples. 3. Standing here all day, I see many strange faces. 4. My greatest pleasure is to listen to chamber music. 5. To listen to chamber music is my greatest pleasure.

6. Exhausted after the long journey, I fell asleep at once. 7. The long journey over, we relaxed in the warm sunshine. 8. I was terrified, to tell you the truth. 9. One afternoon, I was sitting on the wall dividing our house from the church yard. 10. Walking along from St Mary's, you come to a high wall. 11. What is more important, I suddenly felt ashamed of my childishness. 12. However, seeing George again has left me much more confidence. 13. Glancing up at my tired face, she asked in a rather angry voice. 14. He was a delightful companion, always cheerful and considerate. (verbless clause) 15. She sang when allowed to do so. 16. She sang completely out of tune so that permission was seldom granted. 17. Barry likes to play football but he doesn't often have the opportunity. 18. Although the patient seems much improved she will have to rest quietly for a few more days. 19. Although Jim finds the work difficult he continued to do his best. 20. Penny considers that such pastimes are puerile but Jeff enjoys engaging in them. 21. The old gray cat loved being swung through the air. 22. After the snow shower had passed, the weary travellers continued trudging through the deserted landscape. 23. The best thing would be to tell everybody. 24. All I did was hit him on the head. 25. Leaving the room, he tipped over the mat. 26. Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann some personal questions 27. Knowing my temper, I did not reply. 28. The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned the meeting for half an hour. 29. One should avoid taking a trip abroad in August when possible.

LESSON 2 - DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES A subordinate clause is part of a larger clause. He burns easily if he doesn’t use sun cream. Where is the cup of tea that you promised to make? Everything she buys is really expensive. The class I taught last year all did quite well.

Because the subordinate clause is part of the larger clause, the remainder of this clause is not itself a complete clause; so in the first example above the main clause is the entire sentence, not He burns easily. You can usually recognise subordinate clauses easily because they are signalled:  by a non-finite verb which is the clause's first or only verb: We ate early, being excessively hungry. To be ready in time, he did without supper. Having eaten early, we watched the news. We helped unpack the tent.  or by a subordinating word: They sat there until it started to rain. He’s the one who started it. After he arrived things started to happen. They will walk out unless we give in to them.

However, some subordinate clauses have no signal at all, because the subordinating word - which is always that - is omitted. They are harder to recognise, but can nearly always be identified by replacing the missing that: I know you are hiding something. (... know that you are ...) Who says I am a coward? (... says that I am ...) That man she likes is very tall. (... man that she likes ...) The book I’m reading won a prize. (... book that I'm reading ...) This is a common feature of writing at KS3, and pupils need to understand and be able to handle it. 1. Noun clauses Noun clauses, like nouns, pronouns and noun phrases, can act as:  the object of a verb:

I know that Mary bought the dog.

 the subject of a verb:

Why she bought it is a great mystery to us all.

 the object of a

Don't judge her by what she buys.

preposition:  a complement

She seems to be pleased with it.

If a clause fulfils the role of a noun in a sentence, it is a noun clause. We discussed the idea that she had bought a cat. We discussed the fact that she had bought a cat. We discussed the possibility that she had bought a cat. This structure is a useful tool to help thinking skills because it involves important distinctions about the logical status of information - e.g. as facts, beliefs, suggestions, theories, and ideas.

Nominal clauses or Noun clauses  As subject S That Cl

Conj

VP

AP

is

obvious

S’ NP

VP V

That

he

N

likes

coffee

* As object S NP

VP Aux

Wh-Cl Lex

Wh-word NP

I

don’t

know

where she

S’ VP

lives

* As complement S NP

Det

VP

N

That Cl

Conj

S’ NP

VP V

NP Det

The rumour is * As prepositional object S

NP

VP V

she divorced her husband

PP

AP Adv

that

Prep A

Wh-Cl

Conj

S’ NP

VP Aux

I

was

N

very surprised at

what he

has

Lex

achieved.

* As apposition S

NP

NP Det

VP

AP

is

obvious

That Cl N

Conj

S’ Pro

The fact

that

you

V

are

A

lazy

2. Relative clauses Relative clauses are adjectival because, like adjectives, they modify a nouns; but unlike adjectives, they come after the modified noun: Sam is the one who usually sits here. The shop where I work is closing. This computer, which I usually use, is faster. Relative clauses usually start with a relative pronoun: that, who, which, whom, whose or a relative adverb: when, where Relative pronouns and relative adverbs act as subordinating words – they signal a subordinate clause. Joe bought a dog and the dog barks all night and it keeps us awake.

Co-ordinated main clauses

The dog that Joe bought barks all night Relative subordinate clause and keeps us awake.

RELATIVE CLAUSES OR ADJECTIVE CLAUSES S NP

NP

Det

VP

Rel Cl

N

Pro

S’ Pro

Aux

VP

Aux

PP

Lex

Prep

N

Lex

The computer which we are using was made in America 3. Adverbial Clauses An adverbial subordinate clause modifies the meaning of the main clause in much the same way as an adverb:  Although I regret it, I must decline your invitation. (adverbial clause)  Regrettably, I must decline your invitation. (adverb)  They arrived before it started raining. (adverbial clause)  They arrived promptly. (adverb) Here are the main relationships expressed by adverbial subordinate clauses:

Time

after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, until, when and whenever, while

Place

where, wherever

Reason

as, because, since

Comparison

as, than

Condition

as long as, if, in case, provided, provided that

Negative condition

if … not, unless

Concession

although, even if, even though, though, whereas, while

Purpose

in order that, so that

Result

so … that, such … that

Manner

as if, as though

Notice that some of these words (those shown in bold) can be used to signal more than one relationship.

3.1. Clauses within clauses A subordinate clause can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence: While he was paying for his petrol, his car was stolen. The teacher who has this group is away today. His car was stolen while he was paying for his petrol. Sentences can contain more than one subordinate clause: While we were away, the girl who was looking after our cat heard that her grandmother had died.

Some of these clauses can be 'nested' one inside another, like Russian dolls or Chinese boxes. For example: He said that his father went to America because Kate is there. contains the clause: (that) his father went to America because Kate is there. which in turn contains the clause: because Kate is there.

Pupils can learn how to show nested subordinate clauses in a sentence: 

by underlining:



or using "Chinese boxes":

3.2. Subordinating words Subordinating conjunctions:

after, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, if , in case, in order to, in that, once, provided (that), since, so that, than, that, though, until, unless, when, whenever, where, wherever, whereas, while ... and others. relative or interrogative pronouns or adverbs how, that, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why; however, whatever ... and others. When can a relative pronoun (that) be omitted? The computer I use at home is faster.

The computer crashed is outside. X

The lesson I like most is English.

The lesson follows this is English. X

The Alice I know has red hair.

The Alice usually sits next to me is his sister. X

The bullet he saw was silver.

The bullet killed him was silver. X

When the noun that the clause refers to is the object of the relative clause and the relative pronoun would have been that, this pronoun can be omitted; but in Standard English it cannot be omitted if it is the relative clause's subject. What’s left when you remove the subordinate clause? Look at this sentence: He burns easily if he doesn’t use sun cream. This is a main clause, which contains a subordinate clause: if he doesn’t use sun cream. The meaning intended by the writer or speaker is conveyed by the whole main clause. One part of this main clause is the subordinate clause if he doesn’t use sun cream. But the remainder "He burns easily" is not a clause on its own; it is part of the whole main clause: He burns easily if he doesn’t use sun cream. Of course the words he burns easily could stand alone as a main clause in a different sentence, or context, if they conveyed the writer’s full meaning; but in some cases the main clause is grammatically incomplete if we remove the subordinate clause. For example:

He said that it was too late. (Remainder: He said.) Why he did it is unclear. (Remainder: Is unclear.)

EXERCISES 1. Analyse the following complex sentences which contain more than one subordinate clause: 1. If you like the book he is talking about, you should buy one. 2. The politician that I admire most is the one who sticks to his principles. 3. Since elephants like peanuts, I am surprised that they haven’t learned to crack peanuts. 4. The book about which I was speaking costs more than I would want to pay. 5. While he was deciding what he should do next, the tiger reappeared on the spot where he had been standing. 6. Penny considers that such pastimes are puerile, but Jeff enjoys engaging in them. 7. The small boy was quite sure that his father had told him that the earth was flat. 8. It seems that the government is unaware of the difficulties which are being caused by its policies. 9. He predicted that he would discover the tiny particle the following month when he conducted his next experiment. 10. I think that your new position demands sensitive judgement and I would hope that you will mature as the years go by. 11. I have heard that you are a mechanic and that your brother is a plumber. 2. Replace the sentences, using an -ing participle preceded by a personal pronoun or noun in the genitive case. 1. We all are surprised that he made that mistake. 2. He was an astronaut and that accounted for the number of audience. 3. No one will object if you finish the lecture a little earlier 4. Would you approve if I had this article copied? 5. We did not realize that Walker would cause so much trouble by speaking to the press. 6. The fact that he has spoken to the press aboul this has caused a good deal of embarrassment. 7. Do you mind if I don't come with you?

8. We had not been told of the meeting till yesterday and that meant we did not have sufficient time to prepare our case properly 3. Isolate and label the dependent clause or clauses in each of the sentence below, as in the following two models, a J think you can do it. You can do it: finite clause acting as O in the superordinate clause. b. Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. Leaving the room: non-finite -ing participle clause, acting as A in the superordinate clause. * Using the symbols S (subject), O (object), C (complement), A (adjunct). 1. That you could do it I always knew. 2. That you can do it is still uncertain. 3. You can do it if you try. 4. If you can do it. I’ll give you ten dollars. 5. Standing here all day, I see many strange faces. 6. Standing here all day is extremely tiring. 7. My greatest pleasure is to listen to chamber music. 8. To listen to chamber music is my greatest pleasure. 9 Exhausted after the long journey, I fell asleep at once. 10. The long journey over, we relaxed in the warm sunshine. 11. Glancing up at my tired face, she asked, in a rather grating voice, how I was feeling. 12. Steinweg had a large room where we always breakfasted together. 13. He was a delightful companion, always cheerful and considerate. 14. She had not asked life to be thus. 15. She sang when allowed to do so. 16. She sang completely out of tune, so that permission was seldom granted. 17. What he saw both surprised and frightened him. 18 Since I have been especially invited to speak, for you now to tell me I cannot do so is quite unpardonable. 19. Having been invited to speak, and then being told to keep silent, I shall never come here again as long as I live. 20. What I wanted to say was, as I didn’t know whether you were going to say that you could come or you couldn't, could you make it the following Saturday?

4. Classify the function of the dependent clauses in the sentences below under the following headings: a subject b direct object c subject complement d. indirect object e object complement f appositive g adjunct h disjunct i. conjunct j postmodifier in noun phrase k prepositional complement l. adjectival complement 1. As the sun went down behind the church, the trees suddenly became still. 2. I was terrified, to tell you the truth. 3 One afternoon I was sitting on the wall dividing our house from the Churchyard. 4. In daylight, I thought of the Roman remains that had been dug up under our house. 5. Walking along from St Mary’s, you come to a high wall. 6. You find the wall heightens suddenly. 7. We found the wall overgrown with ivy. 8. What I remember most of that evening is the reasonableness of my father's arguments. 9 The truth is that I really liked him. 10. The truth that I really wanted to learn suddenly dawned on my poor father 11. What is more important, I suddenly felt ashamed of my childishness. 12. My father was sure that I would overcome my fears. 13 He strongly disapproved of what I had been doing, 14. Now I often meet men who were once at school with me. 15. Whenever I encounter one of them, I feel an outsider. 16 However, seeing George again has left me much more confident.

UNIT 4- SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES 1. Definition: Synthesis is the opposite of analysis and means the combination of a number of simple sentences into one new sentence simple, compound or complex. 2. Combination of two or more simple sentences into a single simple sentence: a. By using a participle: The boy was tired of playing. He sat down to rest. → (Being) tired of playing, the boy sat down to rest. b. By using a noun or a phrase in apposition: This town was once a prosperous sea-port. It is now a heap of ruins. → This town, once a prosperous sea-port, is now a heap of ruins. c. By using a nominative absolute construction: The town was enclosed by a strong wall. The enemy was unable to capture it. The town having been enclosed by a strong wall, the enemy was unable to capture it. d. By using a preposition + a noun/gerund: Her husband died. She heard the news. She fainted. → On hearing the news of her husband's death, she fainted. e. By using an infinitive: We must finish this exercise. There are still three sentences. → We have still three sentences of the exercise to finish. f. By using an adverb (phrase): The sun set. The teams had not finished the game. → The teams hadn’t finished the game by sunset. g. By using the combination of several methods The sun rose. The fog dispersed. The general was determined to delay no longer. He gave the order to advance. → At sunrise, the fog having dispersed, the general, determined to delay no longer, gave the order to advance. EXERCISES

a. Combine each set of sentences into one simple sentence by using Participles: 1. A crow stole a piece of cheese. She flew to her nest to enjoy the tasty meal. 2. A hungry fox saw some bunches of grapes. They were hanging from a vine. 3. The letter was badly written. I had great difficulty in making out its contents.

4. John lost the favour of his boss. He was dismissed from his high offices. 5. The old man was walking lonely on a quiet road. He saw a little girl beside a tree. She was crying loudly. She looked very poor. b. Combine each set of sentences into one simple sentence by using a noun or phrase in apposition: 1. Tom's uncle is a millionaire. He sent him to England for his education. 2. One of the most famous works of Shakespeare is Romeo and Juliet. It is a tragedy. 3. De Lesseps built the Suez Canal. This was a great project. He was a French engineer. 4. We saw a beautiful picture. It is a world-famous masterpiece. The picture was displayed in the National Art Gallery. 5. Dr Hillary was elected President of the company. She was a well-known politician of the Liberal Party. c. Combine each set of sentences into one simple sentence by using a preposition + a noun or gerund: 1. The man has a good record. It is impossible to suspect such a man. 2. There was a shortage of food and water. The explorers could not go any farther. 3. He made heroic effort to succeed. He failed. 4. I have examined the report. I found many errors in it. 5. She stood there for hours. She did not move. She did not speak. d. Combine each set of sentences into one simple sentence by using a nominative absolute construction: 1. It was a very hot day. I could not do my work satisfactorily. 2. His house has been burned down in a terrible fire. He lives in a hotel. 3. The holidays are at an end. Boys are returning to school. 4. The secretaryship was vacant. Nobody was willing to undertake the post. I applied for it. 5. The teacher was out of the room. The door was shut. The students made a lot of noise. e. Combine each set of sentences into one simple sentence by using an infinitive: 1. He cannot afford a car. He is too poor. 2. The strikers held a meeting. They wanted to discuss the terms of the employers. .

3. He must apologise. He will not escape punishment otherwise. 4. I have told you all. There is nothing more to be said. 5. He keeps some fierce dogs. They will guard his house. They will keep away robbers. f. Combine each set of sentences into one simple sentence by using an adverb (phrase): 1. He has succeeded. His success has been beyond my expectations. 2. The boy was obstinate. He refused to listen to advice. 3. These men worked very hard. They deserved to succeed. They failed. 4. Boys grow up to be men. The growth is very slow. It cannot be seen. 5. He admitted his errors. He expressed his regret. 3. Combination of two or more simple sentences into a single compound sentence: a. By using a conjunction from the AND group: He is a fool. He is a knave. → He is a fool and he is a knave. b. By using a conjunction from the BUT group; I was annoyed. I kept quiet. → I was annoyed but I kept quiet. I was annoyed yet I kept quiet. → I was annoyed still I kept quiet. I shall not oppose your design. I cannot approve of it. → I shall not oppose your design; I cannot, however, approve of it. c. By using a conjunction from the OR group: I have to leave now or I’ll miss the bus. d. By using a conjunction from the SO group: It is raining heavily. I will take an umbrella with me. → It is raining heavily, so I will lake an umbrella with me. I cannot see. It is very dark. → I cannot see for it is very dark. e. By using conjunctions from different groups: Tom is ill. He cannot study. He still attends school. → Tom is ill and cannot study, yet he still attends school.

The old man saw the little poor girl in the street. He stopped to speak to her. He gave her ten dollars. → Seeing the little poor girl in the street, the old man stopped to speak to her and gave her ten dollars. EXERCISE2 Combine each set of sentences into one compound sentence: 1. You may go to the theatre. Linda may go to the theatre. 2. He does well. He is nervous at the start. 3. You may be wrong. Tom may be wrong. You cannot both be right. 4. You may play basketball. You may play football. You must do one of the two. 5. I got up. I looked about everywhere. I could not perceive my companions. 6. He was my school-fellow. He has become a great man. He has become proud. He forgets his old friends, 7. Most of the rebels were killed. Only a few escaped. The rebellion was quickly suppressed 8. I lost my way. I asked a policeman to direct me. He was new in his work. He could not help me. He called a gentleman passing by to my assistance. 4. Combination of two or more simple sentences into a single complex sentence: a. By using a noun clause: He may be innocent. I do not know. → I do not know whether he is innocent. The game was lost. It was the consequence of his carelessness. → The consequence of his carelessness was that the game was lost. b. By using an adjective clause: She keeps her jewelry in a safe. This is the safe. → This is the safe where she keeps her jewelry. The billionaire has a beautiful house. The house was built last year. → The billionaire has a beautiful house which was built last year. c. By using an adverb clause: It was very stuffy last night. I could not sleep → As it was very stuffy last night, I could not sleep. It is very simple. Even a child can understand it. → It is so simple that a child can understand it.

EXERCISE 3 Combine each set of sentences into one complex sentence: 1. He is a sincere worker. Nobody can deny this fact. 2. I have seen this man somewhere before. I cannot remember the place. 3. John will arrive some time. I do not know the time of his arrive. 4. The French and the Italian languages are different forms of the Latin language. This language was once spoken in almost every part of Europe. 5. My friend was an old gentleman. His name is George. I met him in Sydney. 6. The fireman came out of the house. The roof collapsed at that very moment. 7. His father died. He has been very poor from that time. 8. He has read Shakespeare's Hamlet. It is a tragedy. He read it when he was fourteen. He told us this.

UNIT 5- FOCUS, THEME AND EMPHASIS 1. Information focus- End focus and contrastive focus 1.1. End focus We start by considering how the English language organizes a spoken message into units of information, as signaled by intonation. Each tone unit represents a unit of information, and the place where the nucleus falls is the focus of information. As the clause is the unit of grammar that most closely corresponds to the tone unit, the best way to consider the positioning of the information focus is to relate it to .clause structure, taking examples in which clause and tone unit corresponds in extent. . The neutral position of focus is what we may call END-FOCUS, that is (generally speaking) chief prominence on the last open-class item or proper noun in the clause: Dylan Thomas was born in Swansea Special or contrastive focus, however, may be placed at earlier points, and so may fall on any of the non-final elements of the clause. For example: Focus at S: [Who was born in Swansea ?] Dylan Thomas was (born in Swansea) 'Focus at V: [Dylan Thomas was married in Swansea, wasn't he?] No, he was born in Swansea Focus at Od: [I hear you're painting the bathroom blue.] No, I'm painting the Living-room blue Focus at A: [Have you ever driven & Cadillac?] Yes, I’ve often driven one. Contrastive focus can also be signaled by placing the nucleus on a final item which normally would not have end-focus; for instance, on closed-system items like pronouns and prepositions: Who are you working FOR? (not with) He was speaking to ME (not to you) * Focus on Operator One type of focus so far ignored is focus on the operator which often has the function of signalling contrast between positive and negative meaning. Where the verb phrase is without an item that can function as operator, do is introduced:

[A: I thought John worked hard.] B: But he did work hard [A : Why haven't you had a bath?] B:I have had a bath. [A : look for your shoes.] . B: I am looking for them. [A : Surely he can't drive a bus ?] B: No, but he CAN drive a car. When the operator is positive, the meaning is Yes in contrast to No; when the operator is negative, the meaning is the opposite contrast: So you haven’t lost, after all! (‘I thought you had') The operator emphasizes positiveness or negativeness when it bears the focus (as it normally does) in elliptical replies: [A: Have you seen my books?] »: No, I haven’t. [ A: Does this bell work ?] B: yes, it does. With a rise or fall-rise intonation, focus on past and future auxiliaries often puts contrastive emphasis on the tense rather than on the positive/ negative polarity: He owns - or Did own - a Rolls ROYCE. We've sold out, but we will be getting some Similarly, the nucleus on auxiliaries such as may and ought to often signals a contrast between a the supposed real state of affairs, and a state of affairs thought desirable or likely: The opinion polls may be right ('but I suspect they're not*) My purse ought to be Here (* but it probably isn't') 1.2. Contrastive focus Quite apart from the grammatical contrast between active and passive, the language possesses other grammatical or lexical means for reversing the order of roles: {An uncle, three cousins, and two brothers benefited from the will {The will benefited an uncle, three cousins, and two brothers [An unidentified blue liquid was in the bottle. [The bottle contained an unidentified blue liquid {A red sports car was behind the bus. {The bus was in front of a red sports car. The items or sequences in italics are converses; ie they express the same meaning, but with a reversal of the order of participants. The second sentence in each case is

generally preferable, since the element with the definite determiner, containing given information would normally not take terminal focus.

2. Theme and Emphasis 2. 1 Theme The, initial unit of a clause (with the exception of initial adverbials referred to in 14.11 Note) may be called its THEME. Apart from the last stressed element of clause structure (that which most naturally bears information focus), the theme is the most important part of the clause from the point of view of its presentation of a message in sequence. The expected or •unmarked * theme of a main clause is (1) Subject in a statement: He bought a new house (2) Operator in a yes/no question: Did be buy a new house ? (3) Wh-element in a Wh-question: Which house did he buy? (4) Main verb in a command: Buy a new house The theme may be characterized as the communicative point of departure for the rest of the clause. The two communicatively prominent parts of the clause, the theme and the focus, are typically distinct: one is the point of initiation, and the other the point of completion. The theme of a clause is ‘given information' more often than any other part of it. Yet the two can coincide; for instance, when the focus falls on the subject: [Who gave you that magazine?] BILL gave it to me * Thematic fronting or ‘Marked theme’ One may take as theme of a clause some element not usually assuming that function. Elements placed initially for thematic prominence vary in style and effect In informal speech, it is quite common for an element to be fronted with nuclear stress, and thus to be 'marked' (or given special emphasis) both thematically and informationally: Cs as theme: Joe his name is Co as theme: Relaxation you can call it! Od as theme Really good cocktails they made at that hotel

It is as if the thematic element is (he first thing that strikes the speaker, and the rest is added as an afterthought The possible insert on of a comma suggests that the nonthematic part is almost a tag in status: Joe, his name is. A second type of marker theme is found in rhetorical style, and helps to point a parallelism between two units in the clause and two related units in some neighboring clause of contrasting meaning: Prepositional complement as theme: His FACE I'm not FOND of (but his character I despise) Od as theme: ... but his CHaracter I despise Cs as theme: Rich I MAY be (but that doesn't mean I’m happy) Predication as theme: (I've promised to do it) so do it I shall A as theme: In London I was born, and in London I’ll die. Such clauses often have double information focus, one nucleus coming on the theme, and the other on a later (usually terminal) part of the clause. One may thirdly distinguish examples characteristic of written English, and in which the marked theme seems to have the negative function of ensuring that end-focus falls on the most important part of the message: Most of these problems a computer could take in its stride. To this list may be added ten further items of importance

2.2. Inversion 2.2.1 Subject-Verb Inversion Here comes the bus (A V S) There, at the summit, stood the castle in its medieval splendour (AAVSA) In went the sun and down came the rain (A V S, A V S) Equally inexplicable was his behaviour towards his son (C V S) ‘Go away!’ said one child; ‘ And don't come back!' growled another. (... V S.......V S) This type of inversion is mainly found in clauses of Types SVA and SVC where a normally post-verbal element is so tied to the verb that when that element is ‘ marked’

theme the verb is 'attracted’ into pre-subject position. The last example illustrates a different type of inversion, with verbs of saying. 2.2.2. Subject- operator Inversion So absurd was his manner that everyone stared at him [1] Under no circumstances must the switch be left on [2] Hardly had I left before the quaking started. [3] I worked and so did the others. [4] 3. Cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences 3.1. Cleft sentences A special construction which gives both thematic and focal prominence to a particular element of the clause is the cleft sentence, so called because it divides a single clause into two separate sections, each with its own verb. Most cleft sentence statements begin with the pronoun it followed by the verb be, which in turn is followed by element on which the focus falls. From a single clause such as 'John wore his best suit to the dance last night, it is possible to derive four cleft setences, each highlighting a particular clement of the clause: S as focus: It was John who/that wore his best suit to the dance last night Od as focus: It was the best SUIT (that) John wore to the dance last night. Atime as focus: It was last night (that) John wore his best suit to the dance Aplace as focus It was to the DANCE that John wore his best suit last night The cleft sentence unambiguously marks the focus of information in written English/where intonation is absent. The highlighted element has the full implication, of contrastive focus: the rest of the clause is taken as given, and a contrast is inferred with other items which might have filled the focal position in the sentence. Thus each of the above sentences has an implied negative, which can be made explicit, as in the following examples: It wasn't Jim, but John, who/that ...... It wasn't to the theatre, but (to) the dance...... Apart from S, Od and A, the two less common clause elements Oi and Co, can marginally act as the focal element of cleft sentence Oi as focus:

It was John (that) he gave the book (but It was John (that) he gave the book to, or It was to John (that} he gave the book, with focus on John as prepositional complement, is more likely) Co as focus: It's dark green that we’ve painted the kitchen V does not occur at all as focus, but the restriction is sometimes circumvented by using the verb in a non-finite form and substituting do for it in the second part of the sentence: It’s teach(ing) that he does for a living 3.2 Pseudo-cleft sentences Like the cleft sentence proper, the pseudo-cleft sentence makes explicit the division between given and new parts of the communication. It is an SVC sentence with a whrelative nominal clause as subject or complement. The following are virtually synonymous: It's a good rest that you need most. A good rest is what you need most The pseudo-cleft sentence occurs more often, however, with the wh- clause as subject: What you need most is a good rest And it is less restricted than the cleft sentence in that, through use of do as pro-form (10*29), it permits marked focus to fall on the verb or predication: What he’s done is (to) spoil the whole thing What John did to his suit was (to) ruin it The complement or ‘focus’ of these sentences is normally in the form of an infinitival clause (with or without to) Progressive or perfective aspect in the original sentence is regularly represented in the wh-clause of the pseudo-cleft sentence. With the progressive, the aspect is equally reflected in the non-finite clause and this is quite often the case also with the perfective: They are ruining the economy -What they are doing is ruining the economy They have ruined the economy - What they have done is ruined the economy In other respects, the pseudo-deft sentence is more limited than the cleft sentence. Only with what-clauses does it freely commute with the cleft sentence construction.

Clauses with who, where and when are sometimes acceptable, but mainly when the wh-clause is subject-complement: The police chief was who I meant. Here is where the accident took place But whose, why, and how, for example, do not easily enter into the pseudo-deft sentence construction. 4. Existential sentences Existential sentences are principally those beginning with the unstressed word there, and are so called because when unstressed there is followed by a form of the verb be, the clause expresses the notion of existence: .. There is nothing healthier than a cold shower (Nothing healthier exists than a cold shower) These is a regular relation of equivalence between existential clauses with there + be clauses of the standard types. The equivalence applies, however, only if the clause of the normal pattern -has (1) an indefinite subject, and (1) a form of the verb be in its verb phrase. We may derive existential clauses from regular clauses by means of a general rule: subject + (auxiliaries) + be + predication → there + (auxiliaries) + be+ subject + predication . Existential there is a device for leaving the subject position vacant of content; there may be regarded as an empty 'slot-filler’ Examples of the seven clause types are: SVC: Something must be wrong → There must be something wrong. SVA: Was anyone around ? → Was there anyone around ? SV: No one was waiting → There was no one waiting SV: Plenty of people are getting promotion →There are plenty of people getting promotion SVOC: Two bulldozers have been knocking the place flat → There have been two bulldozers knocking the place flat. SVOA: A girl is putting the kettle on → There's a girl putting the kettle on SVOO: Something is causing her distress → There's something causing her distress. Passive versions also occur: SVpassive: A whole box has been stolen -> There has been a whole box stolen SVpassive C: No shops will be left open →There’ll be no shops left open

EXERCISES 1. Identify (a) the subject, and (b) the theme, of each of the sentences below. Say whether the theme occurs as S, Cs. Od, Co, C prep (prepositional complement), P (predication) or V (verb): 1. My husband will carry your suitcase. 2. But that heavy trunk he can't take. 3. Not one girl in ten can a young man trust these days. 4. A scandal I call it. 5. An angel that's what you are, my dear. 6. That shelf, he probably put it on. 7. Fool Joe may be, but the thief he is not. 8. Break his bloody neck, I will. 9. Die is the last thing I shall do, doctor. 10. Suddenly, there was a loud knock at the door. 2. Rearrange each of the sentences below, using accepted patterns of subjectverb inversion: 1. The rain fell down, 2. The prices went up and up 3. He was so anxious to turn over a new leaf that he actually changed his name. 4. He would not give up writing his satire under any circumstances 5 His determination to tell the truth about his experiences was just as firm. 6 It has never been more difficult for a writer to make his name. 7 A tall, gaunt figure stood at the far end of the room, staring at us. 8. We only then realized how much he had suffered. 9 His Majesty the Emperor is now mounting the steps. 10. You would witness a spectacle like this in no other country in the world. 3. From each of the sentences below form cleft sentences that will focus, in turn on the different elements given in brackets: 1. Sanorist first saw an enormous serpent approaching (S, Od) 2 Captain Mackay reported this incident to Admiral Gage(S, Od, O prep) 3. He sent Admiral Gage a report of this incident (Oi) 4. The Daedalus docked at Bristol on a dark and cloudy afternoon in 1896 ( Complement of at and complement of on). 5. Jovce Cary's first novel was called Aissa Saved (Joyce Cary's first, Aissa Saved)

6. The book took a long time to write because it raised so many difficult questions (because clause). 7 Somerset Maugham gave up medicine after his first novel had been accepted for publication (after-clause). 8 Schwabe only felt justified in publishing his conclusions after eighteen years of continuous research (only after eighteen years etc.) 9 The dominant constraint on broadcasting is the restriction on ether-space(Cs) 10 The most striking feature of malaria in Tropical Africa is its high endemicity with hardly any seasonal changes. (Cs) 4. Rephrase these sentences using existential there: 1. We should have a stronger light on the staircase. 2. I am sure that a mistake has been made. 3. We do not want any disturbance to occur. 4. Having a bus stop so near the house is a great advantage. 5. Having no further business, the Chairman closed the meeting 6. An impregnable castle stood on the top of the hill. 7. A time will come when you look back on this day with pride. 8. Is anyone waiting to see me? 9. We won't have any difficulty, will we? 10. No messages have come for me, have they?

REFERENCES Jacobs, Roderick A. English Syntax: A Grammar for English Language Professionals. Oxford University Press, (1995). Quirk, R & Greenbaum, S. A University Grammar of English, Oxford University Press¸ (1976) Tô Minh Thanh English Syntax, Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc Gia thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, (2005) Trần Hữu Kỳ English Structural Syntax, Nhà xuất bản Tổng hợp thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, (2007)